PERFORMANCE OF DIGITAL IMAGE CORRELATION SYSTEM

ON REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

September 5, 2014

Jose I Gutierrez
Home Institution: University of Texas at El Paso
REU Site: University of California Los Angeles
Principal Investigator: Dr. John W. Wallace
Graduate Mentor: Christopher Segura

Abstract
Recent earthquakes have motivated engineers to design more sophisticated and reliable buildings
that can withstand seismic loadings. A 2014 project at the Network for Earthquake Engineering
Simulation (NEES) at UCLA deals with investigating the performance of reinforced concrete
(RC) shear walls under simulated seismic loading. Twelve RC walls will be constructed and
tested until failure. The purpose of these tests is to identify potential sources of undesirable
brittle failure modes and to assess current building code provisions (ACI 318-11). The
performance of RC structural walls was questioned after recent earthquakes in Chile and New
Zealand. To understand the behavior of the walls under seismic loading, traditional
instrumentation (LVDTs and strain gages) will be used in combination with a digital image
correlation (DIC) system to measure full strain fields. The DIC system is an innovative
technology that provides full strain and displacement field results as compared to traditional
instrumentation which is only capable of capturing finite deformations at predetermined
locations. Before using the DIC system on the large-scale RC walls, small-scale testing,
consisting of three reinforced concrete columns and three reinforced concrete beams, was
performed to investigate the speckle size and pattern necessary to obtain reliable results.

Table of Contents

Table of Figures ............................................................................................................................. iii

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Motivation ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Chile and New Zealand Earthquakes Background ................................................................ 1
1.3 Shear Walls ........................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Digital Image Correlation...................................................................................................... 2
2. Literature Review........................................................................................................................ 2
3. Methods....................................................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Preparation of specimens ...................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Speckle pattern ...................................................................................................................... 5
3.3 Camera set up ........................................................................................................................ 7
3.4 Photography Equipment ........................................................................................................ 8
3.5 Relating Image Resolution and Specimen Dimensions ........................................................ 8
3.6 Testing ................................................................................................................................... 9
3.7 NCorr ................................................................................................................................... 11
4. Contributions............................................................................................................................. 12
5. Results and Discussions ............................................................................................................ 12
6. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 15
7. Further Information ................................................................................................................... 15
8. Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... 15
9. Reference .................................................................................................................................. 16

ii

Table of Figures
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13.
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Figure 24.
Figure 25.
Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28.

Typical RC Frame Building (EERI)

Wall damage from the 2010 Chile Earthquake
Three beam 6inx6inx18in with different reinforcements each
Beam/column preparation process
Different methods for speckle pattern
Black spry-paint for speckle pattern
Stencil used to measure the size of the speckle pattern
Two Canon EOS 6D on the same plane with wireless transmitters and Einstein light.
High Resolution Camera
Strobe Flash Units
Digital image resolution.
First concrete column 3inx3inx13in in the loading device ready for testing
Sequential order of Column 1
Sequential order of Column 2
Speckle pattern for Column 1
Speckle pattern for Column 2
Window from NCorr
Shear wall construction
NCorr results for Column One after failure.
NCorr results for Column Two after failure.
Results from loading device for Column One
Results from loading device for Column Two
Column 1 Exx strain high resolution
Column 1 Exx strain low resolution
Column 1 Exy strain low resolution
Column 1 Exy strain high resolution
Column 1 Eyy high resolution
Column 1 Eyy low resolution

iii

1. Introduction
1.1 Motivation
Earthquakes are one of the most catastrophic events causing the death of hundreds of people and
lost in millions of dollars (Wallace, 2011). This natural disaster occurs all over the world along
plate edges and faults and it is caused by a sudden release of energy in the Earths crust. Poor
construction and design of buildings are factors that become very dangerous during an
earthquake. Recent earthquakes in Chile and New Zealand, where modern building codes
comparable to US codes exist, prove that our buildings may not satisfy the goal of life safety
under seismic loadings expected in high seismic regions and that the US building codes and
designs need to be reassessed.
1.2 Chile and New Zealand Earthquakes Background
On February 27, 2010 a magnitude 8.8 earthquake occurred off the central coast of Chile. The
earthquake struck the central south region of Chile affecting an area with more than 8 million
people (EERI, 2010). The earthquake resulted in death and destruction to the region, the number
of confirmed deaths was 521 with 56 persons missing (EERI, 2010). EERI (2010) reports that
50 multistory buildings were severely damaged, and four collapsed partially or totally. The
earthquake caused damages to highways, railroads, ports and airports. According to the EERI
(2010) report the estimates of economic damage were around $30 billion.

