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"FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROBIAL ENHANCED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY"

CONTENT:
Abstract
Introduction
Ten parameters related to microbial activities in hydrocarbon reservoirs
Detrimental and beneficial effects of microbes related to the
recovery of hydrocarbons
Microbial Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery schemes
Conclusion
Summary
Nomenclature
References
A.T. Gregory

SPE12gJ.Ji7

-1-

"FUNDAMENTALS OF MICROBIAL ENHANCED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY"

Adrian.T. Gregory, SPE
Abstract
The optimum Microbial Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery (MEHR) scheme involves the
injection of bacteria into water wet sandstone formations. Improvement of the
sweep efficiency (mainly due to the reduction of permeability stratification)
and also the partial recovery of residual oil will occur by the introduction of
microbes into formations having a favourable mobility ratio when displaced by
water. In reservoirs where the mobility ratio is close to unity, microbial
products such as xanthan polymers can be added to stabilise the displacement.
Also in viscous hydrocarbon formations microbial fermentation within the
reservoir will supplement the oil production.
Introduction
Enhancement of the amount of hydrocarbons recovered from existing reservoirs is
slowly becoming a standard procedure during the operational life of an oil
field. Much research is presently being channelled into this area with the
effect that both new and old methods are being carefully evaluated. Microbial
Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery (MEHR) is one such scheme which has received
favourable reevaluation.
MEHR mafyyY originates from the work of Claude Zobell who in 1944 applied for a
patent
containing the principles which, four decades later, research is
still continuing. The full industrial potential of microbes has only been
realised during the last decade, with the increase in knowledge mainly
attributing to the recent reemergence of MEHR. This is based on experience
gained from the ever expanding antibiotics industry and newer fields such as
single cell protein and modified sugar production. MEHR is a relatively cheap
method and has the added advantage that it is a natural step from the secondary
recovery process of water injection needing minimal alteration of the production facilities at the well site.
In any process in order for the maximum results to be achieved, it is important
to define the parameters involved. Optimisation can only be best employed once
the limitations of the process have been diagnosed. It is important to be aware
of the possible detrimental, rather than just the beneficial, factors of using
microbes. Bearing all these factors in mind only then can an optimum scheme be
chosen.
It is the aim of this paper to introduce the fundamentals behind MEHR. It
should be noted that attention has been paid to the overall process rather than
to the specifics, such as the microbes or substrates to be used with each
scheme.

-2-

TEN PARAMETERS RELATED TO MICROBIAL ACTIVITIES IN HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS( 2 ,J, 4 )

Five microbial niches have been categorised in the depicted general hydrocarbon
reservoir (Fig.1), the gas zone, the gas/oil transition zone, the oil zone, the
oil/water transition zone and the water(aquifer) zone. The size of the
transition zones (G/0,0/W) depends on the capillary pressure relationship
between the two fluids, producing the standard 'S' shape saturation profile
(Fig.1). Beneficial or adverse microbial activity may exist to variable extents
in any of these zones. Thus it is necessary to define certain parameters
related to the pore structure and fluids of the rock which will control any
microbial inhabitance (Table 1).
Table 1
Ten parameters
1)

pH

2)
3)

Eh

4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

10)

temperature
dissolved gases
inert particulate material
geometry and physical size of the pores
multiphase systems (gas, oil, water)
pressure
ions, minerals and salts
microbial flora

It is important to note that it will be easier to control microbes via the composition of the injected medium rather than to introduce a species that will be
self sufficient. Thus the best microbial scheme for enhanced hydrocarbon
recovery could even include aerobic microbes in an anearobic environment.
1)

pH
All microbial species show an optimum pH for growth usually in the range of
pH 5-8. This is due to nearly all microbial metabolic reactions being
enzymic. The functioning of the enzymic active site depends on the ionisation of a certain number of the protein groups which make up the overall
structure. Thus, there is a rapid decrease in the enzymic rate both sides
of the optimum pH value. However proteins are amphoteric acting acidic or
basic, thus minor changes in pH are buffered by their presence. The minimum
and maximum pH considered possible to sustain growth is 2 and 9.5
respectively.
The concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide has a large effect on the pH
of the system. Microbial growth can cause the lowering of the pH either
primarily from respiratory metabolism or secondarily from the production of
acids which in carbonate structures reacts to form carbon dioxide. The
lowering of the pH has been reported to have occurred in all the documented
MEHR field trials.

