INDEX

S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Topic
Acknowledgement
Substations
Transformer Substations
Substation Characteristics
Steps in designing substation
Conductors Used In Substation Design
132kV Substation Sagar(Makronia)
Equipments Used In Site
Capacitor Bank
Protection Of Substation
Transformer Protection
Conclusion
Bibliography

Acknowledgement

I am very thankful to Mr. RK Gupta, Executive Engineer, Madhya Pradesh Power

Transmission Corporation of Limited who gave me an opportunity to undergo
training at 132KV Substation, Makronia, Sagar under Madhya Pradesh Power
Transmission Corporation .
I am also thankful to Mr. Prabhash Dabral, Sub Division Officer, 132 KV
Substation, MPPTCL who organized the training in a systematic manner and
guided me through the whole training schedule.
I would also like to thank all officer/officials who guided and helped me at each
and every step in the training .

Shivam Baronia
0901EE131058
4th year,
Electrical Engineering

1. SUBSTATIONS
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission and distribution system.
Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other
important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric power may flow
through several substations at different voltage levels. Substations may be owned and operated
by an electrical utility, or may be owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally
substations are unattended, relying on SCADA for remote supervision and control. A substation
may include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower
distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages.
Substations are classified by two broad categories:1. According to the service requirement:

Transformer substation
Switch substation
Power factor correction substation
Frequency change substation
Converting substation
Industrial substation
Collector Substation
Convertor Substation
Switching Substation

2. According to the constructional features:

Indoor substation
Outdoor substation
Underground substation
Pole mounted substation

2. TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION
They are known as transformer substations as because transformer is the main component
employed to change the voltage level, depending upon the purposed served transformer
substations may be classified into:

a) STEP UP SUBSTATION
The generation voltage is steeped up to high voltage to affect economy in transmission of
electric power. These are generally located in the power houses and are of outdoor type.

b) PRIMARY GRID SUBSTATION

Here, electric power is received by primary substation which reduces the voltage level to
33KV for secondary transmission. The primary grid substation is generally of outdoor
type.
c) SECONDARY SUBSTATIONS
At a secondary substation, the voltage is further steeped down to 11KV. The 11KV lines
runs along the important road of the city. The secondary substations are also of outdoor
type.
d) DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION
These substations are located near the consumers localities and step down to 400V, 3phase, 4-wire for supplying to the consumers. The voltage between any two phases is
400V & between any phase and neutral it is 230V.

3. SUBSTATION CHARACTERISTICS

Each circuit is protected by its own circuit breaker and hence plant outage does not
necessarily result in loss of supply.
A fault on the feeder or transformer circuit breaker causes loss of the transformer and
feeder circuit, one of which may be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.
A fault on the bus section circuit breaker causes complete shutdown of the substation. All
circuits may be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.
Maintenance of a feeder or transformer circuit breaker involves loss of the circuit.
Introduction of bypass isolators between bus bar and circuit isolator allows circuit
breaker maintenance facilities without loss of that circuit.

4. STEPS IN DESIGNING SUBSTATION

The First Step in designing a Substation is to design an Earthing and Bonding System.

Earthing and Bonding

The function of an earthing and bonding system is to provide an earthing system connection to
which transformer neutrals or earthing impedances may be connected in order to pass the
maximum fault current. The earthing system also ensures that no thermal or mechanical damage
occurs on the equipment within the substation, thereby resulting in safety to operation and
maintenance personnel. The earthing system also guarantees equipotent bonding such that there
are no dangerous potential gradients developed in the substation.
In designing the substation, three voltages have to be considered these are:

 Touch Voltage - This is the difference in potential between the surface potential and the
potential at earthed equipment whilst a man is standing and touching the earthed
structure.
Step Voltage - This is the potential difference developed when a man bridges a distance
of 1m with his feet while not touching any other earthed equipment.
Mesh Voltage - This is the maximum touch voltage that is developed in the mesh of the
earthing grid.

Substation Earthing Calculation Methodology

Calculations for earth impedances, touch and step potentials are based on site measurements of
ground resistivity and system fault levels. A grid layout with particular conductors is then
analyzed to determine the effective substation earthing resistance, from which the earthing
voltage is calculated.
In practice, it is normal to take the highest fault level for substation earth grid calculation
purposes. Additionally, it is necessary to ensure a sufficient margin such that expansion of the
system is catered for.
To determine the earth resistivity, probe tests are carried out on the site. These tests are best
performed in dry weather such that conservative resistivity readings are obtained.

