Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ET302
S te s a n
K u a sa
Power station
P e n g h a n ta r a n
Transmission
P e n g a g ih a n
Distribution
P eng gu na
Consumer
Page 17
ET302
Transmission line for electric circuit usually having a few parameter such as
resistance, inductance and capacitance. This parameter is not same all
along transmission line which affect to voltage regulation and also
transmission line efficiency. This effect also depends on some transmission
line length.
2.3.1 Series Resistance Conductor
Several factors should be taken into consideration such as line length,
diameter of the line, material and environmental temperature cross sectional
area.
Current flow in oppositional direction in its and this state is known as
resistance. R resistance in ohm formed in this transmission line refering to
long and diameter a conductor and can be stated as ;
R=
(equation: 2.1)
(equation: 2.2)
(equation: 2.3)
Page 18
ET302
2.3.2 Inductance
D
(b)
(a)
Both conductor in figure 2.2(a) and 2.2(b), will form rectangle loop for each
round through live flux current flow result in both conductor. When flux
resultant this chain to that loop it will produce inductance. Although
separatist distance between this conductor is large about 1 metres to 10
metres, because existence this compact flux number will form larger coil and
influence inductance existence.
Inductance existence in conductor for each round per metre ( when D )
provable through equation as follows;
L
D i
loge
where,
= permeability absolute medium.
i = permeability absolute conductor material.
Page 19
ET302
Line
Vm
Vsn
Load
Neutral
Figure 2.3 Single line circuit of short line
Short transmission line could be identified briefly with draw a single line
circuit. Some components found on this line could be used to make
calculation to determine voltage efficiency and fall which occurred in short
line transmission system. Figure 2.3 shows a short line single line circuit.
Referring to figure 2.3, a few parameters could be identified namely,
Vsn Vm I
R X -
IX
Im kos m
Vsn
AA
Vm
IR
B IX sin m
Vm kos m
sn
m
Vm kos m
ET302
A vector diagram for short line having relation with parameters found in short
line individual line figure. In this case vector diagram follow can be drawn like
Figure 2.2.4.
Refering to Figure 2.4, a parameter identified as;
OA
OI
AB
BC
OC
Refering to this parameter we could find end voltage transmision and further
determine his power factor. Try the following solution:OC (OD DF ) 2 ( FB BC ) 2
and
(V R os R IR) 2 (V R sin R IX ) 2
cos S
OF V R cos R IR
OC
VS
In fact, from this vector diagram, we will be able to determine VS and power
factor, we also can determine regulation percent for a short line by referring
to the parameter. Regulation percent voltage refering to Figure 2.4 can be
written as.
Regulation Percent =
2.5
IR cos R IX sin R
x 100
VS
(Equation: 2.5)
In this condition, voltage drop are same in magnitude and phase but phase
relationship with end voltage receiver and end voltage transmission are
changed.
A Voltage drop at end voltage receiver with increas of load for inductive case
(power factor lagging) and increase with capacitance load (power factor
leading). End voltage receiver not only depends to load but also in power
factor. Regulation voltage changing at end voltage transmission for different
power factor could be describe through locust figure such as Figure 2.4.
Refering to Figure 2.5, AO vector show end voltage receiver (VR) at load
state and OX line with angle R, is load power factor with cos R.Beside
that OX line also showed current (I) load phase. AB line drew parallel to OX
line having IR resistance's drop lR and vertical line BC drawn vertical to OX
line having inductances drop IX.
Page 21
ET302
H F
VS C
IX
VR
IR
A
Power
factor
leading
B
X
IX
O I D
R
VS
VR
Power
factor
lagging
Page 22
ET302
When load at end receiver get power supply then will happen voltage drop
effect from resistance and inductance in conductor. Hence voltage value at
end receiver in Vm usually less compared end voltage transmission in Vsn.
Different voltage drop in end receiver and end transmission stated as end
transmission voltage percent known as regulation.
Regulation per unit definable as voltage change in end receiver part when
full load in halted, this will make voltage in transmission end equal to
receiver end. This situation can be made to appear in form of similarity as
follows:
Regulation Percent =
Vsn Vm
x 100
Vm
(Equation: 2.6)
Re ceived Power
x 100
Transmit Power
OutputPower
=
x 100
OutputPower PowerLosses
Transmission Efficiency =
Vm Im cos m
x 100 (Equations: 2.7)
VsnIsn cos sn
Where is Vm, Im and cos m is voltage, current and receiver end power
factor while Vsn, Isn dan cos sn is voltage, current and transmission end
power factor.
Page 23
ET302
Voltage Regulation and transmission line visible with clearer through simple
calculations examples like in this part.