SPE12947

-32)

Eh
5
The oxidation/reduction potential ( ) governs both the growth of aerobic
and anaerobic microbes in any given system. The electromotive force (Eh) is
a quantitative expression of the systems oxidising and reducing intensity
and is directly related to the pH and temperature.
Eh

= E9 + RT ln (oxidised form)
ZF

(reduced form)

In an aerobic system the Eh will be positive. In an anaerobic system the Eh

will be considered generally negative. For example Desulphovibrio
desulphuricans (anaerobic) will not grow in a system with an Eh greater
than 0.03.
Table 2
Reservoir Temperatures
Reservoir

depth (m)

Naratoch Oil field, Arkansas

Santa Fe Springs Oil Field, California
Beryl, Thistle, Brent Oil Fields, North Sea
3)

610
1200
3000

34
60
90

TEMPERATURE
As it becomes necessary to explore for deeper reservoirs, the in situ temperature to be considered rises. The average geothermal gradient is about
25C for each 1000 .m of burial (Table 2) below an upper surface of
20 - 120 m. With the increasing demand for hydrocarbons, petroleum companies have been forced to drill to greater depths with todays major finds in
conditions considered inhospitable for sustained microbial growth. However,
even at these high temperatures MEHR cannot be ruled out. Firstly cold
water injection (20C) for secondary recovery is becoming universal,
causing local temperature sinks around the injection areas of these wells.
Secondly the effect of pressure on the effective temperature is beneficial.
There are three categories of microbes as a function of the temperature:

. Psychrophiles
Me sop hiles
. Thermophiles

grow best below

grow best between
grow best between

25C
25 - 40C
45 - 60C

with the minimum and maximum temperature being lC and 75C respectively.
There are exceptions, for instance the microbial habitation of the sulpur
springs and to the other extent the polar ice caps.
6
The thermal degradation ( ) of microbes can be described by:

SPE12947

-4Temperature
degradation

-E

act

(1st order)

where
4)

E~l00-500

kJ/kmol

DISSOVED GASES
Dissolved gases which are of importance can be limited to oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, methane, hydrogen and nitrogen. Of these oxygen
is the most important, then carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. In a
hydrocarbon reservoir not supplied by surface water, the dissolved oxygen
tension will be too low to sustain aerobic microbes. Sharp controls of the
dissolved oxygen concentration are usually carried out in water injection
schemes either by the use of chemicals or deaerator towers or both. Six to
eight ppm free oxygen is considered corrosive.
There are four main groups related to microbial oxygen usage:
require oxygen for growth
do not require oxygen for growth
grow best in the presence of small amounts of
oxygen
Facultative Anaerobic: can grow either in anaerobic or aerobic conditions
Aerobic:
Anaerobic:
Microaerophillic:

A good physical parameter to help define these four groups is Eh.

Oxygen is required for several different reasons but mainly as a hydrogen
acceptor in the microbial cytochrome system. It is also used as a substrate
for other enzymes (eg. alkane oxidation). The usage of oxygen by microbes
as well as the other dissolved gases is usually graphed as tension vs. time
or partial pressure vs. time. For growth and most substrate utilization it
is the dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide which are of most importance.
Carbon dioxide or methane can provide the sole carbon source for
autotrophic microbes. If the microbes present are heterotrophic then carbon
dioxide will be produced, thus effecting the pH of the system.
The concentration of hydrogen sulphide is also very important. Sulphate
reducing bacteria (SRB), namely the genus Desulphovibrio, are the main
threat to a controlled MEHR process. With their presence, the sulphate ions
are converted to hydrogen sulphide turning the hydrocarbons sour. This has
the added effect of causing corrosion problems. Desulphovibrio are the most
prolific anaerobic bacteria in hydrocarbon reservoirs and have been found
in all the reservoirs tested.
5)

INERT PARTICULATE MATERIAL

Inert materials suspended in water will modify the microbial population by
providing an attachment surface. For instance, Desulphovibrio has been
found to exist in an oxygen environment whereby attachment to inert particulate material, produced anaerobic conditions due to the oxygen transfer
rate being limiting. The inert materials can also absorb and concentrate
nutrients on their surface. The smaller the microbial population, the more
important is the concentration of the inert particulate material.

-56)

GEOMETRY AND THE PHYSlCAL SIZE OF ROCK PORES

Reservoirs can be divided into three lithological groups, sandstones,
carbonates and igneous/metamorphic rocks. In order for fluids to be injected or produced these formations must have permeability. In the case of
igneous/metamorphic rocks, the permeability is generally too small to be
considered potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. Typical permeability values
for sandstones and carbonates are listed in Table 3:
Table 3
Permeability Variations with Lithology
Min
Med
Max

Sandstone (mD)
11
568
4000

Carbonate (Dolomite/Limestone) (mD)

10
127
1600

Just as the pores of microbial filters become clogged with cells, so will
the pores of reservoir rocks. It has been found experimentally that reservoirs of permeability less than 100 mD can be considered too restrictive
for the movement of microbes. Thus MEHR is mainly considered ,applicable to
sandstone lithology.
From the semi-empirical equation for permeability based on Poiseuille's
flow theory,
K = Ravg 2 0
8

