Ashoka's Dhamma

Dhamma is a set of edicts that formed a policy of the Mauryanemperor Ashoka Maurya consider him
as one of the greatest kings of the ancient India for his policies of public welfare. His policy
of Dhamma has been debated by intellectuals.

Definition
The word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma. There have been attempts to
define and find equivalent English words for it, such as "piety", "moral life" and "righteousness" but
scholars could not translate it into English because it was coined and used in a specific context. The
word Dharma has multiple meanings in the literature and thought of ancient India. The best way to
understand what Ashoka means by Dhamma is to read his edicts, which were written to explain the
principles of Dhamma to the people of that time throughout the empire.
Dhamma was not a particular religious faith or practice, or an arbitrary formulated royal policy.
Dhamma related to generalized norms of social behavior and activities; Ashoka tried
to synthesize various social normswhich were current in his time. It cannot be understood by assuming
it is one of the various religions that existed at that time. To understand why and how Ashoka
formulated Dhamma and its meaning, one must understand the characteristics of the time in which he
lived and to refer to Buddhist, Brahmanical and other texts where norms of social behavior are
explained.
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Historical background
Socio-economic conditions
The Mauryan period saw a change in the economic structure of the society. The use of
iron resulted in surplus production, and the economy changed from being a simple, rural
economy to a pattern of economy in which urban centres became important. It has been
generally argued[by whom?] that the use of the Northern Black Polished Ware pottery is
an indicator of material prosperity in the period. The use of Punch-marked silver coins and
some other varieties of coins, the conscious intervention of the State to safeguard trade
routes and the rise of urban centers point to a structural change in the economy,
requiring adjustments in the society. The commercial classes had come to the forefront of
society. The emergence of urban culture demanded a flexible social organization. The
incorporation of tribes and peoples from the outlying areas into the social fabric also
presented a problem.
The response of the Brahmanical social order, which was based on the four-fold varna
division, was to make the caste system more rigid and deny a higher status to the
commercial class. The rigidity of the Brahmanical class system sharpened the divisions

within the society. The lower orders turned to various heterodox sects and this created
social tensions. It was this situation which emperor Ashoka inherited when he ascended
the Mauryan throne.[14]
Religious conditions
The Brahmanical hold over society, assiduously built through the later Vedic period, was
coming under increasing attack. The privileges of the priests, the rigidity of the caste
system and the elaborate rituals were being questioned. The lower orders among the four
sects began to favour new sects. The vaishyas, who were technically included in the
higher social category, were treated as inferior to both Brahmans and Kshatriya. The
opposition of the commercial class to Brahmanism was to give a fillip to the other sects of
the society.[13][14] Buddhism began as schismatic movement from the more orthodox
outlook of Brahmanism. Its basic tenet was an emphasis on misery and advocacy of the
middle path. It was a set of ethical principles. Buddhism opposed the dominance of the
Brahmans and the concept of sacrifices and rituals. It thus appealed to lower social orders
and to emerging social classes. The human approach to relations in society preached by
Buddhism further attracted different sections to itself.]
Polity
The Mahajanapada of sixth century B.C. marked the beginning of the state system in
many parts of India. Only a small section of society came to have a monopoly of power,
which they exercised over the rest of the society. There were gana-samghas in which the
rulers were a group of hereditary Kshatriya or members of a clan. By the time Ashoka
ascended the throne, the state system had grown very elaborate.[13][14] It was
characterized by:
The political supremacy of one region (Magadha) over a vast territory which comprised
many previous kingdoms, gana-samghas, and areas where no organised states had
previously existed;
Existence within this vast territory of geographical regions, cultural areas, and of different
faiths, beliefs and practices;
Monopoly of force by a ruling class of which the emperor was the supreme head.
Appropriation of a very substantial quantity of surpluses from agriculture, commerce and
other sources.
The complexity of the state system demanded an imaginative policy from the emperor
which required minimal use of force in such a large empire having diverse forms of
economy and religions. It could not have been controlled by an army alone. A more
feasible alternative was the propagation of a policy that would work at an ideological
level and reach out to all sections of the society. The policy of Dhamma was such an
endeavour.