Example 2.1:
Given;
Resistance, R = 2
Inductance, X = 3
Power , P = 1,100 kw
Power factor m = 0.8 (mengekor)
Receiver end voltage, Vm = 11,000 V
Load Current, I =
I=
P x 1,000
Vm cos m
1,100 x 1,000
11,000 x 0.8
I = 125 A
i). Value of transmission end voltage
known,
so that
cos m = 0.8
sin m = 0.6
Vsn =
Vsn =
Vsn = 11,426 V
Page 24
ET302
Vsn = 11,426 V
Vm = 11,000 V
Vsn Vm
Regulation Percent =
x 100
Vm
11,426 11,000
=
x 100
11,000
= 3.873 %
iii). Transmission Line Efficiency.
Power Losses
= I2 R = (125)2 x 2
= 31,250 atau 31.25 kw
Transmission Power
x 100
Re ceiving Power
Transmission Efficiency =
T =
T
1100 x 1000
x 100
(1100 x 1000) + 31250
= 97.24%
Example2.2:
= 0.8 (lagging)
Line Current, I =
=
5,000 x1,000
=
3 x 6,351
262.4 amp
ET302
Vsn Vm
x 100
Vm
12,637 11,000
=
x 100
11,000
= 14.88 %
and
Transmission line efficiency =
T
Output Power
x 100
Output Power Power Losses
5000k
x100
5000k + 103280.64
T = 97.98%
Page 26
ET302
X
line
Vsn
Im
IC
C
Vm
load
Neutral
Figure 2.6 Medium line individual circuit
Actually exist three way that can use to determine medium line individual line
figure such as end condenser methods, T method and method . Figure 2.6
is method end condenser. This method crumple up capacitance in load end
part. If in short line capacitance deserted, in medium line also capacitance
taken into account this is because availability addition to voltage and length
value line.
Due to this regulation calculation in medium line will participate consider
capacitance and leak reactants in line and its can be explained depends on
value of receiving voltage.
Refering to circuit in Figure 2.6, we would note line current (Isn) is total load
current (Im) and also current recharging (Ic) for capacitance.Written as;
Isn = Im + Ic (Equations: 2.8)
If we write equation for current recharging for capacitance, Ic = jwCVm and
Im load current = Im (cost m - jsin m)
Page 27
We will find out Isn = Im cost m - jIm Sin m j, as such with this
is found;
ET302
equation
Voltage drop in line = Isn ( R JX ) from this equation we will know voltage
value found in transmission end as follows;
Vsn = Vm + Isn (R + jX). (Equations: 2.9)
Through this equation we can see how power flow occurring in line delivery
system medium and further we be able to size his voltage regulation.
Long Line Circuit
A transmission line who sent out electricity power release heat due to
conductor resistance. So long line act as a barrier. Transmission line also act
as a inductance because every conductor are surrounded by a magnetic
field in transmission line length. Long transmission line also acted as a its
capacitor because conductor act as pelitic capacitor. Resistance, inductance
and capacitance as a transmission line are dispensed uniform in line length,
with magnetic field around conductor along with electric field created by
different between that field.
We could imagine that a transmission line contain thousands resistor,
inductor and basis capacitor like those demonstrated at figure 2.7.
ISn
Vsn
R/n
X/n
B/n
Im
G/n
Vsn
Load
Page 28
ET302
Apart from that several statements can be done refering to same circuit,
i). Line are made up a few constant parameter namely resistance,
inductance, capacitance and conductivity all along long transmission
line distribution.
ii). Resistance (R) and inductive reactance (X) is element on-line serial
transmission
iii). Capacitance string (B) and leaking conductivity (G) are element shunt,
leaking conductivity also caused on-line lost power. It derives of
insulation leak or corona effect in conductor.
iv) Leakage current which flowed through shunt graduate is maximum in
transmission end line and lesser continuously when headed for receiver
end and finally become zero after arriving to receiver end of line.
W
3 E kos
(Equations: 2.10)
Let say :
= Length of conductor line
=Resistance of conductor material
= current density
A = Conductor cross section
Page 29
ET302
3I 2 R
3W
E kos
(Equations: 2.11)
(Equations: 2.12)
(Equations: 2.13)
Copper volume:
=3A
3 W
(Equations: 2.14)
E kos
Refering to this equation some assumptions could be made among them:Equation (2.11), giving picture that lost power are proportional inverse with
E, also inversely proportional with power factor cost .
Equation (2.12), show that efficiency increased transmission line by adding
total voltage in line and power factor.