L,

Eqn 1

Where Ravg 2
capillary distribution function,

= porosity
~ = f (tortuosity, coordination number, deviation from circular
conduit flow)
a permeability of 100 mD would correspond to an average pore diameter of
less than 5 microns. Thus, the use of microbes can only be applicable to
bacteria with the other members of the Protista kingdom (e.g. yeasts) being
too large. Bacteria are nearly all unicellular with the smallest size being
typically around 0.1 microns to the largest size for rod shaped bacteria
having 20 microns in length, 1.5 microns in width.
In a batch bacterial medium there will be four distinct growth phases
(Fig.2) the lag phase, exponential phase, stationary phase and the death
phase. In order to minimise wellbore plugging, injection during the lag
phase is desirable. One important physiological aspect(9j bacterial behaviour is their tendency to be sessile by nature. Zobel!
found that out of
96 marine bac~eria tested, 29 were strongly sessile, 47 mildly and 20 were
not. He also found that sessile bacteria adhered more readily to positively
rather than to negatively charged surfaces and more readily to water wet
rather than oil wet surfaces. Bacteria are attracted to surfaces either by
charges or nutrients. A cementing substance, usually polymer based, is
secreted making a permanent attachment, thus requiring an adequate supply
of nutrients to sustain life. Bacteria should adhere quite readily to the
surface of sand grains due to being rich in minerals from the connate water

-6the connate water layer, with substrate in diffusible reach. The same
cannot be said for certain clay surfaces which have a layer of negatively
charged ions.
7)

MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS (GAS, OIL, WATER)

Hydrocarbon reservoirs are invariably associated with formation water.
This water exists as connate water around the surface of water wet
lithologies or in the pore channels as interstitial water. It is basic in
elementary biology that all living systems require the universal transport
medium water. Hydrocarbons contain in the order of 100 ppm water varying
with the temperature which is generally considered insufficient to sustain
microbes. Thus the presence of the connate and interstitial water is of
great importance in a successful MEHR scheme.
The extent to which microbes can grow in a water limited environment is
defined by the thermodynamic water potential of the system (aw). The minimum potential for microbial activit~ fs around 0.7, with most bacteria
8 depends on the temperature, poteninactive below 0.9. This potential
tial energy of the water and on the mineral content.
Assuming that the water vapour behaves as an ideal gas, then the thermodynamic water potential can be represented in the following equation,

.JTw -}[
=
R
T

=RT

ln aw

Eqn 2

thermodynamic potential of water vapour in equilibrium with

the system (J/kg)
thermodynamic potential of pure water

= gas constant for water vapour (J/kg K)

absolute temperature (K)

The amount of connate water around the rock surface is a function of the
capillary pressure and the wettability of the system. The capillary pressure for an oil/water system can be defined as
Eqn 3

where~ is the density difference between the two fluids. Thus Eqn3 can
also be written,
Pc

=-

(~RT ln aw)

Eqn 4

It is considered thus that bacteria will only grow naturally in the water
zone and the oil/water transition zone, with the oil zone having a too
small potential. However, this will not hold for the portions of the oil
zone where water injection has taken place, increasing the water saturation.
It has been found (9) that any water injected into a reservoir will
replace the connate water around the particles. Thus the environment in
which the bacteria will survive will be totally dependent on the injected
water and not the saline connate water.

-7Table 4
Hydrocarbon Utilising Microbes
GAS: Pseudomonas, Methanomonas, Mycobacterium, Desulphovibrio, Thiobacillus
OIL: Aerobacter, Achromobacter, Azotomonas, Bacillus, Bacterium,
Brevibacterium, Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Desulphovibrio,
Escherichia, Flavobacterium, Mycobacteria, Micrococcus, Nocardia,
Pseudomonas, Serratia, Straphylococcus, Vibrio.
Table 4 contains a list of microbes capable of utilising hydrocarbons. The
shortage of gaseous hydrocarbon utilizing microbes can be attributed to the
relatively high solubility of gas in the aqueous phase causing toxicity.
The susceptibility of(~bodiTJadation of hydrocarbons by microbes was fti2}
generalized by Zobell
'
and more recently documented by Ratledge

The rate of uptake of hydrocarbons is a very rapid process, however the

mechanism is debatable. There are two main theories, firstly the uptake of
solubilized hydrocarbons from the aqueous phase (e.g. gases) or secondly
the formation and physical absorption of minute micromicelles produced by
microbial emulsifying agentso There are two kinds of biodegradation reactions of hydrocarbons, firstly as a normal intermediate metabolite or secondly as a derivature. Each type can be carried out in aerobic or anaerobic
conditions. However, anaerobic oxidation is considered slow and incomplete
compared with aerobic metabolic pathrf~1 A good indication of microbial
activity is the respiratory quotient
with Table 5 illustrating that
short chain hydrocarbons are used more completely.
Table 5
Respiratory Quotient
C0 2 /0 2 (RQ)

