Indian independence movement

History of South Asia

( Indian Subcontinent)

Western Chalukya
Empire

9731189

Hoysala Empire

10401346

Kakatiya Empire

10831323

Islamic Sultanates

12061596

Delhi Sultanate

12061526

Stone Age

70,0003300 BCE

Mehrgarh Culture

70003300
BCE

Ahom Kingdom

Indus Valley
Civilization

33001700 BCE

Vijayanagara Empire 13361646

Late Harappan
Culture

17001300 BCE

Vedic period

Deccan Sultanates 14901596

12281826

Mughal Empire

15261858

Maratha Empire

16741818

1500500 BCE

Sikh Confederacy

17161799

Iron Age

1200300 BCE

Sikh Empire

17991849

Maha Janapadas

700300 BCE

17571858

Magadha Empire

545 BCE 550

British East India

Company
British Raj

18581947

Modern States

1947present

Maurya Empire

321184 BCE

Middle Kingdoms

300 BCE1279
CE

Chera Empire

300 BCE200
CE

Chola Empire

250 BCE1070
CE

Satavahana

230 BCE220
CE

Kushan Empire

60240 CE

various national and regional

Gupta Empire

280550

campaigns, agitations and efforts of

Pala Empire

7501174

Chalukya Dynasty

543753

political organizations, philosophies, and

Rashtrakuta

753982

movements which had the common

The term "Indian independence

movement" is diffuse, incorporating

both Nonviolent and Militant philosophy

and involved a wide spectrum of

aim of ending the British Colonial

Authority as well as other colonial

administrations in South Asia. The

from East Asia and Quit India

initial resistance to the movement can

movement.

be traced back to the very beginnings

of Colonial Expansion in Karnataka by
the Portuguese in the 16th century and
by the British East India Company in
Bengal, in the middle and late 1700s.
The first organised militant movement
was in Bengal, that later took political
stage in the form of mainstream
movement from the latter part of the
1800s was increasingly led by the
leaders of the then newly formed

India remained a Dominion of The

Crown till 26 January 1950, when it
adopted its Constitution to proclaim
itself a Republic. Pakistan proclaimed
itself a Republic in 1956 but faced a
number of internal power struggles
that has seen suspensions of
democracy. In 1971, the Pakistani Civil
War culminating in the 1971 War saw
the splintering-off of East Pakistan into
the nation of Bangladesh.

Indian National Congress with

prominent moderate leaders seeking
only their basic rights to appear for
civil services examinations and more
rights, economic in nature, for the
people of the soil. They used moderate
methods of prayer, petition and the
press (3p's). Beginning of early 1900s
saw a more radical approach towards
political independence proposed by
leaders as the Lal Bal Pal and Sri
Aurobindo. Militant nationalism also
emerged in the first decades,
culminating in the failed Indo-German
Pact and Ghadar Conspiracy during the
World War I. The end of the war saw
the Congress adopt the policies of
nonviolent agitation and civil
disobedience led by Mahatma Gandhi.
Other leaders, such as Netaji Subhash
Chandra Bose, later came to adopt a
military approach to the movement.
The World War II period saw the peak
of the movements like INA movement
led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose

The independence movement also

served as a major catalyst for similar
movements in other parts of the world,
leading to the eventual disintegration
and dismantling of the British Empire
and its replacement with the
Commonwealth of Nations. Gandhi's
philosophy of nonviolent resistance
inspired the American Civil Rights
Movement (1955-1968) led by Martin
Luther King, Jr., the quest for
democracy in Myanmar led by Aung
San Suu Kyi and the African National
Congress's struggle against apartheid
in South Africa led by Nelson Mandela.
However not all these leaders adhered
to Gandhi's strict principle of
nonviolence and nonresistance.
European rule
Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive with Mir
Jafar after the Battle of Plassey
European traders came to Indian
shores with the arrival of the
Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in
1498, Capad beach, at the port of

Calicut in search of the lucrative spice

Even while these modernizing trends

trade. After the 1757 Battle of Plassey,

influenced Indian society, Indians

during which the British army under

increasingly despised British rule. The

Robert Clive defeated the Nawab of

memoirs of Henry Ouvry of the 9th

Bengal, the British East India Company

Lancers record many "a good

established itself. This is widely seen

thrashing" to careless servants. A spice

as the beginning of the British Raj in

merchant, Frank Brown, wrote to his

India. The Company gained

nephew that stories of maltreatment of

administrative rights over Bengal,

servants had not been exaggerated

Bihar, and Orissa in 1765 after the

and that he knew people who kept

Battle of Buxar. They then annexed

orderlies "purposely to thrash them".

Punjab in 1849 after the death of

As the British increasingly dominated

Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839 and the

the continent, they grew increasingly

First Anglo-Sikh War (18451846) and

abusive of local customs by, for

then the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848

example, staging parties in mosques,

49).

dancing to the music of regimental

The British parliament enacted a series

of laws to handle the administration of
the newly-conquered provinces,
including the Regulating Act of 1773,
the India Act of 1784, and the Charter
Act of 1813; all enhanced the British
government's rule. In 1835 English was
made the medium of instruction.
Western-educated Hindu elites sought
to rid Hinduism of controversial social
practices, including the varna (caste)
system, child marriage, and sati.
Literary and debating societies initiated
in Bombay and Madras became forum
for open political discourse. The
educational attainment and skillful use
of the press by these early reformers
created the growing possibility for
effecting broad reforms within colonial
India, all without compromising larger
Indian social values and religious
practices.

bands on the terrace of the Taj Mahal,

using whips to force their way through
crowded bazaars (as recounted by
General Henry Blake), and mistreating
sepoys. In the years after the
annexation of Punjab in 1849, several
mutinies among sepoys broke out;
these were put down by force.
[] Regional movements prior to
185 7
Sannyasi Rebellion and
Conspiracy Of The Pintos and
Polygar Wars
Several regional movements against
foreign rule were staged in various
parts of pre-1857 India. However, they
were not united and were easily
controlled by the foreign rulers.
Examples include the rebellion of
Abbakka Rani in Karnataka from 1555
to 1570 against the Portuguese,
Sannyasi Rebellion in Bengal in the
1770s,[1] the 1787 ethnic revolt against

Portuguese control of Goa known as

cartridges with their teeth before

the Conspiracy Of The Pintos,[2] the

loading them into their rifles. So if

revolt of Titumir in Bengal in 1830's

there was cow and pig fat, it would be

and uprisings by South Indian local

offensive to Hindu and Muslim soldiers,

chieftains like Veerapandya

respectively. In February 1857, sepoys

Kattabomman against British rule.[3]

(Indian soldiers in the British army)

Other movements included the Santal

refused to use their new cartridges.

Rebellion and the resistance offered to

The British claimed to have replaced

the British by Titumir in Bengal,[4][5] the

the cartridges with new ones and tried

Kittur Rebellion led by Rani

to make sepoys make their own grease

Chennamma in Karnataka, Polygar

from beeswax and vegetable oils, but

Wars in Tamil Nadu, Kutch Rebellion in

the rumour persisted.

Saurashtra.[6]
[] The Indian Rebellion of 1857
Secundra Bagh after the 93rd
Highlanders and 4th Punjab regiment
fought the rebels, Nov 1857.

In March 1857, Mangal Pandey, a soldier

of the 34th Native Infantry in
Barrackpore, attacked his British
sergeant and wounded an adjutant.

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a

General Hearsay, who said Pandey was

period of uprising in the northern and

in some kind of "religious frenzy,"

central India against British rule in

ordered a jemadar to arrest him but

185758. The rebellion was the result of

the jemadar refused. Mangal Pandey

decades of ethnic and cultural

was hanged on 7 April along with the

differences between Indian soldiers and

jemadar. The whole regiment was

their British officers. The indifference of

dismissed as a collective punishment.

the British towards Indian rulers like

On May 10, when the 11th and 20th

the Mughals and ex-Peshwas and the

Cavalry assembled, they broke rank

annexation of Oudh were political

and turned on their commanding

factors triggering dissent amongst

officers. They then liberated the 3rd

Indians. Dalhousies policy of

Regiment, and on 11 May the sepoys

annexation, the doctrine of lapse or

reached Delhi and were joined by

escheat, and the projected removal of

other Indians. The Red Fort, the

the descendants of the Great Mughal

residence of the last Mughal emperor

from their ancestral palace to the

Bahadur, was attacked and captured

Qutb, near Delhi also angered some

by the sepoys. They demanded that he

people. The specific reason that

reclaim his throne. He was reluctant at

triggered the rebellion was the

first, but eventually agreed to the

rumored use of cow and pig fat in .557

demands and became the leader of

calibre Pattern 1853 Enfield (P/53) rifle

the rebellion.

cartridges. Soldiers had to break the

Soon, the revolt spread throughout

Viceroy was appointed to represent the

northern India. Revolts broke out in

Crown. In proclaiming the new direct-

places like Meerut, Jhansi, Kanpur,

rule policy to "the Princes, Chiefs, and

Lucknow etc. The British were slow to

Peoples of India," Queen Victoria

respond, but eventually responded with

promised equal treatment under British

brute force. British moved regiments

law, but Indian mistrust of British rule

from the Crimean War and diverted

had become a legacy of the 1857

European regiments headed for China

rebellion.

to India. The British fought the main

army of the rebels near Delhi in Badlke-Serai and drove them back to Delhi
before laying siege on the city. The
siege of Delhi lasted roughly from 1
July to 31 August. After a week of
street fighting, the British retook the
city. The last significant battle was
fought in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. It
was during this battle that Rani
Lakshmi Bai was killed. Sporadic
fighting continued until 1859 but most
of the rebels were subdued. Some
notable leaders were Ahmed Ullah, an
advisor of the ex-King of Oudh; Nana
Sahib; his nephew Rao Sahib and his
retainers, Tantia Topi and Azimullah
Khan; the Rani of Jhansi; Kunwar Singh;
the Rajput chief of Jagadishpur in
Bihar; Firuz Saha, a relative of the
Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah and
Pran Sukh Yadav who along with Rao
Tula Ram of Rewari fought with
Britishers at Nasibpur, Haryana.
[] Aftermath
The war of 1857 was a major turning
point in the history of modern India.
The British abolished the British East
India Company and replaced it with
direct rule under the British crown. A

The British embarked on a program in

India of reform and political
restructuring, trying to integrate Indian
higher castes and rulers into the
government. They stopped land grabs,
decreed religious tolerance and
admitted Indians into the civil service,
albeit mainly as subordinates. They
also increased the number of British
soldiers in relation to native ones and
allowed only British soldiers to handle
artillery. Bahadur Shah was exiled to
Rangoon, Burma where he died in 1862,
finally bringing the Mughal dynasty to
an end. In 1877, Queen Victoria took
the title of Empress of India.
[] Rise of organized movements
The decades following the Sepoy
Rebellion were a period of growing
political awareness, manifestation of
Indian public opinion and emergence
of Indian leadership at national and
provincial levels. Dadabhai Naoroji
formed East India Association in 1867,
and Surendranath Banerjee founded
Indian National Association in 1876.

Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O.

Hume, a retired British civil servant,
seventy-three Indian delegates met in
Bombay in 1885 and founded the

Indian National Congress. They were

Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir Syed

mostly members of the upwardly

Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore and

mobile and successful western-

Dadabhai Naoroji spread the passion

educated provincial elites, engaged in

for rejuvenation and freedom.

professions such as law, teaching, and

journalism. At its inception, the
Congress had no well-defined ideology
and commanded few of the resources
essential to a political organization. It
functioned more as a debating society
that met annually to express its loyalty
to the British Raj and passed
numerous resolutions on less
controversial issues such as civil rights
or opportunities in government,
especially the civil service. These
resolutions were submitted to the
Viceroy's government and occasionally
to the British Parliament, but the
Congress's early gains were meagre.
Despite its claim to represent all India,
the Congress voiced the interests of
urban elites; the number of
participants from other economic
backgrounds remained negligible.

