OUR PLANET

INTRODUCTION
From the perspective we get on Earth, our planet appears to be big and sturdy with an endless
ocean of air. From space, astronauts often get the impression that the Earth is small with a thin,
fragile layer of atmosphere. For a space traveler, the distinguishing Earth features are the blue
waters, brown and green land masses and white clouds set against a black background.
Many dream of traveling in space and viewing the wonders of the universe. In reality all of us
are space travelers. Our spaceship is the planet Earth, traveling at the speed of 108,000
kilometers (67,000 miles) an hour.
Earth is the 3rd planet from the Sun at a distance of about 150 million kilometers (93.2 million
miles). It takes 365.256 days for the Earth to travel around the Sun and 23.9345 hours for the
Earth rotate a complete revolution. It has a diameter of 12,756 kilometers (7,973 miles), only a
few hundred kilometers larger than that of Venus. Our atmosphere is composed of 78 percent
nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 1 percent other constituents.
Earth is the only planet in the solar system known to harbor life. Our planet's rapid spin and
molten nickel-iron core give rise to an extensive magnetic field, which, along with the
atmosphere, shields us from nearly all of the harmful radiation coming from the Sun and other
stars. Earth's atmosphere protects us from meteors, most of which burn up before they can strike
the surface.
From our journeys into space, we have learned much about our home planet. The first American
satellite, Explorer 1, discovered an intense radiation zone, now called the Van Allen radiation
belts. This layer is formed from rapidly moving charged particles that are trapped by the Earth's
magnetic field in a doughnut-shaped region surrounding the equator. Other findings from
satellites show that our planet's magnetic field is distorted into a tear-drop shape by the solar
wind. We also now know that our wispy upper atmosphere, once believed calm and uneventful,
seethes with activity -- swelling by day and contracting by night. Affected by changes in solar
activity, the upper atmosphere contributes to weather and climate on Earth.
Besides affecting Earth's weather, solar activity gives rise to a dramatic visual phenomenon in
our atmosphere. When charged particles from the solar wind become trapped in Earth's magnetic
field, they collide with air molecules above our planet's magnetic poles. These air molecules then
begin to glow and are known as the auroras or the northern and southern lights.
Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto

Introduction to the Sun

The placement of the Sun in your chart will show you how (the sign) and in which area of life
(the house) tremendous potential exists for you. Here is where you want to be successful. The
Sun cannot be ignored. We must meet and deal with the area of life that the Sun shines on in our
chart in order find ultimate fulfillment. Everything revolves around the Sun. When you master
whatever issues the Sun points to, then other areas of life will proceed in a more balanced and
satisfactory manner. The Sun also represents: your own will, major goals, the father, men in your
life, children, creativity and the real inner you.
Introduction to the Moon
The Moon in your chart represents the past and points to an area of life (the house) where we
function out of instinctive awareness. Often we have a deep emotional need to do the things that
the Moon's house placement represents. Whenever insecurities arise and our feelings become
involved, we tend to bring the traits (the sign) of our Moon into play. The Moon is like our
security blanket. It also represents: the home, females in your life, the mother, nurturing others or
being nurtured ourselves, as well as things related to the domestic scene in general.
Introduction to the Mercury
Mercury is the planet of communication. It tells us about how we think and talk. You can gain
insight into your mode of gathering, processing and transmitting information from Mercury's
placement in your chart. Mercury also represents: transportation, the five senses, youth, reading
and writing.
Introduction to the Venus
Venus is the planet of relating to others and thus is associated with love, attraction and
socializing. In a male's chart, Venus can provide clues about traits he finds attractive in females.
In a female's chart, it reveals something about how she relates to males. Venus is also the planet
of material goodies and sensual delights in all of their various forms. Venus also represents:
money, harmonious conditions, pleasurable activities, beauty and the arts.
Introduction to the Mars
Mars is our planet of action, energy output, motivation and instinctive biological drives. It shows
how and in which area of life you are willing to put forth a lot of effort. Mars' energy is quick,
impulsive and survival oriented. In a male's chart, Mars reveals something about how he relates
to females. In a female's chart, Mars can provide clues about the traits she finds attractive in
males. Mars also represents: competitive situations, conflicts, accidents and sexual energies.

Introduction to the Jupiter

Jupiter is the planet of expansion and taking things beyond normal limits. It shows us where the
universe allows us to indulge ourselves and often we find that wherever it is in the chart is where
things work out in our favor eventually. Some call this luck. Jupiter also represents: faith, ideas
about God, abstract thinking, high ideals and abundance.
Introduction to the Saturn
Saturn is our planet of restriction and discipline. It shows us where we may feel inadequate in
some way and thus we take this area of life very seriously because we want to perfect ourselves.
Saturn also represents: life lessons to be learned, trials and tests, a strong sense of duty and
bringing ideas into material form.
Introduction to the Uranus
Uranus is a planet of unexpected change and unpredictable events. It tells us something about
where we have unusual ideas and how we want to express our own unique individuality. Uranus
also represents: rebelliousness, sudden awakenings, invention, progress, genius, anything "New
Age," and humanitarian efforts.
Introduction to the Neptune
Neptune is a planet that dissolves hard and fast boundaries. It is where we don't always see
things as they really are, mostly because we would rather view the world through rose-colored
glasses.
With Neptune, anything becomes a possibility, especially that which we can imagine. Neptune
also represents: tuning into other planes of reality, the spiritual dimensions, cosmic
consciousness, movies, music and inspired creativity.
Introduction to the Pluto
Pluto is a planet that brings with it transformation. Something about the area of life that it points
to will undergo a complete change. Significant lifestyle changes can happen whenever Pluto is
involved. Deep, complex issues will be brought to light eventually. It is where conditions can
swing from one extreme to the other. It's all or nothing.
Pluto also represents: psychological probing, keeping secrets or bringing them to light, power
and control issues, obsessions, healing and purification.