Paraffinic Oil
Aromatic Oil
a) Heavy oil (2x molecular wt of
Paraffinic oil)
b) Heavy oil (greater than
molecular wt of (a)).
8)

G:-64- 0.68

0.64
0.46

0. 14

PRESSURE
Pressure can have a large effect on microbial activity. However some bacteria can survive at 104 C and 1000 bar.In this respect pressure has a beneficial effect by decreasing the effective temperature of the environment
compared to that at standard conditions. The pressure to be expected in
hydrocarbon reservoirs is in the approximate order of 0.1 bar/m. However at
the time of the implementation of MEHR this could be lower depending on the
reserves already produced. The pressure degradation of microbes can be
described by:

SPE12947

-8Pressure
degradation
where

~v

1.5

~~~
dP
T
X

- v

(1st order)

Eqn 5

RT

10- 2 m3 /k mol for Vibro

Earahaemol~ticus

Any microbe capable of surviving at 620 bar (9000 pst1 ts termed

4
barophilic, a name introduced by Zobel! and Johnson.
The effect of pressure on the compressibility of a fluid is also important.
The expansion of gas is at least one hundred times that of oil or water.
Thus any microbial gas produced, such as carbon dioxide, will be
secondarily beneficial to hydrocarbon recovery.
9)

IONS, MINERALS AND SALTS

Microbes need and are also affected by various quantities of minerals and
salts. They tend to be required in small concentrations in the cells metabolic pathways. Some of these elemtY~ are phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
copper and molybdenum. Kuznetsova
found that the salt composition of
water had an effect on sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) in oil bearing
reservoirs. This effect was more impo~ant tha+temperature or Eh of the +
water+ The ratio of divalent ions (Ca
and Mg
) to monovalent ions (Na
and K ) was also of particular importance.
The problem of uncontrolled plugging of hydrocarbon reservoirs can largely
be attributed to SRB. These bacteria oxidize organic compounds and
concomitantly reduce oxidized forms of sulphur (sulphates) using them as
hydrogen acceptors to form for example H s. If sodium bicarbonate and
2
calcium sulphate are present, SRB produce calcite (crystalline calcium
carbonate) which has been found deposited in the 0/W transition zone and
water zone. The calcite can form completely impermeable zones, sealing the
water zone from the oil zone. Such layers have been found in the Ural-Volga
area and in the sulphur bearing parts of Louisiana and Texas. The
precipitation of iron sulphide and ferrous hydroxide can also be due to
SRB. The ferrous hydroxide in the presence of surface water or any other
source of dissolved oxygen will be further oxidized to from rust. On cores
and brine taken from the East Texas field 20-50% reduction in permeability
was put down to DesulEhovibrio and the corrosion products thus produced.

10) MICROBIAL FLORA

Microbial flora exist in the majority of oil reservoirs in production
today. However their number and influence is generally very small. There
has been much argument over the years with respect to their origin.
6
Mekhtieva (l ) has investigated the distribution of bacteria in the formation water of the Volga region. Samples were taken from the Permian,
Carboniferous and Devonian formation revealing a full range of physiological types. The number of bacteria were found to decrease with depth. However the formation water seemed to be of more importance. The exact
determination of the number of microbes was difficult to assess due to
their sessile nature.

SPE12947

-9In deeper (warmer) reservoirs cocci and sporefo~ing bacteria are more
prominent, whereas in shallower formations the common bacteria are the
non-sporogenic Bacilli. Thus, any MEHR scheme must take into account the
presence of these other bacteria and to suppress undesirable effects. Some
of these undesirable effects are summarised in the next section.
DETRIMENTAL AND BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MICROBES RELATED TO THE
RECOVERY OF HYDROCARBONS
In any process there are beneficial and detrimental factors at play, the same
is true for MEHR. Successful MEHR schemes must take into account any detrimental effects which microbes might cause and try to keep them to a bare minimum.
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS ( 3 )
There are three main detrimental effects of microbes:
1)
2)
3)
1)

Corrosion
Permeability reduction
Deterioration of petroleum reserves and drilling fluid additives

CORROSION
Microbes can cause corrosion of the tubulars used in production and injection wells, and to a lesser extent the surface production equipment. The
form of this corrosion is mainly pitting, which if not detected leads to
perforation of the tubing and casing strings. There are three types of bacteria involved, SRB, slime producing bacteria and iron oxidizing bacteria.
The SRB require an anaerobic environment while the latter two an aerobic
environment.
