=]

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A computer network or networking is interconnection of various computer systems
located at different places. In computer network two or more computers are linked
together with a medium and data communication devices for the purpose of
communication data and sharing resources. The computer that provides resources to other
computers on a network is known as server. In the network the individual computers,
which access shared network resources, are known as nodes.
Two devices are said to be networked when a process in one device is able to exchange
information with a process in another device. Networks may be classified by various
characteristics, such as the media used to transmit signals, the communications protocols
used to organize network traffic, network scale, network topology and organizational
scope. The best-known computer network is the Internet.
Communication protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in
a computer network. Well-known communications protocols include Ethernet, a hardware
and link layer standard that is widely used for local area networks, and the Internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP), which defines a set of protocols for communication between
multiple networks, for host-to-host data transfer, and for application-specific data
transmission formats. Protocols provide the basis for network programming.
1.2 NECESSITY
Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for the
success of every enterprise. While today nearly every organization uses a substantial
number of computers and communication tools (like telephone or fax), they are often still
isolated. While managers today are able to use applications like wordprocessors or
spreadsheets, not very many of them use computer-based tools to communicate with other
departments or information retrieval programs.
To overcome these obstacles in an effective usage of information technology, computer
networks are necessary. They are a new kind (one might call it paradigm) of organization
of computer systems produced by the need to merge computers and communications. At
the same time they are the means to converge the two areas; the unnecessary distinction
1

between tools to process and store information and tools to collect and transport
information can disappear. Computer networks can manage to put down the barriers
between information held on several (not only computer) systems. Only with the help of
computer networks can a borderless communication and information environment be
built.
Computer networks allow the user to access remote programs and remote databases either
of the same organization or from other enterprises or public sources. Computer networks
provide communication possibilities faster than other facilities. Because of these optimal
information and communication possibilities, computer networks may increase the
organizational learning rate,

which many authors declare as the only fundamental

advantage in competition.
Besides this major reason why any organization should not fail to have a computer
network, there are other reasons as well which are cost reduction by sharing hard- and
software resources, high reliability by having multiple sources of supply, cost reduction
by downsizing to microcomputer-based networks instead of using mainframes and greater
flexibility because of possibility to connect devices from various vendors. Because of the
importance of this technology, decisions of purchase, structure, and operation of computer
networks cannot be left to technical staff. Management as well has a critical need for
understanding the technology of computer networks.
1.3 OBJECTIVE
Right from the day of computer automation, a computer has developed computer in each
department. For example, the task can be to keep of track off inventories, monitor
productivity and maintain accounts. Initially, this computer in different department works
as an isolation from other computer. These provided the necessary computer assistance in
the activities pertaining to the respective department. It was not possible to share
information among the departments. As a result, the information was replicated wherever
needed. This increased redundancy caused increased in storage space, less data
consistency etc. Hence, at a point it was decided to connect the computers in various
departments to extract the information and correlate information about the entire
company. The following are the objectives of the computer networks.

Resource sharing is the main objective of the computer network. The goal is to
provide all the program, date and hardware is available to everyone on the network
without regard to the physical location of the resource and the users.

The second objective is to provide the high Reliability. It is achieved by replicating

the files on two or more machines, so in case of unavailability (due to fail of
hardware) the other copies can be used.

Computer organization has helped organization in saving money. This is due to the
fact that the small computer has much better price to the performance ratio
comparison than the large computer like mainframe. Mainframe computer are
approximately ten times faster that the microcomputers, but they cost thousands times
more. As a result of this imbalance, organization has preferred to install
interconnected microcomputer connected to the mainframe computer.

Computer network have provided means to increase system performance as the work
load increases (load balancing). In the days of mainframe when the system was full it
was to replace with the other large mainframe computer, usually at and expensive rate
not convenience for user.

Computer network help people who live or work apart to report together. So, when
one user prepared some documentation, he can make the document online enabling
other to read and convey their opinions. Thus computer network is a powerful
communication medium.

Only authorized user can access resource in a computer network. Users are
authenticated by their user name and password. Hence it is not possible to access the
data without proper account. This increases security.

1.4 THEME
Two devices are said to be networked when a process in one device is able to exchange
information with a process in another device. Networks may be classified by various
characteristics, such as the media used to transmit signals, the communications protocols
used to organize network traffic, network scale, network topology and organizational
scope. The best-known computer network is the Internet. Communication protocols
define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network.
3

Well-known communications protocols include Ethernet, a hardware and link layer

standard that is widely used for local area networks, and the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP), which defines a set of protocols for communication between multiple networks,
for host-to-host data transfer, and for application-specific data transmission formats.
Protocols provide the basis for network programming.
1.5 ORGANIZATION
Networks are typically managed by the organizations that own them. Private enterprise
networks may use a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide
network access to the Internet, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited
global connectivity.
1.5.1 INTRANETS AND EXTRANETS
Intranets and extranets are parts or extensions of a computer network, usually a LAN.An
intranet is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity.
The intranet uses the IP protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file
transfer applications. The administrative entity limits use of the intranet to its authorized
users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of an organization. A large
intranet will typically have at least one web server to provide users with organizational
information.
An extranet is a network that is also under the administrative control of a single
organization, but supports a limited connection to a specific external network. For
example, an organization may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data
with its business partners or customers. These other entities are not necessarily trusted
from a security standpoint. Network connection to an extranet is often, but not always,
implemented via WAN technology.
1.5.2 INTERNETWORK
An internetwork is the connection of multiple computer networks via a common routing
technology using routers.
1.5.3 INTERNET
The Internet is the largest example of an internetwork. It is a global system of
interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer
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networks. It is based on the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is

the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET)
developed by DARPA of the United States Department of Defense. The Internet is also
the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW).
Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented,
and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an
addressing system (IP addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange
information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths.

CHAPTER II
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LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Introduction to Computer Networking
In general, the term network can refer to any interconnected group or system. More
specifically, a network is any method of sharing information between two systems
(human, electrical or mechanical).

Fig. 2.1 A simple network

A network lets you effortlessly transfer files, pictures, music and information without
using a disk or burning a CD. It also enables everyone in your home or office to share one
broadband Internet connection, one printer, one scanner.
2.2 Types of Network
2.2.1 LAN (Local Area Network)
A Local Area Network is a group of computers and network communication devices
within a limited geographic area, such as an office building. Local area networking uses
switches, bridges and/or repeaters, and hubs to interconnect LANs and increase overall
size

Fig. 2.2 Local area network

2.2.2 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A Metropolitan Area Network is a network that connects two or more Local Area
Networks or Campus Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries
of the immediate town, city, or metropolitan area. Multiple routers, switches & hubs are
connected to create a MAN. A MAN can range anywhere from 5 to 50 km in diameter.
2.2.3 WAN (Wide Area Network)
A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area
(i.e. one city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. They
are generally connected with each other using routers.