Earthing Materials
Conductors - Bare copper conductor is usually used for the substation earthing grid. The
copper bars themselves usually have a cross-sectional area of 95 square millimeters, and
they are laid at a shallow depth of 0.25-0.5m, in 3-7m squares. In addition to the buried
potential earth grid, a separate above ground earthing ring is usually provided, to which
all metallic substation plant is bonded.
Connections - Connections to the grid and other earthing joints should not be soldered
because the heat generated during fault conditions could cause a soldered joint to fail.
Joints are usually bolted.
Earthing Rods - The earthing grid must be supplemented by earthing rods to assist in the
dissipation of earth fault currents and further reduce the overall substation earthing
resistance. These rods are usually made of solid copper, or copper clad steel.

 Switchyard Fence Earthing

The switchyard fence earthing practices are possible and are used by different utilities. These are:
a) Extend the substation earth grid 0.5m-1.5m beyond the fence perimeter. The fence is then
bonded to the grid at regular intervals.
b) Place the fence beyond the perimeter of theswitchyard earthing grid and bond the fence to
its own earthing rod system. This earthing rod system is not coupled to the main
substation earthing grid.

5. CONDUCTORS USED IN SUBSTATION DESIGN

An ideal conductor should fulfill the following requirements:
a) Should be capable of carrying the specified load currents and short time currents.
b) Should be able to withstand forces on it due to its situation. These forces comprise selfweight, and weight of other conductors and equipment, short circuit forces and
atmospheric forces such as wind and ice loading.
c) Should be corona free at rated voltage.
d) Should have the minimum number of joints.
e) Should need the minimum number of supporting insulators.
f) Should be economical.
The most suitable material for the conductor system is copper or aluminums. Steel may be used
but has limitations of poor conductivity and high susceptibility to corrosion.
In an effort to make the conductor ideal, three different types have been utilized, and these
include: Flat surfaced Conductors, Stranded Conductors, and Tubular Conductors

OVERHEAD LINE TERMINATIONS

Two methods are used to terminate overhead lines at a substation.
a) Tensioning conductors to substation structures or buildings
b) Tensioning conductors to ground winches.
The choice is influenced by the height of towers and the proximity to the substation. The
following clearances should be observed:

VOLTAGE LEVEL

MINIMUM GROUND CLEARANCE

less than 11kV

6.1m

11kV - 20kV

6.4m

20kV - 30kV

6.7m

greater than 30kV

7.0m
Table 1

STANDARD SIZES OF CONDUCTOR FOR LINES OF VARIOUS VOLTAGES

The following sizes have now been standardized by CEA for transmission lines of different
voltages: For 440 KV Lines - Twin 'Moose' ACSR having 7-Strands of steel of dia 3.53 mm and
54-Strands of Aluminum of dia 3.53 mm.
For 220 KV Lines - 'Zebra' ACSR having 7-strand of steel of dia 3.18 mm and 54Strands of Aluminum of dia 3.18 mm.
For 132 KV Lines - 'Panther' ACSR having 7-strands of steel of dia 3.00 mm and 30Strands of Aluminum of dia 3.00 mm.

6. 132kv Substation Sagar(Makronia)

The project work assigned to us was to study the working 132/33 KV EHV substation. We
considered incoming power at 132 KV and the power was transferred to main bus through
isolator-circuit breaker-isolator combination. The power from main bus was fed into 2 63MVA
and a 40MVA transformer which stepped the voltage down to 33KV.
The power is then fed into a 33KV bus from which different loads were tapped. In the process,
the surge impedance loading of 132 KV and 33 KV lines were calculated and they were used to
estimate the maximum power that can be transferred by one transmission line.
Starting from the generating stations to the end users, voltage is needed to be stepped up and
down several times in various substations. This ensures efficient transmission of power,
minimizing the power losses. Our project is to design a 132KV/33KV EHV substation where the
incoming power is received at 132 KV from a generating station.

The power factor is corrected here and the voltage is stepped down to 33KV and power is then
transferred to distribution system of the grid to meet the requirements of the end consumers at
their suitable voltage.

Specifications of 63MVA Transformer used

Cooling - ONAN/ONAF
Vector Group - YNyn0
Top oil temperature rise - 45C
Mean winding temperature rise - 50C
HV nominal voltage - 132KV
LV nominal voltage - 33KV

s.no.