Steel has a natural resistance to corrosion in the form of a hydrogen layer. The aerobic microbial corrosion requires the presence of metallic ions,
water and oxygen and thus in water injection schemes, the oxygen content is
kept to a bare minimum. In anaerobic conditions, if SRB are present the
hydrogen layer is removed either by the enzyme hydrogenase or by catalysis
with the reaction of hydrogen and sulphate ions to form sulphide ions
(H S). H S causes stress cracking in steel tubulars, souring of the
hyarocarSons and is also a health hazard. If an aerobic MEHR scheme was to
be used over a continuous period in an anaerobic reservoir, stainless steel
tubulars would have to be installed.

2)

PERMEABILITY REDUCTION
The main causes of microbial permeability reduction are due to microbial
cell debris, microbial polysaccharides (gums, slimy secretions, resins) or
microbial precipitation of sulphides or calcite. The latter is a sign of
the presence of SRB and will occur within the oil/water transition and
water zones. The other two causes of plugging generally occur close to the
wellbore especially around water injection wells. Due to the general substrate deficiency, the effects of polysaccharide formation is minimal. Thus
the main cause of wellbore plugging is due to microbial clumping which
generally effects the first 20 em of the formation. To counteract plugging
of the wellbore various methods can be used. Firstly at surface,
installation of filtration units and secondly downhole, use of stimulation
techniques such as acidizing or more drastically hydraulic fracturing could
be carried out. Steam soak over the effected interval could also be tried.

SPE12947

-103)

DETERIORATION OF PETROLEUM RESERVES AND DRILLING FLUID ADDITIVES

Microbial utilization of crude oil has been known for many years. It has
been estimated that 10% of the world's crude has been destroyed and another
10% considerably reduced in value by microbial activity in shallow formations.
Formation damage can also occur due to microbial degradation of drilling
fluid additives used to prevent filtrate loss. Such additives are corn
starch, natural gums, carboxymethyl cellulose or chrome lignosulphonates.

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS
The beneficial effects can be split into two categories:
(I)

Miscellaneous - origin of hydrocarbons, micropaleontology, petroleum

prospecting

(II) Microbial Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery.

Hydrocarbons undoubtedly originate at some stage from microbial activity. Oil
contains many compounds which directly point at an organic (Biogenic) origin,
such as porphyrins, steroids and isoprenoids. Micropaleontology, the study and
use of fossilised pollen and microbial spores, has been used to identify the
geology of particular formations. Surface evidence of petroleum accumulations
at depth can be indicated by the soil microbes found in that particular area
and has as such in a limited extent been used for petroleum prospecting.
The use of microbes to enhance hydrocarbon recovery was initiated mainly from
the work of Zobell who published a number of papers and patents. Some of the
concepts behind his enhanced recovery schemes are listed below:
- Bacteria could live off the crude oil as an energy source whereby the usage
would be slow and incomplete. Thus the loss of crude would be insignificant
to the amount of increased recovery.
- Acids and probably carbon dioxide would be produced, some of which would
react with calcareous minerals increasing the pore space and producing more
carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide in the gaseous form would expand producing a microscopic drive
mechanism, or if dissolved would reduce the crudes viscosity thus increasing
its mobility.
- Bacteria will produce surface active agents reducing the interfacial tension
thus aiding migration. Solvents can also be produced.
- Bacteria although naturally selective to live off the lower molecular weight
hydrocarbons would also split the more viscous hydrocarbons thus decreasing
the oils viscosity.

-11- Bacteria being sessile will tend to grow on the rock matrix thus displacing
hydrocarbons into the pore space aiding residual oil recovery.
MICROBIAL ENHANCED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SCHEMES (MEHR)
Due to the dependence of microbes on water, the optimum MEHR scheme must in
some way be related with water injection. In fact in the oil zone where the
thermodynamic water potential (aw) is less than 0.9, bacterial growth will only
occur in the pore space swept by the waterflood.
The displacemen~ 9) hydrocarbons by fluids can be characterised by the ratio of
1 of the fluids. The mobility ratio (M) if having a value
the mobilities
equal too or less than unity means the displacement will be stable or piston
shape. If M is greater than unity, unstable incomplete displacement will occur.

---ywrw--)/(K.K
--pore--)