On February 22, 2011 a magnitude 6.3 earthquake occurred in the city of Christchurch, New
Zealand. According to EERI 2011, 184 deaths were confirmed. EERI 2011 report states that
two reinforced concrete office buildings and one parking garage collapsed, as did hundreds of
unreinforced masonry buildings, including a number of heritage structures. EERI reports that the
total losses where estimated over $20 billion.
1.3 Shear Walls
Reinforced concrete structural (RC) walls are important lateral load resisting elements. Figure 1
illustrates a typical RC frame building. They are one of the most used vertical elements in
seismic force-resisting systems worldwide (Ron Blank & Associates, Inc.). This type of
construction has been practiced for many years to construct medium to high rise buildings. In
many cases they are used to reduce deformations under seismic loading. According to Ron
Blank & Associates, Inc. shear walls provide lateral stiffness preventing excessive movement in
the roof or floors above. The lateral and gravity load-resisting system consists of reinforced
concrete walls and reinforced concrete slabs (Ron Blank & Associates, Inc.). Ron Blank &
Associates, Inc. states that shear walls are the main vertical structural elements with a dual role
of resisting both the gravity and lateral loads. The use of shear walls is very popular in the
construction of multistory buildings to resist lateral loads such as earthquakes. RC wall are
commonly used due to their economy of construction and effectiveness (Wallace, 2011). The
performance of RC walls was questioned after recent earthquakes in Chile and New Zealand.
Wallace (2011) reports that the earthquakes caused serious damage to many buildings, including

boundary crushing, reinforcement fracture, and global wall buckling. Wallace (Year) infers that
some of the failures are attributed to lack of confinement reinforcement.

Figure 1. Typical RC Frame Building (EERI, 2011)

1.4 Digital Image Correlation
Digital Image Correlation (DIC) provides full-field displacements and strains by comparing the
digital images of the specimen surface in the un-deformed and deformed states respectively. In
principle, DIC is an optical metrology based on digital image processing and numerical
computing (Cintron and Saouma, 2008). DIC is a new technology developed to obtain a contour
map of strains of a specimens surface, something that cannot be done using instruments such as
strain gages and linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs).
DIC is an innovative technology that will be used for a project at the University of California,
Los Angeles (UCLA) to analyze twelve RC shear walls. The RC walls will be instrumented with
LVDTs and strain gages to determine deformation demands under reversed cyclic loads. The
instrumentation process is very time consuming and costly. The Network for Earthquake
Engineering Simulation (NEES) at UCLA 2014 summer project will test the accuracy of a DIC
system on RC structures. The goals of the project are to prepare the DIC system which includes
two cameras, lighting and the open source software NCorr. Different speckle patterns (varying
speckle size, distribution and density) were investigated in an attempt to determine the best
method for future testing on the large-scale shear walls.
2. Literature Review
On March 3, 1985 an earthquake of magnitude 7.8 occurred near the central coast of Chile
(Thiel, 1986). RC buildings designed similar to those in the US were exposed to the strong
shaking and 400 reinforced concrete building were tested to their limit (Wallace, 2011).
Amazingly the earthquake did little or no damage to the walls. Studies by Wallace and Moehle
(1989) indicated that the shear wall structures constructed in Chile performed very well.
A few years later investigations by Wallace and Moehle (1992; 1993) revealed that seismic
codes in Chile were similar to those in the US but important detailing requirements were omitted.
These discoveries led to significant US code changes for RC shear wall buildings in the Uniform
2

