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Stone Column

STONE COLUMN :
Stone column construction involves the partial
replacement (usually 15 to 35% of the weak soil by
volume) of unsuitable subsurface soils with a
compacted vertical column of the stone.
Stone columns can be used :
To enhance the bearing capacity
To reduce the settlement of soft soils such as peats
To accelerate the stage of primary consolidation
To reduce the liquefaction potential of sands
To improve the stability of slopes

Stone columns were first used in 1830 by French


military engineers. Columns were 2 m long, 0.2 m
in diameter and supported 10 kN load.
It was only after 1960s that the vibro-flotation
technique was used for forming stone column in
cohesive soil.
Today, the columns are made up to 15 m long,
and 0.5 to 1.5 m in diameter and support loads up
to 300 kN

The design techniques :


Vibro-compaction Method
This method is used to improve the density of
non-cohesive subsoil stratum using vibrofloat.
Vibrofloat is a long (2-3 m) and thin (0.3 to 0.5
in dia) steel tube contains an eccentric weight
mounted at the bottom on a vertical shaft directly
linked to a motor in the body.

The vibratory motion is horizontal


with the body cycling around a
vertical axis as shown:

The vibrofloat is suspended from a crane as


shown below:

The vibrofloat vibrates at a high frequency of 50


to 60 Hz to suit electric power cycles.
After reaching the predetermined depth, in the
ground under its own weight and with the
assistance of water and vibration, vibrofloat is
withdrawn gradually with subsequent addition of
granular backfill.
The range of grain size distribution of soils
suitable for vibro-compaction method:-

2. Vibro-replacement Method
This method is used to improve cohesive soils
with more than 18% passing US standard sieve.
Equipment used is similar to that for vibrocompaction.

The vibro-float sinks rapidly under its own weight


and assisted by water or air as a flushing medium
into the ground until it reaches the predetermined
depth.
It is always preferable to use jetting fluid to remove
softened material.
Generally water is used in fully saturated soil and
air is used in a partially saturated soil.
The uncased hole is flushed out and filled in
stages with 12-75 mm size imported gravel.

Range of grain size distribution of soils suitable


for vibro-compaction

3. Vibro-compozer Method
Used for stabilizing soft clays in the presence
of high groundwater levels.
The sand compaction piles are constructed by
casing pipe to the desired depth using a heavy,
vertical vibratory hammer located at the top of
the pipe.
Casing is filled with a specified volume of the
sand and the casing is then repeatedly extracted
and partially redriven using the vibratory hammer
starting from the bottom.
The process is repeated until a fully
penetrating granular pile is constructed.

Vibro-compozer method

4. Cased-borehole Method
A good substitute for vibrator compaction
considering its low cost.
The method uses a hammer weighing 15 to 20
kN falling through a height of 1.0 to 1.5 m.
The stone aggregate placed in prebored holes
is rammed by the hammer.
The disturbance and subsequent remoulding by
ramming operation may limit its applicability to
sensitive soils.

5. Simple Auger Boring Method


A spiral auger is used to make the borehole
utilizing manual labour.
After reaching the desired depth, the borehole is
thoroughly cleaned manually by using specially
made tools.
Following the completion of the borehole,
granular piles are cast using 20-30 mm stone
aggregates and 20-25% of locally available sand
with a uniformity coefficient of 2.

Pile arrangements :
In general the stone column are placed on
a regular grid. There are three possible regular
arrangements.
The column may lie on the vertices of an
equilateral triangle, a square or a regular
hexagon.

Failure Mechanisms:
Single granular pile
Most probable failure mechanism is bulging
failure.
Mechanism applies if either free floating or end
bearing pile is generally greater than about 3
diameter in length.
A very short pile bearing on a firm support will
undergo either a general or local bearing
capacity type failure at the surface.
Floating pile less than about 2 to 3 diameter in
length may fail in end bearing in the weak
underlying layer before bulging failure can
develop.

2. Granular pile
groups
For wide flexible
loading (i.e.
embankment
over a granular
pile improved
foundation soil)
lateral
spreading may
be one of the
failure mode.

Settlements are greater when spreading occurs


than if restrained.
The group of granular piles in a soft soil
probably undergoes a combined bulging and
local bearing type failure.
Local bearing failure is the punching of a
relatively rigid granular pile or group.
Pile group having short length can fail in end
bearing or perhaps undergo capacity failure of
individual granular piles.

3. Effect of non-homogeneity of soft soil layer on


failure mechanism
In most situation, granular pile passes through a
non-homogeneous soil layer. The isolated
zones of very soft cohesive soils can result in
significant bulging at both shallow and deep
depth.
The presence of a very weak layer such as peat
greater than about 1 pile diameter in thickness
can also seriously affect stone column
performances.