Ashoka

Ashoka Vardhana, popularly known as Ashoka, succeeded his father emperor Bindusara in
273 BC. Before that he had been a very successful Viceroy first at Takhshila and then at
Ujjain. He ruled over a vast and united kingdom of India for 41 years.
We know much about his kingdom and rein from his rock edicts and pillar inscriptions
spread all over the country. The Kalinga war, which he waged to acquire and annexed the
country of that name, was a very terrible war in which thousands of people died and
many more were wounded and maimed.
It proved a turning point in his life. Filled with great remorse and repentance, he
renounced war and violence forever and became a devout Buddhist. Earlier he was a
Hindu and worshipper of Shiva. The Kalinga war made him realize that true conquest was
in the conquest of the hearts of the people. Haunted by remorse, pity and repentance he
sought refuge in Buddhism and engaged himself in the well being and happiness of his
subjects. He used to say, All people are my children.
Ashoka He was initiated into Buddhism by a great Buddhist monk called Upagupta. Since
then he always made himself busy in bringing about peace, culture, dignity, true morality
and prosperity in his kingdom. He was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya (293-268
BC) the mighty king and founder of the Mauryan Empire. Patliputra (modern Patna) was
his capital city. He further enlarged and consolidated his empire which spread to the
Hindu Kush, Afghanistan in the north-west to Nepal in the north-east and from Kashmir in
the north to Mysore and Madras in the south.
Baluchistan, Makran, Sindh, Cutch, Swat, including Kashmir and Nepal were parts of his
huge empire. There were many small autonomous States as well which owed obedience
to the Emperor and paid regular homage to him. The vast territory of the empire was
ruled by 5-6 Viceroys. Takshila, Toshali, Ujjain and Suvarngiri were the chief centres of
administration and governance.
After his initiation into Buddhism, Ashoka made a pilgrimage to the principal holy places
and centres of Buddhism which included Lumbini Park, the birthplace of Siddhartha
Gautam, Kushinagar where Buddha entered into final nirvana and Bodh Gaya were
Buddha attained enlightenment.
He also became a monk temporarily and assumed the holy garb of a bhikku. He also
raised grand holy monuments at centres of Buddhist pilgrimage. He gave up hunting,
meat-eating and violence in their all forms and manifestations. The promotion of religion
and the teaching of morals became his lifes mission. He prohibited the slaughter of
animals and birds and urged and ordained his subjects to follow ahimsa or non-injury. To
spread Buddhism and the message of love, peace and non-violence he sent missions to
various places outside his kingdom. One such mission to Ceylon was led by his son
Mahindra. He also called the Great Buddhist council at Patliputra.
Ashoka ruled over his vast empire according to the Buddhist dharma and law. He has
been called a great and the just king because of his piety, compassion and his mission to
spread Buddhism. He was tolerant of other religions and religious sects.
In a pillar edict he had proclaimed that he had Bunyan trees planted for shade to beasts
and well dug and rest houses built-every nine miles. Buddha wanted that kings should
be protective and generous and Ashoka confirmed to this injunction both in letter and
spirit.
Most of his inscriptions are in Prakrit dialects which were spoken in northern India, but in
the far eastern regions in Afghanistan etc. they were in Greek. Ashokas column has four
lion capital which symbolize both his imperial rule and the kingship of Buddha.
The famous Ashokan columns famous lion capital is now preserved at Sarnath, near
Varanasi. Ashokan column with four lions is the emblem of modern Indian State. A
tradition would have us believe that Ashoka died at Takhshila but it is not known how he
died.

He was succeeded by his two grandsons named Dasharatha in the eastern and Samprati
in the western region. Perhaps Brihadratha was the last Mauryan king who was slain in
185 BC by his own commander-in-chief Pushpamitra Sung who established a new dynasty
known as the Sunga Dynasty.

Kalinga War

One of the most famous wars in Indian history and also one of the bloodiest
battles in World history, the Kalinga War was fought between Ashoka, the great
Mauryan Emperor, and the ruler of the State of Kalinga, a feudal republic located
on present-day Odisha and northern parts of Andhra Pradesh.
The reasons that led to the battle
Historians have different views regarding the reasons that compelled Ashoka to
invade Kalinga. When Ashoka, the son of the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and the
grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, the first Mauryan Emperor, ascended the
throne of Magadha in 273 BC, he also wanted to follow the footsteps of his father
and grandfather and set out to expand his empire to become a great conqueror.
Kalinga was a part of Magadha Empire during the time of the Nandas. When the
Nandas were defeated by Chandragupta Maurya, Kalinga was an independent
state. While Chandragupta Maurya and Bindusara initially wanted to re-conquer it,
they could not succeed. It was Ashoka who came forward to conquer it again.
Also, historians reveal that Kalinga had already expanded its military power and
had huge material prosperity due to its trade relations with Java, Malay, and
Ceylon, right from the time of Chandragupta to that of Ashoka, and Ashoka could
not neglect the importance of Kalinga for the Mauryan Empire. The vast military
strength, wealth and power of Kalinga were the main causes of jealousy for the
Magadha Empire and so, Ashoka wanted to re-establish the Magadh power in this
state. In the 12th year of Ashoka's reign, he sent a message to the ruler of Kalinga
to surrender his empire to the Mauryas. However, Kalingaraj or the ruler of Kalinga
refused to submit to the Mauryan Empire. Thus, followed a huge war between the
two rulers in 261 B.C.
The strength of warring forces
The Kalinga army had only 60,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry and 700 elephants. On
the other hand, the Greek ambassador Megasthenes mentions the military
strength of Kalinga to be of about one lakh, which consisted of 1700 horses,
thousands of elephants, and 60 thousand soldiers. Kalinga army also had a
powerful naval force.