By 1900, although the Congress had

emerged as an all-India political
organization, its achievement was
undermined by its singular failure to
attract Muslims, who felt that their
representation in government service
was inadequate. Attacks by Hindu
reformers against religious conversion,
cow slaughter, and the preservation of
Urdu in Arabic script deepened their
concerns of minority status and denial
of rights if the Congress alone were to
represent the people of India. Sir Syed
Ahmed Khan launched a movement for
Muslim regeneration that culminated in
the founding in 1875 of the
Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College
at Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh (renamed
Aligarh Muslim University in 1921). Its
objective was to educate wealthy
students by emphasizing the

The influences of socio-religious

compatibility of Islam with modern

groups such as Arya Samaj (started by

western knowledge. The diversity

Swami Dayanand Saraswati) and

among India's Muslims, however, made

Brahmo Samaj (founded, among others,

it impossible to bring about uniform

by Raja Ram Mohan Roy) became

cultural and intellectual regeneration.

evident in pioneering reform of Indian

[] Rise of Indian nationalism

society. The inculcation of religious

The first spurts of nationalistic

reform and social pride was

sentiment that rose amongst Congress

fundamental to the rise of a public

members were when the desire to be

movement for complete nationhood.

represented in the bodies of

The work of men like Swami

government, to have a say, a vote in

Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramhansa,

the lawmaking and issues of

Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy,

administration of India. Congressmen

saw themselves as loyalists, but

Congress of 1906 did not have public

wanted an active role in governing

membership, and thus Tilak and his

their own country, albeit as part of the

supporters were forced to leave the

Empire. This trend was personified by

party.

Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as

contesting, successfully, an election to
the British House of Commons,
becoming its first Indian member.

But with Tilak's arrest, all hopes for an

Indian offensive were stalled. The
Congress lost credit with the people, A
Muslim deputation met with the

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the first

Viceroy, Minto (190510), seeking

Indian nationalist to embrace Swaraj as

concessions from the impending

the destiny of the nation. Tilak deeply

constitutional reforms, including special

opposed the British education system

considerations in government service

that ignored and defamed India's

and electorates. The British recognized

culture, history and values. He

some of Muslim League's petitions by

resented the denial of freedom of

increasing the number of elective

expression for nationalists, and the lack

offices reserved for Muslims in the

of any voice or role for ordinary

Government of India Act 1909. The

Indians in the affairs of their nation.

Muslim League insisted on its

For these reasons, he considered

separateness from the Hindu-

Swaraj as the natural and only

dominated Congress, as the voice of a

solution. His popular sentence "Swaraj

"nation within a nation."

is my birthright, and I shall have it"

[ ] Partition of Bengal

became the source of inspiration for

In 190 5, Curzon, the Viceroy and

Indians.

Governor-General (18991905), ordered

In 1907, the Congress was split into

the partition of the province of Bengal

two. Tilak advocated what was deemed

for improvements in administrative

as extremism. He wanted a direct

efficiency in that huge and populous

assault by the people upon the British

region, where the Bengali Hindu

Raj, and the abandonment of all things

intelligentsia exerted considerable

British. He was backed by rising public

influence on local and national politics.

leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala

The partition outraged Bengalis. Not

Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of

only had the government failed to

view. Under them, India's three great

consult Indian public opinion, but the

states - Maharashtra, Bengal and

action appeared to reflect the British

Punjab shaped the demand of the

resolve to divide and rule. Widespread

people and India's nationalism. Gokhale

agitation ensued in the streets and in

criticized Tilak for encouraging acts of

the press, and the Congress advocated

violence and disorder. But the

boycotting British products under the

banner of swadeshi. People showed

World War I began with an

unity by tying Rakhi on each other's

unprecedented outpouring of loyalty

wrists and observing Arandhan (not

and goodwill towards the United

cooking any food).

Kingdom from within the mainstream

During the partition of Bengal new

methods of struggle were adopted.
These led to swadeshi and boycott
movements. The Congress-led boycott
of British goods was so successful that
it unleashed anti-British forces to an
extent unknown since the Sepoy
Rebellion. A cycle of violence and
repression ensued in some parts of the
country (see Alipore bomb case). The
British tried to mitigate the situation
by announcing a series of
constitutional reforms in 1909 and by
appointing a few moderates to the
imperial and provincial councils. In
what the British saw as an additional
goodwill gesture, in 1911 King-Emperor
George V visited India for a durbar (a
traditional court held for subjects to
express fealty to their ruler), during
which he announced the reversal of
the partition of Bengal and the transfer
of the capital from Calcutta to a newly
planned city to be built immediately
south of Delhi, which later became
New Delhi. However, ceremony of
transfer on 23 December 1912 was
marked by the attempt to assassinate
the then Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, in
what came to be known as the DelhiLahore conspiracy.
[] World War I
See also: Hindu German
Conspiracy and Defence of India
Act 1915

political leadership, contrary to initial

British fears of an Indian revolt. India
contributed massively to the British
war effort by providing men and
resources. About 1.3 million Indian
soldiers and laborers served in Europe,
Africa, and the Middle East, while both
the Indian government and the princes
sent large supplies of food, money, and
ammunition. However, Bengal and
Punjab remained hotbeds of anti
colonial activities. Terrorism in Bengal,
increasingly closely linked with the
unrests in Punjab, was significant
enough to nearly paralyse the regional
administration.[7][8] Also from the
beginning of the war, expatriate Indian
population, notably from United States,
Canada, and Germany, headed by the
Berlin Committee and the Ghadar
Party, attempted to trigger
insurrections in India on the lines of
the 1857 uprising with Irish Republican,
German and Turkish help in a massive
conspiracy that has since come to be
called the Hindu German
conspiracy[9][10][11] This conspiracy also
attempted to rally Afghanistan against
British India.[12] A number of failed
attempts were made at mutiny, of
which the February mutiny plan and
the Singapore mutiny remain most
notable. This movement was
suppressed by means of a massive

international counter-intelligence

achieving the proposed measure were

operation and draconian political acts

later enshrined in the Government of

(including the Defence of India act

India Act 1919, which introduced the

1915) that lasted nearly ten years.[13][14]

principle of a dual mode of

In the aftermath of the WW I, high

casualty rates, soaring inflation
compounded by heavy taxation, a
widespread influenza epidemic, and the
disruption of trade during the war
escalated human suffering in India. The
Indian soldiers smuggled arms into
India to overthrow the British rule. The
prewar nationalist movement revived
as moderate and extremist groups
within the Congress submerged their
differences in order to stand as a
unified front. In 1916, the Congress
succeeded in forging the Lucknow Pact,
a temporary alliance with the Muslim
League over the issues of devolution
of political power and the future of
Islam in the region.
The British themselves adopted a
"carrot and stick" approach in
recognition of India's support during
the war and in response to renewed
nationalist demands. In August 1917,
Edwin Montagu, the secretary of state
for India, made the historic
announcement in Parliament that the
British policy for India was "increasing
association of Indians in every branch
of the administration and the gradual
development of self-governing
institutions with a view to the
progressive realization of responsible
government in India as an integral part
of the British Empire." The means of

administration, or diarchy, in which

both elected Indian legislators and
appointed British officials shared
power. The act also expanded the
central and provincial legislatures and
widened the franchise considerably.
Diarchy set in motion certain real
changes at the provincial level: a
number of non-controversial or
"transferred" portfolios, such as
agriculture, local government, health,
education, and public works, were
handed over to Indians, while more
sensitive matters such as finance,
taxation, and maintaining law and
order were retained by the provincial
British administrators.
[] Gandhi arrives in India
Mahatma Gandhi had been a
prominent leader of the anti-Apartheid
movement in South Africa, and had
been a vocal opponent of basic
discrimination and abusive labour
treatment as well as suppressive police
control such as the Rowlatt Acts.
During these protests, Gandhi had
perfected the concept of satyagraha,
which had been inspired by the
philosophy of Baba Ram Singh (famous
for leading the Kuka Movement in the
Punjab in 1872). The end of the
protests in South Africa saw oppressive
legislation repealed and the release of
political prisoners by General Jan

Smuts, head of the South African

sharecroppers and landless farmers

Government of the time.

who were being forced to pay

Gandhi, a stranger to India and its

politics after twenty years, had initially
entered the fray not with calls for a
nation-state, but in support of the
unified commerce-oriented territory
that the Congress Party had been
asking for. Gandhi believed that the
industrial development and educational
development that the Europeans had
brought with them were required to
alleviate many of India's problems.
Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran
Congressman and Indian leader,
became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's
ideas and strategies of non-violent
civil disobedience initially appeared
impractical to some Indians and
Congressmen. In Gandhi's own words,
"civil disobedience is civil breach of
unmoral statutory enactments." It had
to be carried out non-violently by
withdrawing cooperation with the
corrupt state. Gandhi's ability to inspire
millions of common people became
clear when he used satyagraha during
the anti-Rowlatt Act protests in Punjab.

oppressive taxes and grow cash crops

at the expense of the subsistence
crops which formed their food supply.
The profits from the crops they grew
were insufficient to provide for their
sustenance.
[] The Rowlatt Act and its
aftermath
The positive impact of reform was
seriously undermined in 1919 by the
Rowlatt Act, named after the
recommendations made the previous
year to the Imperial Legislative Council
by the Rowlatt Commission, which had
been appointed to investigate what
was termed the "seditious conspiracy"
and the German and Bolshevik
involvement in the militant movements
in India.[15][16][17] The Rowlatt Act, also
known as the Black Act, vested the
Viceroy's government with
extraordinary powers to quell sedition
by silencing the press, detaining the
political activists without trial, and
arresting any individuals suspected of
sedition or treason without a warrant.
In protest, a nationwide cessation of

Gandhis vision would soon bring

work (hartal) was called, marking the

millions of regular Indians into the

beginning of widespread, although not

movement, transforming it from an

nationwide, popular discontent. The

elitist struggle to a national one. The

agitation unleashed by the acts

nationalist cause was expanded to

culminated on 13 April 1919, in the

include the interests and industries

Jallianwala Bagh massacre (also known

that formed the economy of common

as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar,

Indians. For example, in Champaran,

Punjab. The British military commander,

Bihar, the Congress Party championed

Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer,

the plight of desperately poor

10

blocked the main entrance, and

movement enjoyed widespread popular

ordered his soldiers to fire into an

support, and the resulting unparalleled

unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of

magnitude of disorder presented a

some 5,000 men, women and children.

serious challenges to foreign rule.

They had assembled at Jallianwala

However, Gandhi called off the

Bagh, a walled in courtyard in defiance

movement following the Chauri Chaura

of the ban. A total of 1,651 rounds

incident, which saw the death of

were fired, killing 379 people (as

twenty-two policemen at the hands of

according to an official British

an angry mob.

commission; Indian estimates ranged

as high as 1,499[18]) and wounding 1,137
in the episode, which dispelled wartime
hopes of home rule and goodwill in a
frenzy of post-war reaction.
[] The Non- cooperation
movements
It can be argued that the
independence movement, even towards
the end of First World War, was far
removed from the masses of India,
focusing essentially on a unified
commerce-oriented territory and hardly

In 1920, the Congress was reorganized

and given a new constitution, whose
goal was Swaraj (independence).
Membership in the party was opened
to anyone prepared to pay a token
fee, and a hierarchy of committees
was established and made responsible
for discipline and control over a
hitherto amorphous and diffuse
movement. The party was transformed
from an elite organization to one of
mass national appeal and participation.

a call for a united nation. That came

Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six

in the 1930s with the entry of

years of prison, but was released after

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi into

serving two. On his release from

Indian Politics in 1915.

prison, he set up the Sabarmati

[] The first Non cooperation

movement

Ashram in Ahmedabad, on the banks

The first satyagraha movement urged

newspaper Young India, and

the use of Khadi and Indian material

inaugurated a series of reforms aimed

as alternatives to those shipped from

at the socially disadvantaged within

Britain. It also urged people to boycott

Hindu society - the rural poor, and the

British educational institutions and law

untouchables.

courts; resign from government

employment; refuse to pay taxes; and
forsake British titles and honours.
Although this came too late to
influence the framing of the new
Government of India Act of 1919, the

of river Sabarmati, established the

This era saw the emergence of new

generation of Indians from within the
Congress Party, including C.
Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhash Chandra

11

Bose and others- who would later on

launched. By 1929, however, in the

come to form the prominent voices of

midst rising political discontent and

the Indian independence movement,

increasingly violent regional

whether keeping with Gandhian Values,

movements, the call for complete

or diverging from it.

independence from Britain began to

The Indian political spectrum was

further broadened in the mid-1920s by
the emergence of both moderate and
militant parties, such as the Swaraj
Party, Hindu Mahasabha, Communist
Party of India and the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh. Regional political
organizations also continued to
represent the interests of nonBrahmins in Madras, Mahars in
Maharashtra, and Sikhs in Punjab.
However, brahmins like Mahakavi
Subramanya Bharathi, Vanchinathan
and Neelakanda Brahmachari played a
major role from Tamil Nadu in both
freedom struggle and fighting for
equality for all castes and
communities.

find increasing grounds within the

Congress leadership. Under the
presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru at its
historic Lahore session in December
1929, The Indian National Congress
adopted a resolution calling for
complete independence from the
British. It authorized the Working
Committee to launch a civil
disobedience movement throughout the
country. It was decided that 26 January
1930 should be observed all over India
as the Purna Swaraj (total
independence) Day. Many Indian
political parties and Indian
revolutionaries of a wide spectrum
united to observe the day with honour
and pride.