Building Code (UBC-97) and the American Concrete Institute (ACI) building code (ACI 318-95)
(Wallace and Orakcal, 2002).
Previous code provisions (ACI 318-95) for shear walls were considered easy to use and very
conservative in the requirements for confined boundary regions for reinforced concrete shear
walls (Wallace, 2011). The code had strict guidelines on the placement and spacing of
transverse reinforcement (Wallace, 2011). In many cases the boundary transverse reinforcement
was required to be extended over a majority of the height of the RC wall. In general, Chilean
engineers found the transverse requirement for RC shear wall were overly conservative and
many engineers believed that they would be able to design RC shear walls as adequate, and more
economically, by lowering spacing requirements (Wallace, 2011). Other concerns were that the
procedures lead to excessive flexural over strength (Wallace, 2011). Provisions in UBC-97
addressed issues for flanged walls and provided a detailed approach for assessing requirements
for transverse reinforcement at the boundaries of cantilever walls (Wallace, 2011). Provisions
for assessing detailing at wall boundaries were elaborated well but some issues were not
addressed. Issues that were not addressed included the need to check the flexural strength
distribution over the height of the wall and detailing requirements where no special transverse
reinforcement was required (Wallace, 2011). There were many cases of irregular walls where
the UBC-97 provisions did not apply, yet no design guidance was given (Wallace, 2011).
To address the gaps in the code, changes were incorporated into ACI 318-99. To address
concerns related to flexural over-strength, changes were introduced to require that wall design
for flexure and axial forces be based on section analysis identical to that used for column cross
sections (Wallace, 2011). This encouraged engineers to include the entire wall cross section to
resist gravity loads and overturning moments rather than concentrating the design resistance in
the boundary elements (Wallace, 2011). In 1996, Chile adopted a new code for design of RC
buildings based on ACI 318-95. Based on the good performance of walls of buildings in Vina del
Mar, Chile, in the 1985 earthquake, they decided to eliminate the ACI 318-95 provision
requiring special transverse reinforcement at wall boundaries (Wallace, 2011).
From 1995 through 2010 construction booms occurred in the US and other countries. Most of
the buildings constructed in this period of time were designed to the new Chilean building code
(Wallace 2011). On February 27, 2010 a magnitude 8.8 earthquake occurred off the central coast
of Chile, testing the strength of the newer, thinner RC structures built to the new Chile building
code. The earthquake provided an opportunity to see how the modern RC buildings performed
when subjected to seismic loading. In this earthquake the shear walls had significant damage
(Figure 2). Crushing and spalling of concrete and buckling of vertical reinforcement were
observed over a large extent of the walls (Wallace, 2011). Typically the damage was
concentrated over a short distance, one to three times the wall thickness, because buckling of
vertical bars led to concentration of damage (Wallace, 2011). The damages observed in Chile
raised many questions for US buildings codes.

Figure 2. Wall damage from the 2010 Chile earthquake (Wallace, 2011)

3. Methods
3.1 Preparation of specimens
Before using the DIC system on the RC walls sample testing occurred. The sample testing
included three concrete columns of 3 in x 3 in x 13 in and three 6 in x 6 in x 18 in RC beams,
which can be seen in figure 3. The preparation involved pouring the blocks using Quickrete
concrete mix, applying silicon to create a smooth surface, painting a thin white layer and
applying black speckle pattern with spray-paint. The preparation process can be seen in Figure
4. After the preparation was done the specimens were tested until failure in a loading device.

Figure 3. Three beam 6 in x 6 in x 18 in with different reinforcements each

4

Beam 1st stage

n
Beam 2nd
stage: appply
white paiint

Beaam 3rd
stage:
appply silicon to
im
mperfections
on the cement

t
Beam 4th
stage:
apply white
w
paint with
spray--paint

Figure 4. Beams/coolumns prepparation proccess

Beam 5th staage:

apply speckkle
pattern witth
black sprayypaint

3.2 Speckle pattern

i essential too DIC to gett accurate results. The iddeal speckle pattern is a
The specckle pattern is
quantity of black speeckles with different
d
shappe and sizes, approximattely 10-30 pixels.
p
It can be
applied by
b painting th
he surface with
w a thin laayer of whitee paint and thhen applyingg black paintt to
create thee black speckles. The sppeckles usedd during testiing were aboout 2mm-3m
mm.
Figure 5 demonstratees different methods
m
for applying thee speckle patttern; howevver it was
decided to
t use the sp
pray-paint meethod since it
i was less tiime consumiing and it provided a bettter
and moree random speeckle patternn.

Sponge

Sharpie

Brush

Spray-Paint

Figure 5. Different methods for speckle pattern

To determine the variety of diameters that the spray paint (Figure 6) created a stenciled was used
to measure the biggest speckles (Figure 7).

Figure 6. Black spry-paint used to

create speckle pattern

Figure 7. Stencil used to measure the

diameter of the speckles

3.3 Camera set up

For the DIC system the equipment consist of two digital cameras and two strobe flashes. To
visualize the set up refer to Figure 8. Analysis was performed using the computer software
NCorr. Pictures were taken continuously throughout the loading to capture the movement of the
dots formed by the speckled pattern. All the equipment was being controlled by wireless
transmitters and the equipment was programed to take pictures every 30 seconds. The camera
recorded the pictures during the testing process and NCorr analyzed displacements and strain
response.