Aftermath of the battle: Winner and Loser

Winner: Ashoka the Great
Loser: The Ruler of Kalinga
Ashoka and his army fought a severe fight with the army of Kalinga. They offered
a stiff resistance to the Mauryan army. The entire town of Kalinga turned into a
battle ground and every one came forward to fight against the Mauryan army,
commanded by their ruler. However, they were no match for the mighty Magadha
army, led by Ashoka himself. They resisted and fought bravely. In fact, in many
instances, the army and the people of Kalinga came very close to victory. Till the
last breath, they fought with great valour and finally the soldiers and the people of
Kalinga perished in the battlefield. And Ashoka won the great battle of Kalinga.
The larger implications of the battle
Ashoka became victorious and, as a result ruled Kalinga. But at what cost? Ashoka
saw the blood filled battlefield with his own eyes. 100,000 men lost their lives and
1,50,000 were taken as prisoners. An equal number of Mauryan soldiers died. He
saw the corpses of horses, elephants and soldiers in the battlefield. Blood streams
were seen everywhere. There were orphaned children crying. Wounded people
were rolling on the ground in pain. Countless people suffered due to the war. The
whole of Kalinga was destroyed in front of his own eyes. He conquered Kalinga but
there was not a single man left to live a life of slavery. He could not stay there any
longer and with a heavy heart, he led his men back towards Pataliputra.
The overall place and significance of the battle in the Indian History
Ashoka the Great felt unhappy even after winning the Kalinga war. He was
immersed in grief seeing the horrifying state of Kalinga with the blood and tears
all over. The loss suffered by Kalinga due to the war was horrifying. He was
unhappy because he conquered Kalinga at a cost of a heavy loss of lives. The
scenes of death, pain, agony, cries, blood that he had seen on the battlefield did
not give him any peace of mind and haunted him all the time. He realised that
any kind of war can continue to affect the minds and lives of the survivors for a
long time. At that time, Ashoka was a great emperor and conqueror. He was at the
height of supreme power and there was no one equivalent to him in terms of
wealth or armed strength. But, even then, he was not happy.
The Kalinga War prompted him to devote the rest of his life to non-violence
(Ahimsa) and to victory through Dhamma (Dhamma-Vijaya). He preached that it is
conquest through dharma that was the real conquest in life and not the conquest
through violence. He became a follower of Buddhism. Ashoka promised that he
would never again take to arms again. He ended the military expansion of the
empire. The Kalinga war became his first and last war.
He made some significant changes in the state policy of Magadh. The policy of
Magadhan imperialism ended. The age old policy of aggression and conquest of
the Magadhan rulers also ended. A new policy of peace and non-violence was
adopted in the empire. After the Kalinga war, Ashoka controlled the entire Indian
subcontinent, except for the extreme southern part.

His laws of Dhamma were engraved on rocks and stone pillars. Missionaries were
sent to other countries to preach Buddhism and dhamma, so that more and more
people adapt to non-violence mode of living. Such inscriptions can be found even
today both in India and outside. For 40 long years, Ashoka the Great led the
Mauryan Empire through peace, harmony, humanity, love, non-violence and
prosperity.
After Ashoka's death in 232 BC, the Mauryan dynasty came to an end and the
Mauryan Empire dissolved. The Kalinga War is indeed one of the most remarkable
and memorable battles in Indian history. It has no equals in terms of intensity
among all the bloody and violent wars fought in Indian History.