M = (K.K

Eqn 6

Under fractional flow conditions with stable displacement, all the hydrocarbons
apart from the residual saturation will be displaced (i.e. approx. 70%
recovery). If M is greater than unity waterflooding can still result in a stable displacement if polymers are added. The polymers cause the viscosity of the
displacing fluid to increase, thus decreasing the mobility ratio. Two common
polymers used are xanthan or polyacrylamide. Xanthan being a fermented
microbial product fromthe bacteria Xanthomonas.
There are many advantages for the use of surface injected microbial products
rather than subsurface produced microbial products:
- The microbial products can be purified minimising cell biomass plugging of
the pore space.
- As there is no substrate injection of the reservoir the effects of corrosion
and other adverse bacterial action will be negligible.
- Other microbial products rather than just bacterial could be used as the cell
size is not a restriction.
- Cheaper or more specific substrates (i.e. product maximisation) can be used.
- Microbiocides can be added to the.microbial products without the problem of
killing the beneficial microbes.
The recovery factor for water injection is not only dependent on the displacement efficiency but also on the sweep efficiency. (i.e. particularly permeability stratification). The sweep efficiency is defined as the percentage of the
swept volume compared with the total reservoir volume. It is not surprising to
find that permeability variation exists as the reservoir rocks are laid down
over millions of years. It is this permeability stratification that causes the
main decrease in sweep efticiency. An average sweep efficiency will be around
60% giving an overall recovery for waterflooding of 50%. It is this inefficiency that the main benefits of MEHR are aimed. Pore plugging by microbes comes
naturally. If this process could be controlled and used to rectify permeability
stratifications, a large increase in oil recovery would result. A good way to
illustrate microbial permeability reduction is by plotting K/Ki vs. the pore
volume injected. Experiments in the literature correspond to approximately
8 - 16 m3 of fluid/day/m of formation (15 - 30 barrels of fluid/day/ft of
formation) for four to eight inch well radii.

-12Permeability reduction is due to two mechanisms:

- physical penetration of the bacterial biomass into the pores
- plugging due to products of bacterial metabolism
This generally takes the form of an elongated 's' shape on the typical plot(lB)
(Fig. 3). The large initial reduction in K/Ki is partly due to the skin layer
formed on the surface of the core due to bacterial clumping. This effect in
MEHR schemes should be reduced by surface filtration before injection. The
rate of reduction in K/Ki can be increased by:
-

increased cell concentration in the fluid

increased cell size
increased aggregate tendencies
the ability to form or metabolise polymers
decreased flowrate of the injected fluid
larger initial permeability (Fig. 4)

zBj

It has been universally found that the lar'i9

initial permeability, the
greater the rate of permeability reduction
'
This can be explained by the
higher permeability zones permitting the flow of the microbial fluid at a
higher rate for the same differential pressure. Also a reduction in the larger
capillary pore radii will affect the permeability more due to it being a
squared term (Eqn.{~J Thus bacteria will naturally rectify permeability stratifications (Fig.5).
The increase in K/Ki reduction as the injection rate is decreased is also
important. Darcy's law links the injection rate directly proportional to the
pressure differential. However, with bacterial injection as t~Zl)ate is
changed, a disproportionate pressure differential will occur.
The change in
K/Ki has a transient nature where if the injection rate is increased and then
returned to its original rate, the K/Ki will return to this original projected
level (Fig 6). This eftect is important as the flux of the injected fluid is
greatest at the wellbore, decreasing out into the formation. Thus if microbial
clumping can be reduced, the formation furthest form the well will plug at a
faster rate.
Microbial diffusion through porous media depends on the motility of the organism and the velocity of the fluid in which it is suspended. In static fluids
the motility for Vibrio cholerae in 100 - 300 mD sandstone was measured at
0.5 -3.5 em/day.
The distance travelled into the formation will depend mainly on the permeability of the formation, the type or form of the microbe and the method of injection (batch or continuous). The optimum MEHR scheme involves the minimum
microbial injection with the maximum growth as far into the reservoir as possible. For this scheme it has been suggested that the bacteria should be injected
in the spore form, where even germination would cause permeability reduction.