[] Purna Swaraj

[] Salt March and Civil

Disobedience

Following the rejection of the

Gandhi emerged from his long

recommendations of the Simon

seclusion by undertaking his most

Commission by Indians, an all-party

famous campaign, a march of about

conference was held at Bombay in

400 kilometres from his commune in

May 1928. This was meant to instill a

Ahmedabad to Dandi, on the coast of

sense of resistance among people. The

Gujarat between 12 March and 6 April

conference appointed a drafting

1930. The march is usually known as

committee under Motilal Nehru to draw

the Dandi March or the Salt

up a constitution for India. The

Satyagraha. At Dandi, in protest

Calcutta session of the Indian National

against British taxes on salt, he and

Congress asked the British government

thousands of followers broke the law

to accord dominion status to India by

by making their own salt from

December 1929, or a countrywide civil

seawater.

disobedience movement would be

12

In April 1930 there were violent police-

However, the conference ended in

crowd clashes in Calcutta.

failure in December 1931. Gandhi

Approximately over 100,000 people were

returned to India and decided to

imprisoned in the course of the Civil

resume the civil disobedience

disobedience movement (1930-31), while

movement in January 1932.

in Peshawar unarmed demonstrators

were fired upon in the Qissa Khwani
bazaar massacre. The latter event
catapulted the then newly formed
Khudai Khidmatgar movement (founder
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Frontier

Gandhi) onto the National scene. While

Gandhi was in jail, the first Round
Table Conference was held in London
in November 1930, without
representation from the Indian National
Congress. The ban upon the Congress
was removed because of economic
hardships caused by the satyagraha.
Gandhi, along with other members of
the Congress Working Committee, was
released from prison in January 1931.

For the next few years, the Congress

and the government were locked in
conflict and negotiations until what
became the Government of India Act
of 1935 could be hammered out. By
then, the rift between the Congress
and the Muslim League had become
unbridgeable as each pointed the
finger at the other acrimoniously. The
Muslim League disputed the claim of
the Congress to represent all people of
India, while the Congress disputed the
Muslim League's claim to voice the
aspirations of all Muslims. hi
[] Elections and the Lahore resolution
Jinnah with Gandhi, 1944.
The Government of India Act 1935, the

In March of 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact

voluminous and final constitutional

was signed, and the government

effort at governing British India,

agreed to set all political prisoners free

articulated three major goals:

(Although, some of the key

establishing a loose federal structure,

revolutionaries were not set free and

achieving provincial autonomy, and

the death sentence for Bhagat Singh

safeguarding minority interests through

and his two comrades was not taken

separate electorates. The federal

back which further intensified the

provisions, intended to unite princely

agitation against Congress not only

states and British India at the centre,

outside it but within the Congress

were not implemented because of

itself). In return, Gandhi agreed to

ambiguities in safeguarding the

discontinue the civil disobedience

existing privileges of princes. In

movement and participate as the sole

February 1937, however, provincial

representative of the Congress in the

autonomy became a reality when

second Round Table Conference, which

elections were held; the Congress

was held in London in September 1931.

emerged as the dominant party with a

13

clear majority in five provinces and

Particularly notable movements arose

held an upper hand in two, while the

in Bengal, especially around the

Muslim League performed poorly.

Partition of Bengal in 1905, and in

In 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgow declared

India's entrance into World War II
without consulting provincial
governments. In protest, the Congress
asked all of its elected representatives
to resign from the government. Jinnah,
the president of the Muslim League,
persuaded participants at the annual
Muslim League session at Lahore in
1940 to adopt what later came to be
known as the Lahore Resolution,
demanding the division of India into
two separate sovereign states, one
Muslim, the other Hindu; sometimes
referred to as Two Nation Theory.
Although the idea of Pakistan had
been introduced as early as 1930, very
few had responded to it. However, the
volatile political climate and hostilities
between the Hindus and Muslims
transformed the idea of Pakistan into a
stronger demand.

Punjab.[19] In the former case, it was the

educated, intelligent and dedicated
youth of the urban Middle Class

Bhadralok community that came to

form the "Classic" Indian
revolutionary,[19] while the latter had an
immense support base in the rural and
Military society of the Punjab.
Organisations like Jugantar and
Anushilan Samiti had emerged in the
1900s. The revolutionary philosophies
and movement made their presence
felt during the 1905 Partition of Bengal.
Arguably, the initial steps to organize
the revolutionaries were taken by
Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother Barin
Ghosh, Bhupendranath Datta etc. when
they formed the Jugantar party in April
1906.[20] Jugantar was created as an
inner circle of the Anushilan Samiti
which was already present in Bengal
mainly as a revolutionary society in

[] Revolutionary activities

the guise of a fitness club.

Apart from a few stray incidents, the

The Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar

armed rebellion against the British

opened several branches throughout

rulers was not organized before the

Bengal and other parts of India and

beginning of the 20th century. The

recruited young men and women to

Indian revolutionary underground

participate in the revolutionary

began gathering momentum through

activities. Several murders and looting

the first decade of 1900s, with groups

were done, with many revolutionaries

arising in Maharastra, Bengal, Orissa,

being captured and imprisoned. The

Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and the

Jugantar party leaders like Barin Ghosh

then Madras Presidency including what

and Bagha Jatin initiated making of

is now called South India. More groups

explosives. Amongst a number of

were scattered around India.

notable events of political terrorism

14

were the Alipore bomb case, the

and ammunitions from Germany and

Muzaffarpur killing tried several

stage an armed revolution against the

activists and many were sentenced to

British.[23]

deportation for life, while Khudiram

Bose was hanged. The founding of the
India House and the The Indian
Sociologist under Shyamji Krishna
Varma in London in 1905 took the
radical movement to Britain itself. On 1
July 1909, Madan Lal Dhingra, an Indian
student closely identified with India
House in London shot dead William
Hutt Curzon Wylie, a British M.P. in
London. 1912 saw the Delhi-Lahore
Conspiracy planned under Rash Behari
Bose, an erstwhile Jugantar member, to
assassinate the then Viceroy of India
Charles Hardinge. The conspiracy
culminated in an attempt to Bomb the
Viceregal procession on 23 December
1912, on the occasion of transferring
the Imperial Capital from Calcutta to
Delhi. In the aftermath of this event,
concentrated police and intelligence
efforts were made by the British Indian
police to destroy the Bengali and
Punjabi revolutionary underground,
which came under intense pressure for
some time. Rash Behari successfully
evaded capture for nearly three years.

The Ghadar Party operated from

abroad and cooperated with the
revolutionaries in India. This party was
instrumental in helping revolutionaries
inside India catch hold of foreign arms.
After the First World War, the
revolutionary activities began to slowly
wane as it suffered major setbacks
due to the arrest of prominent leaders.
In the 1920s, some revolutionary
activists began to reorganize.
Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association was formed under the
leadership of Chandrasekhar Azad.
Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt
threw a bomb inside the Central
Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929
protesting against the passage of the
Public Safety Bill and the Trade
Disputes Bill. Following the trial
(Central Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat
Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were
hanged in 1931. Allama Mashriqi
founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to
direct particularly the Muslims towards
the independence movement.[24]

However, by the time that WW I

Surya Sen, along with other activists,

opened in Europe, the revolutionary

raided the Chittagong armoury on 18

movement in Bengal (and Punjab) had

April 1930 to capture arms and

revived and was strong enough to

ammunition and to destroy government

nearly paralyse the local

communication system to establish a

administration.[21][22]

local governance. Pritilata Waddedar

During the First World War, the

revolutionaries planned to import arms

led an attack on a European club in

Chittagong in 1932, while Bina Das

15

attempted to assassinate Stanley

Linlithgow's action, the entire Congress

Jackson, the Governor of Bengal inside

leadership resigned from the local

the convocation hall of Calcutta

government councils. However, many

University. Following the Chittagong

wanted to support the British war

armoury raid case, Surya Sen was

effort, and indeed the British Indian

hanged and several others were

Army was one of the largest volunteer

deported for life to the Cellular Jail in

forces during the war. Especially during

Andaman. The Bengal Volunteers

the Battle of Britain, Gandhi resisted

started operating in 1928. On 8

calls for massive civil disobedience

December 1930, the Benoy-Badal-

movements that came from within as

Dinesh trio of the party entered the

well as outside his party, stating he

secretariat Writers' Building in Kolkata

did not seek India's freedom out of the

and murdered Col. N. S. Simpson, the

ashes of a destroyed Britain. However,

Inspector General of Prisons.

like the changing fortunes of the war

On 13 March 1940, Udham Singh shot

Michael O'Dwyer, generally held
responsible for the Amritsar Massacre,
in London. However, as the political

itself, the movement for freedom saw

the rise of two movements that
formed the climax of the 100-year
struggle for independence.

scenario changed in the late 1930s

The first of these, the Azad Hind

with the mainstream leaders

movement led by Netaji Subhash

considering several options offered by

Chandra Bose, saw its inception early

the British and with religious politics

in the war and sought help from the

coming into play revolutionary

Axis Powers. The second saw its

activities gradually declined. Many past

inception in August 1942 led by Gandhi

revolutionaries joined mainstream

and began following failure of the

politics by joining Congress and other

Cripps' mission to reach a consensus

parties, especially communist ones,

with the Indian political leadership over

while many of the activists were kept

the transfer of power after the war.

under hold in different jails across the

[] The Indian National Army

See also: Legion Freies Indien,
Battaglione Azad Hindoustan,
Capt. Mohan Singh, Indian
Independence League, and INA
trials

country.
[] The climax: War, Quit India, INA and
Post-war revolts
Indians throughout the country were
divided over World War II, as
Linlithgow, without consulting the
Indian representatives had unilaterally
declared India a belligerent on the side

Jubilant INA and Japanese troops after

capturing a post on the Indo-Burmese
Border. Although largely ignored by
post-Independence historians of India,
the contributions of the Azad Hind
movement are now considered
significant.[25]

of the allies. In opposition to

16

The arbitrary entry of India into the

in the forests of in Arakan, Burma and

war was strongly opposed by Subhash

Assam, laying siege on Imphal and

Chandra Bose, who had been elected

Kohima with the Japanese 15th Army.

President of the Congress twice, in 1937

During the war, the Andaman and

and 1939. After lobbying against

Nicobar islands were captured by the

participation in the war, he resigned

Japanese and handed over by them to

from Congress in 1939 and started a

the INA; Bose renamed them Shahid

new party, the All India Forward Bloc.

(Martyr) and Swaraj (Independence).