HV
LV

Nominal
Power(MVA)
ONAN
50
50

ONAF
63
63

Nominal
Current(A)
ONAN
218.69
874.79

ONAF
275.55
1102.24

Table 2

Impedance Voltage(%)
50MVA
7.5
7.4
7

Tap No.
1
5
17

HV/LV(%)
63MVA
9.50
9.28
8.78

Table 3

Insulation Level
Testing Voltage
AC
LI

HV
Neutral
95
-

HV
230
550

LV
Neutral
95
-

LV
95
250

Table 4

Losses(kW)
No Load
Load
Auxiliary

Guranteed
25
140
1

Measured
24.874
135.31
Table 5

Resistance At 75C(ohm) HV winding - 0.2523

LV winding - 0.014910
Tap Position

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9A
9B
9C
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

HV Line
Voltage
(kV)

HV voltage line
current(A)
ONAN
208.28
210.74
213.36
215.94
218.69
221.96
224.30
227.21
230.30
230.30
230.30
233.37
236.43
239.66
242.99
246.41
249.94
253.56
257.29

138.60
136.95
135.30
133.65
132
130.35
128.70
127.05
125.40
125.40
125.40
123.75
122.10
120.45
118.80
117.15
115.50
113.85
112.20

Tap Selector
Connects
ONAF
262.43
265.59
268.63
272.15
275.55
279.04
282.62
286.69
290.06
290.06
290.06
293.92
297.90
301.98
306.17
310.48
314.92
319.48
324.18

Change Over
Selector

2-12
2-11
2-10
2-9
2-8
2-7
2-6
2-5
2-4
2-3
2-12
2-11
2-10
2-9
2-8
2-7
2-6
2-5
2-4

Table 6

Current Transformer
Location
1V
1W
2V

Terminals
1S1/1S2
1S1/1S2
2S1/2S2

Ratio
325/1.75
325/1.75
1103/2

Burden(VA)
20
20
30
Table 7

Year of Manufacture - 2003, Frequency - 50Hz

Approximate Weights(kg)

Core with clamping

Coil with insulation
Core and winding
Oil
Tank and fittings
Total

- 35500
- 24000
- 62000
- 32750(36800 litres)
- 33000
- 127750

Class
3
3
3

Application
WT1
WT1
WT1

Transport

- 85200(Nitrogen filled)

7. Equipments Used On Site

Transformers
Transformer is a static machine, which transforms the potential of alternating current at same
frequency. It means the transformer transforms the low voltage into high voltage & high voltage
to low voltage at same frequency. It works on the principle of static induction principle.When the
energy is transformed into a higher voltage, the transformer is called step up transformer but in
case of other is known as step down transformer.
Current Transformers
CT has a primary winding one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with
the line carrying the current to be measure. The secondary consist of a large no of
turns of fine wire and feeds a standard 5 amp. ammeter. It is used for the
measuring and protection purpose. The secondary of current transformer should
never be left open under any circumstances.

Figure 1

Potential Transformers
These transformers are extremely accurate ratio step down transformer s and are used in
conjunction with standard low range voltmeter (100-120V) whose deflection when divided by
transformation ratio, gives the true voltage on primary side. In general they are shell type. Their

rating is extremely small for safety operation secondary is completely insulated from high
voltage primary. Its primary current is determined by the load on secondary.

Figure 2

Auto Transformer
An autotransformer is an electrical transformer with only one winding. The "auto" prefix refers
to the single coil acting on itself and not to any kind of automatic mechanism. In an
autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both the primary and secondary sides of the
transformer. The winding has at least three taps where electrical connections are made.
Autotransformers have the advantages of often being smaller, lighter, and cheaper than typical
dual-winding transformers, but the disadvantage of not providing electrical isolation.

Figure 3

Distribution Transformers
A distribution transformer is a transformer that provides the final voltage
transmission in the electrical power distribution system, stepping down voltage to
the level used by customers.