Fig. 2.3 Wide area network

2.2.4 PAN (Personal Area Network)
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that may be used in a
PAN are printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs or scanners. The reach of a PAN is
typically within about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 Meters).
2.2.5 SAN (Storage Area Network)
We heavily rely on data in modern time. We have a lot of data in the form of audio and
video. We need to store data for quick access and transfer on special storage devices. Its
special purpose is to allow users on a larger network to connect various data storage
devices with clusters of data servers.
2.3 Network Topologies
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Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected. Each
topology is suited to specific tasks and has its own advantages and disadvantages. The
choice of topology is dependent upon

Type and number of equipment being used

Planned applications and rate of data transfers

Required response times

Cost

2.3.1 Types of Network Topologies

Physical Topology: Physical topology defines how devices are connected to the
network through the actual cables that transmit data (physical structure of the
network).

Logical Topology: Logical Topology (also referred to as Signal Topology) is a

network computing term used to describe the arrangement of devices on a network
and how they communicate with one another.

2.3.1.1 Common LAN Topologies (Physical)

BUS
In a bus topology, a single cable connects each workstation in a linear, daisy-chained
fashion and Signals are broadcasted to all stations, but stations only act on the frames
addressed to them.

Fig. 2.4 Bus Topology

RING

In a ring topology, unidirectional links connect the transmit side of one device to the
receive side of another device. Devices transmit frames to the next device (downstream
member) in the ring.
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Fig. 2.5 Ring Topology

STAR

In a star topology, each station is connected to a central Hub or Switch (concentrator) that
functions as a multi-port repeater. The hub broadcasts data all of the devices connected to
it and Switch transmits the data to the dedicated device for which the data is meant for.

Fig. 2.6 Star Topology

2.4 Modes of Transmission

There are three modes of transmission.
2.4.1 Unicast Transmission

In unicast transmissions, a single data packet is sent from a source to a single destination
on the network.

Fig. 2.7 Unicast Transmission

In Unicast Method

The source addresses the packet with the destination address.

The packet is sent into the network.

The network delivers the packet to the destination.

2.4.2 Multicast Transmission

In multicast transmissions, a single data packet is copied and sent to specific destinations
on the network.

Fig. 2.8 Multicast Transmission

In Multicast Process:
The source addresses the packet using a multicast address.
The packet is sent into the network.
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 The network copies the packet.

A copy is delivered to each destination that is included in the multicast address.
2.4.3 Broadcast Transmission
In Broadcast transmissions, a single data packet is copied and sent to all the destinations
on the network.
In Broadcast Process

The source addresses the packet with the broadcast address.

The packet is sent into the network.

The network copies the packet.

The packet copies are delivered to all destinations on the network.

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Fig. 2.9 Broadcast Transmission

2.5 Networking Devices
The devices which are used to communicate over the network are called networking
devices. Main networking devices are as follows.
2.5.1 Repeaters
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level
or higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover
longer distances without degradation.Because repeaters work with the actual physical
signal, and do not attempt to interpret the data being transmitted, they operate on the
Physical layer, the first layer of the OSI model.

Fig.2.10 Repeater
2.5.2 Hubs
A hub contains multiple ports, which is used to connect devices in a star topology. When a
packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the ports of the hub. But when the packets are
copied, the destination address in the frame does not change to a broadcast address. It
does this in a rudimentary way; it simply copies the data to all of the Nodes connected to
the hub (broadcast).

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Fig. 2.10 Hub

2.5.3 Bridges
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of
the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but
learn which physical addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge
associates a port and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port.
Bridges do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was
received.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of
frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source
address is stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port.
The first time that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will
forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.

Fig, 2.11 A Common Bridge

2.5.4 Switches
A switch is a device that performs switching. Specifically, it forwards and filters OSI
layer 2 datagram (chunk of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based
on the Physical-Addresses in the packets. This is distinct from a hub in that it only
forwards the datagram to the ports involved in the communications rather than all ports
connected.
A switch normally has numerous ports with the intention that most or all of the networks
be connected directly to a switch, or another switch that is in turn connected to a switch.

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Fig. 2.12 Switches

2.5.5 Routers
Routers are networking devices that forward data packets along networks by using
headers and forwarding/routing tables to determine the best path to forward the packets.
Routers work at the Internet layer of the TCP/IP model or layer 3 of the OSI model.
Routers also provide interconnectivity between like and unlike media. A router is
connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its
ISP's network. Some DSL and cable modems, for home use, have been integrated with
routers to allow multiple home computers to access the Internet.

Fig. 2.13 Two Modern Routers

2.6 Nework Cables
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device
to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In
some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a
variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's
topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable
and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a
successful network.
2.6.1 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield
helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other
computers.

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Fig.2.14 Coaxial Cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference.
In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair
cable.
2.6.1.1 Coaxial Cable Connectors
The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayonette NeilConcelman (BNC) connector. Different types of adapters are available for BNC
connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the
cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network,
always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

Fig.2.15 BNC Connector

2.6.2 Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted pair cable comes in two varieties: unshielded twisted pair and shielded twisted
pair.
2.6.2.1 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for
school networks UTP cables contain four twisted-pairs (Orange, green, Blue & Brown),
enclosed in a common sheath. 10Base-T, 100Base-TX and 100Base-T2 only use two of
the four pairs, while 100Base-T4 and 1000Base-T require all four pairs.

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Fig.2.16 Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

2.6.2.2 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency
interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for environments with electrical
interference; however, the extra shielding can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded
twisted pair is often used on networks using Token Ring topology.
2.6.3 Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the
problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that
contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for
connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and
lighting.

Fig.2.17: Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater
speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as
video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable
to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify.

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2.7 Network Models & Protocols

Network models define a set of network layers and how they interact. There are several
different network models depending on what organization or company started them. The
most important two are:
OSI Network Model (Reference Model)
The TCP/IP Model (DOD model)
2.7.1 Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) was a product of the Open
Systems Interconnection effort at the International Organization for Standardization. It is
a way of sub-dividing a communications system into smaller parts called layers. Similar
communication functions are grouped into logical layers. A layer provides services to its
upper layer while receiving services from the layer below. On each layer, an instance
provides service to the instances at the layer above and requests service from the layer
below.

Fig.2.18
OSI

The
Model

2.7.1.1

Layer

1:
Physical

Layer

The
Physical

Layer

defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the
relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or optical
cable. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs, repeaters,
network adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more.
The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are:
Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.
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Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively

shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.
Modulation or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment
and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are
signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a
radio link.
2.7.1.2 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data
between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the
Physical Layer. Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-tomultipoint media, characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area
network architecture, which included broadcast-capable multi-access media, was
developed independently of the ISO work in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sub
layering and management functions not required for WAN use. In modern practice, only
error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in data link protocols
such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC
layer is not used for most protocols on the Ethernet, and on other local area networks, its
flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used.
2.7.1.3 Layer 3: Network Layer
The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable
length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a
different network, while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport
Layer (in contrast to the data link layer which connects hosts within the same network).
The Network Layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform
fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer
sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a
logical addressing scheme values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing
scheme is not hierarchical. Careful analysis of the Network Layer indicated that the
Network Layer could have at least three sub layers:
Sub network Access that considers protocols that deal with the interface to networks,
such as X.25;

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 Sub network Dependent Convergence when it is necessary to bring the level of a

transit network up to the level of networks on either side;
Sub network Independent Convergence which handles transfer across multiple
networks.
2.7.1.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer
The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing
reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transport Layer controls the
reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/segmentation, and error
control. Some protocols are state and connection-oriented. This means that the Transport
Layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The Transport layer
also provides, the acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the
next data if no errors occurred.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to
the OSI definition of the Transport Layer, typical examples of Layer 4 are the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
2.7.1.5 Layer 5: Session Layer
The Session Layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes,
manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It
provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes check
pointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this
layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission
Control Protocol, and also for session check pointing and recovery, which is not usually
used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The Session Layer is commonly implemented
explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
2.7.1.6 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer establishes context between Application Layer entities, in which
the higher-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service
provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data
units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by
translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms
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data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be
sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
2.7.1.7 Layer 7: Application Layer
The Application Layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the
OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This
layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component.
Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. When determining
resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient network or the
requested communication exists. In synchronizing communication, all communication
between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application layer.
2.7.2 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Model
The TCP/IP Model is a specification for computer network protocols created in the 1970s
by DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense. It laid the foundation
for ARPANET, which was the world's first wide area network and a predecessor of the
Internet.