OBJECTIVES
Learning Objectives
1. Solar systems are groups of planets orbiting a central star. The Sun is the star at the center of
our Solar System, which is composed of nine planets, innumerable asteroids orbiting primarily
between Mars and Jupiter, and comets that reside mostly in the outer reaches of the Solar System
in the Oort cloud and Kuiper Belt.
2. The inner planets of the Solar System are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. They are similar
in that they are composed of silicate minerals forming rocks around iron and nickel cores. The
outer planets of the Solar System are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. These planets
are composed primarily of hydrogen and water, perhaps surrounding small rock and iron cores
(See Fig. 22.5 of your textbook).
3. Astronomical distances in the Solar System are measured in astronomical units (A.U.). One
A.U. is equal to the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun, approximately 150,000,000 (150
million) kilometers. Pluto, the most distant planet, is approximately 40 A.U. from the Sun.
4. Our Solar System is part of the Milky Way galaxy which in turn is part of the Universe.
Astronomers believe the Universe formed about 14 billion years ago.
6. Our Sun, the planets, and other celestial bodies in the Solar System are believed to have
coalesced from a very large, somewhat flattened rotating mass of gas and dust about 4.6 billion
years ago. The gas and dust from which the Solar System formed is called the solar nebula.
Similar nebulae (plural of nebula) are very commonly observed throughout the Universe with
telescopes, and each star or planet is thought to have formed from the gravitational collapse of a
nebula or portion of a nebula.
7. The Moon is a satellite that orbits Earth, and is the only other body in the Solar System on
which humans have walked. The surface of the Moon is thoroughly covered by craters, surface
depressions formed by impacts with meteors of various sizes. The fact that the Moon's surface
shows so many craters is evidence that many geologic processes found on Earth are not active on
the Moon. Brightly reflective areas of the Moon are known as lunar highlands whereas dark
areas are called maria. The difference in color of these two lunar provinces is due to differences
in the composition of rocks that form them. Highland areas are formed of an intrusive igneous
rock called anorthosite while maria are composed of a volcanic rock called basalt.
8. Mercury is the planet closest to the Sun, and its surface is completely covered with impact
craters. It is too small and close to the sun to retain an atmosphere. As a consequence, it is
subject to broad temperature extremes. The side of the planet facing the Sun can be as hot as 430
degrees Celsius, while the side facing away from the Sun can be -173 degree Celsius.

9. Venus is the 2nd planet from the Sun. The surface of Venus is not visible because it is cloaked
by thick clouds in the atmosphere. Venus' atmosphere is composed almost entirely of carbon
dioxide, creating an extreme greenhouse effect that raises the surface temperature of the planet to
480 degrees Celsius. Radar can penetrate the thick clouds, and has provided scientists with very
detailed maps of the planetary surface revealing impact craters, volcanoes, lava flows, and other
tectonic features the look similar to some geologic features on Earth.
10. Mars is the 4th planet from the Sun. Mars has a very thin atmosphere composed mostly of
carbon dioxide. The surface of Mars has many Earth-like features including sand dunes, river
channels, lake basins, canyons and gullies, and volcanoes. Mars also has ice caps (composed of
both water and carbon dioxide ice) in both of its polar regions. Networks of valleys and channels
across the Martian surface suggest the presence of liquid water flowing across the planet's
surface during its early history.
11. Jupiter is the 5th planet from the Sun, and the largest planet in the Solar System. Jupiter is
composed primarily of hydrogen gas, but may have a small solid core. One of Jupiter's moons
(Io) is known to have active volcanoes. Another moon, Europa, is believed to have a liquid water
ocean beneath a surface cover of ice.
12. Saturn is the 6th planet from the Sun, and the 2nd largest planet in the Solar System. It is
surrounded by a number of prominently visible rings. The rings are composed of innumerable
rock fragments orbiting the planet, believed to represent fragments generated by collisions
among many very small moons or between a small moon and a comet whose orbit came too
close to the planet.
13. Uranus is the 7th planet from the Sun. Relatively little is known about this planet because it
is so far away. A few space vehicles have passed close enough to Uranus to provide pictures of
the planet. Its atmosphere is composed mostly of hydrogen and methane. An unusual feature of
Uranus is that its rotational axis is inclined such that it rotates "on its side" relative to the other
planets.
14. Neptune is the 8th planet from the Sun, and like Uranus, has an atmosphere composed mostly
of methane and hydrogen. Pictures of Neptune show that there are "storms" in the atmosphere
similar to those observed in the atmosphere of Jupiter.
15. Pluto is the most distant planet in our Solar System. Little is known of this planet because it
is so far away. It was discovered by astronomers in 1930.
16. Asteroids are small rock bodies orbiting in a broad region between Mars and Jupiter known
as the asteroid belt. Asteroids are thought to be fragments of small planets (planetesimals) that
failed to coalesce into a larger planet from the solar nebula due to the gravitational field of
Jupiter.
17. Comets are small bodies in the farthest reaches of the Solar System that are believed to be
composed of ice of various compositions mixed with dust and rocky debris. Some comets have
highly eccentric orbits that bring them through the inner Solar System where they can be