Figure 4

POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION (PLCC)

Reliable & fast communication is necessary for safe efficient &economic power supply. To
reduce the power failure in extent & time, to maintain the interconnected grid system in optimum
working condition; to coordinate the operation of various generating unit communication
network is indispensable for state electricity board.
In state electricity boards, the generating & distribution stations are generally located at a far
distance from cities where P & T communication provided through long overhead lines in neither
reliable nor quick.
Power-line communication (PLC) carries data on a conductor that is also used simultaneously for
AC electric power transmission or electric power distribution to consumers.
By using the existing AC power lines as a medium to transfer the information, it becomes easy to
connect the houses with a high speed network access point without installing new wirings. This
technology has been in wide use since 1950 and was mainly used by the grid stations to transmit
information at high speed.
PRINCIPLE OF PLCC
Power-line communications systems operate by adding a modulated carrier signal to the wiring
system. All type of information is modulated on carried wave at frequency 50Hz to 500 KHz.
The modulated HF carrier fed into the power line conductor at the sending end and filtered out
again at the respective stations. Long earlier system double side band amplitude modulation was
more common but the present amplitude modulated system.
Since high voltage power lines are designed to carry large quantities of energy on the high
voltage and the communication system at low voltage, they cannot be directly connected to high
voltage lines. Suitably designed coupling equipments have therefore to be employed which will
permit the injection of high frequency carrier signal without undue loss and with absolute

protection of communication equipments or operating personal from high voltage hazard.

Therefore, the coupling equipment essentially comprises the following:
1. Wave Trap or Line Trap
Wave trap is connected in series with power line between the point of connection of
coupling capacitor and S/S. Wave trap offers negligible impedance to HF carrier. Wave
trap stands electromechanically and thermally for short circuit current in the event of
fault on the line. On the basis of blocking frequency bank, the wave trap can be
following type:
a) All wave
b) Single Frequency
c) Double Frequency
d) Broad Band
2. Coupling Capacitor
The modulated carrier is let into power line through coupling capacitor specially
designed to with stand line voltage under all-weather condition. The upper end of the
coupling capacitor is connected directly to the line and the lower end is connected to the
ground through a carrier frequency chock coil or drain coil. Thus coupling capacitor
forms the link between the PLCC equipment and power line. The coupling capacitor
used in UPSEB is 2200pf capacitance.
The coupling capacitor are designed for outdoor use and hence to withstand normal
atmospheric phenomenon such as temperature & humidity changes, rain, snow,
anticipated wind load, nominal wire tension etc. at full rated voltage. In some case
capacitive voltage transformers (CVT) used as a source of line voltage for metering and
protection as also used coupling capacitor for PLCC.
3. Protective Device of Coarse Voltage Arrestor
This is connected across the primary of the coupling filter i.e. one end is connected to
the bottom of the coupling capacitor and other end is earthed. This is provided to protect
the coupling filter against line surges. An air gap is provided, where voltage of the order
of 1.8 to 2KV as observed across due to lighting etc. on line.
4. Coupling of Filter
The coupling filter is inserted between the low voltage terminal of the coupling capacitor
and the carrier frequency connection of the carrier terminal. Sometime an earth switch is
also provided with this unit. This unit mainly performs two functions; firstly it isolates
the connection of equipment from the power line. Secondly it serves to match
characteristic impedance of the power line to that of the H.F. cable to connection
equipments.
5. H. F. Cable
H.F. cable normally used to connect the coupling filter to another coupling terminal. The

cable is insulated to withstand the test voltage of 4KV. The impedance of this H.F. cable
is so as to match with the output of the PLCC terminal and secondary impedance of
coupling filter.
APPLICATION OF PLCC
PLCC technology can be deployed into different types of applications in order to provide
economic networking solutions. Hence merging with other technologies it proves useful in
different areas. These are few key areas where PLC communications are utilized:
a. Transmission & Distribution Network: PLCC was first adopted in the electrical
transmission
and distribution system to transmit information at a fast rate.
b. Home control and Automation: PLCC technology is used in home control and automation.
This technology can reduce the resources as well as efforts for activities like power management,
energy conservation, etc.
c. Entertainment: PLCC is used to distribute the multimedia content throughout the home.
d. Telecommunication: Data transmission for different types of communications like telephonic
communication, audio, video communication can be made with the use of PLCC technology.
e. Security Systems: In monitoring houses or businesses through surveillance cameras, PLCC
technology is far useful.
f. Automatic Meter Reading Automatic Meter reading applications use the PLCC technology
to send the data from home meters to Host Central Station.