Fig. 2.19 Mapping of TCP/IP Suite to OSI

TCP/IP is generally described as having four 'layers or five if we include the bottom
physical layer. The layers near the top are logically closer to the user application, while
those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data.

2.7.2.1 The TCP/IP Application Layer

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TCP/IP application layer protocols provide services to the application software running
on a computer. The application Layer identifies the application running on the computer
through Port Numbers.
The various protocols that are used at the Application Layer are:
Telnet
Terminal Emulation, Telnet is a program that runs on your computer and connects your
PC to a server on the network. You can then enter commands through the Telnet program
and they will be executed as if you were entering them directly on the server console.
Port Number :23
FTP
File Transfer Protocol, the protocol used for exchanging files over the Internet. FTP is
most commonly used to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload a
file to a server. Port Number : 20(data port) ,21(control port)
HTTP
Hyper Text Transfer Protocolis the underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.
HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers
and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when we enter
a URL in the browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing
it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page. Port Number :80
SMTP
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages between servers.
In addition, SMTP is generally used to send messages from a mail client to a mail server.
Port Number :25
POP3
Post Office Protocol, a protocol used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server. Most e-mail
applications (sometimes called an e-mail client) use the POP, although some can use the
newer IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)as a replacement for POP3 Port
Number :110
TFTP
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Trivial File Transfer Protocol, a simple form of the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). TFTP
provides no security features. It is often used by servers to boot diskless workstations, Xterminals, and routers. Port Number :69
DNS
Domain Name System (or Service or Server), an Internet service that translates domain
names into IP addresses. Because domain names are alphabetic, they're easier to
remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses. Every time you use a
domain name, a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address.
For example, the domain name www.example.com might translate to 198.105.232.4.
Port Number :53
DHCP
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, a protocol for assigning dynamicIP addresses to
devices on a network. With dynamic addressing, a device can have a different IP address
every time it connects to the network. Dynamic addressing simplifies network
administration because the software keeps track of IP addresses rather than requiring an
administrator to manage the task. Port Number : 67(Server),68(Client).
2.7.2.2 The TCP/IP Transport Layer
The protocol layer just below the Application layer is the host-to-host layer (Transport
layer). It is responsible for end-to-end data integrity. Transport Layer identifies the
segments through Socket address (Combination of Port Number & I.P. address).
The two most important protocols employed at this layer are the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
TCP provides reliable, full-duplex connections and reliable service by ensuring that data
is retransmitted when transmission results in an error (end-to-end error detection and
correction). Also, TCP enables hosts to maintain multiple, simultaneous connections.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

22

When error correction is not required, UDP provides unreliable datagram service
(connectionless) that enhances network throughput at the host-to-host transport layer. It's
used primarily for broad casting messages over a network.
2.7.2.3 The TCP/IP Internet Layer
The best known TCP/IP protocol at the internetwork layer is the Internet Protocol (IP),
which provides the basic packet delivery service for all TCP/IP networks node addresses,
the IP implements a system of logical host addresses called IP addresses.
The IP addresses are used by the internetwork and higher layers to identify devices and to
perform internetwork routing. IP is used by all protocols in the layers above and below it
to deliver data, which means all TCP/IP data flows through IP when it is sent and
received, regardless of its final destination.
2.8 IP Addressing
2.8.1 Introduction
If a device wants to communicate using TCP/IP, it needs an IP address. I.P. addressing
was designed to allow hosts on one network to communicate with a host on a different
network regardless of the type of LANs the hosts are participating in. When the device
has an IP address and the appropriate software and hardware, it can send and receive IP
packets. Any device that can send and receive IP packets is called an IP host.
2.8.2 IP Terminology
The important terms vital to the understanding of the Internet Protocol are:
Bit: A bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0.
Byte: A byte is 8 bits.
Octet: An octet, made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary 8-bit binary number. In this
Session, the terms byte and octet are completely interchangeable.
Network address: This is the designation used in routing to send packets to a remote
networkfor example, 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, and 192.168.10.0.
Broadcast address: The address used by applications and hosts to send information to
all nodes on a network is called the broadcast address. Examples include
255.255.255.255, which is all networks, all nodes; 172.16.255.255, which is all subnets
and hosts on network 172.16.0.0; and 10.255.255.255, which broadcasts to all subnets and
hosts on network 10.0.0.0.
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2.8.3 The Hierarical IP Addressing Scheme

An IP v4 address consists of 32 bits of information. These bits are divided into four
sections, referred to as octets or bytes, each containing 1 byte (8 bits). You can depict an
IP address using one of three methods:
Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38
All these examples truly represent the same IP address. Hexadecimal isnt used as often as
dotted-decimal or binary when IP addressing is discussed, but you still might find an IP
address stored in hexadecimal in some programs. The Windows Registry is a good
example of a program that stores a machines IP address in hex.The 32-bit IP address is a
structured or hierarchical address, as opposed to a flat or nonhierarchical address.
Although either type of addressing scheme could have been used, hierarchical addressing
was chosen for a good reason. The advantage of this scheme is that it can handle a large
number of addresses, namely 4.3 billion (a 32-bit address space with two possible values
for each positioneither 0 or 1gives you 232, or 4,294,967,296). The disadvantage of
the flat addressing scheme, and the reason its not used for IP addressing, relates to
routing. If every address were unique, all routers on the Internet would need to store the
address of each and every machine on the Internet. This would make efficient routing
impossible, even if only a fraction of the possible addresses were used.
The solution to this problem is to use a two- or three-level hierarchical addressing scheme
that is structured by network and host or by network, subnet, and host. This two- or threelevel scheme is comparable to a telephone number. The first section, the area code,
designates a very large area. The second section, the prefix, narrows the scope to a local
calling area. The final segment, the customer number, zooms in on the specific
connection.
IP addresses use the same type of layered structure. Rather than all 32 bits being treated
as a unique identifier, as in flat addressing, a part of the address is designated as the
network address and the other part is designated as either the subnet and host or just the
node address.
2.8.4 Network Addressing