illuminated by the Sun and visible from Earth without the aid of telescopes. Some comet orbits
are very well known, making it possible to predict when they will be seen from Earth.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The term sustainable development has been around for over a decade now and yet many are still
struggling with what sustainable development means. There are numerous definitions, although,
a recent study concluded that about a third of the people surveyed preferred the Bruntland
Commissions definition. The Bruntland Commission defined sustainable development as
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future
to meet its own needs (Cartwright, 2000; WCED, 1987). This definition of sustainable
development implies that our current means of addressing design issues are not sustainable. Mike
Pease had an interesting, and I believe accurate, assessment of comparing sustainability with our
increasing awareness of the earth as a whole system, we are beginning to see the long-term,
global picture, and we are afraid (Places 1995). While many have debated or attempted to
redefine this definition to increase or narrow its scope, it is questionable that anyone has been
able to articulate another definition that is more idealized than this one and further more why
should we?
Importance of Sustainable Development
As the sustainable development definition suggests, there are numerous dynamics that influence
sustainable development. Understanding these dynamics is important because as Pease eluded,
the global future is daunting. The challenges that provoke such apprehension are issues such as
global population, food stock, limited resources, environmental pollution, social disintegration,
economic viability, crime and violence, and unmanaged growth. Geis and Kutzmark view these
challenges as either our shared doom or as our common call to action, a universal opportunity to
change, improve, and optimize (Geis and Kutzmark, internet). These ideas and concepts are
integrally relevant and important to landscape architecture. To verify this 4 importance to
landscape architecture, one can look at the principles in ASLAs Declaration on Environment and
Development
.

Sustainable Development Theory

The theoretical underpinning for sustainable development relates to issues concerning our
Environment, our Society, and our Economy (Cartwright, 2000; Gurung, 1999; Mukoko, 1996;
White, 1996; Gangloff, 1995). The Environment provides resources that every living inhabitant
on earth is dependent, from clean water and air to sunlight. While the environment supplies
resources for all living organisms, the human species is the largest consumer of these resources.
Global resource use is increasing annually at a rate of 5.5 percent. Many of the resources that are
used are nonrenewable and their supply will eventually be exhausted. For example, supplies of
oil are expected to be exhausted in approximately 40 years, if current consumption rates
continue. The erosion rate of topsoil is currently exceeding its ability to regenerate on roughly

one-third of the planets cropland; potentially this is more detrimental than our dwindling oil
supply (Wilson, 1996).

RELEVANCE
As the only known planet that is habitable for human beings, the Earths importance is selfevident. Every living organism known to science obtains all of its resources from Earth, and has
very few other options available. Without the Earth, humans would be doomed to extinction,
unless they were able to adapt to another planet's conditions before the Earth disappeared.
All living organisms require a proper habitat, or a surrounding region that supplies all of its
resources, such as food, water and oxygen. The Earth has many different habitats, including
deserts, forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers and swamps. Additionally, the oceans of the world form
a single large habitat, called the marine biome.
Some creatures alter or create their own habitats to suit their needs. Ants, termites, woodpeckers
and other animals modify trees and other items in their habitat to meet their needs. Beavers take
trees and build large and elaborate dams to live in the water. Humans go even further, and have
created several unique habitats, such as urban, residential and agricultural areas.
Humans have created small areas of habitat that can leave the planet Earth, which go by the
names of space shuttles, rockets and space stations. However, these habitats require resources
from the Earth to function. Additionally, these habitats can only support a few individuals or
animals for a relatively short period of time.
Our planet is truly a magnificent place. Known as the Blue Planet due to its abundance of water,
the Earth is an incredibly complex and vibrant ecosystem, where living organisms interact with
each other and their environment to create the ideal conditions for life. We have it all: its warm
but not too warm, lots of water but again, not too much. Its perfect. And its in trouble.
In this day and age of instant information, we are finally beginning to understand the
consequences of our actions and the impact they are having on our world and our survivability as
a species. Wherever you look, nature is under assault and if we dont take steps now to try and
repair the damage, there might not be much of a world left for our children to pass onto theirs.
Earth provides the habitat and basis for life and for an incredibly diverse ecosystem of animals,
plants and other organisms. Humanity is part of this system, and yet no other living being
interferes as profoundly in this ecosystem as humankind. In recent years and decades, attempts
have been made at international conferences to come to an agreement on joint regulations for life
and industrial activity on Earth.
The sun and all the planets in our solar system have a role or job. Without them, things would not
only be different for us but for the other planets too! Our solar system would be nothing like
what we know if space wasn't... space!
Mercury

Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun. It keeps the Solar System in balance. Without Mercury,
it is a possibility that our Solar System will be thrown off balance.
Venus
Earth
Earth is a very important planet. It is the planet where we live. Earth is the only known planet to
have life, water and sustainable terrain. These factors are the things that distinguish Earth

PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
Should We Be Concerned with Sea Level Rise?
Climate alarmists put forth scary scenarios saying that global warming is causing unprecedented
sea level rise and the rise is accelerating. Well, dont sell your beach-front property yet. Since the
end of the last glacial epoch 15,000 years ago, sea level has risen 120 meters, about one meter
per century as we entered the current interglacial period. But since about 7,000 years ago, sea
level rise has greatly slowed. NOAA puts normal rise at 1 to 3mm per year, about the thickness
of a penny. Surely we can deal with that.
Based on geologic evidence, there has been no acceleration of sea level rise in response to
increased temperature or CO2 levels for the last 6,000 years. Another study based on worldwide
coastal tidal gauge records, shows that the rate of sea level rise is decreasing. Specifically, the
mean rate of global sea level rise was larger in the early part of the 20th century (2.03 0.35
mm/yr 1904-1953), in comparison with the latter part (1.45 0.34 mm/yr 1954-2003).
The other thing you should realize about the rate of sea level rise is that it is cyclical. The rate
accelerates and decelerates on approximately 11-year cycles which suggests that it is driven by
solar variation. (Source: Holgate, S.J. 2007. On the decadal rates of sea level change during the
twentieth century. Geophysical Research Letters 34: 10.1029/2006GL028492)
Ocean Acidification
We often hear that increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will make the oceans too acidic
and dissolve or otherwise harm carbonate-shelled marine fauna. These writers or reporters seem
ignorant of the fact that marine fauna evolved when the atmospheric CO2 concentration was
more than 10 times higher than the current level.
It has been estimated that current ocean pH is 0.1 pH unit less alkaline than it was in preindustrial time, and some climate models predict a further decrease of 0.7 pH units by 2300.
However, proxy reconstructions of ocean acidity, based on fossil and modern corals, show that

ocean pH has oscillated between pH of 7.91 and 8.29 during the past 7,000 years. That is within
the alkaline range (neutral is 7). That cyclic variation is nearly four times larger than the 0.1
decrease alarmists are whining about, and even if the model predicted decrease of 0.7 units
occurs, the water will still be alkaline. Many studies show that corals and other marine life are
able to adapt to the changing pH. The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global
Change has many articles and a large database addressing this issue here. They conclude there is
no cause for alarm.
Extreme Weather
Storms, droughts, heat waves, hurricanes etc. happen, and although alarmists say that global
warming is causing more of everything, the real data actually shows either a decline or no trend.
See the graphs on Anthony Watts extreme weather page here. Also look at his U.S. climate
history page here.
Problems with Surface Temperature Data
We are always hearing or reading proclamations that we just had the hottest week, month, year
since(it was cooler). Official surface temperature records have been corrupted by deliberate
manipulation, by siting deficiencies, and by ignoring inconvenient data.
Meteorologist Anthony Watts documents many of these problems in a paper published last year.
For an introduction and links to the paper see
I will give a local example of temperatures being influenced by the Urban Heat Island effect
(UHI). The graph below shows the temperature records of Tucson and Tombstone from about
1885 to 2005. Both graphs show the warming from the Little Ice Age which ended about 1850.
But the temperature record is very different since about 1900. Tucson shows warming from the
UHI, but Tombstone shows a fairly constant temperature. Does the carbon dioxide induced
greenhouse effect work only in Cities?

DESCRIPTION OF METHODOLOGY
Climate change is a major issue of our times. Concern is affecting environmental, energy, and
economic policy decisions. Many politicians are under the mistaken belief that legislation and
regulation can significantly mold our climate to forestall any deviation from normal and save
us from a perceived crisis. This post is intended as a primer for politicians so they can cut
through the hype and compare real observational data against the flawed model prognostications.
The information below is gleaned from the scientific literature. The data show that the current
warming is not unusual, but part of a natural cycle; that greenhouse gases, other than water
vapor, are not significant drivers of climate; that human emissions of carbon dioxide are
insignificant when compared to natural emissions of greenhouse gases; and that many
predictions by climate modelers and hyped by the media are simply wrong. In spite of all the
scary scenarios published, there is no physical evidence showing that human carbon dioxide
emissions have a significant effect on global temperature. Carbon dioxide is vital to life on earth
and current atmospheric levels are just barely above the minimum required for plant life.
Political schemes to cut greenhouse gases will have no measurable effect on temperature but will
greatly harm the economy by impeding energy production and use.
The Current Warm Period Is Not Unusual
The graph below, based on reconstruction from the geologic and historical records, shows that
there have been several warm/cold cycles since the end of the last glacial epoch. The temperature
during the Holocene Climate Optimum and Roman warm period was 3F to 10F warmer than
today in many areas. This is warmer than the extreme scenarios of the IPCC. Clearly, current
temperatures are neither unprecedented nor unusually warm. Life and civilization flourished
during warm periods.
Looking at the broader geologic record, we see that there is little correlation between
temperature and carbon dioxide.

