BASIC GRAVITY FLOW PRINCIPLES FOR GRA~ULAR

:!

A~D COARSE l\1ATERlALS IN SILOS AND BINS

Z.1

Introduction

,rnm ledge of grav ity flow principles is an indispensable factor in the design. construction and \.'pair of biu-. silos,
discharge hoppers, etc. Relatively specialized long term research has. and still .-, being carried out in this field. ln this

chapter we will introduce a specific concept, namely. ~,plnmcntal research and its achicv cmcnis. We must emphasize
that many principles developed for -..iln-, rind bins can be applied directly. or with certain modifications, to tasks
associated with the
i-r,1, it> flow aspects of mining methods.
l niil nn\\. an explicit definition of all possible materials which are stored and handled in bins, silos. -..t1kkpik'>. heaps. etc.

does not exist. For simplification. we will exclude cohesive materials, those .hat c xhihit plastic behax ior. and materials
that may deteriorate in a specific chemical process. In C:l't'cral. ,, e ,, ill speak about so-called "loose" materials. Loose
materials cover an inexhaustible range of materials. from dust or powder up to large blocks and boulders. This includes
particles as -;111.111 a.., a traction or a millimeter up to very large boulders or blocks several meters in size. \ lrhough loose
materials represent a "cry broad spectrum. here we will only he dealing with the cniral part of this spectrum. namely the
granular and coarse materials from different industrial
'!1trat101,..,.

2.2

Basic Flow Characteristics

Before c xumining quc-uons regarding flovv and some associated problems. we need to become f unihar with the hac;;ic
properties and behavior of loose materials. From practice and from the laboratory \\ c know that each loose material has
certain specific properties. The most common characteristic is that each loose material has its own distinct motion. There
are different. and often , c,y complicated. approaches to determine this motion. We, however, will use a most simple and
logica] approach \\ hich was developed by RL. Zenkov prior to 1950 (reference?). We know from ,lb<sc-r, ,1\H)J1, and
from measurements that the mobility of a loose material depends mainly on its internal Iricuon. For simplification. we will
assume that the coefficient of internal friction, f, is the t:1ngcn1 ofthe natural angle of repose (cp). The ::ipproximate
coefficient of mobility, m, is defined as:
//1

'
r--:;1<~1--7.Nt.-;-

The cocfticicnt of mobility for different values of cp and f is shown in the diagram presented in Figure 2.2-1. The highest

coefficient of mobility is characterized by a material which has a natural angle of repose of

coefficient of internal friction equal to zero. Water is just
such a material and it has a coefficient of mobility uf m = 1.0.

on and a corresponding

Figure 2.2-1
It should be mentioned that this is an approximate approach because of the d: fficuliy anll uncertainty in determining
the natural angle of repose of a material rather than an analyuc.. simplification. Any mixture of granular and coarse
materials will become segregated along .1 dumped slope as shown in Figure 2.2-2. The large pieces roll or slide to the
toe resulting 111 a surface that is not straight, but concave. Hence. it is not always evident how to determine an exact
angle of repose.

Figure 2.2-2
In the first phase of extraction. the gravity flow process is the same independent of w hcthcr the bu: or silo operation has
(1) separate filling and separate extraction, or (2) simultaneous lill1r~ an,'

extraction (see Figures 1.5-1 a and 1.5.1 b in the previous chapter). The characteristics of this flow are shown in
the model in Figure 2.2-3. The gravity flow movement as is visible through the glass wall of the model is defined
by the bending of the originally horizontal lines. If we connect the coints denoting where the horizontal lines bend
dow nwards, we have a shape similar to an ellipse since our model is two-dimensional and represents a vertical
section of a bin. In reality, because this process is in a three-dimensional environment, the actual shape is similar
to an elongated ellipsoid of revolution. With increased extraction the height increases while width remains
essentially constant. The result is that with increased height the ellipsoid beeomes relatively slimmer and the
eccentricity increases.

Figure 2.2-3 Ellipsoid of Loosening

ln the case of separate filling and extraction (see Figure 1 :5-1 a), when the apex of the ellipsoid reaches the
surface of the fill material, the surface starts to sink downwards forming an inverted cone. The cone angle depends
on the properties of the filling material. With continued extraction this cone descends downward with the same
geometry until the bin is completely empty. The process as clearly shown in Figure 2.2-4 represents a simple
model of a bin with a horizontal bottom, the outlet in the center. and with a filling material arranged like a black
and white checkerboard. The deformation of the black and white squares shows the different processes of gravity
flow over the height and width of the moving zone. It is evident that during extraction, the surface material on the
cone is sliding downwards towards the central part of the bin. Because the material in this zone is moving, we
define it as the aetive zone (A). The remaining volume of

material in the bin is temporarily motionless and forms the passive Lone (P). See also Figure I .. and b.