24

The network address(which can also be called the network number) uniquely identifies
each network. Every machine on the same network shares that network address as part of
its IP address. In the IP address 172.16.30.56, for example, 172.16 is the network address.
The node address is assigned to, and uniquely identifies, each machine on a network. This
part of the address must be unique because it identifies a particular machinean
individualas opposed to a network, which is a group. This number can also be referred
to as a host address. In the sample IP address 172.16.30.56, the 30.56 is the node address.
The designers of the Internet decided to create classes of networks based on network size.
For the small number of networks possessing a very large number of nodes, they created
the rank, Class A network. At the other extreme is the Class C network, which is reserved
for the numerous networks with a small number of nodes. The class distinction for
networks between very large and very small is predictably called the Class B network.
Subdividing an IP address into a network and node address is determined by the class
designation of ones network.
Table. 2.1 Classes of I.P. Address
Classes

8 bits

8 bits

8 bits

8 bits

Class A:

Network

Host

Host

Host

Class B:

Network

Network

Host

Host

Class C:

Network

Network

Network

Host

Class D:

Multicast

Class E:

Research

Class A Network: binary address start with 0, therefore the decimal number can be
anywhere from 1 to 126. The first 8 bits (the first octet) identify the network and the
remaining 24 bits indicate the host within the network. An example of a Class A IP
address is 102.168.212.226, where "102" identifies the network and "168.212.226"
identifies the host on that network.
Class B Network: binary addresses start with 10, therefore the decimal number can be
anywhere from 128 to 191. The first 16 bits (the first two octets) identify the network and
the remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network. An example of a Class B IP
25

address is 168.212.226.204 where "168.212" identifies the network and "226.204"

identifies the host on that network.
Table2.2 Possible IP Addresses
Class

Left most bits

Start Address

Finish Address

A:

0xxx

0.0.0.0

127.255.255.255

B:

10xx

128.0.0.0

191.255.255.255

C:

110x

192.0.0.0

223.255.255.255

D:

1110

224.0.0.0

239.255.255.255

E:

1111

240.0.0.0

255.255.255.255

Class C Network: Binary addresses start with 110, therefore the decimal number can be
anywhere from 192 to 223. The first 24 bits (the first three octets) identify the network
and the remaining 8 bits indicate the host within the network. An example of a Class C IP
address is 200.168.212.226 where "200.168.212" identifies the network and "226"
identifies the host on that network. In a Class C network address, the first three bit
positions are always the binary 110. The calculation is as follows: 3 bytes, or 24 bits,
minus 3 reserved positions leaves 21 positions.
Class D Network: Binary addresses start with 1110, therefore the decimal number can
be anywhere from 224 to 239. Class D networks are used to support multicasting.
Class E Network: Binary addresses start with 1111, therefore the decimal number can
be anywhere from 240 to 255. Class E networks are used for experimentation. They have
never been documented or utilized in a standard way.
2.8.5 Subnet Masks
For the subnet address scheme to work, every machine on the network must know which
part of the host address will be used as the subnet address. This is accomplished by
assigning a subnet mask to each machine. A subnet mask is a 32-bit value that allows the
recipient of IP packets to distinguish the network ID portion of the IP address from the
host ID portion of the IP address.
Table 2.3: Default Subnet Mask
26

Address

Format

Default Subnet Mask

Class
Class A
Class B
Class C

network.node.node.node
Network.network.node.node
Network.network.network.nod

255.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
255.255.255.0

e
2.9 Router
2.9.1 Inroduction
Routers are nothing more than a special type of PC. Routers and PCs both have some of
the same components such as a motherboard, RAM, and an operating system. The main
difference is between a router and standard PC, is that a router performs special tasks to
control or "route" traffic between two or more networks. They operate at layer 3 of the
OSI model.
2.9.2 Hardware Components
There are 7 major internal components of a router:

CPU

Internetwork Operating System (IOS)

RAM

NVRAM

Flash

ROM

Console

Interfaces

2.9.2.1 CPU
The CPU performs functions just as it does in a normal PC. It executes commands given
by the IOS using other hardware components. High-end routers may contain multiple
processors or extra slots to add more CPUs later.
2.9.2.2 IOS
The IOS is the main operating system on which the router runs. The IOS is loaded upon
the routers boot up. It usually is around 2 to 5MB in size, but can be a lot larger
depending on the router series. The IOS is currently on version 12, and they periodically
releases minor versions every couple of months e.g. 12.1, 12.3 etc. to fix small bugs and
also add extra functionality.
27

The IOS gives the router its various capabilities and can also be updated or downloaded
from the router for backup purposes.
2.9.2.3 RAM
Random Access Memory; this component is dynamic. Meaning, its content changes
constantly. The main role of the RAM is to hold the ARP cache, Store routing tables, hold
fast-switching cache, performs packet buffering, and hold queues. It also provides
temporary memory for the configuration file of the router while the router is powered on.
However, the RAM loses content when router is restarted or powered off. This component
is upgradeable!
2.9.2.4 NVRAM
Nonvolatile RAM is used to store the startup configuration files. This type of RAM does
not lose its content when the router is restarted or powered off.
2.9.2.5 Flash
Flash memory is very important. It holds the Cisco IOS image file, as well as backups.
This flash memory is classified as an EEPROM (Electronically Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory). The flash ROM is upgradeable in most Cisco routers.
2.9.2.6 ROM
The ROM performs the same operations as a BIOS. It holds information about the
systems hardware components and runs POST when the router first starts up. This
component can be upgraded by "unplugging" the chip and installing a new one. A ROM
upgrade ensures newer versions of the IOS.
2.9.2.7 Console
The console consists of the physical plugs and jacks on the router. The purpose of the
console is to provide access for configurations.
2.9.2.8 Interfaces
The interfaces provide connectivity to LAN, WAN, and Console/Aux. They can be RJ-45
jacks soldered onto the motherboard, transceiver modules, or card modules. Cisco routers,
especially the higher-end models, can be configured in many different ways. They can use
a combination of transceivers, card modules and onboard interfaces.

2.9.3 Router Modes

2.9.3.1 User mode

User can examine router status and operation.

28

Configuration cannot be viewed or altered from user mode

Prompt : router>

Privileged mode (root)

Complete control over the router (anything can be set or reset)

Configuration cannot be altered

Prompt : router#

2.9.3.2 Configuration mode

Used only for change of configuration

Not password protected from privileged mode

Privileged mode commands dont have meaning in configuration mode

Most statements can be removed from the configuration with the prefix no (ex. no
shutdown)

Prompt : router(config)#

2.9.3.3 Router Configuration

There are two router configurations:

The Active configuration (show running-config)

The startup configuration (show startup-config)

Table 2.4 Summary of Router Modes

Mode Name
Router>
Router#
Router(config)#
Router(config-if)#
Router(config-subif)#
Router(config-line)#
Router(config-router)#

Description
User Mode
Privileged Mode
Global configuration mode
Interface mode
Subinterface mode
Line mode
Router configuration mode

2.10 Routing
The term routing is used for taking a packet from one device and sending it through the
network to another device on a different network. Routers dont really care about hosts
they only care about networks and the best path to each network. The logical network
address of the destination host is used to get packets to a network through a routed
29

network, and then the hardware address of the host is used to deliver the packet from a
router to the correct destination host.
If your network has no routers, then it should be apparent that you are not routing.
Routers route traffic to all the networks in your internetwork. To be able to route packets,
a router must know, at a minimum, the following:

Destination address

Neighbor routers from which it can learn about remote networks

Possible routes to all remote networks

The best route to each remote network

How to maintain and verify routing information

The router learns about remote networks from neighbor routers or from an
administrator

The router then builds a routing table (a map of the internetwork) that describes how to
find the remote networks. If a network is directly connected, then the router already
knows how to get to it. If a network isnt directly connected to the router, the router must
use one of two ways to learn how to get to the remote network.
2.10.1 Static routing
It mean that someone must hand-type all network locations into the routing table.
2.10.2 Dynamic routing
In dynamic routing, a protocol on one router communicates with the same protocol
running on neighbor routers. The routers then update each other about all the networks
they know about and place this information into the routing table. If a change occurs in
the network, the dynamic routing protocols automatically inform all routers about the
event.
If static routing is used, the administrator is responsible for updating all changes by hand
into all routers. Typically, in a large network, a combination of both dynamic and static
routing is used.
2.11 Routing Protocol
A routing protocol is a protocol that specifies how routers communicate with each other,
disseminating information that enables them to select routes between any two nodes on a
computer network, the choice of the route being done by routing algorithms.
2.11.1 Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
30

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a true distance-vector routing protocol. RIP sends
the complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30 seconds. RIP only uses hop
count to determine the best way to a remote network, but it has a maximum allowable hop
count of 15 by default, meaning that 16 is deemed unreachable. RIP works well in small
networks, but its inefficient on large networks with slow WAN links or on networks with
a large number of routers installed.
RIP version 1 uses only classful routing, which means that all devices in the network must
use the same subnet mask. This is because RIP version 1 doesnt send updates with subnet
mask information.
RIP version 2 provides something called prefix routing and does send subnet mask
information with the route updates. This is called classless routing.
2.11.1.1 Configuring RIP Routing
Configuration Example
Lets use a simple network example, shown in Figure below, to illustrate configuring
RIPv1.

Fig. 2.20 RIP Routing in Action

Heres RouterAs configuration.
RouterA(config)# router rip
RouterA(config-router)# network 192.168.1.0
RouterA(config-router)# network 192.168.2.0
Heres RouterBs configuration.
RouterB(config)# router rip
RouterB(config-router)# network 192.168.2.0
RouterB(config-router)# network 192.168.3.0
2.11.1.2 Troubleshooting IP RIP
Once you have configured IP RIP, you have a variety of commands available to view and
troubleshoot your configuration and operation of RIP.
31

Show IP protocols
show IP route
debug IP rip

2.11.2 RIP Version 2 (RIPv2)

RIP version 2 is mostly the same as RIP version 1. Both RIPv1 and RIPv2 are distancevector protocols, which means that each router running RIP sends its complete routing
tables out all active interfaces at periodic time intervals. Also, the timers and loopavoidance schemes are the same in both RIP versions (i.e., hold down timers and split
horizon rule), and both have the same administrative distance (120).
Configuring RIPv2 is straightforward. Heres an example.
RouterC (config)#router rip
RouterC (config-router)#network 192.168.40.0
RouterC (config-router)#network 192.168.50.0
RouterC (config-router)#version 2
2.11.3 EIGRP
Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) is a classless, enhanced distance-vector protocol that gives us a
real edge over another Cisco proprietary protocol, Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(IGRP). Thats basically why its called Enhanced IGRP. Like IGRP, EIGRP uses the
concept of an autonomous system to describe the set of contiguous routers that run the
same routing protocol and share routing information. But unlike IGRP, EIGRP includes
the subnet mask in its route updates. And as you now know, the advertisement of subnet
information allows us to use Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSMs) an summarization
when designing our networks.
EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has characteristics
of both distance-vector and link-state protocols. For example, EIGRP doesnt send linkstate packets as OSPF does; instead, it sends traditional distance-vector updates
containing information about networks plus the cost of reaching them from the
perspective of the advertising router. And EIGRP has link-state characteristics as wellit
synchronizes routing tables between neighbors at startup and then sends specific updates
only when topology changes occur. This makes EIGRP suitable for very large networks.
EIGRP has a maximum hop count of 255 (the default is set to 100). There are a number of
powerful features that make EIGRP a real standout from IGRP and other protocols. The
main ones are listed here:
32

Support for IP and IPv6 (and some other useless routed protocols) via protocol

dependent modules.
Considered classless (same as RIPv2 and OSPF).
Support for VLSM/CIDR.
Support for summaries and discontigious networks.
Efficient neighbor discovery.
Communication via Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP).
Best path selection via Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL).

2.11.3.1 EIGRP Metrics

Another thing about EIGRP is that unlike many other protocols that use a single factor to
compare routes and select the best possible path, EIGRP can use a combination of four:

Bandwidth
Delay
Load
Reliability

Like IGRP, EIGRP uses only bandwidth and delay of the line to determine the best path to
a remote network by default.
2.11.3.2 Configuring EIGRP
Configuration Example
Lets look at an example, to illustrate how to configure EIGRP on a router. Heres the
routing configuration of the router.
Router(config)# router eigrp 200
Router(config-router)# network 172.16.0.0
Router(config-router)# network 10.0.0.0
2.11.3.3Troubleshooting EIGRP
Here are some of the main commands used when viewing and troubleshooting EIGRP.

show ip protocols
show ip route
show ip eigrp neighbors
show ip eigrp topology
show ip eigrp traffic
debug ip eigrp

2.11.4 OSPF(Open Shortest Path First)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an open standards routing protocol thats been
implemented by a wide variety of network vendors, including Cisco.This works by using
the Dijkstra algorithm. First, a shortest path tree is constructed, and then the routing table
33

is populated with the resulting best paths. OSPF converges quickly, although perhaps not
as quickly as EIGRP, and it supports multiple, equal-cost routes to the same destination.
But unlike EIGRP, it only supports IP routing.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a router protocol used within larger autonomous
system networks in preference to the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), an older
routing protocol that is installed in many of today's corporate networks. Like RIP, OSPF
is designated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as one of several Interior
Gateway Protocols (IGPs).
Using OSPF, a host that obtains a change to a routing table or detects a change in the
network immediately multicasts the information to all other hosts in the network so that
all will have the same routing table information. Unlike the RIP in which the entire
routing table is sent, the host using OSPF sends only the part that has changed. With RIP,
the routing table is sent to a neighbor host every 30 seconds. OSPF multicasts the updated
information only when a change has taken place.
Rather than simply counting the number of hops, OSPF bases its path descriptions on
"link states" that take into account additional network information. OSPF also lets the
user assign cost metrics to a given host router so that some paths are given preference.
OSPF supports a variable network subnet mask so that a network can be subdivided. RIP
is supported within OSPF for router-to-end station communication. Since many networks
using RIP are already in use, router manufacturers tend to include RIP support within a
router designed primarily for OSPF.
OSPF is supposed to be designed in a hierarchical fashion, which basically means that we
can separate the larger internetwork into smaller internetworks called areas. This is the
best design for OSPF.The reasons for creating OSPF in a hierarchical design include:

To decrease routing overhead

To speed up convergence

To confine network instability to single areas of the network

Each router in the network connects to the backbone called area 0, or the backbone
area.OSPF must have an area 0, and all routers should connect to this area if at all

34

possible.But routers that connect other areas to the backbone within an AS are called Area
Border Routers (ABRs). Still, at least one interface must be in area 0.
OSPF runs inside an autonomous system, but can also connect multiple autonomous
systems together. The router that connects these ASes together is called an Autonomous
System Boundary Router (ASBR).
2.11.4.1 OSPF Terminology
Link
A link is a network or router interface assigned to any given network. When an interface
is added to the OSPF process, its considered by OSPF to be a link.
Router ID
The Router ID (RID) is an IP address used to identify the router. Cisco chooses the Router
ID by using the highest IP address of all configured loopback interfaces. If no loopback
interfaces are configured with addresses, OSPF will choose the highest IP address of all
active physical interfaces.
Neighbors
Neighbors are two or more routers that have an interface on a common network,such as
two routers connected on a point-to-point serial link.
Adjacency
An adjacency is a relationship between two OSPF routers that permits the direct exchange
of route updates. OSPF is really picky about sharing routing informationunlike EIGRP,
which directly shares routes with all of its neighbors. Instead, OSPF directly shares routes
only with neighbors that have also established adjacencies. And not all neighbors will
become adjacentthis depends upon both the type of network and the configuration of
the routers.
Hello protocol
The OSPF Hello protocol provides dynamic neighbor discovery and maintains neighbor
relationships. Hello packets and Link State Advertisements (LSAs) build and maintain the
topological database. Hello packets are addressed to 224.0.0.5.
Neighborship database
35

The neighborship database is a list of all OSPF routers for which Hello packets have been
seen. A variety of details, including the Router ID and state, are maintained on each router
in the neighborship database.
Topology database
The topology database contains information from all of the Link State Advertisement
packets that have been received for an area. The router uses the information from the
topology database as input into the Dijkstra algorithm that computes the shortest path to
every network. LSA packets are used to update and maintain the topology database.
Link State Advertisement
A Link State Advertisement (LSA) is an OSPF data packet containing link-state and
routing information thats shared among OSPF routers. There are different types of LSA
packets. An OSPF router will exchange LSA packets only with routers to which it has
established adjacencies.
Designated router
A designated router (DR) is elected whenever OSPF routers are connected to the same
multi-access network. A prime example is an Ethernet LAN.
Backup designated router
A backup designated router (BDR) is a hot standby for the DR on multi-access links The
BDR receives all routing updates from OSPF adjacent routers, but doesnt flood LSA
updates.

OSPF areas
An OSPF area is a grouping of contiguous networks and routers. All routers in the same
area share a common Area ID.
Broadcast (multi-access)
Broadcast (multi-access) networks such as Ethernet allow multiple devices to connect to
(or access) the same network, as well as provide a broadcast ability in which a single
packet is delivered to all nodes on the network. In OSPF, a DR and a BDR must be
elected for each broadcast multi-access network.Non-broadcast multi-access.
36

Non-Broadcast Multi-Access
(NBMA) networks are types such as Frame Relay, X.25, and Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM). These networks allow for multi-access, but have no broadcast ability like
Ethernet. So, NBMA networks require special OSPF configuration to function properly
and neighbor relationships must be defined.
Point-to-point
Point-to-point refers to a type of network topology consisting of a direct connection
between two routers that provides a single communication path. The point-to-point
connection can be physical, as in a serial cable directly connecting two routers, or it can
be logical.
Point-to-multipoint
Point-to-multipoint refers to a type of network topology consisting of a series of
connections between a single interface on one router and multiple destination routers.
SPF Tree Calculation
Within an area, each router calculates the best/shortest path to every network in that same
area.This calculation is based upon the information collected in the topology database and
an algorithm called shortest path first (SPF)
OSPF uses a metric referred to as cost. A cost is associated with every outgoing interface
included in an SPF tree. The cost of the entire path is the sum of costs of the outgoing
interfaces along the path.
Cisco uses a simple equation of 108/ bandwidth.The bandwidth is the configured
bandwidth for the interface. Using this rule, a 100Mbps Fast Ethernet interface would
have a default OSPF cost of 1 and a 10Mbps Ethernet interface would have a cost of 10.
An interface set with a bandwidth of 64,000 would have a default cost of 1563.

2.11.4.2 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) Single Area Configuration

37

Fig. 2.21 OSPF configuring

At router 1700A
Router>en
Router#configuration terminal
Router(config)#hostname 1700A
1700A(config)#interface fast Ethernet 0/0
1700A(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
1700A(config-if)#no shutdown
1700A(config-if)#interface S0/0
1700A(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
1700A(config-if)#no shutdown
1700A(config-if)#exit
1700A(config)#router OSPF 1

(Process ID 1 - 65535)

1700A(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0

1700A(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
1700A(config-router)#control Z
1700A#show ip route
1700A#show ip OSPF interface
1700A#show ip OSPF neighbors
1700A#show ip OSPF database
At router 3600A
38

Router>en
Router#configuration terminal
Router(config)#hostname 3600A
3600A(config)#interface S3/0
3600A(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
3600A(config-if)#no shutdown
3600A(config-if)#interface S3/1
3600A(config-if)#clock rate 64000
3600A(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
3600A(config-if)#no shutdown
3600A(config-if)#clock rate 64000
3600A(config-if)#exit
3600A(config)#router OSPF 2

(Process ID 1 - 65535)

3600A(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0

3600A(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
3600A(config-router)#control Z
3600A#show ip route
3600A#show ip OSPF interface
3600A#show ip OSPF neighbors
3600A#show ip OSPF database

1700B
Router>en
Router#configuration terminal
39

Router(config)#hostname 1700B
1700B(config)#interface fast Ethernet 0/0
1700B(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
1700B(config-if)#no shutdown
1700B(config-if)#interface S0/0
1700B(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
1700B(config-if)#no shutdown
1700B(config-if)#exit
1700B(config)#router OSPF 1

(Process ID 1 - 65535)

1700B(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0

1700B(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
1700B(config-router)#control Z
1700B#show ip route
1700B#show ip OSPF interface
1700B#show ip OSPF neighbors
1700B#show ip OSPF database

40

41

CHAPTER III
TRAINING WORK
3.1 INTRODUCTION
To configure the network CISCO PACKET TRACER software is used. The software is
used to create scenario of network before actual implementation of hardware in real
world. Software gives view of working, layout, protocols and ip addresses used in a
network.
3.2 WORKING WITH CISCO PACKET TRACER
3.2.1 Starting Cisco Packet Tracer

Fig. 3.1 cisco packet tracer

3.2.2 Selecting the device

The devices can be selected from lower left corner. Different categories of devices are
available for e.g. routers, switches, end devices, hubs, wireless devices etc. After selecting
a category of device for e.g. router any model can be put in network by just dragging.

42

Fig 3.2 selecting the device

3.2.3 Configuring the devices
3.2.3.1 Router
Steps of configuring router are:
click on routerclick on PHYSICAL in new opened windowshutdown the power by
clicking on button visible under zoom out(glowinf off led will indicate off
condition)now click on WIC-2T FROM left sidedrag electronic chip to upper slot as
shown in fig.
After that power on in same way. Rest of configuration is based on command given which
will be clear in commands section.
WIC-2T is inserted to provide serial port for router to router configuration.