Figure 5

BUSBARS
When numbers of generators or feeders operating at the same voltage have to be directly
connected electrically, bus bar is used as the common electrical component. Bus bars are made
up of copper rods operate at constant voltage. The following are the important bus bars
arrangements used at substations:
Single bus bar system
Single bus bar system with section allocation.
Duplicate bus bar system
In large stations it is important that break downs and maintenance should interfere as little as
possible with continuity of supply to achieve this, duplicate bus bar system is used. Such a
system consists of two bus bars, a main bus bar and a spare bus bar with the help of bus coupler,
which consist of the circuit breaker and isolator.
In substations, it is often desired to disconnect a part of the system for general maintenance and
repairs. An isolating switch or isolator accomplishes this. Isolator operates under no load
condition. It does not have any specified current breaking capacity or current making capacity. In
some cases isolators are used to breaking charging currents or transmission lines.
While opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is opened first then isolator while closing a circuit the
isolator is closed first, then circuit breakers. Isolators are necessary on supply side of circuit
breakers, in order to ensure isolation of the circuit breaker from live parts for the purpose of
maintenance.
A transfer isolator is used to transfer main supply from main bus to transfer bus by using bus
coupler (combination of a circuit breaker with two isolators), if repairing or maintenance of any
section is required.

Figure 6

CIRCUIT BREAKERS

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to

protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit.
Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow.
Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit
breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal
operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that
protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to
protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city. There are different types
of circuit breakers which are:-

Low-voltage circuit breakers - Low-voltage (less than 1,000 VAC) types

are common in domestic, commercial and industrial application, and
include Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) and Molded Case Circuit
Breaker (MCCB).

Figure 7

Magnetic circuit breakers - Magnetic circuit breakers use

a solenoid (electromagnet) whose pulling force increases with
the current. Certain designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition
to those of the solenoid.

Figure 8

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers -Thermal magnetic circuit breakers,

which are the type found in most distribution boards, incorporate both
techniques with the electromagnet responding instantaneously to large
surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip responding to
less extreme but longer-term over-current conditions. The thermal
portion of the circuit breaker provides an "inverse time" response
feature, which trips the circuit breaker sooner for larger over currents.

Figure 9

Common trip breakers - Three-pole common trip breaker for supplying

a three-phase device. This breaker has a 2A rating. When supplying a
branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor
must be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors
are interrupted when any pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be
used. These may either contain two or three tripping mechanisms
within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles
together via their operating handles.

Figure 10

Air circuit breakers - Rated current up to 6,300 A and higher for generator circuit
breakers. Trip characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable trip
thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled, though some models
are microprocessor controlled via an integral electronic trip unit. Often used for main
power distribution in large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in draw-out
enclosures for ease of maintenance.

Figure 11

Vacuum circuit breakers - With rated current up to 6,300 A, and higher for generator
circuit breakers. These breakers interrupt the current by creating and extinguishing the arc
in a vacuum container.

Figure 12

Oil circuit breakers - A high-voltage circuit breaker in which the arc is drawn in oil to
dissipate the heat and extinguish the arc; the intense heat of the arc decomposes the oil,
generating a gas whose high pressure produces a flow of fresh fluid through the arc that
furnishes the necessary insulation to prevent a restrike of the arc.The arc is then
extinguished, both because of its elongation upon parting of contacts and because of
intensive cooling by the gases and oil vapor.
They are further of two types:
Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker (BOCB) and Minimum Oil Circuit Breaker (MOCB

Figure 13

Sulfur hexafluoride (Sf6) high-voltage circuit breakers - A sulfur

hexafluoride circuit breaker uses contacts surrounded by sulfur
hexafluoride gas to quench the arc. They are most often used for
transmission-level voltages and may be incorporated into compact
gas-insulated switchgear.

Figure 14

ISOLATER
In electrical engineering, a disconnector, disconnect switch or isolator switch is used to ensure
that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are
often found in electrical distribution and industrial applications, where machinery must have its
source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation switches are
used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit
breakers, transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. The disconnector is usually not
intended for normal control of the circuit, but only for safety isolation. Disconnector can be
operated either manually or automatically (motorized disconnector).
Unlike load break switches and circuit breakers, disconnectors lack a mechanism for suppression
of electric arc, which occurs when conductors carrying high currents are electrically interrupted.
Thus, they are off-load devices, intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by
some other control device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the
disconnector while it supplies a circuit. Standards in some countries for safety may require either
local motor isolators or lockable overloads (which can be padlocked).
Disconnectors have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation is not possible
(lockout-tag out). In high-voltage or complex systems, these padlocks may be part of a trappedkey interlock system to ensure proper sequence of operation. In some designs, the isolator switch
has the additional ability to earth the isolated circuit thereby providing additional safety. Such an
arrangement would apply to circuits which inter-connect power distribution systems where both
ends of the circuit need to be isolated