When war broke out, the Raj had put

him under house arrest in Calcutta in
1940. However, at the time the war
was at its bloodiest in Europe and
Asia, he escaped and made his way
through Afghanistan to Germany to
seek Axis help to raise an army to
fight the shackles of the Raj. Here, he
raised with Rommel's Indian POWs
what came to be known as the Free
India Legion. This came to be the
conceptualisation in embryonic form of
Bose's dream of raising a liberation
Army to fight the Raj. However, the
turn of tides in the Battlefields of
Europe saw Bose make his way
ultimately to Japanese South Asia
where he formed what came to be
known as the Azad Hind Government
as the Provisional Free Indian
Government in exile, and organized the
Indian National Army with Indian POWs
and Indian expatriates at South-East
Asia, with the help of the Japanese. Its
aim was to reach India as a fighting
force that would build on public
resentment to inspire revolts among
Indian soldiers to defeat the Raj.
The INA was to see action against the
allies, including the British Indian Army,

The INA would ultimately fail, owing to

disrupted logistics, poor arms and
supplies from the Japanese, and lack of
support and training.[1] The supposed
death of Bose is seen as culmination
of the entire Azad Hind Movement.
Following the surrender of Japan, the
troops of the INA were brought to India
and a number of them charged with
treason. However, Bose's audacious
actions and radical initiative had by
this time captured the public
imagination and also turned the
inclination of the native soldiers of the
British Indian Forces from one of
loyalty to the crown to support for the
soldiers that the Raj deemed as
collaborators.[26][27]
After the war, the stories of the Azad
Hind movement and its army that
came into public limelight during the
trials of soldiers of the INA in 1945
were seen as so inflammatory that,
fearing mass revolts and uprisings
not just in India, but across its empire
the British Government forbade the
BBC from broadcasting their story.[28]
Newspapers reported the summary
execution of INA soldiers held at Red
Fort.[29] During and after the trial,

17

mutinies broke out in the British Indian

came to be known as the Cripps'

Armed forces, most notably in the

Mission. The purpose of the mission

Royal Indian Navy which found public

was to negotiate with the Indian

support throughout India, from Karachi

National Congress a deal to obtain

to Bombay and from Vizag to

total co-operation during the war, in

Calcutta.[30][31][32] Many historians have

return of progressive devolution and

argued that it was the INA and the

distribution of power from the crown

mutinies it inspired among the British

and the Viceroy to elected Indian

Indian Armed forces that were the true

legislature. However, the talks failed,

driving force behind India's final

having failed to address the key

independence.[33][34][35]

demand of a timeframe towards self-

[] Quit India

government, and of definition of the

The Quit India Movement (Bharat

powers to be relinquished, essentially

Chhodo Andolan) or the August

portraying an offer of limited

Movement was a civil disobedience

dominion-status that was wholly

movement in India launched in August

unacceptable to the Indian

1942 in response to Gandhi's call for

movement.[37] To force the Raj to meet

immediate independence of India and

its demands and to obtain definitive

against sending Indians to the World

word on total independence, the

War II.

Congress took the decision to launch

At the outbreak of war, the Congress

the Quit India Movement.

Party had during the Wardha meeting

The aim of the movement was to

of the working-committee in

bring the British Government to the

September 1939, passed a resolution

negotiating table by holding the Allied

conditionally supporting the fight

War Effort hostage. The call for

against fascism,[36] but were rebuffed

determined but passive resistance that

when they asked for independence in

signified the certitude that Gandhi

return. In March 1942, faced with an

foresaw for the movement is best

increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent

described by his call to Do or Die,

only reluctantly participating in the

issued on 8 August at the Gowalia

war, and deteriorations in the war

Tank Maidan in Bombay, since re-

situation in Europe and South East

named August Kranti Maidan (August

Asia, and with growing dissatisfactions

Revolution Ground). However, almost

among Indian troops- especially in

the entire Congress leadership, and not

Europe- and among the civilian

merely at the national level, was put

population in the sub-continent, the

into confinement less than twenty-four

British government sent a delegation

hours after Gandhi's speech, and the

to India under Stafford Cripps, in what

greater number of the Congress

18

khiland were to spend the rest of the

the Muslim League under a single

war in jail.

mast and movement. It did however,

On August 8, 1942, the Quit India

resolution was passed at the Bombay
session of the All India Congress

obtain passive support from a

substantial Muslim population at the
peak of the movement.

Committee (AICC). The draft proposed

The British swiftly responded by mass

that if the British did not accede to

detentions. A total over 100,000 arrests

the demands, a massive Civil

were made nationwide, mass fines

Disobedience would be launched.

were levied, bombs were airdropped

However, it was an extremely

and demonstrators were subjected to

controversial decision. At Gowalia Tank,

public flogging.

Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to follow

a non-violent civil disobedience.
Gandhi told the masses to act as an
independent nation and not to follow
the orders of the British. The British,
already alarmed by the advance of the
Japanese army to the IndiaBurma
border, responded the next day by
imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan
Palace in Pune. The Congress Party's
Working Committee, or national
leadership was arrested all together
and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar
Fort. They also banned the party
altogether. Large-scale protests and
demonstrations were held all over the
country. Workers remained absent en
masse and strikes were called. The
movement also saw widespread acts of
sabotage, Indian under-ground
organisation carried out bomb attacks
on allied supply convoys, government
buildings were set on fire, electricity

The movement soon became a

leaderless act of defiance, with a
number of acts that deviated from
Gandhi's principle of non-violence. In
large parts of the country, the local
underground organisations took over
the movement. However, by 1943, Quit

India had petered out.

[] RIN Mutiny
The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (the RIN
Mutiny or the Bombay Mutiny)
encompasses a total strike and
subsequent mutiny by the Indian
sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on
board ship and shore establishments at
Bombay (Mumbai) harbor on 18
February 1946. From the initial
flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny
spread and found support through
India, from Karachi to Calcutta and
ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20
shore establishments and 20,000 sailors.

lines were disconnected and transport

The RIN Mutiny started as a strike by

and communication lines were severed.

ratings of the Royal Indian Navy on

The Congress had lesser success in

the 18th February in protest against

rallying other political forces, including

general conditions. The immediate

19

issues of the mutiny were conditions

demarginalisation of communal issues

and food, but there were more

among the mutineers.

fundamental matters such as racist

behaviour by British officers of the
Royal Navy personnel towards Indian
sailors, and disciplinary measures being
taken against anyone demonstrating
pro-nationalist sympathies. By dusk on
19 February, a Naval Central Strike
committee was elected. Leading
Signalman M.S Khan and Petty Officer
Telegraphist Madan Singh were
unanimously elected President and
Vice-President respectively..[38] The
strike found immense support among
the Indian population already in grips
with the stories of the Indian National
Army. The actions of the mutineers
were supported by demonstrations
which included a one-day general
strike in Bombay. The strike spread to
other cities, and was joined by the Air
Force and local police forces. Naval
officers and men began calling
themselves the Indian National Navy
and offered left-handed salutes to
British officers. At some places, NCOs
in the British Indian Army ignored and
defied orders from British superiors. In
Madras and Pune, the British garrisons

[] Independence, 1947 to 1950

Transfer of power, 15 August 1947.
On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis
Mountbatten, the last British GovernorGeneral of India, announced the
partitioning of the British Indian Empire
into a secular India and a Muslim
Pakistan. On 14 August 1947, Pakistan
was declared a separate nation from
them. At midnight, on 15 August 1947,
India became an independent nation.
Violent clashes between Hindus,
Muslims, and Sikhs followed. Prime
Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime
Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
invited Mountbatten to continue as
Governor General of India. He was
replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti
Rajagopalachari. Patel took on the
responsibility of unifying 565 princely
states, steering efforts by his iron fist
in a velvet glove policies, exemplified
by the use of military force to
integrate Junagadh, Jammu and
Kashmir, and Hyderabad state
(Operation Polo) into India.

had to face revolts within the ranks of

The Constituent Assembly completed

the British Indian Army. Widespread

the work of drafting the constitution on

rioting took place from Karachi to

26 November 1949; on 26 January 1950

Calcutta. Famously the ships hoisted

the Republic of India was officially

three flags tied together those of

proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly

the Congress, Muslim League, and the

elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the first

Red Flag of the Communist Party of

President of India, taking over from

India (CPI), signifying the unity and

Governor General Rajgopalachari.

20

Subsequently, a free and sovereign

result of the war still affects the

India absorbed three other territories:

geopolitics of both the countries. The

Goa (from Portuguese control in 1961),

British made Gulab Singh the first

Pondicherry (which the French ceded in

Maharaja of the princely state of

19531954) and Sikkim which was

Jammu and Kashmir, after they

absorbed in 1975. In 1952, India held its

defeated the Sikh during the First

first general elections, with a voter

Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and signed

turnout exceeding 62%.

the Treaty of Lahore in 1846.[6] Gulab

The Republic of India has fought three

wars and one major incursion battle
with Pakistan and one border war with
China.
[] Major wars
[] First Indo- Pak war, 1947
Independent India, formed on August
15, 1947, has seen three wars with
Pakistan (1947-48, 1965, 1971). The first
war took place after Pakistani soldiers
and armed tribesmen invaded the
independent province of Kashmir. When
the forces almost reached the capital
Srinagar the Maharaja, Hari Singh, and
the democratically elected Prime
Minister of Kashmir, Sheikh Abdullah,
signed an agreement with India in
which all Kashmiri lands were ceded to
India. India sent their troops in shortly
after and freed a majority of the new

Singh founded a dynasty, the Royal

House of Jammu and Kashmir, that was
to rule the state, the second-largest
principality under the British Raj, until
India gained its independence in 1947.
Prior to the withdrawal of the British
from India, the state came under
pressure from both India and Pakistan
to join them. The Maharaja of Kashmir,
Hari Singh wanted to remain
independent and tried to delay the
issue. However at the time of British
withdrawal the state was invaded by
tribals from the North West Frontier
Province (NWFP) and regular Pakistani
soldiers. The Maharaja then decided to
accede Kashmir to secular India, which
sent troops to safeguard the Kashmir
border. The legitimacy of the accession
is still disputed by the Pakistanis.

Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir

According to the instruments of

from Pakistani infiltrators.

partition of India, the rulers of princely

The Indo- Pakistani War of 1947 ,

sometimes known as the First
Kashmir War, was fought between
India and Pakistan over the region of
Kashmir from 1947 to 1948. It was the
first of four wars fought between the
two newly independent nations. The

states were given the choice to freely

accede to either India or Pakistan.
Thay were also asked to take into
account the demographic nature,
history, geography and future
prospects their subjects into
consideration. Raja Hari Singh, ruler of
Kashmir, acceded to India. Due to a

21

lack of demographic data concerning

gave a strategic advantage to either

religious affiliations, it is difficult to

side and the fronts gradually solidified.

determine whether public opinion was

Support for the AZK forces by Pakistan

a factor Raja Hari Singhs' decision.

became gradually more overt with

[] Summary of war

regular Pakistani units becoming

AZK (Azad Kashmir) forces (Azad in

involved. A formal cease-fire was

Urdu means liberated or free) are the

declared on 31 December 1948.

local militia supported by the

[] Sino- Indian war, 1962

Pakistanis. The AZK had several

advantages in the war, notably:

Prior to the war the Jammu and

Kashmir state forces had been
spread thinly around the border
as a response to militant
activity, and so were badly
deployed to counter a full scale
invasion.
Some of the state forces joined
AZK forces.
The AZK were also aided by
regular Pakistani soldiers who
manned some of their units,
with the proportion increasing
throughout the war.

The Sino- Indian War (simplified

Chinese: ; traditional
Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhng-Yn
Binjng Zhnzhng; Hindi: -

Bhrat-Chn Yuddh), also known as the

Sino- Indian Border Conflict, was a
war between People's Republic of
China and India. The initial cause of
the conflict was a disputed region of
the Himalayan border in Arunachal
Pradesh, known in China as South

As a result of these advantages the

Tibet. Fighting began on 20 October

main invasion force quickly brushed

1962 between the People's Liberation

aside the Jammu and Kashmir state

Army and the Military of India. The

forces. But the attackers advantage

conflict coincided closely with the

was not vigorously pressed and the

Cuban Missile Crisis which began in

Indians halted the offensive by

October 1962. The first heavy

airlifting reinforcements. This was at

engagement of the war was a Chinese

the price of the state formally

attack on an Indian patrol north of the

acceding to India. With Indian

McMahon Line.[10] The conflict

reinforcements the Pakistani / AZK

eventually widened to include the

offensive ran out of steam towards the

region of Aksai Chin which the PRC

end of 1947. The exception to this was

regarded as a strategic link, via the

in the High Himalayas sector where

China National Highway route G219,

the AZK were able to make substantial

between the Chinese-administered

progress until turned back at the

territories of Tibet and Xinjiang. The

outskirts of Leh in late June 1948.

war ended when the Chinese captured

Throughout 1948 many small-scale

both disputed areas and unilaterally

battles were fought. None of these

declared a ceasefire on 20 November

22

1962, which went into effect at

the process of subduing and which in

midnight. At present china controls

1965 would itself be declared an

askai chin an area claimed by india

"autonomous region"). The eastern

whereas india controls arunachal

border, between Burma and Bhutan,

pradesh (north east frontier agency).

comprises the present Indian state of

parts of arunachal pradesh are claimed

Arunachal Pradesh (formerly the North

by china as "south tibet".