Figure 2.2-4

It was often assumed that a steeper bin bottom would enable or induce better gravity flo I 1~ 2.2-5 shows bins
with their bottoms inclined from O to 60 degrees. The model filling material i-.

same for all of the cases shown. From these figures it is evident that even with a very steep bottom there is no
difference in the gravity flow within the bin. Hence, while the shape of the bottom is .mportant for emptying a
bin, it does not influence the gravity flow within the bin.

Figure 2.2-5

2.3

One-sided Extraction

For the case of bins where the outlet is located on a vertical wall at the bottom of the bin (see Figure 1.4-2), the
principles of gravity flow are the same as for bins with their discharge opening in the center of the bin bottom.
This is evident from Figures 2.3-1. The main difference is that the active gravity flow zone only consists of one
half of the full gravity flow stream. The vertical wall has cut off the other half. Successive phases of discharge, as
shown in Figures 2.3-1 a through d, indicate that the axis of the f1ow cone inclines away from the vertical wall.
This inclination increases with increasing friction between the material and the vertical wall. While this inclination
is not really important in the operation of bins and silos due to their smooth walls, it does become important in
mining operations where the walls have been blasted and are therefore rough. In sublevel caving, for example,
there is significant friction effect along these walls as the ore moves downward in the gravity f1ow stream.
Although we will be discussing gravity flow in mining in a later chapter, we would like to point out now. that with
some imagination, the flow patterns in Figures 2.3-la through dare similar to those

in sublcvel caving. The vertical opening at the bottom of the bin simulates the sublcvel drift. In sublevel
caving there are, of eourse, additional factors that influence the gravity Dow of the blasted ore and ca vcd
waste.

Figure 2.3-1
There are many different types, sizes, shapes and functions of bins and silos and we \.\. i 11 not try to begin to
describe all of the existing and/or possible models and designs. We will also not deal w ith the large variations
found in bins, silos, discharge hoppers, etc., as this represents another area of engineering. Our focus will be
on the principles of gravity flow which apply not only to the material stored in bins but also to underground
mass mining methods.

2.4

Slot-type Draw Points

A common type of bin has one long continuous draw point in the form of a slot as is show n schematically in
Figures 2.4-1 a and b. The simplified drawing represents both a vertical section and a partial isometric view.
Figure 2.4-1 a is a bin with one draw point and Figure 2.4-1 b is a bin \\ it 1 draw points on opposite sides, The
draw points are closed by the natural angle of repose of ti - material. Extraction of the material from the toe
of the draw point is made by a scraper or a similar mechanism (not shown in the figure). The distance
between draw points can be small (as shown in Figure 2.4-2a) or large as shown in Figure 2.4-2b.

::.gure2.4-2
:- .;:--.:-es 2.4-Ja throuzh 2.-l-3h show the successive extraction of material from a model bin which

: ..... ;: small distance between the draw slots. Tt is clearly seen that the gravity flow streams not only

_-::=:-act to form a much wider stream but that this interaetion begins just above the bottom opening : : :::.e bin.
This feature can be effectively used to prevent arching in eoarse materials which can ::::-...r immediately above
the bin opening. For example, a more intense draw from one side. or : :=::-:iating the draws from the two sides
can help to eliminate an overlying arch .
.:: .:-action phases ( f), ( g), and (h) show the situation just before emptying the bin. The permanent ~ issivc zone
at the bottom of the draw slot is shown in Figure 2.4-Jh. Tt may be eliminated by :- :::i~g a permanent structure
constructed out of metal or concrete of the same shape below the :...-::.,\ slot.

1,;';,.. ...... , i:1-1 ::1-h

Figures 2.4-4a through 2.4-4f show the successive stages of extraction from a bin with two draw slots but with a
large distance between them. From the extraction phases shown in this model. it is ev ident that the interaction of
the gravity flow streams above the draw slot decreases with increased distances between the slots.

Figure 2.4-4 a-f

In modem block- or panel-caving, the draw points located on opposite sides of the same extraction bell have a
similar function to that shown in Figures 2.4-3 and 2.4-4. Figure 2.4-Sa illustrates the configuration of an
extraction level in plan. The distance between the draw points on opposite side of the extraction bell is marked as
(0). Figure 2.4-Sb shows the condition, when the distance (0) is small, while Figure 2.4-Sc shows the condition
with a large width of bell and a correspondingly large distance D.
The interaction of the individual gravity flow streams and the increase in the overall stream width is evident from
Figure 2.4-Sb. In this scenario, the small distance (D) probably helps to destroy an arch that occurs just above the
bell.
For the case shown in Figure 2.4-Sc. the distance (D) between the opposite draw points is probably too large
because in the central zone a large passive zone (P) occurs which extends upwards, high above the extraction bell.
It is very desirable to achieve a maximum stream width above the bell. Based on these model results, the optimum
draw point spacing is somewhere between that shown in Figure 2.4-Sb and in Figure 2.4-Sc. The problem of
extraetion bell dimension and espeeially the

draw point spacing (D) is more complex than this and it will be discussed further in the bloc] caving section.