43

3.2.3.2 PC or LAPTOP Configuration

Click on laptopclick on DESKTOP in newly opened window give ip
address,subnetmask & default gateway(ip address of router connected) as shown in fig.
below.

Fig. 3.5
Switch is not configured only connected while other devices have their special
configurings.
3.2.4 Connecting devices
Click on CONNECTIONS and choose the type of wire as
44

Router to router- Serial DCE

Routet to switch-Copper straight through
Switch to PC/LAPTOP- Copper straight through
Between Same kind of devices and router to pc-cross over wire
Serial DCE

Copper straight through

Fig. 3.5 connecting devices

3.2.5 Commands and mode
There are 3 modes of configuration.
1.User execution mode: starting
2. Privilege mode: used to see or check anything
3. Global configuration mode: for configuring the device
Configuration of router is done in CLI(Command line interface).
For different works, there are a large no. Of commands. Some frequent are:
ENABLE- used in start of configuration to bring from user execution mode to privilege
mode.
CONFIGURATION TERMINAL- used after ENABLE to bring from privilege mode to
global mode.
INTERFACE name_of interface(variable but not user defind)- to select a interface(mode
3)
45

IP ADRESS ip address- to provide ip adrees to interface.

EXIT- to exit from mode to previous mode i.e. 3rd to 2nd mode or 2nd to 1st mode.
3.2.5 Project
3.2.5.1 Title of Project:
OSPF WTIH FRAME RELAY.
3.2.5.2 Introduction
The project undertaken is running OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF) protocols
over Frame Relay subinterfaces.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a router protocol used within larger autonomous
system networks in preference to the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), an older
routing protocol that is installed in many of today's corporate networks. Like RIP, OSPF
is designated by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as one of several Interior
Gateway Protocols (IGPs).
Using OSPF, a host that obtains a change to a routing table or detects a change in the
network immediately multicasts the information to all other hosts in the network so that
all will have the same routing table information. Unlike the RIP in which the entire
routing table is sent, the host using OSPF sends only the part that has changed. With RIP,
the routing table is sent to a neighbor host every 30 seconds. OSPF multicasts the updated
information only when a change has taken place.
Rather than simply counting the number of hops, OSPF bases its path descriptions on
"link states" that take into account additional network information. OSPF also lets the
user assign cost metrics to a given host router so that some paths are given preference.
OSPF supports a variable network subnet mask so that a network can be subdivided. RIP
is supported within OSPF for router-to-end station communication. Since many networks
using RIP are already in use, router manufacturers tend to include RIP support within a
router designed primarily for OSPF.
3.2.5.3 Requirements
Before you attempt this configuration, make sure that you meet the requirement:

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 A basic understanding of Frame Relay and OSPF configuration(Refer to Configuring

OSPF and Configuring and Troubleshooting Frame Relay for more information in chapter
ii).
3.2.5.4 Components Used
Cisco packet tracer software version 5.3.
The information in this document was created from the devices in a specific lab
environment. All of the devices used in this document started with a cleared (default)
configuration. If your network is live, make sure that you understand the potential impact
of any command.
3.2.5.4 Background Information
In order to configure and troubleshoot OSPF over a network, you must have a good
understanding of the underlying network topology. The neighbor discovery mechanism,
election of Designated Router (DR) and Backup Designated Router (BDR), and update
flooding depend on it. The underlying Layer 2 topology can be one of these:
Broadcast multi-access (for example, Ethernet)A Broadcast network is one which
allows broadcast or multicast packets to be sent over the network and hence every device
able to communicate directly with every other device in the segment. A multi-access
network is a network that connects more than two devices. Refer to Initial Configurations
for OSPF Over Broadcast Media for more information.
Point-to-Point (such as serial links with Point-to-Point and High-Level Data Link
Control (PPP/HDLC))point-to-point networks also allow broadcast or multicast
packets to be sent over the network, and these networks connect only two devices on the
segment. Refer to Initial Configurations for OSPF over a Point-to-Point Link for more
information.
Non-Broadcast multi-access (NBMA), such as Frame RelayThese networks do not
support broadcasts or multicasts, but can connect more than devices and are multi-access
in nature. Refer to Initial Configurations for OSPF over Non-Broadcast Links for more
information.

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Point-to-MultipointThis is a collection of point-to-point links between various devices

on a segment. These networks also allow broadcast or multicast packets to be sent over
the network. These networks can represent the multi-access segment as multiple point-topoint links that connect all the devices on the segment.
When OSPF is run on a network, two important events happen before routing information
is exchanged:
Neighbors are discovered using multicast hello packets.
DR and BDR are elected for every multi-access network to optimize the adjacency
building process. All the routers in that segment should be able to communicate directly
with the DR and BDR for proper adjacency (in the case of a point-to-point network, DR
and BDR are not necessary since there are only two routers in the segment, and hence the
election does not take place).
For a successful neighbor discovery on a segment, the network must allow broadcasts or
multicast packets to be sent.
In the broadcast multi-access Layer 2 topology, broadcasts are supported; therefore, a
router that runs OSPF can discover OSPF neighbors automatically and elect any router as
DR and BDR since any device can talk to all other routers in that broadcast segment.
In a point-to-point topology, neighbors are discovered automatically since neighbors are
directly connected to each other through a point-to-point link, and broadcast or multicast
packets are forwarded over the network; however, the DR and BDR election does not take
place as explained earlier.
In an NBMA network topology, which is inherently nonbroadcast, neighbors are not
discovered automatically. OSPF tries to elect a DR and a BDR due to the multi-access
nature of the network, but the election fails since neighbors are not discovered. Neighbors
must be configured manually to overcome these problems. Also, additional configuration
is necessary in a hub and spoke topology to make sure that the hub routers, which have
connectivity with every other spoke router, are elected as the DR and BDR. Alternatively,
you can change the configuration on the NBMA interface to make OSPF believe that it is
another network type that does not have these problems.The correct configuration is
necessary for the proper operation of OSPF.
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Frame Relay subinterfaces can run in two modes:

Point-to-PointWhen a Frame Relay point-to-point subinterface is configured, the
subinterface emulates a point-to-point network and OSPF treats it as a point-to-point
network type.
MultipointWhen a Frame Relay multipoint subinterface is configured, OSPF treats
this subinterface as an NBMA network type.
3.2.5.5 Diagram

3.2.5.5 Configurations
Router 0 (words in capital letters show commands but not case sensitive in packet
tracer).At start of configurong any router following question appears which has to be
answered by NO:
CONTINUE WITH CONFIGURATION DIALOG? [YES/NO]:NO
Router0>ENABLE

(User execution mode)

Router0#CONFIGURE TERMINAL

(privilege mode)

Providing ip address to an interface.

