The skeletal system in human is a major

connective tissue system that is made up

of organs, such as bones, ligaments,
tendons and cartilages. The entire
framework of body is made up of bones,
which serves as a guarding system to
protect
the
viscera
and
allows
locomotion. Two bones are connected by
fibrous tissues that are called ligaments;
whereas the muscles are connected to
the
bones
by
tendons.
These
connections provide the system with
greater range of motion and strength.
Soft parts such as nose and ear are
made up of flexible connective tissues
called cartilages which further protect the
bones. These different parts make up
human skeletal system organs. The
skeletal systems in male and female are
a bit different in a few aspects, such as
female pelvis is more flat and round so
as to support the childbirth. Similarly the
pelvic angles and inlets are also different,
such as angle in males is 90 degrees
while that in females is 100 degrees.

PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

1.

Bones

The most important organ of the skeletal system is the bones. Human skeleton is
made up of 206 bones that in coordination not only provides support and protection
to the viscera (with the help of muscles attached to them) but also produces blood
cells for the body from the bone-marrow.
2. Ligaments and Joints
Another important component, i.e. the ligaments are made of fibrous collagen
tissue that attaches one bone to another bone. This attachment forms into joints
and allows the bone to move in a particular direction and hence enhances the
movement of body parts in desired direction, such as hips, elbow, knees ad wrist
etc. If the stretching of ligament occurs more than the normal levels, the person is
referred to as double-jointed.
3.

Tendons

Similar to ligaments, tendons are important skeletal system organs which join the
muscles to the bones; hence they are more flexible so as to provide greater range
of movement. The contraction of tendon pulls the end of bone to which it is
attached and makes that bone to move during walking and running. But this
excessive flexibility of tendons makes them more prone to injuries and infections.
One such inflammatory condition is known as tendonitis, in which the tendons get
red, swollen and painful to move.
4.

Cartilage

Another organ of skeletal system is the cartilage, which is soft and flexible
connective tissue. Cartilage not only plays a role in maintaining and forming the
shape of human ear and nose as well as other organs, but also protects the bones
against friction forces (which would otherwise corrode the bones easily). The
cartilages can also get damaged or infected, causing the joint to be swollen and
tender. In advanced cases, you may require repair or replacement such as knee
replacement surgery.

Divisions of Human Skeletal System

Human skeleton organs are divided into two types, the appendicular skeleton and
the axial skeleton. The axial skeleton runs in the midline i.e. the axial plane of the
body and is made up of a total of 80 bones. The axial skeleton forms the central
axis and provides protection to vital viscera, such as brain protected by skull, heart
and lungs protected by the ribs cage and spinal cord protected by vertebrae. On
the other side, the appendicular skeleton forms the body limbs, and is made up of
126 bones in total. The most important function of appendicular skeleton is to
provide movement and locomotion.

Axial Skeleton
It contains the following from top to bottom respectively:

Skull- it includes the cranium, face and auditory ossicles.

Hyoid- bone of neck for muscles attachment of chin and larynx.

Vertebral column- consist of all spinal vertebrae.

Thoracic cage- it contains ribs and sternum.

Appendicular Skeleton
It contains the following from top to bottom respectively:

Shoulder girdle- it includes clavicle and scapula.

Upper limb- it contains arm, forearm and hands bones.

Hip girdle- it includes hip bone.

Lower limb- it contains leg and feets bones.

Classification of Bones Based on Shape and Size

The bones of human skeletal system are classified in to four distinct groups on the
basis of size and shape. They are long bones, short bones, flat bones and irregular
bones.
The bones of arms and legs are long in length as compared to their width. Thus
these are categorized under long bones. Similarly the bones of ankle and wrist are
short and cuboidal with almost same length as compared to their width. Thats why
they are called the short bones. The bones of ribs and cranium are thin, broad and
curved. They are called flat bones. All those bones which do not have a particular
shape, and cannot be classified as long, short and flat are called irregular bones,
such as hip bones and vertebrae.

Skeletal System Diseases

Following are some major diseases of the skeletal system which affect the above
mentioned skeletal system organs:

Diseases

Osteoporosis

Osteomalacia

Arthritis

Scoliosis

Bone Cancer

Bursitis

How to Keep Skeleton System Organs Healthy

Take Calcium rich diet, containing 1000mg calcium per day in the form of milk,
cheese, broccoli, orange and salmon etc.

Take vitamin D rich diet, containing 15mcg vitamin D per day for an adult in the
form of eggs, fish, orange and cereals etc.