Bindusara

Bindusara (r.c.297 c.273 BCE) was the second Mauryan emperor of India. He
was the son of the dynasty's founder Chandragupta, and the father of its most
famous ruler Ashoka. Bindusara's life is not documented as well as the lives of
these two kings: much of the information about him comes from legendary
accounts written several hundred years after his death.
Bindusara consolidated the empire created by his father. The 16th century Tibetan
Buddhist author Taranatha credits his administration with extensive territorial
conquests in southern India, but some historians doubt the historical authenticity
of this claim.
Background
Ancient and medieval sources have not documented Bindusara's life in detail.
Much of the information about him comes from Jain legends focused on
Chandragupta and the Buddhist legends focused on Ashoka. The Jain legends,
such as Hemachandra's Parishishta-Parvan were written more than a thousand
years after his death. Most of the Buddhist legends about Ashoka's early life also
appear to have been composed by Buddhist writers who lived several hundred
years after Ashoka's death, and are of little historical value. While these legends
can be used to make several inferences about Bindusara's reign, they are not
entirely reliable because of the close association between Ashoka and Buddhism.
Buddhist sources that provide information about Bindusara include Divyavadana
(including Ashokavadana and Pamsupradanavadana), Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa,
Vamsatthappakasini (also known as Mahvamsa Tika or "Mahavamsa

commentary"), Samantapasadika, and the 16th century writings of Taranatha. The

Jain sources include the 12th century Parishishta-Parvan by Hemachandra and the
19th century Rajavali-Katha by Devachandra. The Hindu Puranas also mention
Bindusara in their genealogies of Mauryan rulers. Some Greek sources also
mention him by the name "Amitrochates" or its variations.
Extent of Empire: The Empire of Bindusara Maurya extended from the eastern sea to the western sea
can be explained by the fact that his northern empire was bounded by the eastern sea at Bengal and by
the western sea at Saurashtra.
The revolts against Government of Bindusara: The people of Taxila and the mountain people of the
North revolted against the rule of Bindusara Maurya. Bindusara commissioned his son Asoka to
suppress the rising. The people of Taxila explained to Ashoka that they were not opposed to the king,
but they had revolted as a protest against the oppression by evil ministers.
Asoka did not faced any difficulty in winning the loyalty of the people of Taxila. Ashoka officially
warned his minister and officials against oppressing the people. After consolidating his position in
Taxila, Asoka pushed on to the north part of the empire.
The Taxilan revolt was a phase of general revolts against King Bindusara Maurya. However, Bindusara
was successful in consolidating his authority by suppressing the revolts.
Foreign relation: Like his father, Bindusara Maurya also maintained the keeping friendly relation with
the Greek rulers. The contemporary Greek king had sent Deimachus to the office of the ambassador in
the court of Pataliputra.
Bindusara died probably in 272 B.C. after a reign of 30 years.
Conclusion: The father of King Bindusara, Chandragupta Maurya, had left behind a large and
extensive kingdom. It was kept intact by his able successor Bindusara. If Chandragupta was the
conqueror, Bindusara was the consolidator. The machinery of government left by Chandragupta would
cease to function probably if the ruler at the top would fail to provide momentum.
Bindusara had a taste for culture and had a special interest in philosophy. The Buddhist works refer to
his patronage to Ajivika saints.
Bindusara is believed to be tolerant to all sects. Saints of various religions visited his court. Asoka
might have derived his saintly leanings from these men, who graced the court of his father.