Equation (2.13), resistance decrease at every line are fixed ( when and
assumed fixed. Voltage regulation can be repaired because fall percentage
voltage could be reduced with increasing value E.
Copper volume of necessity for transmission line are proportional inverse
with a voltage and system power hereby copper need dwindling.
Can be concluded of this equation altogether, when voltage and power
system value enhanced then this result would give efficiency in transmission
line by conductor material saving also can be done and further reduce
delivery cost with small cable size in long line.
Due to this line capacity advancing by the increase of transmission line
voltage. Undeniable that cost for transmission line and terminal equipment
also rising with the increase of transmission line voltage but overall cost is
proportional with delivery voltage. Moreover it will save cost in keeping with
lost power reduction which occurred in transmission line. Effect of that, the
delivery total cost decrease with the increase of transmission line voltage.
Page 30
Corona
ET302
Page 31
ET302
ET302
(a) Design
Page 33
ET302
Conductor
Binding Wire
glazed porcelain
Plumbed
Shield
Steel pin
Tower Bar
(b) Schematic
Figure 2.9
Pin Insulator
Page 34
ET302
Socket
Cement
Steel Cap
Glass or Pottery
Balls
Steel Pin
Page 35
ET302
At one overhead line state having high tension, for example at end or hairpin
at transmission line. For tension its low voltage line use shackle insulator.
Whereas for line tension insulator high voltage tension used. Usually in
insulator installation in transmission line two or more insulator used. Insulator
disk tension fitted with horizontally different with suspension insulator will
fitted with vertically. Process of tension insulator are same with suspension
insulator, however height size of suspension insulator are exceeded
tension insulator (Refer to Figure 2.11).
tegangan
Page 36
ET302
Voltage emerge arc is voltage cause insulator surface breach insulate, allow
current flow through insulator face from conductor to supporter bar. A
insulator fixing with a safe minimum voltage imposed at insulator. This
minimum voltage is dependent to insulator type and size.
In tests emerge this dry arc, a net and dry insulator assembled on a
supporter. A voltage with power frequency system imposed in that insulator.
This voltage will increase by way staggered until minimum voltage for
insulator under test. This minimum voltage need to be given in insulator
within not less than 30 seconds . If emerge arc does not happen in that
period, insulator is good. Voltage raised again by way gradually until
flashover happened within 10 seconds. Lightning overvoltage being
recorded. This process is repeated as much as four times. Average voltage
Page 37
ET302
of flashover could not less than minimum voltage of past dry lightning that is
fixed.
ii.
This test equal to test (a) except under synthetic rain which possess
resistance and temperature that is fixed. Angle and speed rate synthetic rain
water decline also in fix. In this time, insulator should arrested lower
minimum voltage of test (a) long 30 seconds at least without emerge arc.
iii.
This test equal to test (b) except involving contamination with fog, salt,
smoke, dust or chemical. Usually, lightning overvoltage is value than tests
(b).
Breakdown tests carried out on 3% per cent of the total insulation produced. To test
the dielectric insulation. Insulation may be able to withstand extreme lightning
events have suffered, but it must be replaced if it had been breakdown.
For insulation design, flash past should occur at voltages less than voltage
breakdown. At the time of testing, the insulation shall be immersed in a clean
insulating oil to prevent flash past. The value of the test voltage is raised slowly and
the insulation must be able to withstand 1.3 times the voltage dry flash past without
breakdown.
ii. Pulse Test.
Previous voltage lightning pulses obtained by using a signal pulse as in Figure 2.11.
Page 38
ET302
Magnitude
Leading
Wave
Lagging
Wave
Time
Figure 2.12: test wave form pulse
Pulse Ratio
iii.
Pulse Overvoltage
Lighting overvoltage power frequency
Mechanical Test
Temperature Test
Porosity Test
This is glaze test in pottery insulator. The insulator is weighed in dry state
then it immersed in water and under pressure long 24 hours. After that the
insulator is issued, his face dried. Difference between both the reading show
the pottery deep water result gelis imperfect.
(c). Habit Test
Habit test are involving high voltage and test test corrosion which conducted
on all insulator. For test insulator erosion and rustiness usually divulge to
copper solution of sulphate in temperature 15.6 celcius in time a minute.
After one minute insulator tested will in transferred and then polished and
Page 39
ET302
cleaned and then disclosed again to copper solution of sulphate. Ianya done
repeatedly up to four times. After that checked to be sure there were no any
rustiness and metal cleave to insulator tested.
High voltage test committed against pin insulator, where it
overturned and placed inside water which hit keparas insulator neck. Water
also placed in hole spindle. Then high voltage are supplied in 5 minutes
time. After going through this test should good insulator will not suffer
damage.