Do weight bearing exercisesdaily or at least 30 minutes twice a week so as to

make your bones strong in the form of pushups, sit-ups and squats etc.

Digestive System Parts and Functions

Mouth

This is where the process of digestion begins. The smell of food itself triggers the secretion of
saliva by the salivary glands in the mouth. Saliva contains the salivary amylase enzyme which
helps in the breakdown of starch. In the mouth lies the tongue, which is vital for mixing and
tasting food. Teeth help in the grinding of food.
Pharynx (Throat)

The throat or pharynx is a funnel shaped tube that is connected to the mouth. It is charged with
passing chewed food into the esophagus from the mouth. It features an epiglottis which is used
as a switch to control entry of air and food into the larynx and esophagus respectively.

Esophagus

After you have swallowed your food, it passes through the throat and into the esophagus. Here,
food is passed through the hypo-pharynx and the oropharynx. Through a process called
peristalsis, food is converted into a small round mass and transported into the stomach. At the
end of the esophagus, there is a muscular ring called the cardiac sphincter. It is responsible for
closing the end of the esophagus in order to trap food in the stomach.
Stomach

In the stomach, food is coated with a mixture of digestive enzymes and acid. This helps break
down food. The stomach walls are protected from the acid released into the stomach by a thick
coat of mucous. After food has been broken down in the stomach, it is then passed on to the
small intestine.
Small Intestine

The small intestine is divided into 3 parts: the duodenum, the jejunum and the ileum. The walls of
the small intestine have finger-like projections called villi. They facilitate the absorption of
nutrients into the bloodstream.
Accessory Organs

In the duodenum (the first part of the small intestines), carbohydrates, protein and fats are broken
down with the help of enzymes from the pancreas. Bile juice is released from the gall bladder to
further break down fats into a form that the body can use.
Large Intestine (Colon)

After the small intestine, we have the large intestine which is charged with absorbing water and
breaking down waste. It contains bacteria that help with the breakdown of waste that is passed
on from the small intestine. Once the remaining nutrients are extracted, it becomes feces that are
excreted through the anal canal.
Rectum and Anus

The rectum receives stool from the large intestine. When this happens, your body lets you know
that you need to pass stool. It is the rectums job to hold the stool until it is evacuated. The stool

is passed on from the rectum to the anus for ejection. The anus is surrounded by sphincter
muscles that allow you to control the anus function.
1. Chest Pain: Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
When stomach acid backs up into your esophagus a condition called acid reflux
you may feel aburning pain in the middle of your chest. It often occurs after meals
or at night, says Neville Bamji, MD, a clinical instructor of medicine at The Mount
Sinai Hospital and a gastroenterologist with New York Gastroenterology Associates.
While its common for people to experience acid reflux and heartburn once in a
while, having symptoms that affect your daily life or occur at least twice each week
could be a sign of GERD, a chronic digestive disease that affects 20 percent of
Americans, according to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney
Diseases (NIDDK). If you experience persistent heartburn, bad breath, tooth
erosion, nausea, pain in your chest or upper part of your abdomen, or have trouble
swallowing or breathing, see your doctor.
Most people find relief by avoiding the foods and beverages that trigger their
symptoms and/or by taking over-the-counter antacids or other medications that
reduce stomach acid production and inflammation of the esophagus; however, some
cases of GERD require stronger treatment, such as medication or surgery.
2. Gallstones
Gallstones are hard deposits that form in your gallbladder a small, pear-shaped
sack that stores and secretes bile for digestion. Twenty million Americans are
affected by gallstones, according to the NIDDK. Gallstones can form when theres
too much cholesterol or waste in your bile or if your gallbladder doesnt empty
properly.
When gallstones block the ducts leading from your gallbladder to your intestines,
they can cause sharp pain in your upper-right abdomen. Medications sometimes
dissolve gallstones, but if that doesnt work, the next step is surgery to remove the
gallbladder.
3. Celiac Disease
An estimated 1 in 133 Americans has celiac disease, according to the National
Foundation for Celiac Awareness, but its also estimated that 83 percent of people
who have celiac disease dont know they have it or have been misdiagnosed with a
different condition.
Celiac disease is a serious sensitivity to gluten, a protein found in wheat, rye, and
barley. Eat gluten, and your immune system goes on the attack: It damages your
villi, the fingerlike protrusions in your small intestines that help you absorb nutrients
from the foods you eat. Symptoms of celiac disease in kids include abdominal pain
and bloating, diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, and weight loss. Symptoms in adults
also can include anemia, fatigue, bone loss, depression, and seizures.
However, some people may not have any symptoms. The only treatment for celiac
disease is to completely avoid eating gluten. Common cooking alternatives to gluten
include brown rice, quinoa, lentils, soy flour, corn flour, and amaranth.