East Frontier Agency). Both of these

The Sino-Indian War is notable for the

harsh conditions under which much of

regions were overrun by China in the

1962 conflict.

the fighting took place, entailling

Most combat took place at high

large-scale combat at altitudes of over

altitudes. The Aksai Chin region is a

4250 metres (14,000 feet).[10] This

vast desert of salt flats around 5000

presented enormous logistical problems

metres above sea level, and Arunachal

for both sides. The Sino-Indian War

Pradesh is extremely mountainous with

was also noted for the non-use of

a number of peaks exceeding 7000

navy and airforce by both the Chinese

metres. According to military doctrine,

and Indian sides.

to be successful an attacker generally

The aftermath of the war saw

sweeping changes in the Indian
military to prepare it for similar
conflicts in the future, and placed
pressure on Indian prime minister
Jawaharlal Nehru, who was seen as
responsible for failing to anticipate the
Chinese invasion.
Location
China and India share a long border,
sectioned into three stretches by Nepal
and Bhutan, which follows the
Himalayan mountains between Burma
and what was then East Pakistan. A
number of disputed regions lie along
this border. At its western end is the
Aksai Chin region, an area the size of
Switzerland, that sits between the
Chinese "autonomous region" of
Xinjiang, and Tibet (which China was in

requires a 3:1 ratio of numerical

superiority over the defender; in
mountain warfare this ratio should be
considerably higher as the terrain
favours defense. At the beginning of
the war China took full advantage of
this: the Chinese Army had possession
of the highest ridges in the regions.
The high altitude and freezing
conditions also cause logistical and
welfare difficulties; in past similar
conflicts (such as the Italian Campaign
of World War I) more casualties have
been caused by the harsh conditions
than enemy action. The Sino-Indian
War was no different, with many troops
on both sides dying in the freezing
cold.[12]
[] Background
British map published in 1909 showing
the Indo-Tibetan traditional border

23

The cause of the war was a dispute

bombing on Indian towns, the United

over the sovereignty of the widely-

States Navy ordered an aircraft carrier

separated Aksai Chin and Arunachal

to the Bay of Bengal due to reach

Pradesh border regions. Aksai Chin,

there in late November.

claimed by India to belong to Kashmir

and by China to be part of Xinjiang,
contains an important road link that
connects the Chinese regions of Tibet
and Xinjiang. China's construction of
this road was one of the triggers of
the conflict. Arunachal Pradesh (called
South Tibet by China) is also claimed
by both nationsalthough it is roughly
the size of Austria, it is sparsely
inhabited (by numerous local tribes)
due to its mountainous terrain.
United States intervention
The PLA penetrated close to the
outskirts of Tezpur, Assam, a major
frontier town nearly fifty kilometers
from the Assam-North-East Frontier
Agency border.

[6]

The local government

ordered the evacuation of the civilians

in Tezpur to the south of the
Brahmaputra River, all prisons were
thrown open, and government officials
who stayed behind destroyed Tezpur's
currency reserves in anticipation of a
Chinese advance.[7]

China had reached its claim lines so

the PLA did not advance farther, and
on November 19 it declared a
unilateral cease-fire. Zhou Enlai
declared a unilateral ceasefire to start
on midnight, November 21. Zhou's
ceasefire declaration stated,
Beginning from November 21, 1962, the
Chinese frontier guards will cease fire
along the entire Sino-Indian border.
Beginning from December 1, 1962, the
Chinese frontier guards will withdraw
to positions 20 kilometers behind the
line of actual control which existed
between China and India on November
7, 1959. In the eastern sector, although
the Chinese frontier guards have so far
been fighting on Chinese territory
north of the traditional customary line,
they are prepared to withdraw from
their present positions to the north of
the illegal McMahon Line, and to
withdraw twenty kilometers back from
that line. In the middle and western
sectors, the Chinese frontier guards will

On the evening of November 20, Nehru,

withdraw twenty kilometers from the

seeing the disintegration of his own

line of actual control.

armies, made an appeal to the United

Aftermath
[] China

States, for armed aid, including

airstrikes, if Chinese forces continued

According to the PLA's official military

to advance, and air cover, in case of

history, the war achieved China's

raids by the Chinese air force. With

policy objectives of defeating the

the Chinese outnumbering every Indian

Indian forces and securing peaceful

division and faced with the idea of

borders in the western sector, as China

24

retained de facto control of the Aksai

a strong Asian Axis to counteract the

Chin. After the war, India abandoned

increasing influence of the Cold War

the Forward Policy, and the de facto

superpowers.[2]

borders stabilized along the Line of

Actual Control.

The unpreparedness of the army was

blamed on Defense Minister Menon,

Published scholarship in China is still

who resigned his government post to

expected to explain and justify, not to

allow for someone who might

criticize, the decisions of the Chinese

modernize India's military further.

Communist Party, at least on such

India's policy of weaponization via

sensitive matters as war.[2] Chinese

indigenous sources and self-sufficiency

publications on the war themselves do

was thus cemented. Sensing a

not mention specific dates or events

weakened army, Pakistan, a close ally

and use generalized terms. The first

of China, initiated the Second Kashmir

book-length analysis of the war from

War with India in 1965, however this

China which was allowed to be sold

war was still indecisive and led to

was published in 1993.[2]

cease fire.[61] Two years later in 1967,

[] India

there was a short border skirmish,

After India was swiftly defeated by

dubbed "Chola Incident" by India,

China memorials were erected for the

between PLA troops and Indian troops,

Indian troops who died in the war.

which went more favourably for

Arguably, the main lesson India learned

India.[62]

from the war was the need to

The Indian government commissioned

strengthen its own defenses. The

an investigation, resulting in the

country could no longer follow Nehru's

classified Henderson-Brooks-Bhagat

trusting polemics of "Hindi-Chini bhai-

Report on the causes of the war and

bhai" and non-violent peace. Because

the reasons for failure. India's

of India's inability to sense danger,

performance in high-altitude combat in

Prime Minister Nehru faced harsh

1962 led to an overhaul of the Indian

accusations from government officials,

Army in terms of doctrine, training,

as he was the one who had promoted

organization and equipment. By 1964,

good relations with China.[6] Indians in

India's military manpower had

general became highly skeptical of

doubled.[10]

China and its military. Many Indians

[] Later skirmishes

view the war as a betrayal of India's

attempts at establishing a longstanding peace with China. The war
also put an end to Nehru's earlier
hopes that India and China would form

Indian media also declared a series of

skirmishes after the 1962's war, but
never been confirmed by Chinese or
international media. One report is that:

25

In late 1967, there were two skirmishes

forced to move sideways along the

between Indian and Chinese forces in

Thag La ridge, away from the valley.

Sikkim. The first one was dubbed the

The Army's strong response was

"Nathu La incident", and the other the

regarded as the exorcism of the ghost

"Chola incident". Prior to these

of 1962.[76] By 1987, Beijing's tone

incidents had been the Naxalbari

becoming ominously similar to that in

uprising in India by the Communist

1962 and this prompted many Western

Naxalites and Maoists.[63]

diplomats to predict war. For logistical

Also Indian media declared on 11th

September 1967, Chinese troops opened
fire on Indian troops who were
protecting an Engineering Company in

and tactical considerations the Chinese

focused on the September 7, 1993
Peace and Tranquility along the LAC
Agreement with India.

Nathula. The conflict escalated over

Summary

the next five days to an exchange of

against China (1962). China won the

heavy artillery and mortar fire between

border skirmish, leading India to

the Indians and the Chinese. 62 Indian

revamp the entire military system.

soldiers were killed as the Indians

After the war ended, the Department

drove back the Chinese

of Defence Production was set up to

forces.[64][65][66][67][68] The extent of Chinese

create an indigenous defense

casualties in this incident is not known.

production base which is self-reliant

As Indian side's report,a similar

incident occurred in 1984, when squads
of Indian soldiers began actively

India fought a border war

and self-sufficient. Since 1962, 16 new

ordinance factories have been set up.
[] Second Indo- Pak war, 1965

patrolling the Sumdorong Chu Valley in

The Indo- Pakistani War of 1965 was

Arunachal Pradesh in a move to

a culmination of skirmishes that took

industrialize the region.[26][69][70][71][72] The

place between April 1965 and

Indian team left the area before the

September 1965 between India and

winter.[26] In the winter of 1986, the

Pakistan. This conflict became known

Chinese deployed their troops to the

as the Second Kashmir War fought

Sumdorong Chu before the Indian

by India and Pakistan over the

team could arrive in the summer and

disputed region of Kashmir, the first

built a helipad.[73]

having been fought in 1947. The war

However, after being quickly deployed

to the valley, the Indian Army was
successful in shocking the Chinese in
Sumdorong Chu reported by some
Indian Media.[74][75] Chinese troops were

began following the failure of

Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which
was designed to infiltrate and invade
Jammu and Kashmir. The five-week
war caused thousands of casualties on
both sides. It ended in a United

26

Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and

Pir Pass, eight kilometers inside

the subsequent issuance of the

Pakistani-administered territory.[11]

Tashkent Declaration.

On September 1, 1965, Pakistan

Much of the war was fought by the

launched a counterattack, called

countries' land forces in Kashmir and

" Operation Grand Slam", with the

along the International Border between

objective to capture the vital town of

India and Pakistan. This war saw the

Akhnoor in Jammu, which would sever

largest amassing of troops in Kashmir

communications and cut off supply

since the Partition of India in 1947, a

routes to Indian troops. Attacking with

number that was overshadowed only

an overwhelming ratio of troops and

during the 2001-2002 military standoffs

technically superior tanks, Pakistan

between India and Pakistan. Most of

initially progressed against Indian

the battles were fought by opposing

forces, who were caught unprepared

infantry and armored units, with

and suffered heavy losses.[11] India

substantial backing from air forces.

responded by calling in its air force to

Many details of this war, like those of

blunt the Pakistani attack. The next

other Indo-Pakistani Wars, remain

day, Pakistan retaliated, its air force

unclear and many media reports have

attacked Indian forces and air bases in

been riddled with media biases.

both Kashmir and Punjab. Although

On August 15, 1965, Indian forces

crossed the ceasefire line and
launched an attack on the region
referred to by the disputants as either
"Azad Kashmir" or "Pakistan-occupied
Kashmir". Pakistani reports cite this
attack as unprovoked.[9] Indian reports
cite the attack as a response to
massive armed infiltrations of Kashmir
by Pakistan.[10] Initially, the Indian Army

Operation Grand Slam ultimately failed,

as the Pakistan Army was unable to
capture Akhnoor, it became one of the
turning points in the war when India
decided to relieve pressure on its
troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan
further south.
Pakistan's Ichogil Canal was a vital
barrier that needed to be crossed by
Indian troops. This bridge across the
canal was destroyed by the Pakistan
Army before retreating.

met with considerable success,

capturing three important mountain

India crossed the International Border

positions after a prolonged artillery

on the Western front on September 6,

barrage. By the end of August,

marking an official beginning of the

however, both sides had experienced

war.[9] On September 6, the 15th

successes; Pakistan had made progress

Infantry Division of the Indian Army,

in areas such as Tithwal, Uri and

under World War II veteran Major

Punch and India had captured the Haji

General Prasad, battled a massive

counterattack by Pakistan near the

27

west bank of the Ichogil Canal (BRB

time but after a much harder battle

Canal), which was a de facto border of

due to Pakistani reinforcements.

India and Pakistan. The General's

entourage itself was ambushed and he
was forced to flee his vehicle. A
second, this time successful, attempt
to cross the Ichhogil Canal was made
over the bridge in the village of Barki,
just east of Lahore. These
developments brought the Indian Army
within the range of Lahore
International Airport. As a result, the
United States requested a temporary
ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its
citizens in Lahore.