The advantage of using spores is that they could be flushed into the formation
independent of the timing of substrate injection. They are also chemically
inert thus once single, they will not clump together. Their tough outer coating
would protect from adverse chemicals and high shear rates.

SPE12947

-13-

Whether the type of MEHR scheme involves batch or continuous injection will
depend on the results received. Batch injection will tend to affect the reservoir locally up to about 25 metres or more from the injection wells. Ideally
the exponential growth phase will occur more than five metres from the wellbore. This will depend on the time of the lag phase which can be up to eight
hours. Types of batch injection could be:
- Injection of a slug of microbes (spores) followed by a nutrient slug. The
nutrient slug would help displace the microbial slug into the reservoir. Any
microbes filtered out during the displacement would utilise the nutrients
following behind.
- Injection of a nutrient slug followed by a microbial slug (vegetative or
spore form). Here nutrients absorbed on the rock surface would be used by
microbial slug, some mixing of the two would also occur as they are chased
into the reservoir by continuous water injection.
- Inject a slug of microbes suspended in a high concentration nutrient slug
chased by water injection.
Continuous injection would mainly be considered where the physiochemical nature
of the reservoir is more akin to microbial growth. Plugging would occur at a
lower level than batch injection but spread over a larger area. Forms of
continuous injection could be:
- Prolonged spore injection, even until the wells produce them. Selective
flooding of germination nutrients could then be carried out.
- Batch injection of microbes (vegetative or spore form) followed by a continuous injection of substrate.
- Continuous alternation of slugs of microbes and substrate chased with water.
The number and size of the slugs would depend on the permeability and
reservoir conditions.
Apart from the increase in the sweep efficiency, the displacement efficiency
can also be increased by the microbes, recovering a percentage of the residual
hydrocarbons left behind after waterfloodinge The microbes will exert an internal diffuse rather than a frontal displacement of these hydrocarbons. The exact
method is not easily discernible. Some of the beneficial microbial products
which could be involved are:
-

Organic acids
Gases
Surfactants
Alcohols/Ketones
Polymers

lactic, citric, formic, propionic

C0 , CH , H
2
4
2
Proteins, l~poproteins,
lipids
Ethanol, butanol, acetone
Xanthan, etc.

The microbial cells, due to their sessile nature, will also crowd the surfaces
of the pores displacing the hydrocarbons to the centre of the flow channels.
Also in smaller pores the cells will be of the same order of magnitude as the
funicularly trapped hydrocarbons, thus a microscopic displacement might also
occur. Certain microbes can also reduce the viscosity of hydrocarbons by partial degradation of the longer chain molecules, although this reaction rate is
very slow.
The use of microbes in viscous hydrocarbon reservoirs where the mobility ratio
is much larger than unity, could be two fold. The main method would be batch
injection of the microbes and substrate causing fermentation within the
reservoir (Fig. 7). The producers are often shut in for a few months during

-14this fermentation stage. It has bet~ ~ound that on opening the wells up again
2 This is due to the same mechanisms as
the oil production will increase.
described for the recovery of residual hydrocarbons. The other method is to use
steam injection for the recovery of the hydrocarbons with any decrease in the
sweep efficiency rectified by microbial injection. However, a period of cold
water injection would have to occur to decrease the artificially high reservoir
temperature. Also the susceptibility for the plugged zones to be unplugged by
reintroducing the steam would be very debatable.

s p E1 2 9 L~ 7

-15CONCLUSION
From the principles laid down in this paper it should be possible to isolate
the potential candidates for MEHR schemes. Based on careful evaluation of the
ten parameters, a pilot scheme could be carried out. This would probably entail
batch injection in a high water cut (i.e. greater than 95%) part of a reservoir
in order to minimise any detrimental effects to existing production.
Based on the recovery of hydrocarbons from the pilot scheme, a MEHR scheme
using continuous injection could be considered. Ideally, the reservoir used
would have a permeability larger than 100 mD with a fairly light oil.
It is only by the acquisition of field data that a true evaluation of the
potential of microbes can be fully carried out. It will be only then that such
questions as to the application of MEHR to tighter formations or carbonate
lithologies can be answered.
su~~Y

Improvement in the recovery of hydrocarbons from microbial action will occur