ET302
A
V2
E
i1
I2
V1
C1
V1
A
V2
i2
V1 + V2
V3
C
C
C1
i3
V1 + V2 + V3
Figure a
V3
I3
I4
Figure b
Figure 2.14 Process (a)and equivalent circuit (b) for insulator network
ET302
I2 =
CV2 =
CV2 =
CV2 =
V2 =
V2 =
C1 = KC
I1 + i1
CV1 + C1V1
CV1 + KCV1
C(V1 + KV1)
(V1 + KV1)
V1(1 + K)
Get V1
..{Equations: 2.16)
After getting V1 value further obtain V2 value and V3. Of in this retrieval we
will see bezaupaya voltage negotiate each this network insulator.
Example 2.3:
ET302
Given:
E = 33kV
K = C1/C = 1/10 = 0.1
With use equation were obtained of 8.1 we know;
V2 = V1(1 + K)
V3 = V1 (1 + 3 K + K)
For equation V4 voltage hinder fourth insulator, available with method used
just like in 8.1 and found as;
V4 = V1 (1 + 6K + 5K2 + K3)
So that
V2 = V1(1 + K)
V2 = V1(1 +0.1)
V2 = 1.1V1
V3 = V1 (1 + 3 K + K)
V3 = V1(1+ 3(0.1) +(0.1)2)
V3 = 1.31V1
V4 = V1 (1 + 6K + 5K2 + K3)
V4 = V1(1+ 6(0.1) + 5(0.1)2 + (0.1)3)
V4 = 1.651V1
Voltage between tower conductor and post (to earth) :E = V 1 + V2 + V3 + V4
E = V1 + 1.1V1 + 1.31V1 + 1.651V1
E = 5.061V1
and
E=
33000
3
= 19050V
So that;
V1 = E / 5.061
V1 = 19050 / 5.061
V1 = 3764.7V
By including V1 value in V2 ,V3 equation, and V4, from this equation is
found :V2 = 1.1V1
V2 = 1.1(3764.7)
V2 = 4141.2V
V3 = 1.31V1
Page 43
ET302
V3 = 1.31(3764.7)
V3 = 4931.8V
V4 = 1.651V1
V4 = 1.651(3764.7)
V4 = 6215.5V
Refering to voltage values negotiate insulation per unit found V4 voltage's
value obstruct fourth insulator in insulation network (near to conductor) was
high compared V1 voltage's value in near insulator with tower post namely
first insulator.
2.12.2 Network Efficiency
Because availability unequal voltage division at every network insulator are
used at overhead line what when occurence of interrupt or ganguan lightning
result. Namely voltage negotiate near insulator with higher conductor and
decrease until to near insulator with tower post. Then will reduce efficiency
in insulation network used. Network efficiency also influenced by insulator
number suspension applies in a network. Apart from that depend also to
fitness ratio air (capacitance between tower unit and post) with mutual
capacitance (capacitance between unit) at one network. Network efficiency
for use overhead line definable as;
Network Efficiency =
Or can be writen as,
Network Efficiency =
x 100%
..{Equations: 2.17)
Where;
E = Voltan hinder network
n = number of insulator arranged by serial in network insulator
VT = Voltage Hinder Insulator near to conductor
Example 2.4:
Solution :
Page 44
ET302
E
x 100%
nVT
=
19053
4 x 6215.5
= 76.6%
x 100%
Cross-arm
D
D = Bar length
Conductor
Page 45
(b)
ET302
guard ring
Ring way obstruction can be done with use static shield. This static
shield assembled on end lower part insulator unit connected by using joining
of metal in suspension insulator and then connects to line conductor.
Guard ring which functions as curtain for per unit, reduce earth capacitance
and create capacitance between insulator line and cap. Capacitance value is
big in nearby unit part with guard ring and this will reduce voltage fall
negotiate insulator per unit network. Through this way same voltage
distribution negotiates per unit is impossible obtained in practically. However
it could be considered to increase decently possible network efficiency. This
guard ring method visible like figure 2.16(a).
Tower post
I1
Tower Post
i1
C
1
Arc Horn
C1
C1
Obstruction Ring
i2
i3
I2
I3
Conductor
Ix
Cx
Iy
C
y
Iz
C
z
V2
V3
Obstruction Ring
(a) Construction
Figure 2.16 :
V1
Guard ring
ET302
At point A,
At point C,
C1V = Cx3V
C1V = Cx3V
Cx = C1 / 3
C13V = CzV
C13V = CzV
Cz = 3C1
At point B,
C12V = Cy 2V
C1V = Cy 2V
Cy = C1
Page 47