Lt. Col. Hari Singh of the Indian 18th

Cavalry posing outside a captured
Pakistani police station (Barkee) in
Lahore District.
On the days following September 9,
both nations' premiere formations were
routed in unequal battles. India's 1st
Armored Division, labelled the "pride of
the Indian Army", launched an
offensive towards Sialkot. The Division
divided itself into two prongs, came
under heavy Pakistani tank fire at
Taroah and was forced to withdraw.

One unit of the Jat regiment, 3 Jat, had

Similarly, Pakistan's pride, the 1st

also crossed the Ichogil canal and

Armored Division, pushed an offensive

captured[12] the town of Batapore (Jallo

towards Khemkaran, with the intent to

Mur to Pakistan) on the west side of

capture Amritsar (a major city in

the canal. The same day, a counter

Punjab, India) and the bridge on River

offensive consisting of an armored

Beas to Jalandhar. The Pakistani 1st

division and infantry division supported

Armored Division never made it past

by Pakistan Air Force Sabres forced the

Khem Karan, however, and by the end

Indian 15th Division to withdraw to its

of September 10 lay disintegrated

starting point. Although 3 Jat suffered

under the defences of the Indian 4th

minimal casualties, the bulk of the

Mountain Division at what is now

damage being taken by ammunition

known as the Battle of Asal Uttar (Real

and stores vehicles, the higher

Answer literally, or Fitting Response as

commanders had no information of 3

the more appropriate English

Jat's capture of Batapore and

equivalent). The area became known

misleading information led to the

as 'Patton Nagar' (Patton Town) as

command to withdraw from Batapore

Pakistan lost or abandoned nearly 100

and Dograi to Ghosal-Dial. This move

mostly US-made Patton tanks.

brought extreme disappointment[13] to

The war was heading for a stalemate,

Lt-Col Desmond Hayde, CO of 3 Jat.

with both nations holding territory of

Dograi was eventually recaptured by 3

the other. The Indian army suffered

Jat on 21 September, for the second

3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan

suffered no less than 3,800. The Indian

28

army was in possession of 710 mile

reports of Chinese troop movements

(1,840 km) of Pakistani territory and

on the Indian border to support

the Pakistan army held 210 mile (545

Pakistan.[63] As such, India agreed to the

km) of Indian territory. The territory

UN mandate in order to avoid a war

occupied by India was mainly in the

on both borders.

fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir

sectors,[14] while Pakistani land gains
were primarily in deserts opposite
Sindh and in Chumb, in the northern
sector.[15]
[edit] Involvement of other nations

India's participation in the Non-Aligned

Movement yielded little support from
its members. Pakistan, however, gained
assistance from countries of Asia with
large Islamic populations, including
Turkey, Iran and Indonesia. The USSR

The United States of America, which

was more neutral than most other

had previously supplied military

nations during the war and even

equipment to India and Pakistan,

invited both nations to talks that it

imposed an embargo against further

would host in Tashkent.

supplies to both countries once the

Consequences of the war

[India

war had started. The US was

apprehensive that military equipment

The war had created a tense state of

that it had provided to be used in a

affairs in its aftermath. Though the war

battle against communism, would

was indecisive, Pakistan suffered much

instead be used by the countries to

heavier material and personnel

fight one another. The American

casualties compared to India. Many war

embargo especially affected Pakistan

historians believe that had the war

since the majority of its equipment

continued, with growing loss and

was provided by America. This would

decreasing supplies, Pakistan would

cause Pakistan to believe that it could

have been eventually defeated. India's

not continue the war beyond

decision to declare ceasefire with

September.[62]

Pakistan caused some outrage among

Following imposition of the American

embargo, other NATO allies (including

the Indian populace, who believed they

had the upper hand.

the UK) discontinued providing military

India continued to increase its defense

equipment to the nations.

spending after the war. The Indian

Both before and during the war, China

had been a major military associate of
Pakistan and had invariably
admonished India, with whom it had
fought a war in 1962. There were also

Military, which was already undergoing

rapid expansions, made improvements
in command and control to address
some shortcomings. Partly as a result
of the inefficient information gathering
preceding the war, India established

29

the Research and Analysis Wing for

importantly, failed to achieve its goal

external espionage and intelligence.

of occupying Kashmir; this result has

India viewed the American policy

during the war as biased, since
Pakistan had started the war but the

been viewed by many impartial

observers as a defeat for
Pakistan.[69][70][71]

US did little to restrain Pakistan.[64]

Many high ranking Pakistani officials

After the war, India slowly started

and military experts later criticized the

aligning with the Soviet Union, both

faulty planning of Operation Gibraltar

politically and militarily. This would be

that ultimately led to the war. The

cemented formally years later before

Tashkent declaration was also criticized

the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

in Pakistan, though few citizens

In light of the failures of the previous

war against the Chinese, the

realised the gravity of the situation

that existed at the end of the war.

performance in this war was viewed as

Political leaders were also criticized.

a "politico-strategic" victory in India.

Following the advice of Zulfikar Ali

The Indian premier, Shastri was hailed

Bhutto, Pakistan's foreign minister,

as a hero in India.[65]

Ayub Khan had raised very high

Pakistan

expectations among the people of

At the conclusion of the war, many

Pakistan about the superiority - if not

Pakistanis considered the performance

invincibility - of its armed forces,[72] but

of their military to be positive.

Pakistan's inability to attain its military

September 6 is celebrated as 'Defence

aims during the war, created a political

Day' in Pakistan, in commemoration of

liability for Ayub.[73] The defeat of its

the successful defence of Lahore

Kashmiri ambitions in the war led to

against the Indian army. The

the army's invincibility being

performance of the Pakistani Air Force,

challenged by an increasingly vocal

in particular, was praised.

opposition.[74] And with the war creating

The myth of a mobile, hard hitting

Pakistan Army, however, was badly
dented in the war, as critical
breakthroughs were not made.[66]

a huge financial burden, Pakistan's

economy, which had witnessed rapid
progress in the early 60s, took a
severe beating.[75][76]

Several Pakistani writers criticized the

Pakistan was surprised by the lack of

military's ill-founded belief that their

support by the United States, an ally

"Martial Race" of soldiers could defeat

with whom the country had signed an

India in the war.[67][68] Moreover, Pakistan

Agreement of Cooperation. USA

had lost more ground than it had

declared its neutrality in the war by

gained during the war and, more

cutting off military supplies to both

30

sides,[7] leading Islamabad to believe

it was even. USSR interfered and got

that they were "betrayed" by the

the truce between the two nations at

United States.[77] After the war, Pakistan

Tashkent agreement, which also saw

would increasingly look towards China

the mysterious death of Indian PM Lal

as a major source of military hardware

Bahadur Shastri. At the same time,

and political support.

there was the possibility of a second

Another negative consequence of the

war was the growing resentment

Sino-Indian war along the Nathu La

Pass in Sikkim [2].

against the Pakistani government in

Ten battalions of the Sikh Regiment

East Pakistan(present day Bangladesh),

saw action in the 1965 war. In a bid to

particularly for West Pakistan's

seal off routes of infiltrations for the

obsession with Kashmir.[78] Bengali

Pakistanis in J & K, 1 Sikh who were in

leaders accused the central

the Tithwal sector attacked Pakistani

government of not providing adequate

positions . A company led by Major

security for East Pakistan during the

Somesh Kapur captured Richhmar

conflict, even though large sums of

Ridge on 24 August 1965 and then

money were taken from the east to

attacked and captured the Pir Sahiba

finance the war for Kashmir.[79] In fact,

feature on the night of 25/26 August.

despite some Pakistan Air Force

From this feature the Indian troops

attacks being launched from bases in

could now overlook an extensive area

East Pakistan during the war, India did

under Pakistan control. Through out

not retaliate in that sector,[80] although

September, Pakistani troops tried hard

East Pakistan was defended only by a

to recapture this feature but were

two-infantry brigade division (14

unsuccessful. 1 Sikh received 3 Vir

Division) without any tank support.[81]

Chakras ( Major Somesh Kapur and L/

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was critical of

Havildar Gurdev Singh and Sepoy

the disparity in military resources

Gurmel Singh (posth.)) for these

deployed in East and West Pakistan,

operations .

calling for greater autonomy for East

[] The Chola Incident

Pakistan, which ultimately led to the

The 1967 Sino- Indian skirmish also

Bangladesh Liberation war and another

known as the Chola incident, was a

war between India and Pakistan in

day-long battle between Indian troops

1971.

and members of the Chinese People's

Liberation Army in Sikkim.[1] The

The second Indo-Pak war was also

conflict ran from October 1 to October

fought over Kashmir issue. It ended in

2 1967.[1]

with Indian forces gaining chunks of

lands all around except Punjab where

31

The skirmish occurred in the country of

Shoora (Parliament of Pakistan). Awami

Sikkim. India was responsible for the

League leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman,

defense of Sikkim at that time. The

presented the Six Points to the

region is one of high altitudes and

President of Pakistan and claimed the

thus mountainous maneuvers were

right to form the government. After the

crucial in battle. Early Chinese

leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party,

positions in regions of higher altitudes

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, refused to yield the

would thus have provided them with

premiership of Pakistan to Mujibur,

an advantage. To reclaim high ground

President Yahya Khan called out the

would generally require a higher ratio

military, which was made up largely of

of attackers to defenders.

West Pakistanis.

[edit] Background
Main articles: Sino-Indian
relations, McMahon Line, and
Sino-Indian War

Mass arrests of dissidents began, and

attempts were made to disarm East
Pakistani soldiers and police. After

China has claimed that the McMahon

several days of strikes and non-

Line created by Britain in NEFA was

cooperation movements, the Pakistani

illegal. Thus they claimed the territory

military cracked down on Dhaka on the

of Sikkim as part of South Tibet, a part

night of March 25, 1971. The Awami

of China.

League was banished, and many

[2]

Since then, China has

accepted Sikkim as part of India that it

members fled into exile in India. Mujib

refused to do earlier.

was arrested and taken to West

[3]

Pakistan.
A Sino-India skirmish took place in

On 27 March 1971, Ziaur Rahman, a

1967 and is known today as the Chola

rebellious major in the Pakistani army,

Incident.

declared the independence of

[] Third Indo- Pak war, 1971

Bangladesh on behalf of Mujibur. In

April, exiled Awami League leaders

The Indo-Pakistani conflict was sparked

formed a government-in-exile in

by the Bangladesh Liberation war, a

Boiddonathtola of Meherpur. The East

conflict between the traditionally

Pakistan Rifles, an elite paramilitary

dominant West Pakistanis and the

force, defected to the rebellion. A

majority East Pakistanis. The

guerrilla troop of civilians, the Mukti

Bangladesh Liberation war ignited after

Bahini, was formed to help the

the 1970 Pakistani election, in which

Bangladesh Army.

the East Pakistani Awami League won

167 of 169 seats in East Pakistan and
secured a simple majority in the 313seat lower house of the Majlis-e-

The Indo- Pakistani War of 1971 was

a major military conflict between India
and Pakistan. The war is closely

32

associated with the Bangladesh

Glacier was under territorial dispute,

Liberation War (sometimes also

but in the late 1970s and early 1980s,

referred to as the Pakistani Civil War).