if:
Injection is into primarily sandstone reservoirs
- The lithology is water wet
- Bacteria (preferentially of sessile nature) are used
- The reservoirs to have minimal temperature and pressure effects on the
microbes selected.
- The oil zone has an aw less than 0.9 in order to inhibit the presence of
microbes in the oil pore channels causing detrimental pore plugging.
- The hydrocarbons are light with a favourable mobility ratio
Beneficial microbial products produced from a limited substrate injection.
- Precautions are taken to minimise wellbore skin effects.

SPE12947

-16-

NOMENCLATURE
aw
E

thermodynamic water potential

activation energy

act

height

gravitational constant

absolute permeability

relative permeability

r(o,w)

rate constant

mobility ratio

pressure

Pc

capillary pressure

gas constant

Ravg 2

capillary distribution function

pressure degradation volume

f/J

porosity

1:'

pore factor

}Jw

thermodynamic potential of water vapour in equilibrium with

the system

}Jo

thermodynamic potential of pure water

viscosity

-I7References
I.

Zobell C. (I946) US Pate~t 24I3278, Bacteriological Process for treatment

of fluid bearing earth formations.

2.

Sharpley J.M. (1966) Elementary Petroleum Microbiology, Houston's Gulf

Publishing Company.

3.

Davis J.B. (1967) Petroleum Microbiology, Elsevier Publishing Company.

4.

Gregory A.T. (1980) Fundamentals of Microbial Enhanced Recovery Msc dissertation, Imperial College London.

5.

Hewitt L.F. (I950) Oxidation Reduction Potentials in Bacteriology and Biochemistry, 6th ed. Williams and Wilkins Baltimore, M.D. pp 215

6.

Bray H, White K. (1966) Kinetics and Thermodynamics in Biochemistry,

Churchill Ltd.

7.

Zobell C. (1943) Sessile bacteria and attachment mechanisms to solid surfaces, J. Bact 46 p 39-56

8.

Leninger H.A., Beverloo W.A. (1975) Food Process Engineering, D. Reidel

Publishing Company.

9.

Brown W.O. (1957) The mobility of connate water during a waterflood

AIME Trans Vol 210 p190 - 195.

10. Zobell C. (1950) Action of microorganisms on hydrocarbons, Adv. Enzymol 10,

445.
11. Zobell C. (1946) Action of microorganisms on hydrocarbons, Bact. Review 10,
I - 49.
12. Watkinson R.J. (ed.),Developments in biodegradation of hydrocarbons I.
Applied Science Publishers London (1978).
13. Stare etal (1941) co ;o ratio and bacterial attack of Petroleum fractions,
2 2
J. Bact 44 I69-178.
14. Zobell C, Johnson F.H, Influence of hydrostatic pressure on the growth and
viability of terrestrial and marine bacteria, J.Bact 57 p178-189
15. Kuznetsova V.A. (1960) Mikrobiologiya 29 p408-414
16. Mekhtieva (1959) Mikrobiologiya 28

p743-749

17. Craig F. (1971) Monograph Vol 3, The reservoir engineering aspects of

waterflooding. Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME.
18. Raleigh J.T., Flock P.L. (1965) A study of formation plugging with bacteria, JPT 17 (2) p 201-206

SPE12941

-1819. Crawford P.B. (1961) Possible bacterial correction of stratification problems, Production Monthly 25 (12) p10-11
20. Crawford P.B (1962) Continual changes observed in bacterial stratification
rectification, Production Monthly 26 (2) p12
21. Kalish P.J., et al (1964) The effects of bacteria on sandstone
permeability, JPT 16 (7) p805-814
22. Anon (1980) Bacterial enhanced oil recovery, Oil Week, July 14/80.

SPE12947

A TYPICAL HYDROCARBON RESERVOIR

Figure 1.

G) GAS ZONE
11

II

5 shaped Capillary Curve

GAS/OIL TRANSITION ZONE - -

OIL
ZONE

Pc

jWATERZONE
5

0 ~

SW

100

GROWTH PHASES DURING BATCH OPERATIONS

Figure 2.

CD LAG

PHASE

GROWTH

EXPONENTIAL PHASE

Log (Nets of Viable cells)

@ STATIONARY PHASE
- @ DEATH PHASE

TIME

Figure 3.

TYPICAL SHAPE OF MICROBIAL PERMEABILITY

REDUCTION IN CORE PLUGS
~ 1,0~~------------------~
i=
~

<t

~ 0,5

a::
>-

!:::
.....J

0,2

m
<(

w
a: 0, f
~
~

-+-------'1----,-----.__,.--1
tO

50

fOO

PORE VOLUME INJECTED

1000

SPE129L~7

IN PERMEABILITY OF THREE TYPES OF CORES

SUBJECTED TO WATER CONTAINING BACTERIA.
1,0~--------------,

_J

<l:

E
~
~

.......
~

0,5

a::
~

:J

co
<(

w
2

0~----~------,---'

a::
~

10

TIME

Figure 5.

DIAGRAMS OF BACTERIALLY INDUCED SELECTIVE

PLUGGING OF OIL RESERVOIR ROCK.

A. PERMEABILITY IN MILL!B. PERMEABILITY IN MILLfDARCYS PRIOR TO BACTERIAL

DARCYS AFTER BACTERIAL
SLIME PRODUCTION
SLIME PRODUCTION

Figure

s. EFFECT OF THE INJECTION RATE ON PERMEABILITY

REDUCTION CAUSED BY INJECTING PROTEUS VULGARIS
SUSPENSIONS INTO CORES.
0

1,0 ~------------Ki =280m D

0: ....J

~s

1-t::

-z

:d- 0 5
CD

.......

~~
a:
w
a.
0

10
10

NUMBER OF BACTERIA INJECTED x 10

SPE1294'7

Figure 7.

PRODUCTION HISTORY OF A WELL TREATED

WITH BACTERIA.
Kg/day

150

100

INOCULATION
RESUMED PRODUCTION

OIL PRODUCTION

50

1969

1970 ' 1971

YEAR
NB. TYPICAL INOCULATION: SOME 500 LITRES OF6 BACTERIAL
(per weU)
INOCULUM WITH 6x10 CELLS/ML,
WITH A NUTRIENT SOLUTION COMPOSED
3
OF 2COOKG OF MOLASSES IN 50m OF
WATER.

~PE129~~l