Note that there was an ice age at the end of the Ordovician Period when atmospheric CO2 was
approximately 4,500 ppm, or more than 11 times the current level. Notice also that the normal
temperature of this planet is 222C, or about 182F warmer than it is now.
Al Gore liked to show a graph of the Vostok ice cores from Antarctica which shows a correlation
between temperatures and CO2.
But what Gore didnt tell you is that changes in temperature preceded changes in CO2 by 800 to
1,300 years.. Thats because temperature controls carbon dioxide solubility in the oceans. Notice
that the temperature cycles (the glacial epochs) occur in approximately 100,000-year intervals.
This coincides with the precession of the Earths elliptical orbit around the Sun. (Can you think
of anything that would make CO2 cycle this way if it were the driver rather than temperature?)
Why the Climate Models Are Wrong
The IPCC says that warming will produce more water vapor which will enhance greenhouse
warming, a positive feedback. All their climate models are based on this assumption. Sounds
reasonable except in the real world, it doesnt happen. Increased water vapor produces more
clouds which block the sun thereby inducing cooling, a negative feedback. For a more detailed
explanation see my article Carbon dioxide and the greenhouse effect. That article also shows
why your carbon footprint doesnt matter and why government policy to reduce CO2 emissions
will be ineffective.
According to climate models, the rate of warming should increase by 200-300% with altitude in
the tropics, peaking at around 10 kilometers a characteristic fingerprint for greenhouse
warming. However, measurements by weather balloons and satellites show the opposite result:
no increasing temperature trend with altitude. In other words, the model-predicted fingerprint
of anthropogenic, greenhouse warming is absent in nature. The computer-predicted signature of
greenhouse warming trends should look like the graph on the left below, but according to
measurements from satellites and radiosondes, the actual temperature trend is as depicted in the
graph on the right.

The models are demonstrably wrong as shown by Dr. Roy Spencer in his comparison of 73
model results versus reality, see his graph here and below.
The atmosphere is not static; we have weather which tends to dissipate heat into space.
According to real world measurements, the negative feedbacks overwhelm the theoretical
positive feedback posited by the IPCC.
The greenhouse model is a simplified story that helps explain how our atmosphere works.
However, the real world is very complicated and still not fully understood. Even global warming
alarmist James Hansen, formerly head of NASAs Goddard Institute for Space Studies, had this
to say: The forcings that drive long-term climate change are not known with an accuracy
sufficient to define future climate change. James Hansen, Climate forcings in the Industrial
era, PNAS, Vol. 95, Issue 22, 12753-12758, October 27, 1998.
And even the IPCC once admitted, In climate research and modeling, we should recognize that
we are dealing with a coupled non-linear chaotic system, and therefore that the prediction of a
specific future climate state is not possible. Final chapter, Draft TAR 2000 (Third
Assessment Report), IPCC.
If all that werent enough, a recent study published by the American Meteorological Society
(here) found that individual climate models produced different results when run on different
computers, even though the models contained the same coding and input data. And we base
expensive policy decisions on this?
Human Contribution to Greenhouse Gases Is Insignificant:
Human carbon dioxide emissions are 3% to 5% of total carbon dioxide emissions into the
atmosphere, and about 98% of all carbon dioxide emissions are reabsorbed through the carbon
cycle. Using data from the Department of Energy and the IPCC we can calculate the impact of
our carbon dioxide emissions. The results of that calculation shows that if we stopped all U.S.
emissions it could theoretically prevent a temperature rise of 0.0032C per year. If every country

totally stopped human emissions, we might forestall 0.012C of warming. For the derivation of
these numbers, see my post Your carbon footprint doesnt matter.
Although Earths atmosphere does have a greenhouse effect and carbon dioxide does have a
limited hypothetical capacity to warm the atmosphere, there is no physical evidence showing that
human carbon dioxide emissions actually produce any significant warming.
The major greenhouse gas is water vapor which accounts for about 97% of the warming effect.
The other 3% is attributed to carbon dioxide, methane, CFCs etc. Since carbon dioxide produces
less than 3% of the greenhouse effect, and humans produce less than 5% of the carbon dioxide,
human carbon dioxide emissions represent about one tenth of one percent of the total greenhouse
effect and are therefore insignificant.
The Sun Is the Real Climate Driver
The real drivers of climate are the Suns insolation (light and heat), its magnetic flux, and the
relative position and orientation of the Earth to the Sun.
There are three main positional variations of the Earth and Sun, called Milankovitch cycles:
Orbital Eccentricity, Axial Obliquity (tilt), and Precession of the Equinoxes. These cycles affect
the amount and location of sunlight impinging on the earth.
The variations in the Suns magnetic flux controls the amount of cosmic rays impinging on the
atmosphere. Cosmic rays ionize the atmosphere and the ions form nuclei for cloud formation.
Cloud cover has a great effect on global temperature, but this area is still poorly understood and
not addressed in climate models.

CONCLUSION
The basic conclusion from these data is that carbon dioxide has little effect on climate and all
attempts to control carbon dioxide will be a futile exercise in climate control. All the dire
predictions are based on flawed computer models. Carbon dioxide is a phantom menace.
No researchers nor the IPCC have presented any physical or observational evidence that CO2 is
a significant driver of temperature.
Climate models are complex mathematical constructs. But the atmosphere is even more complex,
so modelers must ignore many variables such as Sun-Earth relationships and clouds, in favor of a
few basic parameters. The fundamental assumption of climate models is that changes in CO2
concentration drive temperature change, but evidence from geology and astronomy show that the
relationship is just the opposite, temperature change drives CO2 concentration.
The whole aim of practical politics is to keep the populace alarmed (and hence clamorous to be
led to safety) by menacing it with an endless series of hobgoblins, all of them imaginary.