Stupa

The stupa, an architectural structure usually housing the cremated remains or

possessions of important saintly figures, is considered to be the structural emblem
and the most important type of monument of Buddhism. Most stupas have a very
distinctive semi-spherical shape, often surrounded by a fence. As Buddhism was
introduced in different regions, the basic architectural features of stupas were
transformed into a variety of shapes reflecting the artistic expressions of those
cultures.
Origin of the Stupa in the Buddhist Tradition
The Mahaparinirvana Sutra (an ancient Buddhist text describing the last days of
the Buddha) claims that after the Buddha passed away, his followers divided his
cremated remains into eight portions. Each of the eight kingdoms in which the
Buddha had lived received one portion of the relics, and a stupa was erected in
each kingdom in order to house the remains. Buddhist sources claim that during
the 3rd century BCE, the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka the Great ordered these eight
stupas to be opened, further distributed the relics of the Buddha into 84,000
portions, and had stupas built over them all over the expanding Buddhist world.
stupas were considered the living presence of the Buddha, his protective powers,
and his living energy.
The relics of the Buddha were not merely considered a commemorative symbol by
the Buddhist community; they were believed to be the living presence of the
Buddha, a depository of his protective powers and living energy. Early in the
Buddhist tradition, clergy and laity alike practiced the veneration of stupas and
the relics in them in order to gain spiritual merit. The importance of the stupas
gradually increased as a result of both the emphasis of the Buddhist relic-cult and
their multiplication during the time of Ashoka. Stupas became a symbol not only
of Buddhism itself but also an architectural testimony to its expansion and
strength.
It should be noted that the veneration of stupas is not unique to Buddhism. This
practice had its origin in Indian traditions pre-dating the emergence of Buddhism.
From pre-historical times, burial mounds containing the remains of the dead were
a common funerary practice in some Indian societies: in these mounds, the living
paid homage to their dead, just like Buddhists would do for their saints centuries
later.
Stupas & Early Buddhism
The earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of stupas in North India
dates to the late 4th century BCE. These are all pilgrimage stupas, which means
that they were built outside the domains of monastic complexes, at pilgrimage
sites. Although we have no material evidence of earlier stupas, Buddhist
scriptures claim that stupas were built at least a century earlier. It is possible that
before this time, stupas were built with non-durable materials such as wood, or
even as burial mounds, in which case archaeological detection would be nearly
impossible.
The earliest evidence of monastic stupas dates back to the 2nd century BCE.
These are stupas that were built within Buddhist monastic complexes. It is
possible that these stupas replaced older stupas made of wood: some of their
architectural components were shaped imitating wooden parts. Unfortunately
none of these left any visible trace.

Architectural Development of the Stupa

During early Buddhist times, stupas were composed of a semi-spherical dome
with a parasol placed on top. The dome covered a square base with a small
receptacle in the centre containing relics, while a space for circumambulation was
defined around the dome. This basic format underwent changes as stupas were
introduced in other cultures.
In Sri Lanka, the stupa is known as dagoba. Different shapes of domes developed
in Sri Lanka, and a very unique architectural expression also developed, in which
the dagoba itself was enclosed by a large dome known as vatadage, supported by
columns located around the dagoba. Among the many vatadages built in Sri
Lanka, there is one of particular importance named Thuparama, which supposedly
houses the collarbone relic of the Buddha.
In Myanmar, the stupa, known as the zedi, also went through a number of
changes. The parasol on top of the dome was elongated and resembled a cone,
and the number of disks increased and their size decreased, the higher they are
on the dome. The square base was also modified following a complex geometry,
including different levels with terraces, and resembled the shape of a pyramid.
Pagoda is the name for stupas found in China, where they are shaped like a tower.
Here, the dome was eliminated, and the emphasis is on verticality. This
architectural form travelled into Korea, where it is known as Tap, and also into
Japan, where it known as To.
The Importance of Stupas in Buddhism
As the importance of the stupa grew, so it did its functions and meanings. In
addition to being considered the living presence of the Buddha, his protective
powers, and living energy, they were also a site of rituals and ceremonies. Their
presence eventually attracted other constructions including monasteries.
The pilgrimage activity around the stupa had an important impact on the social
history of Buddhism. Merchants, artisans, and monks alike enjoyed the benefits of
the income generated by the activity resulting from the emblematic stupas. The
religious function of the stupa was still central, but market activity and social
interactions revolving around it were equally important for the communities where
stupas were present.

The Process of Interdependence

Interdependence is the mutual reliance between two or more groups. This concept differs
from the reliance in a dependent relationship, where some members are dependent and
some are not. There can be various degrees of interdependence.

Humans depend on animals as sources of food, many populations exclusively so. Humans
may depend on access to the sea for fish, or on access to herds of domesticated animals for
meat and other goods. Domesticated animals depend on their human caretakers in order to
survive as many lack the ferocity and guile to survive in the wild.
Many other systems of interdependence exist in nature. Plants and oxygen-breathing
organisms are interdependent because plants thrive on the carbon dioxide emitted by animals
while animals depend on the oxygen emitted by plants. This is a clear expansion on the idea
of animals forming interdependent relationships through the processes of evolution. A singular
environment shapes its occupants along similar lines and sometimes forces interdependence
to ensure mutual survival.
Food webs are graphic diagrams that illustrate the connections and dependencies between
organisms. When a feedback loop is created, it illustrates the interdependence between
organisms or groups of organisms. Nature is a complex system with a vast number of
participatory organisms.
All herbivorous animals are interdependent with pollinating animals, as the former keep plant growth
under control and the latter spreads that growth.There are many interdependent animals, but a
common example is the relationship between antelope and bees.