Figure 2.4-5
When the bin has several draw points in a row, gravity flow can be discussed using tw o basic cases

The draw points are sufficiently close together so that there is a strong interaetion betw L'C the openings. This
results in simultaneous massive flow, especially when the draw points :11
all functioning at the same time.

The draw points are so far away from each other that no interaction occurs bctw cc
neighboring gravity flow streams.

Determining the extent of flow interaction can be evaluated by reviewing a series of model t~~b tit. were conducted in
the early l 950s. These model tests were specifically conducted to assess the tl. interaction between draw points. The
first objective of the model tests was to define the "critic, limiting-distance" between draw points. The critical limitingdistance is defined as the distanc such that no interaction oceurs between neighboring flow streams. Tests were run with
the s.ir materials and same model construction but with different distances between the draw ptll, , Figures 2.4-6a
through 2.4-6j present one of the models used to assess the critical limiting-dtstan_, The model shown in this figure has
three discharge openings.
Material was first extracted from the center draw point (No. 2). As seen in Figures 2.4-6a and b. th gravity Ilov .. is
characterized as a typical elliptical flow pattern. The main axis of the ellipse 1 vertical and straight. Additional
extraction from this draw point (Figures 2.4-6c through 2...J.-6 indicates that after the gravity flow stream reaches the
surface an inverted cone forms.

Figure 2.4-6 g, h, i, and j

Figures 2.4-6g through j show the model as material is now simultaneously extracted from draw points 1, 2 and 3
at the same rate. As shown, the axes of the gravity flow streams from al 1 draw points are vertical and straight.
However, as is visible in Figures 2.4-6h through 2.4-6j, the upper portion of the flow streams above outlets No. 1
and No. 3 are not symmetrical about their grax ity flow stream axes. This is due to the presence of the large
inverted cone on the surface that \>. as induced by earlier extraction of material from discharge outlet No. 2.

2.5

Channeling

When the discharge outlet at the bottom of a bin or silo operated in the separate filling and extraction mode (Figure
1.5-1 a) is opened, the material starts to flow from the bottom zone and forms a flow stream. The flow stream
quickly propagates vertically to the surface of the bin, the surface material subsides and an inverted cone is
formed. The formation of the inverse cone initiates a second form of material flow into the gravity flow stream.
This form of material flow consists or material sliding from the top of the inverted cone downward into the flow
stream and results in continuous subsidence of the surface. This process is illustrated in subsequent phases 2
through 4 in Figure 1.5- la. As shown in Figures 2.4-6a through j. the material that moves represents the active
zone and the motionless material forms the passive zone.
The material in the gravity flow stream is exposed to different stresses which can cause secondary crushing of the
material. Under certain circumstances, this secondary crushing is positive. I-IO\\C\CI for certain materials, this
crushing can decrease the value of the material.
Channeling the material through a structure that limits particle rotation, such as a pipe, may minimize secondary
crushing. This principle is illustrated in Figure 2.5-1. The parallel grav ity flow
of material reduces the potential for rotation and crushing.

Figure 2.5-1

Figurc-, 2.5-2 through 2.5-4 illustrate bin configurations that include a structural element to control material Ilov, and
material damage. Figure 2.5-2 shows a configuration whereby a vertical channel has been constructed in the front wall
of the bin. The configuration with a vertical channel located in the center of the bin is shown in Figure 2.5-3. Figure
2.5-4a shows a simplified view of a bin \\ ith a ...,lightl::, conical vertical channel. Here. the width of the channel
increases in the downward direction. Figure 2.5-5b shows a vertical section through the center of this same bin with a
passive zone (Pl

Figure 2.5-3
The models presented in Figures 2.5-2 through 2.5-3 illustrate the positive effect of the cha material flow.
The material flowing through the channel experiences a frictional drag bctwc. and the channel wall.
However, this frictional drag is less than the frictional resistance betw flowing particles themselves and
therefore the stored material flows smoothly in the chann the top down to the discharge opening. The
material flowing in the channel flow s smooth I) arching or blockage.

igure 2.5-5d, e, and f

"he principle of gravity flow in bins with a vertical channel is also demonstrated in Figures 2.5-Sa l1rnugh f.
Figure 2.5-Sa shows the model filled with different colored layers. Figures 2.5-Sb hrough f show the controlled
discharge of material with the discharge shown in distinctive colors.
lus type of approach may be used to minimize breakage and damage for many types of materials. igure 2.5-6
presents a schematic of the technique used by Theimer (1958) to assist the flow of
.ocoa beans in a silo.