Pakistan began organizing several

Although there is some disagreement

tourist expeditions to the Glacier. India,

about the exact dates of the war,

irked by this development, mounted

hostilities between India and Pakistan

Operation Meghdoot, and captured the

commenced officially on the evening of

top of the Glacier by establishing a

December 3, 1971. The armed conflict

military base which it still maintains to

on India's western front during the

this day at a cost of more than US$1

period between 3 December 1971 and

million per day.[1] Pakistan on the other

16 December 1971 is called the "Indo-

hand spends just under US$1 million

Pakistani War" by both the Bangladeshi

per day, though as % of GDP Pakistan

and Indian armies. The war ended in

spends 5 times as the Indian Military

the surrender of the Pakistani military

does to maintain its share of the

after armed hostilities on two fronts.

glacier.[2] Pakistan tried in 1987 and in

In the third Indo-Pak war, India

intervened decisively in what was then
East Pakistan due to the mass exodus
of refugees to India following West
Pakistani military action there. The new

1989 to re-take the Glacier but was

unsuccessful. A stalemate has arose
where India controls the top part of
the Glacier and Pakistan is placed at
the bottom of the Glacier.

nation of Bangladesh was created as a

In the 1970s and early 1980s several

result. India succeeded in removing

mountaineering expeditions applied to

Pakistani soldiers from what is now

Pakistan to climb high peaks in the

known as "East Pakistan" resulting in

Siachen area as U.S army maps

the formation of Bangladesh. This

deliberately showed it on Pakistani side

conflict is often cited as India's

of the Line of Control, and Pakistan

greatest military victory, but also

granted them. This in turn reinforced

among the greatest genocides of the

the Pakistani claim on the area, as

20th century wherein Pakistani forces

these expeditions arrived on the

slaughtered anywhere from 1 million to

glacier with a permit obtained from

3 million Bangladeshi's, the vast

the Government of Pakistan. Teram

majority being Hindu.

Kangri I (7,465 m/24,490 ft) and Teram

[] Siachin war, 1984

Kangri II (7,406 m/24,300 ft) were

climbed in 1975 by a Japanese

The Siachin war between India and

Pakistan occurred in 1984. The area of
the dispute was the Siachen Glacier the world's highest battlefield. The

expedition led by H. Katayama, which

approached through Pakistan via the
Bilafond La.[6] Once having become
aware of this and the errant US

33

military maps, Colonel N. Kumar of the

current Pakistani president, General

Indian Army, then commanding the

Pervez Musharraf states that Pakistan

Army's High-Altitude Warfare School,

lost almost 900 square miles (2,300 km2)

mounted an Army expedition to the

of territory.[10] TIME states that the

Siachen area as a counter-exercise. In

Indian advance captured nearly

1978 this expedition climbed Teram

1,000 square miles (2,600 km2) of

Kangri II, claiming it as a first ascent

territory claimed by Pakistan.[11] Since

in a typical 'oropolitical' riposte.

then Pakistan has launched several

Unusually for the normally secretive

attempts to displace the Indian forces,

Indian Army, the news and

but with little success. The most well

photographs of this expedition were

known was in 1987, when an attempt

published in 'The Illustrated Weekly of

was made by Pakistan to dislodge

India', a widely-circulated popular

India from the area. The attack was

magazine.[7]

masterminded by Pervez Musharraf

The first public mention of a possible

conflict situation in the Siachen was an
abbreviated article titled "High Politics
in the Karakoram" by Joydeep Sircar in

The Telegraph newspaper of Calcutta

in 1982[8]. The full text was printed as
"Oropolitics" in the Alpine Journal,
London, in 1984.[9]
India launched Operation Meghdoot
(named after the divine cloud
messenger in a Sanskrit play by
Kalidasa) on 13 April 1984 when the
Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army
and the Indian Air Force went into the
glacier region. Pakistan quickly
responded with troop deployments and
what followed was literally a race to
the top. Within a few days, the Indians
were in control over most of the area,
as Pakistan was beaten to most of the
Saltoro Ridge high ground by about a
week. The two northern passes - Sia
La and Bilafond La - were quickly
secured by India. In his memoirs,

(later President of Pakistan) heading a

newly raised elite SSG commando unit
raised with United States Special
Operations Forces help in the area.[12] A
special garrison with eight thousand
troops was built at Khapalu. The
immediate aim was to capture Bilafond
La but after bitter fighting that
included hand to hand combat, the
Pakistanis were thrown back and the
positions remained the same. The only
Param Vir Chakra - India's highest
gallantry award - to be awarded for
combat in the Siachen area went to
Naib Subedar Bana Singh (retired as
Subedar Major/Honorary Captain), who
in a daring daylight raid assaulted and
captured a Pakistani post atop a 22,000
foot (6,700 m) peak, now named Bana
Post.[13] Further attempts to reclaim
positions were launched by Pakistan in
1990, 1995, 1996 and even in early 1999,
just prior to the Lahore Summit. The
1995 attack by Pakistan SSG was

34

significant as it resulted in 40

maintaining these outposts are put at

casualties for Pakistan troops without

~$300 and ~$200 million for India and

any changes in the positions. An Indian

Pakistan respectively. India has built

IAF MI-17 helicopter was shot down in

the world's highest helipad on this

1996.

glacier at a place called Sonam, which

[edit] Current situation

is at 21,000 feet (6,400 m) above the

The Indian army controls all of the

sea level, to serve the area. India also

70 kilometres (43 mi) long Siachen

installed the world's highest telephone

Glacier as well as all of its tributary

booth on the glacier.[18] One of the

glaciers as well as the three main

factors behind the Kargil War in 1999

passes of the Saltoro Ridge

when Pakistan sent infiltrators to

immediately west of the glacier, Sia La,

occupy vacated Indian posts across the

Bilafond La, and Gyong La, thus

Line of Control was their belief that

holding onto the tactical advantage of

India would be forced to withdraw from

high ground.[14].

Siachen in return for Pakistan pulling

[15]

Gyong La (Pass)

itself is at 35-10-29N, 77-04-15 E; that

back from Kargil. Both sides have been

high point is controlled by India. The

wishing to disengage from the costly

Pakistanis control the glacial valley just

military outposts but after the Kargil

five kilometers southwest of Gyong La.

War India has backed off from

The line where Indian and Pakistani

withdrawing in Siachen, wary that the

troops are presently holding onto their

Kargil scenario could play out again if

respective posts is being increasingly

they vacate their Siachen Glacier posts

referred to as the Actual Ground

without any official confirmation of

Position Line (AGPL).[16][17]

their positions.

The Pakistanis have been unable get

During her tenure as Prime Minister of

up to the crest of the Saltoro Ridge,

Pakistan, Ms Benazir Bhutto, visited the

while the Indians cannot come down

area west of Gyong La, making her the

and abandon their strategic high posts.

first premier from either side to get to

A cease fire went into effect in 2003.

the Siachen region. On June 12, 2005,

Even before then, every year more

Prime Minister Manmohan Singh

soldiers were killed because of severe

became the first Indian Prime Minister

weather than enemy firing. The two

to visit the area, calling for a peaceful

sides have lost an estimated 2,000

resolution of the problem. In the

personnel primarily due to frostbite,

previous year, the President of India,

avalanches and other complications.

Abdul Kalam became the first head of

Both nations have 150 manned

state to visit the area. India based Jet

outposts along the glacier, with some

Airways plans to open a chartered

3,000 troops each. Official figures for

service to the glacier's nearest airlink,

35

the Thoise airbase, mainly for military

By 21 May, the Indian army had

purposes. Pakistan's PIA flies tourists

isolated Tiger Hill from three directions,

and trekkers daily to Skardu, which is

east, north and south. In order to

the jumping off point for K2, the

inflict casualties the enemy positions

world's second highest point just 33

on Tiger Hill were subjected to artillery

kilometers (20.5 miles) northwest of the

and mortar fire. A fresh battalion, 18

Siachen area, although bad weather

Grenadiers was brought in to capture

frequently grounds these scheduled

the peak with regiments holding the

flights.

firm base. On the night of July 3, 18

Since September 2007, India has

opened up mountaineering and
trekking expeditions to the forbidding
glacial heights. The expeditions are
also meant to show to the
international audience that Indian
troops hold "almost all dominating

Grenadiers captured the eastern slope

but further advance was held up due
to effective enemy fire from Helmet
Top, India Gate features on the western
slope. By morning July 4th Tiger Hill
was captured by the 18th Grenadiers,
effectively ending Pakistan's Kargil War.

heights" on the important Saltoro

The Kargil War, also known as the

Ridge and, to show that Pakistani

Kargil conflict,(I) was an armed

troops are not within 15 miles (24 km)

conflict between India and Pakistan

of the 43.5-mile (70 km) Siachen

that took place between May and July

Glacier.[19] Despite protests from

1999 in the Kargil district of Kashmir.

Pakistan, India maintains that it doesn't

The cause of the war was the

need Pakistan's approval to send

infiltration of Pakistani soldiers and

trekkers to Siachen, in what it says is

Kashmiri militants into positions on the

essentially an Indian territory.[20]

Indian side of the Line of Control,

Coordinates:

35.5 N 77.0 E

[] Kargil war, 1999

India fought a brief border skirmish
with Pakistan in the Indian state of
Kashmir in 1999. Dubbed the Kargil
War, after the infiltration of Pakistani
soldiers and paramilitary in the Kargil
area, India reclaimed the territory
through military and diplomatic
channels. Pakistan lost 4000 soldiers,
while India lost little over 500.

which serves as the de facto border

between the two states. During and
directly after the war, Pakistan blamed
the fighting entirely on independent
Kashmiri insurgents, but documents left
behind by casualties and later
statements by Pakistan's Prime Minister
and Chief of Army Staff showed
involvement of Pakistani paramilitary
forces. The Indian Army, supported by
the Indian Air Force, attacked the
Pakistani positions and, with
international diplomatic support,

36

eventually forced a Pakistani

nations took notice of the conflict and

withdrawal across the Line of Control

desired to end it.

(LoC).

The first hint of the possible use of a

The war is one of the most recent

nuclear bomb was on May 31 when

examples of high altitude warfare in

Pakistani foreign secretary Shamshad

mountainous terrain, and posed

Ahmad made a statement warning that

significant logistical problems for the

an escalation of the limited conflict

combating sides. This was the first

could lead Pakistan to use "any

direct ground war between any two

weapon" in its arsenal.[47] This was

countries after they had developed

immediately interpreted as an obvious

nuclear weapons. (India and Pakistan

threat of a nuclear retaliation by

both test-detonated fission devices in

Pakistan in the event of an extended

May 1998, though the first Indian

war, and the leader of Pakistan's

nuclear test was conducted in 1974.)

senate noted, "The purpose of

The conflict led to heightened tension

developing weapons becomes

between the two nations and increased

meaningless if they are not used when

defence spending on the part of India.

they are needed."[48] Many such

In Pakistan, the aftermath caused

ambiguous statements from officials of

instability to the government and the

both countries were viewed as an

economy, and, on October 12, 1999, a

impending nuclear crisis. The limited

coup d'etat by the military placed

nuclear arsenals of both sides,

army chief Pervez Musharraf in power.

paradoxically could have led to

One of the main concerns in the

international community during the
Kargil crisis was that both neighbours
had access to weapons of mass
destruction, and if the war intensified,
it could have led to nuclear war. Both
countries had tested their nuclear
capability a year before in 1998; India
conducted its first test in 1974 while it
was Pakistan's first-ever nuclear test.
Many pundits believed the tests to be

'tactical' nuclear warfare in the belief

that a nuclear strike would not have
ended in total nuclear warfare with
mutual assured destruction, as could
have occurred between the United
States and the USSR. Some experts
believe that following nuclear tests in
1998, Pakistani military was
emboldened by its nuclear deterrent
cover to markedly increase coercion
against India.[49]

an indication of the escalating stakes

The nature of the India-Pakistan

in the scenario in South Asia. With the

conflict took a more sinister proportion

outbreak of clashes in Kashmir just a

when the U.S. received intelligence

year after the nuclear tests, many

that Pakistani nuclear warheads were

being moved towards the border. Bill

37

Clinton tried to dissuade Pakistan

use non-conventional weapons. One

prime minister Nawaz Sharif from

militant group even claimed to possess

nuclear brinkmanship, even threatening

chemical weapons; this was later found

Pakistan of dire consequences.

to be a hoax, and even the gas masks

According to a White House official,

were most likely intended by the

Sharif seemed to be genuinely

Pakistanis as protection from an Indian

surprised by this supposed missile

attack. The Pakistani allegations of

movement and responded that India

India using banned chemicals in its

was probably planning the same. This

bombs were proven to be unfounded

was later confirmed in an article in

by the U.S. administration at the time

May 2000, which stated that India too

and the OPCW.[

had readied at least five nuclear-

Aftermath
[] India

tipped ballistic missiles.[50] Sensing a

deteriorating military scenario,
diplomatic isolation, and the risks of a
larger conventional and nuclear war,
Sharif ordered the Pakistani army to
vacate the Kargil heights. He later
claimed in his official biography that
General Pervez Musharraf had moved
nuclear warheads without informing
him.[51] Recently however, Pervez
Musharraf revealed in his memoirs that
Pakistans nuclear delivery system was
not operational during the Kargil war;[19]
something that would have put
Pakistan under serious disadvantage if
the conflict went nuclear.