4. Crohns Disease
Crohns disease is part of a group of digestive conditions called inflammatory bowel
disease (IBD). Crohns most commonly affects the end of the small intestine called
the ileum, but it can affect any part of the digestive tract. As many as 700,000
Americans may be affected by Crohns, according to the Crohns and Colitis
Foundation of America.
This chronic condition is an autoimmune disease, meaning that your immune system
mistakenly attacks cells in your own body that it thinks are foreign invaders. The
most common Crohn's symptoms are abdominal pain, diarrhea, rectal bleeding,
weight loss, and fever. Treatment depends on the symptoms and can include topical
pain relievers, immunosuppressants, and surgery, Dr. Bamji says.
5. Ulcerative Colitis
Ulcerative colitis is another inflammatory bowel disease that affects about 700,000
Americans. The symptoms of ulcerative colitis are very similar to those of Crohn's,
but the part of the digestive tract affected is solely the large intestine, also known as
the colon.
If your immune system mistakes food or other materials for invaders, sores or ulcers
develop in the colons lining. If you experience frequent and urgent bowel
movements, pain with diarrhea, blood in your stool, or abdominal cramps, visit your
doctor.
Medication can suppress the inflammation, and eliminating foods that cause
discomfort may help as well. In severe cases, treatment for ulcerative colitismay
involve surgery to remove the colon.
6. Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Is your digestive tract irritable? Do you have stomach pain or discomfort at least
three times a month for several months? It could be irritable bowel syndrome (IBS),
another common digestive condition.
Ten to 15 percent of the U.S. population suffers from irritable bowel syndrome,
according to the International Foundation for Functional Gastrointestinal
Disorders. Signs of IBS can vary widely: You can be constipated or have diarrhea, or
have hard, dry stools on one day and loose watery stools on another. Bloating is also
a symptom of IBS.
What causes IBS isnt known, but treatment of symptoms centers largely on diet,
such as avoiding common trigger foods (dairy products, alcohol, caffeine, artificial
sweeteners and beans, cabbage, and other foods that produce gas), or following a
low-fat diet that's also high in fiber.
Friendly bacteria, such as the probiotics found in live yogurt, may also help you feel
better. Stress can trigger IBS symptoms, so some people find cognitive-behavioral
therapy or low-dose antidepressants to be useful treatments, as well.
7. Hemorrhoids

Bright red blood in the toilet bowl when you move your bowels could be a sign
of hemorrhoids, which is a very common condition. In fact, 75 percent of Americans
over the age of 45 have hemorrhoids, according to the NIDDK.
Hemorrhoids are an inflammation of the blood vessels at the end of your digestive
tract. They can be painful and itchy. Causes include chronic constipation, diarrhea,
straining during bowel movements, and a lack of fiber in your diet.
Treat hemorrhoids by eating more fiber, drinking more water, and exercising. Overthe-counter creams and suppositories may provide temporary relief ofhemorrhoid
symptoms. See your doctor if at-home treatments dont help; sometimes
a hemorrhoidectomy is needed to remove hemorrhoids surgically.
8. Diverticulitis
Small pouches called diverticula can form anywhere there are weak spots in the
lining of your digestive system, but they are most commonly found in the colon.
If you have diverticula but no symptoms, the condition is called diverticulosis, which
is quite common among older adults and rarely causes problems; however, if the
pouches bleed or become inflamed, its called diverticulitis. Symptoms include rectal
bleeding, fever, and abdominal pain. Obesity is a major risk factor for diverticulitis.
Mild diverticulitis is treated with antibiotics and a liquid diet so your colon can heal.
A low fiber diet could be the cause of diverticulitis, so your doctor may direct you to
eat a diet high in fiber whole grains, legumes, vegetables as part of your
treatment.
If you have severe attacks that recur frequently, you may need surgery to remove
the diseased part of your colon.
9. Anal Fissure
Anal fissures are tiny, oval-shaped tears in the lining of the very end of your
digestive tract called your anus. The symptoms are similar to those of hemorrhoids,
such as bleeding and pain after moving your bowels. Straining and hard bowel
movements can cause fissures, but so can soft stools and diarrhea.
A high-fiber diet that makes your stool well formed and bulky is often the best
treatment for this common digestive condition. Medications to relax the anal
sphincter muscles as well as topical anesthetics and sitz baths can relieve pain;
however, chronic fissures may require surgery of the anal sphincter muscle.

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