Figure 2.5-6 Schematic of Silo for Cocoa Beans

2.6

Application of Shields

Model studies have shown that bins designed for separate filling and separate extraction \\ i 11 function differently if
used under simultaneous filling and extraction. for example, the ~i/c or J passive zone changes with the extraetion
process. With simultaneous filling and extraction, size or the passive zone is larger than with separate extraction and
filling. This is shown in Figure 2.6-1. With separate extraction and filling the passive zone is Pl. With simultaneous
filling and extraction this zone increases in size by an amount P2. The combined zone (P 1 +P2) which remains
stationary impacts the flow of material within the bin.

l'igure 2.6-1
There are different ways of eliminating the passive zone in bins or silos depending upon the material type.
Changing the shape of the bin may control the passive zone. The most efficient shape for a bin or silo is a
cylindrical shape. Theoretically, in order to eliminate passive zones, the bin would hav e no bottom. This, however,
is not practical. A bottomless bin would have uniform mass flow ( no "dead spots" to create passive zones).
Although a bottomless bin is not practical, the same net effect may be achieved by having a central discharge
opening at the silo bottom and installing a "shield" above the opening (Kvapil, 1953). This feature is illustrated in
Figure 2.6-2. The silo shown has a shield (S) that is used to uniformly distribute flow to the discharge opening.
Although the presence of the shield creates a passive zone above the shield, the zone is small and is used to
control the flow of material to the discharge opening. The shield may have several configurations, as shown in
Figure 2.6-3.

Figure 2.6-3

Figure 2.6-4

For a cohesive material. the arrangement presented in Figure 2.6-4 may be used. In this figure the silo (I) has a
circular diseharge opening that is formed with a shield (2). A mechanical extraction system (3) is then used to
discharge the material. The central cone ( 4) eliminates the formation of a passive zone.
The function of a shield can be varied widely. It can be used to form a cone that, on its periphery, has a circular
slot (discharge opening). This is the configuration s shown in Figure 2.6-4 (after manufacturer Buckau R. Wolf
A.G. 1966-1967). In this type of silo, the material is also discharged using a mechanical sweeping arm.
In summary, for all silos and bins equipped with a shield, which is mainly charaeterized by a circular slot between
the periphery of the shield and the wall of the silo, the following technical principles apply:

The contents of the silo will flow downwards as a uniform gravity flow stream. The flow stream must
have a width which ensures complete involvement of the material. For a circular silo, the material
interaction is compatible with a circular discharge slot;

The passive zone above the shield can be eliminated by placing a structural cone on the shield with the
same shape of the passive zone.;

The presence of the shield changes the gravity flow system. The material, even in silos with separate
filling and separate extraction, flows uniformly in the upper part (as a mass flow) over the width of the
silo, thereby eliminating the surface cone. See Figure 2.6-5)

The peripheral slot, which is much narrower than the width of the gravity flow stream will affect the flow
of materials just above the slot. The flow must change from regular mass flow to non-regular flow for
which the speed of separate particles is a function of their position within the flow stream.

Figure 2.6-5
The change in the character of gravity flow is illustrated in Figures 2.6-6 a through c. This model shows a
combination of a discharge slot on the periphery of a cone with a narrow vertical discharge channel at the center of
the silo.

Figure 2.6-6a,b,c

2. 7

Shaft Furnace Applications

Gravity flow experiments can also be used to assess general flow conditions and governing mechanisms. For
example, models were used to assess the performance of a shaft furnace for iron pellets. After a number of
tests, we installed a discharge funnel with steep sides below the level of the breakers (the breakers were used
to "break" conglomerates of pellets). Shields were installed (see Figures 2.7-1 and 2.7-2) to promote mass
flow in the upper part of the funnel.. These models were successfully used to address the mass flow problems
with iron pellets.

Figure 2.7-1 Achieving of a mass flow in an iron pellets shaft furnace (subsequent phases a) and b)).

Figure 2.7-2 Visualization of an approximate characteristic of almost uniform mass flow in a

shaft furnace for iron pellets.

2.8

Summary

I he models presented in this section were used to develop a better understanding of basic gravity flow. While
these models were primarily constructed for silos and bins, the same principles observed in these models are
applicable to mass mining methods. Achieving uniform gravity flow in mass mining methods is of critical
problem for minimizing dilution.