FigureList
8. Two
cameras onequipment
the same plane (camera on left side was low resolution and camera
of Photography
on the right was high resolution) with wireless transmitters and Einstein light ready

for testing.
7

3.4 Photography Equipment

To gather accurate results for the program NCorr, photography equipment was purchase to get
the best quality images as possible. The equipment used can be seen in Figures 9 and 10. Two
high resolution cameras and two strobe flash units with four transceivers were used to perform
the task. Before using the DIC software the camera system had to be fully comprehensible for
the user. The exposure triangle was the most important component for the DIC system. The
exposure triangle consists of three elements: ISO, aperture, and shutter speed. Each element
works off each other, meaning that they cannot be isolated from one another. A lower ISO
means the camera sensor is the less sensitive to light. Increasing a cameras ISO usually adds
noise or grains to an image. Noise lowers the quality of an image, but allows for an image to be
produced in a low light condition. The second element of exposure is aperture, which is how
large the iris of the lense is open. Aperture influences how much light is being allowed to reach
the image sensor (Cannon Inc., 2012). The larger the opening of the iris, the more light goes
through. The shutter speed is the amount of time that the shutter is open. Shutter speed is
measured in seconds, usually in fractions of seconds.
Understanding exposure and operation of the camera system was important because the DIC
system requires quality images to analyze the speckle pattern. Low quality images will result in
low quality deformation results.

Figure 9. High Resolution Camera

Figure 10. Strobe Flash Units

3.5 Relating Image Resolution and Specimen Dimensions

Resolution refers to the number of pixels in an image and describes how many details can be
appreciated in an image. To determine the quantity of space that each pixel is going to represent
in the specimen image, the image resolution and the specimen surface area can be related. To
determine the quantity of space represented by a pixel in a specimen image, the specimen
dimensions have to be divided by the resolution of the camera (Cintron and Saouma, 2008).

3.6 Testiing

For the first

fi test Colu
umn One waas decorated with a speckkle pattern. Two
T cameraas where
positioneed in the sam
me plane to capture
c
multiiple images of
o the colum
mn. Figure 11 demonstraates
how to determine thee best resoluttion for the specimen.
s
O camera was
One
w taking high
h
resolution
images while
w
the oth
her was takinng low resoluution. The camera
c
system
m captured pictures
p
everry 30
seconds during
d
appro
oximately tenn minutes, until
u
failure. Figure 12 shows how Column
C
One was
set up onn the mechan
nical testing and sensing (MTS) macchine. The MTS
M machinne was controolled
by a com
mputer that ap
pplied the deesired force to the colum
mn. The MT
TS machine is the testing
equipmennt used for teesting tensile and comprression.

c - pixxel columnss
r - pixxel rows
w - width
w
h sppecimen heigght
d - diistance betweeen
camera and speciimen
f - foccal length off the

lens

Figurre 11. Digitaal image resoolution (Cinttron and Saoouma, 2008)

F
Figure
12. First
F
concretee column 3 in
i x 3 in x 133 in in the looading devicce (MTS)
readdy for testingg

Figure 13. Sequential order of Column 1

The first images on Figure 13 is the reference images which is a picture taken before the column
is loaded. The next images record the deformed state of the column as larger loads are applied.
The final image shows the deformed column at failures. During testing the camera takes raw
images which are converted to viewable in Photoshop and input into NCorr for analysis. NCorr
is then used to analyze the movement of each speckle during the loading based on the reference
image.

Figure 14. Sequential order of Column 2

The same procedure was followed for Column 2 except that it was decorated with a denser
speckle pattern (Figure 14). The purpose of changing the density of the speckle pattern was to
understand what pattern works better with NCorr. The two speckle patterns tested can be
compared in Figures 15 and 16.

10

Figure 16. Speckle pattern for Column 2

Figure 15. Speckle pattern for Column 1

3.7 NCorr

Justin Blaber, at the Georgia Institute of Technology wrote NCorr, an open source twodimensional (2D) DIC MATLAB program that is capable of providing 2D strain maps. The
equipment required consisted of a digital camera with the appropriate resolution and a computer
system. During the testing process the camera records pictures and the program analyzes the
images calculating displacements and strains. Figure 17 is a window from NCorr which gives
you stress, strains and displacement graph after following certain steps.