Failure Mechanism of granular pile in non-homogeneous


soil layer

Ultimate bearing capacity of single isolated


granular pile:
Unit-cell Approach:
The tributary area of soil surrounding each granular
pile is closely approximated by an equivalent area
known as unit. Expression for equivalent diameter for
unit having pile spacing s are
12

4
d
=
(
)
1)For Triangular arrangement: e 2 s
16 14
de = ( 2 ) s
2) For Square arrangement:

3) For Hexagonal arrangement:

de = (

27

4
)
s
2

Acell= Apile+ Asoil


Replacement factor

Ap
de 2
=
= c( )
Ac
S
C is a constant depends on
arrangement of pile.

The vertical stress distribution within the unit cell


is expressed by a stress concentration factor given
as
p

n=

where, p is stress in granular pile, and s is


stress in surrounding soft soil. The average stress
over the unit cell area corresponding to a given
area replacement factor given as

= p + s (1 )

n
= p
p =
1 + (n 1)
s =

1 + (n 1)

= s

Where, p , s are dimensionless factors for


granular pile and soft soil respectively depends
on the area replacement factor and stress
concentration factor.

General shear failure Approach:


Madhav and Vitkar (1978) considered a general
shear failure mechanism for the granular trench to
derive expression for ultimate bearing capacity of
footings on stabilized soils using upper bound
theorem.

The expression for ultimate bearing capacity


qult = c2 N c + ( 2 B / 2) N + D f 2 N q
N c = (c1 / c2 )N C + N C
1

N = ( 1 / 2 ) N + N
1

where, N C , N C , N , N , N q
are the dimensionless
factors depend on the properties of the trench and
soil materials and the ratio A/B. c2 , 2 and c1 1 are
cohesion and unit weight of soil and trench
materials respectively, and Df is the depth of the
foundation.
1

Cavity Expansion Theory :


Hughes and Withers considered the bulging type
failure of a single stone column to be similar to the
cavity developed during pressure-meter test.
In their approach the elastic plastic theory for a
frictionless material and an infinitely long expanding
cylindrical cavity was used.

1 + sin s
E

qult = { ro + c 1 + log e
}

2c(1 + ) 1 sin s

where, c is undrained shear strength, Ec is elastic


modulus of the soil, 3 is ultimate undrained lateral
stress, is poissons ratio and ro is total in-situ
lateral undrained stress (initial).

Vesic Cavity Expansion Theory :


Vesic has developed a general cylindrical cavity
solution including soils friction and cohesion both.
1 + sin s

qult = [cFc '+ qFq ' ]


1 sin s
where, q is mean (isotropic) stress ( + + ) / 3 at
the equivalent failure depth, Fc and Fq are cavity
expansion factors are a function of the angle of
internal friction of surrounding soil and rigidity
E
index I =
1

2(1 + v)(c + q tan c )

Other approaches to estimate Ultimate Bearing


capacity:
1. Passive pressure or plastic failure approach
2. Lateral limit stress approach
3. Empirical approach
4. Experimental approach

Settlement:
Equilibrium Method :
From conventional one dimensional theory the
primary consolidation
0 +c
cc

H log10
St =

1 + e0
0
c is change in vertical stress in the clay due
to applied external stress
c = c
1
St (improved )
c =
=
[1 + (n 1)as ] S (unimproved )

n is stress concentration factor s c


must
be estimated using past experience and
previous field stress measurements, is the
average externally applied stress, as is area
replacement ratio.

Other approaches to estimate settlement:


1. Finite Element Method:
Based on elasto-plastic analysis, considering
the effective stress modulus for undrained
soil, the settlement S=(P/Es )LIP where, P is
total load on pile, L is length of pile, IP is
factor based on pile geometry and EP /ES
ratio. The difference in the settlement is
found to be within 10%.
2.Elastic Method
3.Empirical Method
4.Experimental Method

Primary consolidation settlement:


The average degree of primary consolidation
could be handled by considering the vertical and
radial consolidation effects separately as

U = 1 (1 U z )(1 U r )
where, U is average degree of consolidation of
the cohesive layer considering both radial and
vertical drainage, Uz is degree of consolidation
considering vertical flow, and Ur is degree of
consolidation considering only radial flow.
The degree of consolidation in the vertical
direction is calculated using Terzaghis one
dimensional theory and Barrons theory for
radial direction.

Liquefaction application:
A possible method of stabilizing a soil deposit
susceptible to liquefaction is to install a system of
granular piles (rock drain) so that the pore water
pressure generated by cyclic loading could be
dissipated almost as fast as generated.
Slope stability:
Use of stone columns to improve the underlying soft
soil is one of the viable alternatives for increasing
the safety factor ( with respect to a general
rotational or linear type stability failure ) to an
acceptable level.

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