SUMMARY
Any planet is an extremely faint light source compared to its parent star. For example, a star like
the sun is about a billion times as bright as the reflected light from any extrasolar planet orbiting
it. In addition to the intrinsic difficulty of detecting such a faint light source, the light from the
parent star causes a glare that washes it out. For those reasons, very few of the extrasolar planets
reported as of April 2014 have been observed directly, with even fewer being resolved from their
host star.
Instead, astronomers have generally had to resort to indirect methods to detect extrasolar planets.
As of 2016, several different indirect methods have yielded success.
A star with a planet will move in its own small orbit in response to the planet's gravity. This leads
to variations in the speed with which the star moves toward or away from Earth, i.e. the
variations are in the radial velocity of the star with respect to Earth. The radial velocity can be
deduced from the displacement in the parent star's spectral lines due to the Doppler effect. The
radial-velocity method measures these variations in order to confirm the presence of the planet
using the binary mass function.
The speed of the star around the system's center of mass is much smaller than that of the planet,
because the radius of its orbit around the center of mass is so small. However, velocity variations
down to 1 m/s or even somewhat less can be detected with modern spectrometers, such as the
HARPS (High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher) spectrometer at the ESO 3.6 meter
telescope in La Silla Observatory, Chile, or the HIRES spectrometer at the Keck telescopes. An
especially simple and inexpensive method for measuring radial velocity is "externally dispersed
interferometry".[1]
Until 2014, the radial-velocity method was by far the most productive technique used by planet
hunters. It is also known as Doppler spectroscopy. The method is distance independent, but
requires high signal-to-noise ratios to achieve high precision, and so is generally only used for
relatively nearby stars, out to about 160 light-years from Earth, to find lower-mass planets. It is
also not possible to simultaneously observe many target stars at a time with a single telescope.
Planets of Jovian mass can be detectable around stars up to a few thousand light years away. This
method easily finds massive planets that are close to stars. Modern spectrographs can also easily
detect Jupiter-mass planets orbiting 10 astronomical units away from the parent star, but
detection of those planets requires many years of observation.
It is easier to detect planets around low-mass stars, for two reasons: First, these stars are more
affected by gravitational tug from planets. The second reason is that low-mass main-sequence
stars generally rotate relatively slowly. Fast rotation makes spectral-line data less clear because
half of the star quickly rotates away from observer's viewpoint while the other half approaches.

Detecting planets around more massive stars is easier if the star has left the main sequence,
because leaving the main sequence slows down the star's rotation.
Sometimes Doppler spectrography produces false signals, especially in multi-planet and multistar systems. Magnetic fields and certain types of stellar activity can also give false signals.
When the host star has multiple planets, false signals can also arise from having insufficient data,
so that multiple solutions can fit the data, as stars are not generally observed continuously.[2]
Some of the false signals can be eliminated by analyzing the stability of the planetary system,
conducting photometry analysis on the host star and knowing its rotation period and stellar
activity cycle periods.
Planets with orbits highly inclined to the line of sight from Earth produce smaller visible
wobbles, and are thus more difficult to detect. One of the advantages of the radial velocity
method is that eccentricity of the planet's orbit can be measured directly. One of the main
disadvantages of the radial-velocity method is that it can only estimate a planet's minimum mass
(). The posterior distribution of the inclination angle i depends on the true mass distribution of
the planets.[3] However, when there are multiple planets in the system that orbit relatively close to
each other and have sufficient mass, orbital stability analysis allows one to constrain the
maximum mass of these planets. The radial-velocity method can be used to confirm findings
made by the transit method. When both methods are used in combination, then the planet's true
mass can be estimated.
Although radial velocity of the star only gives a planet's minimum mass, if the planet's spectral
lines can be distinguished from the star's spectral lines then the radial velocity of the planet itself
can be found, and this gives the inclination of the planet's orbit. This enables measurement of the
planet's actual mass. This also rules out false positives, and also provides data about the
composition of the planet. The main issue is that such detection is only possible if the planet
orbits around a relatively bright star and if the planet reflects or emits a lot of light.

OBSERVATION
Earth observation is the gathering of information about planet Earths physical, chemical and
biological systems via remote sensing technologies supplemented by earth surveying techniques,
encompassing the collection, analysis and presentation of data.[1] Earth observation is used to
monitor and assess the status of, and changes in, the natural environment and the built
environment. In recent years, Earth observation has become technologically increasingly
sophisticated. It has also become more important due to the dramatic impact that modern human
civilization is having on the planet Earth, and the need to minimize negative impacts along with
the opportunities Earth observation provides to improve social and economic well-being.
Earth observations can include:
numerical measurements taken by a thermometer, wind gauge, ocean buoy, altimeter or
seismometer
photos and radar or sonar images taken from ground or ocean-based instruments
photos and radar images taken from remote-sensing satellites
decision-support tools based on processed information, such as maps and models
Just as Earth observations consist of a wide variety of possible elements, they can be applied to a
wide variety of possible uses. Some of the specific applications of Earth observations include:
forecasting weather
tracking biodiversity and wildlife trends
measuring land-use change (such as deforestation)
monitoring and responding to natural disasters, including fires, floods, earthquakes and
tsunamis
managing natural resources, such as energy, freshwater and agriculture
addressing emerging diseases and other health risks
predicting, adapting to and mitigating climate change
The quality and quantity of Earth observations continue to mount rapidly. In addition to the
ongoing launch of new remote-sensing satellites, increasingly sophisticated in-situ instruments
located on the ground, on balloons and airplanes, and in rivers, lakes and oceans, are generating
increasingly comprehensive, near-real time observations.