Figure 17. Window from NCorr the steps on the left top corner (Program State) are to be
followed to get your stress and strain graph. Refer to the NCorr Manual for further
instructions.

11

4. Contrributions
This reseearch projectt involved asssisting gradduate mentorr, Christopheer Segura on the construcction
of four out
o of twelvee RC walls thhat needed to
t be construucted at UCL
LA. Figure 18
1 shows
different construction
n stages fo thhe RC walls. Tasks invoolved tying rebar,
r
aplyinng
instrumenntation such
h as LVDTs and strain gages,
g
and gaathering conncrete test sam
mples. The
NEES-Research Und
dergraduate Experience
E
(
(NEES-REU
U) project scoope was to assist
a
with thhe
implemenntation of a non contact photographiic measurem
ment sysem (DIC), prepaaration of a users
u
guide forr the non-con
ntact measurrement systeem, material testing, inteerpretation off test results and
data archhiving. The primary
p
goall was to com
mpare the resuults from traaditional sennsors to thosee
from the DIC system
m. The main objective off the NEES-R
REU projectt is to preparre the DIC
system foor the appliccation on the RC walls.

Figure 18: Shhear wall connstruction

5. Resultts and Discu
ussions

For Coluumn One and

d Column Tw
wo multiple images weree captured annd processedd into NCorrr to
analyzedd stress/strain
ns and displaacements. To
T verify the accuracy off NCorr, the result were
comparedd to the oness of the MTS
S loading device. To furrther understtand the DIC
C system higgh
and low resolution
r
im
mages were input
i
into NCorr to see which
w
imagees provided the
t best resuults.
Throughoout the NEE
ES program different
d
speeckle patterns were practticed. The sppray-paint
method was
w our prefe
ference for alll the columnn testing. Foor Column One
O and Coluumn Two, tw
wo
different speckle pattterns were appplied to seee which patteern would peerform betteer with the DIC
D

12

system. The specklee pattern density and the low and higgh resolutionn images werre important
factor forr the reliability of NCorrr.
The resullts from the first concrette column test indicated that NCorr was
w workingg properly since
the displaacement from
m the DIC syystem (Figure 19) is the same as thee result from the MTS
loading device
d
(Figurre 21). The maximum displacement
d
t from the daata from the loading devvice
(Figure 21)
2 is about 0.6
0 inches; thhe maximum
m displacement from thee NCorr (figuure 19) show
ws
the maxim
mum being about
a
0.6 incches as well. The resultts for Colum
mn Two, how
wever, are
inaccuratte because th
he maximum
m displacemeents (Figure 22) do not match
m
as the Ncorr resultts for
Column One
O (Figuree 20). Some factors to coonsider for thhe bad results are densitty of specklee
pattern annd the high and
a low resoolution.

Figure 19. Ncorr reesults for Coolumn

mage shows
One after failure. Im

displaceement in the y-direction..

Figure 21. Results from loadinng

device (MTS)
(
for Column
C
One

Figu
ure 20. Ncorrr results for
Coluumn Two aftter failure. Image
show
ws displacem
ment in the y-direcction

Figgure 22. Ressults from loading devicee

(MTS) for Coluumn Two

The Figuures 23 to 28 display highh and low reesolution picctures for straains. It was observed thhat
the strainn changed deepending on the resolutioon of the cam
mera. It wass clearly observed that thhe
results frrom the high
h resolution images comppared to the low resolution did not match,
m
Figuree 23
comparedd to Figure 24,
2 Figure 255 compared to Figure 266, and Figuree 27 compareed to Figure 28.
Using thee camera witth higher ressolutions proovided the most
m accuratee results. Thee high resoluution
camera was
w able to capture
c
correectly stress/sttrain and dissplacements based on thee colors of thhe
graph. The
T color red
d representedd the highestt displacemeent in the collumns yet thee low resoluution
camera did
d not identiify the displaacement corrrectly. The best comparrison for the quality of loow
13

and high resolution im

mages can be
b seen in Figgure 27. Thhe column was under com
mpression
thereforee the high ressolution cam
mera capturedd a big amouunt of strain and coloredd the column red
while thee low resoluttion show vaary little straain. The highh resolution was
w capable of capturingg all
the smalll details inclu
uded on the speckle patttern as a resuult Ncorr waas able to proovide accuraate
results.