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Router(config)#INTERFACE S0/0

(global mode)

Router(config-if)#IP ADDRESS 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0

Router(config-if)#NO SHUTDOWN

(making link up)

Router(config-if)#CLOCK RATE 64000

Router(config-if)#EXIT
(In similar way, ip addresses are provided to other interfaces.)
Configuring OSPF.
Router(config)#ROUTER OSPF 10
Router(config-router)#NETWORK 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 AREA 0
Router(config-router)#NETWORK 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 AREA 0
Router(config-router)#EXIT

CHAPTER IV
EVALUATION OF TRAINING

4.1 Analysis of training

The training covers all the topics needed to get CISCO certification of CCNA(Cisco
certified network associate) and CCNP(cisco certified network professional).
The topics needed to be mastered for success in getting certification have been covered
like:
Introduction to internetworking. Basics of the Open Systems Interconnection the way
Cisco wants you to learn it. Also, the Cisco three-layer hierarchical model discussed,
along with how to choose Cisco equipment based on this model. Ethernet networking and
standards are discussed in detail.
Background on layer-2 switching and how switches perform address learning and make
forwarding and filtering decisions. Network loops and how to avoid them with the
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Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP) discussed, as well as the different LAN switch types used
by Cisco switches.
Background necessary for success on the exam as well as in the real world by discussing
TCP/IP. This in-depth covers the very beginnings of the Internet Protocol stack and then
goes all the way to IP addressing and subnetting.
Introduction to the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS). We learn how to turn on
a router and configure the basics of the IOS, including setting passwords, banners,
and more. IP configuration discussed.
IP routing, add IP addresses, and route data between routers, static, default, and
dynamic routing.
Virtual LANs and how you can use them in your internetwork. VLANs and the different
concepts and protocols used with VLANs.
Management skills needed to run a Cisco ISO network. Backing up and restoring the
IOS, as well as router configuration, is covered, as are troubleshooting tools necessary to
keep a network up and running.
However, taking the time to study and practice with CISCO PACKET TRACER is the
real key to success.
4.2 Computational work
As stated already in previous chapters, the computational work is working on CISCO
PACKET SOFTWARE which gives view of working, layout, protocols and ip addresses
used in a network. Due to high cost of hardware used in computer networking i.e.
computers, routers, switches etc. (which is in lacs), during training most of network
configuration is on software only.
However real implimentation of networks is done using PUTTY SOFTWARE which is to
be installed in computer used in network.
4.2.1 Result comparison
Lets take example of a simple network shown below:

Links down

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Fig. 4.1 A simple network

The ip addresses are provided to various interfaces as stated in chapter 3.
Connectivity is checked as:
Click on laptop0>click on desktop in newly opened window>click on command prompt

Now use command PING followed by ip address of destination to check connectivity.

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Here connectivity with laptop 0 is checked whose ip address is 192.168.1.2. The result
shows success.
Now connectivity with laptop 3 is checked whose ip address is 192.168.2.3. The result is
failure as link between two routers is down as indicated by red colour in fig. 4.1.
Result in command prompt is:

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Fig. 4.3

Now link between routers is made up

Links up

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Now connectivity check between laptop 1 and laptop 3 shows

Fig.4.4
In this way connectivity between any two end devices in the network is checked.
Successful coneection is indication of right working of network.

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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE OF TRAINING
5.1 Conclusions & Objectives Achieved
This course provides a solid foundation for the serious effort of preparing for the Cisco
Certified Network Associate (CCNA) exam. This course covers everything we need to
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know in order to become CCNA certified. However, taking the time to study and practice
with routers or a router simulator is the real key to success.
The information learnt in this course, and need to know for the CCNA exam, is listed in
the following points:
Introduction to internetworking. Basics of the Open Systems Interconnection the way
Cisco wants you to learn it. Also, the Cisco three-layer hierarchical model discussed,
along with how to choose Cisco equipment based on this model. Ethernet networking and
standards are discussed in detail.
Background on layer-2 switching and how switches perform address learning and make
forwarding and filtering decisions. Network loops and how to avoid them with the
Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP) discussed, as well as the different LAN switch types used
by Cisco switches.
Background necessary for success on the exam as well as in the real world by discussing
TCP/IP. This in-depth covers the very beginnings of the Internet Protocol stack and then
goes all the way to IP addressing and subnetting.
Introduction to the Cisco Internetwork Operating System (IOS). We learn how to turn on
a router and configure the basics of the IOS, including setting passwords, banners,
and more. IP configuration discussed.
IP routing, add IP addresses, and route data between routers, static, default, and
dynamic routing.
Virtual LANs and how you can use them in your internetwork. VLANs and the different
concepts and protocols used with VLANs.
Management skills needed to run a Cisco ISO network. Backing up and restoring the
IOS, as well as router configuration, is covered, as are troubleshooting tools necessary to
keep a network up and running.
5.2 Future Scope
5.3 Applications
Applications of Computer Networks:
There are 2 types of network applications:

Pure network applications

Standalone network application

5.3.1 Pure Network Applications

These are applications created to be used in networks; using pure network applications on
a single computer doesn't make sense. Such applications have a separate and distinct user
interface that users must learn for instance:

Email programs

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They allow users to type messages at their local nodes and then send to someone on the
network. It is a fast and easy way of transferring mail from one computer to another.
Examples of electronic mail programs (Clients) are:

Pegasus mail

Outlook express

Eudora Windows mail

Fox mail

Opera

Poco mail

Mozilla Thunderbird

Windows mail

File transfer protocol (FTP)

This application facilities transfer of files from one computer to another e.g. from a client
to a server. There are 2 common processes involved in FTP
Downloading: - This is the process of obtaining files from a server to a workstation or a
client (for example when you download programs and music from a server).
Uploading:- This is obtaining of files from a workstation to a server (for instance when
you attach documents and upload them to a server, a good example being when you
upload photos to Facebook).
Examples of FTP programs are:

FTP in Unix

FTP in Linux or

FTP in Windows

Mozilla thunderbird

Terminal emulation (TELNET)

It allows a workstation to access the server for an application program. This enables you
to control the server and communicate with other servers on the network. The workstation
appears as a down terminal that is directly attached to the server. The user feels like
he/she is using the server directly. TELNET enables PCs and workstations to function as
dumb terminals in sessions with hosts on inter-networks.

Groupware

These applications are used to automate the administration functions of a modern office
for instance video conferencing and chatting. They facilitate the work of groups and
improve on their productivity; they can be used to communicate, co-operate, coordinate,
solve problems, compete, negotiate among others.
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Video Conferencing

This is the process of conducting a conference between two or more participants at

different sites by using computer networks to transmit audio and video data. For example,
a point-to-point (two-person) video conferencing system works much like a video
telephone.
Each participant has a video camera, microphone, and speakers mounted on his or her
computer. As the two participants speak to one another, their voices are carried over the
network and delivered to the others speakers, and whatever images appear in front of the
video camera appear

Chatting

It is a real-time communication between two users via computer. Once a chat has been
initiated, either user can enter text by typing on the keyboard and the entered text will
appear on the other users monitor. The two must be online for a chat to be initiated. Most
networks, cybers and online services offer a chat feature which enables computer users to
chat as they go on with their work.
5.3.2 Stand Alone Applications
These are applications that run on stand alone computers (computers not connected to any
other). In order to extend their activity, they are rebuild to run on network environments
e.g. word processors, spreadsheets, database management systems, presentations
graphics, project management etc. They function even when the computer is offline.

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