ANALYSIS
While the radial velocity method provides information about a planet's mass, the photometric
method can determine the planet's radius. If a planet crosses (transits) in front of its parent star's
disk, then the observed visual brightness of the star drops by a small amount; depending on the
relative sizes of the star and the planet. For example, in the case of HD 209458, the star dims by
1.7%.
This method has two major disadvantages. First, planetary transits are only observable when the
planet's orbit happens to be perfectly aligned from the astronomers' vantage point. The
probability of a planetary orbital plane being directly on the line-of-sight to a star is the ratio of
the diameter of the star to the diameter of the orbit (in small stars, the radius of the planet is also
an important factor). About 10% of planets with small orbits have such an alignment, and the
fraction decreases for planets with larger orbits. For a planet orbiting a Sun-sized star at 1 AU,
the probability of a random alignment producing a transit is 0.47%. Therefore, the method cannot
guarantee that any particular star is not a host to planets. However, by scanning large areas of the
sky containing thousands or even hundreds of thousands of stars at once, transit surveys can find
more extrasolar planets than the radial-velocity method.[6] Several surveys have taken that
approach, such as the ground-based MEarth Project, SuperWASP and HATNet and the spacebased COROT and Kepler missions. The transit method has also the advantage of detecting
planets around stars that are located a few thousand light years away. The most distant planets
detected by Sagittarius Window Eclipsing Extrasolar Planet Search are located near the galactic
center. However, reliable follow-up observations of these stars are nearly impossible with current
technology.
The second disadvantage of this method is a high rate of false detections. A 2012 study found
that the rate of false positives for transits observed by the Kepler mission could be as high as
40% in single-planet systems. For this reason, a star with a single transit detection requires
additional confirmation, typically from the radial-velocity method or orbital brightness
modulation method. Radial velocity method is especially necessary for Jupiter-sized or larger
planets as objects of that size encompass not only planets, but also brown dwarfs and even small
stars. As false positive rate is very low in stars with two or more planet candidates, they often can
be validated without extensive follow-up observations. Some can also be confirmed through the
transit timing variation method.
Red giant branch stars have another issue for detecting planets around them: while planets
around these stars are much more likely to transit due to the larger size, these transit signals are
hard to separate from the main star's brightness light curve as red giants have frequent pulsations
in brightness with a period of few hours to days. This is especially notable with subgiants. In
addition, these stars are much more luminous and transiting planets block much smaller

percentage of light coming from these stars. In the contrary, planets can completely occult a
neutron star or a white dwarf which would be easily detectable from Earth. However, due to their
small sizes, chance of a planet aligning such a stellar remnant is extremely small.

Properties (mass and radius) of planets discovered using the transit method, compared with the
distribution, n (light gray bar chart), of minimum masses of transiting and non-transiting
exoplanets. Super-Earths are black.
The main advantage of the transit method is that the size of the planet can be determined from
the lightcurve. When combined with the radial-velocity method (which determines the planet's
mass) one can determine the density of the planet, and hence learn something about the planet's
physical structure. The planets that have been studied by both methods are by far the bestcharacterized of all known exoplanets.
The transit method also makes it possible to study the atmosphere of the transiting planet. When
the planet transits the star, light from the star passes through the upper atmosphere of the planet.
By studying the high-resolution stellar spectrum carefully, one can detect elements present in the
planet's atmosphere. A planetary atmosphere (and planet for that matter) could also be detected
by measuring the polarisation of the starlight as it passed through or is reflected off the planet's
atmosphere.
Additionally, the secondary eclipse (when the planet is blocked by its star) allows direct
measurement of the planet's radiation and helps to constrain the planet's eccentricity without the
presence of other planets. If the star's photometric intensity during the secondary eclipse is
subtracted from its intensity before or after, only the signal caused by the planet remains. It is
then possible to measure the planet's temperature and even to detect possible signs of cloud

formations on it. In March 2005, two groups of scientists carried out measurements using this
technique with the Spitzer Space Telescope. The two teams, from the Harvard-Smithsonian
Center for Astrophysics, led by David Charbonneau, and the Goddard Space Flight Center, led
by L. D. Deming, studied the planets TrES-1 and HD 209458b respectively. The measurements
revealed the planets' temperatures: 1,060 K (790C) for TrES-1 and about 1,130 K (860 C) for
HD 209458b. [12][13] In addition the hot Neptune Gliese 436 b enters secondary eclipse. However
some transiting planets orbit such that they do not enter secondary eclipse relative to Earth; HD
17156 b is over 90% likely to be one of the latter.
A French Space Agency mission, COROT, began in 2006, to search for planetary transits from
orbit, where the absence of atmospheric scintillation allows improved accuracy. This mission
was designed to be able to detect planets "a few times to several times larger than Earth" and
performed "better than expected", with two exoplanet discoveries [14] (both "hot jupiter" type) as
of early 2008. In June 2013, CoRoT's exoplanet count was 32 with several still to be confirmed.
The satellite unexpectedly stopped transmitting data in November 2012, (after its mission had
twice been extended) and is currently being decommissioned with final shut-off scheduled for
spring 2014.[15]
In March 2009, NASA mission Kepler was launched to scan a large number of stars in the
constellation Cygnus with a measurement precision expected to detect and characterize Earthsized planets. The NASA Kepler Mission uses the transit method to scan a hundred thousand
stars in the constellation Cygnus for planets. It was hoped that by the end of its mission of 3.5
years, the satellite would have collected enough data to reveal planets even smaller than Earth.
By scanning a hundred thousand stars simultaneously, it was not only able to detect Earth-sized
planets, it was able to collect statistics on the numbers of such planets around Sun-like stars.[16]
On 2 February 2011, the Kepler team released a list of 1,235 extrasolar planet candidates,
including 54 that may be in the habitable zone. On 5 December 2011, the Kepler team
announced that they had discovered 2,326 planetary candidates, of which 207 are similar in size
to Earth, 680 are super-Earth-size, 1,181 are Neptune-size, 203 are Jupiter-size and 55 are larger
than Jupiter. Compared to the February 2011 figures, the number of Earth-size and super-Earthsize planets increased by 200% and 140% respectively. Moreover, 48 planet candidates were
found in the habitable zones of surveyed stars, marking a decrease from the February figure; this
was due to the more stringent criteria in use in the December data. By the June 2013, the number
of planet candidates was increased to 3,278 and some confirmed planets were smaller than Earth,
some even Mars-sized (such as Kepler-62c) and one even smaller than Mercury (Kepler-37b)