Indian PM A.B.Vajpayee flashes the V

sign after the Parliamentary elections
in which his coalition emerged the
victors. His handling of the Kargil crisis
is believed to have played a big part
in garnering the votes.
The aftermath of the war saw the rise
of the Indian stock market by over 30%.
The next Indian national budget

Additionally, the threat of WMD

included major increases in military

included a suspected use of chemical

spending. From the end of the war

and even biological weapons. Pakistan

until February 2000, the economy of

accused India of using chemical

India was bullish. There was a surge in

weapons and incendiary weapons such

patriotism, with many celebrities

as napalm against the Kashmiri

pitching in towards the Kargil cause.[53]

fighters. India, on the other hand,

Indians were also angered by the

showcased a cache of gas masks,

death of pilot Ajay Ahuja under

among other firearms, as proof that

controversial circumstances, and

Pakistan may have been prepared to

especially after Indian authorities

38

reported that Ahuja had been

did not fully inform the government

murdered and his body mutilated by

about the intrusions, adding that the

Pakistani troops. The war had also

army chief Ved Prakash Malik, was

produced higher than expected

initially reluctant to use the full strike

fatalities for the Indian military, with a

capability of the Indian Air Force,

sizeable percentage of them including

instead requesting only helicopter

newly commissioned officers. One

gunship support.[56] Soon after the

month later, the Atlantique Incident -

conflict, India also decided to complete

where a Pakistan Navy plane was shot

the project - previously stalled by

down by India - briefly reignited fears

Pakistan - to fence the entire LOC.[57]

of a conflict between the two

countries.

The Kargil victory was followed by the

13th Indian General Elections to the

After the war, the Indian government

Lok Sabha, which gave a decisive

severed ties with Pakistan and

mandate to the NDA government. It

increased defence preparedness. Since

was re-elected to power in

the Kargil conflict, India raised its

SeptemberOctober 1999 with a

defence budget as it sought to acquire

majority of 303 seats out of 545 in the

more state of the art equipment;

Lok Sabha. On the diplomatic front, the

however, a few irregularities came to

conflict was a major boost to Indo-U.S.

light during this period of heightened

relations, as the United States

military expenditure.[54] There was also

appreciated Indian attempts to restrict

severe criticism of the intelligence

the conflict to a limited geographic

agencies like RAW, which failed to

area. These ties were further

predict either the intrusions or the

strengthened following the 9/11 attacks

identity/number of infiltrators during

and a general shift in foreign policy of

the war. An internal assessment report

the two nations. Relations with Israel

by the armed forces, published in an

which had discreetly aided India with

Indian magazine, showed several other

ordnance supply and matriel such as

failings, including "a sense of

unmanned aerial vehicles and laser-

complacency" and being "unprepared

guided bombs, as well as satellite

for a conventional war" on the

imagery also were bolstered

presumption that nuclearism would

following the end of the conflict.[58]

sustain peace. It also highlighted the

[] Pakistan

lapses in command and control, the

insufficient troop levels and the dearth
of large-calibre guns like the Bofors.[55]
In 2006, retired Air Chief Marshal, A.Y.
Tipnis, alleged that the Indian Army

39

believed to have felt let down by the

prime minister's decision to withdraw
the remaining fighters. However, some
authors, including ex-CENTCOM
Commander Anthony Zinni, and ex-PM
Nawaz Sharif, state that it was the
In 1999 TIME reported from the front
line[59] of the combat and provided one
of the few images of a Pakistani
soldier at his post.
Faced with the possibility of
international isolation, the already
fragile Pakistani economy was
weakened further.[60][61] The morale of its
forces after the withdrawal was
affected[62] as many units of the

General who requested Sharif to

withdraw the Pakistani troops.[70][71] With
Sharif placing the onus of the Kargil
attacks squarely on the army chief
Pervez Musharraf, there was an
atmosphere of uneasiness between the
two. On October 12, 1999, General
Musharraf staged a bloodless coup

d'tat, ousting Nawaz Sharif.

Northern Light Infantry were

Benazir Bhutto, an opposition leader

destroyed,[63] and the government

and former prime minister, called the

refused to even recognise the dead

Kargil War "Pakistan's greatest

bodies of its soldiers,[64][65] an issue that

blunder". Many ex-officials of the

provoked outrage and protests in the

military and the ISI (Pakistan's principal

Northern Areas.[66][67] Pakistan initially

intelligence agency) also were of the

did not acknowledge many of its

view that "Kargil was a waste of time"

casualties, but Sharif later said that

and "could not have resulted in any

over 4,000 Pakistani troops were killed

advantage" on the larger issue of

in the operation and that Pakistan had

Kashmir.[72] A retired Pakistani Army

lost the conflict. Responding to this,

General, Lt Gen Ali Kuli Khan,

Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf

lambasted the war as "a disaster

said, "It hurts me when an ex-premier

bigger than the East Pakistan

undermines his own forces," and

tragedy",[73] adding that the plan was

claimed that Indian casualties were

"flawed in terms of its conception,

more than that of Pakistan.[68]

tactical planning and execution" that

Many in Pakistan had expected a

victory over the Indian military based
on Pakistani official reports on the
war,[60] but were dismayed by the turn
of events and questioned the eventual
retreat.[13][69] The military leadership is

ended in "sacrificing so many

soldiers.".[74][73] The Pakistani media too
was vocal in its criticism of the whole
plan and the eventual climbdown from
the Kargil heights since there were no
gains to show for the loss of lives and

40

only resulted in international

performance in the war - which even

condemnation for its actions.[75]

drew praise from a retired Indian Lt.

Despite calls by many for a probe, no

public commission of inquiry was set
up to investigate the people
responsible for initiating the conflict.
However, the Pakistani political party,
PML(N) unveiled a white paper in 2006,
which states that Nawaz Sharif
constituted an inquiry committee that
recommended a court martial for
General Pervez Musharraf.[76] The party
alleges that Musharraf "stole the
report" after toppling the government,
to save himself. The report also claims
that India knew about the plan 11
months before its launch, enabling a
complete victory for India on military,
diplomatic and economic fronts.[77] A
statement in June, 2008 by a former
army corps commander of Pakistan
that Sharif "was never briefed by the
army" on the Kargil attack,[78] had
reignited the demand for a proble on
the episode by legal & political
groups.[79][80] Though the Kargil conflict
had brought the Kashmir dispute into
international focus which was one of
the aims of Pakistan it had done so
in negative circumstances that eroded
its credibility, since the infiltration
came just after a peace process
between the two countries was
underway. The sanctity of the LoC too
received international recognition.

General[25] - the regiment was

incorporated into the regular army. The
war showed that despite a tactically
sound plan that had the element of
surprise, little groundwork had been
done to gauge the politico-diplomatic
ramifications.[81] And like previous
unsuccessful infiltrations attempts like

Operation Gibraltar that sparked the

1965 war, there was little coordination
or information sharing among the
branches of the Pakistan military. One
U.S. Intelligence study is reported to
have stated that Kargil was yet
another example of Pakistans (lack of)
grand strategy, repeating the follies of
the previous wars.[82] All these factors
contributed to a strategic failure for
Pakistan in Kargil.
[] Other Operations
[] Sri Lanka mission, 1987-1990
The Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)
carried out a mission in northern and
eastern Sri Lanka, in 19871990 to
disarm the LTTE as per the Indo-Sri
Lanka accord. In what was labeled as

Operation Pawan, the Indian Air Force

flew about 70,000 sorties to and within
Sri Lanka, without a single aircraft lost
or mission aborted.
[] Operation Cactus, 1988
In November 1988, the Maldives
Government appealed India for military
help against a mercenary invasion. On

After the war, a few changes were

the night of November 3, 1988, the

made to the army. In recognition of

Indian Air Force airlifted a parachute

the Northern Light Infantry's

41

battalion group from Agra and flew

months. In 1974, India tested a device

them non-stop over 2000 km to

of up to 15 kilotons. The test was a

Maldives. The Indian paratroopers

"peaceful nuclear explosion" and was

landed at Hulule, secured the airfield

codenamed "Operation Smiling

and restored the Government rule at

Buddha".

Mal within hours. The brief, bloodless

[] Operation Shakti ( nuclear tests,

199 8)

operation showed the capability of the

Indian Air Force in what was labeled

On May 11 and May 13, 1998, India

as Operation Cactus.

conducted five underground nuclear

[] Missile program

tests (3 on May 11 and 2 on May 13)

India has a well developed missile

capabilities, which traces its roots to
the Indian Space Program.

and declared itself a nuclear state.

[] Overview and recent developments
The Indian military today ranks as the

[] Integrated Guided Missile

Development Program ( IGMDP)

world's third largest after the USA and

The Integrated Guided Missile

million strong, the paramilitary unit of

Development Program (IGMDP) was

the Republic of India is the world's

formed in 1983 with the aim of

largest and most elite paramilitary

achieving self-sufficiency in missile

force. Eager to portray itself as a

development & production.

potential superpower, India began an

Presently it comprises five core missile

programs

China in terms of troops. Over a

intense phase of modernization and

upgradation of its armed forces in the
late 1990s. India is focusing more on

Agni ballistic missile

Prithvi ballistic missile
Akash surface-to-air missile
Trishul surface-to-air missile
Nag anti-tank guided missile

This program has given India self

reliance in Missile development. So,
attempts like Missile Technology
Control Regime (MTCR) to control
access to and availability of advanced

developing indigenous military

equipments rather than relying on
other countries for military supplies.
This change in policy has paid off well
for the Indian Armed Forces. Most of
the Indian naval ships and submarines,
military armoured vehicles, missiles
and ammunition are indigenously
designed and manufactured.

weapon systems for developing nations

[] Military collaborations with

other nations

are not a major concern for India now.

Apart from diverting resources towards

[] Nuclear program
[] Smiling Buddha, 1974

indigenously manufacturing military

In 1966, India had declared that it can

produce nuclear weapons within 18

equipment, the Indian Government is

also focusing on collaborating with
other countries to develop cutting-

42

edge military technology and weapons.

destroyed ammunition worth Rs. 378

Jointly developed by Russia and India,

crore.

the world's only supersonic cruise

[] Awards

missile, known as the BrahMos, was

In Independent India, the gallantry

successfully test-fired in 2001. In 1997,

awards for exemplary display of

India agreed to participate in the

bravery in war time are the Param Vir

development of Russia's Prospective

Chakra, Maha Vir Chakra and Vir

Air Complex for Tactical Air Forces

Chakra in the decreasing order of

program. One of the primary objectives

importance. Their peace time

of the program is to develop a 5th

equivalents are the Ashoka Chakra,

generation fighter aircraft, a prototype

Kirti Chakra and Shaurya Chakra. The

of which, known as the Su-47, flew its

latter two awards were formerly known

first successful test-flight in 1997. India

as Ashoka Chakra, Class II and Ashoka

is also collaborating with Israel to

Chakra, Class III respectively.

develop Unmanned Aerial Vehicles and

Sometimes, the peace time awards are

anti-missile defense systems.

bestowed on civilians as well. For

India is now focusing on purchasing

meritorious service, the awards are

the technology behind the military

Param Vishisht Seva Medal, Athi

equipment rather than the military

Vishisht Seva Medal and Vishisht Seva

equipment. Recent examples of the

Medal in decreasing order of

successful implementation of this

importance.

Indian policy include the purchase of

Sukhoi Su-30 MKI multi-role fighter
aircraft and T-90 main battle tanks
from Russia and diesel-powered
Scorpene submarines from France. In
2004, India purchased US$ 5.7 billion
worth of military equipment from other
countries, making it the developing
world's leading arms-purchaser.
[] Disasters
On April 28, 2000, ammunition worth Rs.
393 crore was destroyed due to a fire
at the Bharatpur ammunition depot.
Another fire at Pathankot sub-depot
resulted in loss of ammo worth Rs.
27.39 crore. On May 24, 2001, another
blaze at the Birdhwal sub-depot

43