Figurre 23. Colum

mn 1 Exx straain high
resoluution

Figure 25. Column

n 1 Exy strainn

low resolution

Figure 27. Column

n 1 Eyy high
resolutiion

Figurre 24. Colum

mn 1 Exx straain low
resoluution

Figure 26.
2 Column 1 Exy strainn high
resolutioon

Figure 288. Column 1 Eyy low

resolutionn

14

6. Conclusion
The speckle pattern influences much on the DIC system and that was clearly seen in the first two
column tests. Based on the results it can be concluded that a denser speckle pattern results in
less accurate DIC results. To verify results one more column with two LVDTs attached and
three RC beams will be tested. To have accurate results LVDTs and strain gages will be applied
to the concrete beams. The speckle pattern applied to the shear walls will be based on the results
from the concrete beams. DIC system is a new a technology that need additional research to be
better understood, yet it is a very promising method to avoid the traditional process of installing
sensors such as LVDTs and strain gauges. The DIC method should be cheaper, faster, and more
accurate than the traditional sensors.
7. Further Information
If you have any further question, please contact Christopher Segura at segurac@ucla.edu.
Further information can also be found at the NEES@UCLA website: http://nees.ucla.edu/
8. Acknowledgements
This project was partially supported by the National Science Foundation through the Research
Experience for Undergraduates program (EEC-1263155) and the George E. Brown Jr. Network
for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES) Cooperative Agreement CMMI-0927178. Any
opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of
the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
I would like to express many thanks to Dr. John Wallace, for his research and knowledge on the
subject matter and a special thanks to my mentor, PhD candidate, Christopher Segura, for all his
guidance throughout this project. I would also like to express a thanks to the entire
NEES@UCLA team for all their support and contributions: Robert Nigbor, Alberto Salamanca,
Steve Keowen, Erica Eskes, Sophia Poulos, Marissa Shea, Andrew Hoeschele, Sergio Herrera,
Josue Perez, Wendy Torres, and Kanata Yamayoshi.

15

9. Reference
Blaber, J. and Antoniou A. (2014). Ncorr Instruction Manual.
<http://www.ncorr.com/download/ncorrmanual_v1_2.pdf> (Sep. 12, 2014)
Cannon Inc. (2012). Canon EOS 6D instruction manual. Tokyo, Japan.
Cintron, R., and Saouma, V. (2008). Strain measurements with the digital image correlation
system vic-2D. NEES REU Project Report, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) (2011). "The Mw 7.1 Darfield (Canterbury),
New Zealand earthquake of September 4, 2010." EERI Newsletter, 44(11).
<https://www.eeri.org/site/images/eeri_newsletter/2010_pdf/EERI_NewZealand_EQRptweb.pdf > (July 30, 2014).
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) (2010). "The Mw 8.8 Chile earthquake of
February 27, 2010." EERI Newsletter, 44(6).
<https://www.eeri.org/site/images/eeri_newsletter/2010_pdf/Chile10_insert.pdf> (July
30, 2014).
Ron Blank & Associates, Inc., Designing with shear walls for low to midrise construction,
http://www.ronblank.com/courses/cem05c/cem05c.pdf (Aug. 18, 2014).
Thiel, C. C. (ed.) (1986). The Chile earthquake of March 3, 1985 performance of structures.
Earthquake Spectra, 2(2), 293-371.
Wallace, J. W. (2011). "Preliminary observations on structural performance and implications for
U.S. building codes and standards." Proc., Structures Congress 2011, ASCE, Las Vegas,
NV, 1672-1685.
Wallace, J. W. and Moehle, J.P. (1989). The 3 March 1985 Chile earthquake: Structural
requirements for bearing wall buildings, EERC Report No. UCB/EERC-89/5,
Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, Berkley,
California.
Wallace, J. W. and Moehle, J. P. (1992). Ductility and detailing requirements of bearing wall
buildings. J. Struct. Eng., 118(6), 1625-1644
Wallace, J. W. and Moehle, J. P. (1993). An evaluation of ductility and detailing requirements
of bearing wall buildings using data from the 3 March 1985 Chile Earthquake.
Earthquake Spectra, 9(1), 137-156.
Wallace, J. W. and Orakcal, K. (2002). ACI 318-99 provisions for seismic design of structural
walls. Structural Journal, 99(4), 499-508.

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