SUGGESTIONS
Our climate is changing. We are not just seeing global increases in air and ocean temperatures,
we are seeing changes across the United States: extended periods of unusual heat, a greater
number of heavier downpours, more severe regional drought and wildfires in parts of the
American West, permafrost thawing in Alaska, ocean acidification, and sea-level rise threatening
coastal communities. At the same time, much of our Nations infrastructure has been designed
for the climate that we have had, and not the changing climate we now are experiencing and can
expect in the future.
President Obama believes we have a moral obligation to future generations to leave them a
planet that is not polluted and damaged. Thats why, last year, he launched a comprehensive
Climate Action Plan to reduce the carbon pollution that contributes to climate change, prepare
for the impacts of a changing climate on American communities and businesses, and lead
international efforts to address this global challenge.
Even as we act to reduce carbon pollution, we know some impacts of climate change are already
unavoidable. The Federal Government has an obligation to support American communities by
protecting critical infrastructure and natural resources, advancing science that informs planning
and investments, establishing policies that promote resilience, and ensuring that Federal
operations and facilities continue to protect and serve citizens in a changing climate. The
Presidents Climate Action Plan prioritizes this work and integrates consideration of climate
impacts and risks into Federal programs so that we are making the best possible use of our
taxpayer dollars.
In his Budget Request for Fiscal Year 2015 being transmitted to Congress today, President
Obama is following through on those commitments and taking a wide range of steps to up our
game in promoting preparedness for, and resilience against, the impacts of climate change. This
includes robust support for State, local, and tribal preparedness efforts, analysis of vulnerabilities
of critical infrastructure, creation of incentives to address those vulnerabilities, and development
and dissemination of better information and planning tools.
The Budget Request will continue to support programs that promote climate preparedness at the
local level. The Department of Health and Human Services will support public-health officials
working on the challenges at the interface of human health and climate. Programs at the
Department of Transportation will work with communities to minimize the effects of extreme
weather and climate change on critical transportation infrastructure. The U.S. Department of
Agriculture and the Department of the Interior will provide grants and technical support to
promote water conservation and efficiency. EPA and other agencies will continue to provide

technical assistance and funding for sustainable communities, and the Department of the Interior
will support efforts by tribal communities to enhance their own preparedness.
Recognizing the continuing need for sound science to guide our national efforts, the Budget
Request also includes more than $2.5 billion for Federal research to improve our understanding
of and ability to predict and respond to global change. This will include an expanded program of
ocean acidification research to better understand changes to our marine resources. The Budget
Request also supports the development of the Climate Resilience Toolkit and Climate Data
Initiative, called for in the Presidents Climate Action Plan, to make Federally supported science
even more accessible to those who need it on the ground.
For example, under the Fund, the Federal Emergency Management Agency will receive $400
million to support additional hazard-mitigation and preparedness-assistance efforts, while the
Department of the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration will
provide grants to improve coastal resilience to severe weather events and changing ocean
conditions. The Environmental Protection Agency will provide State grants to sustain or
improve water quality through coastal and wetlands protection from erosion and to reduce and
absorb stormwater flow, while U.S. Department of Agriculture funding will support State and
community efforts to strengthen building-code requirements to address the risk of wildfires. The
Fund will also help us better understand and prepare for climate change by investing in research
and unlocking data and information, including new sea-level rise analyses and sector-specific
data to inform transportation projects and public-health activities.
Finally, building on the work done to help communities recover from Superstorm Sandy, the
Climate Resilience Fund will ramp up support for breakthrough technologies and resilient
infrastructure. It will expand research and development on distributed renewable generation and
microgrids, which can help communities keep the lights on during weather disasters. It will also
support a variety of challenges to the private sector to come up with innovative ways to build
infrastructure that is responsive to future climate conditions. For example, it will support the
Bureau of Reclamations new Water Challenge Solutions program a pay-for-success, X-Prizechallenge to encourage industry-changing advancements in water-treatment technologies. The
Fund also includes support for developing building codes for both improved resilience and
energy efficiency. And it will also help approximately 6,000 more communities to maintain,
restore and improve urban forests and tree canopy to mitigate heat islands and other
climate impacts.
Preparing for the impacts of climate change will be a fundamental challenge over the coming
decades for every community, economic sector, and level of government in America. Through
his Climate Action Plan and his Budget Request for Fiscal Year 2015, President Obama has
committed to making national climate preparedness a reality.

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