Figure 15

INSULATORS
An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely, and
therefore make it very hard to conduct an electric current under the influence of an electric field.
The insulator serves two purposes. They support the conductors (bus bar) and confine the current
to the conductors. The most common used material for the manufacture of insulator is porcelain.
There are several types of insulators (e.g. pin type, suspension type, post insulator etc.) and their
use in substation will depend upon the service requirement.
Different types of insulator are:

Pin type insulator

As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is mounted on a pin on the cross-arm on the
pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator. The conductor passes through
this groove and is tied to the insulator with annealed wire of the same material as the
conductor. Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power
at voltages up to 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators
become too bulky and hence uneconomical.

Figure 16

Suspension insulator
For voltages greater than 33 kV, it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators
shown in Figure. Consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal
links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string
while the other end of the string is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. The number of
disc units used depends on the voltage.

Figure 17

Strain insulator
A dead end or anchor pole or tower is used where a straight section of line ends, or
angles off in another direction. These poles must withstand the lateral (horizontal) tension
of the long straight section of wire. In order to support this lateral load, strain insulators
are used. For low voltage lines (less than 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain
insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines, strings of cap-and-pin (disc)
insulators are used, attached to the crossarm in a horizontal direction. When the tension
load in lines is exceedingly high, such as at long river spans, two or more strings are used
in parallel.

Figure 18

Shackle insulator
In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But now a day, they
are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either
in a horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole
with a bolt or to the cross arm.

Figure 19

RELAYS
In a power system it is inevitable that immediately or later some failure does occur somewhere in
the system. When a failure occurs on any part of the system, it must be quickly detected and
disconnected from the system. Rapid disconnection of faulted apparatus limits the amount of
damage to it and prevents the effects of fault from spreading into the system. For high voltage
circuits relays are employed to serve the desired function of automatic protective gear. The relays
detect the fault and supply the information to the circuit breaker.
The electrical quantities which may change under fault condition are voltage, frequency, current,
phase angle. When a short circuit occurs at any point on the transmission line the current flowing
in the line increases to the enormous value. This result in a heavy current flow through the relay
coil, causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn closes the trip circuit of the
breaker making the circuit breaker open and isolating the faulty section from the rest of the
system. In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from the damage and
normal working of the healthy portion of the system.
Relay works on two main operating principles:-

Electromagnetic Attraction
Electromagnetic Induction

RELAY USED IN CONTROLLING PANEL OF SUBSTATION

Differential Relay
A differential relay is one that operates when vector difference of the two or more
electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined value. If this differential quantity is equal or
greater than the pickup value, the relay will operate and open the circuit breaker to isolate
the faulty section.

Figure 20

Over Current Relay

This type of relay works when current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value. The
actuating source is the current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current
transformer. These relay are used on A.C. circuit only and can operate for fault flow in
the either direction. This relay operates when phase to phase fault occurs.

Figure 21

Earth Fault Relay

This type of relay sense the fault between the lines and the earth. It checks the vector sum
of all the line currents. If it is not equal to zero, it trips.

Figure 22

Tripping Relay
This type of relay is in the conjunction with main relay. When main relay sense any fault
in the system, it immediately operates the trip relay to disconnect the faulty section from
the section.

Figure 23

Auxiliary Relay
An auxiliary relay is used to indicate the fault by glowing bulb or showing various flags.

Figure 24

8.

CAPACITOR BANK

The load on the power system is varying being high during morning and evening which increases
the magnetization current. This result in the decreased power factor. The low power factor is
mainly due to the fact most of the power loads are inductive and therefore take lagging currents.
The low power factor is highly undesirable as it causes increases in current, resulting in
additional losses. So in order to ensure most favorable conditions for a supply system from
engineering and economic stand point it is important to have power factor as close to unity as
possible. In order to improve the power factor come device taking leading power should be
connected in parallel with the load. One of such device can be capacitor bank. The capacitors
draw a leading current and partly or completely neutralize the lagging reactive component of
load current.
Main functions of Capacitor Bank are: Supply Reactive Power
Improve Terminal Voltage
Improve Power Factor

Figure 25

9. PROTECTION OF SUBSTATION
LIGHTNING ARRESTORS
A lightning arrestor is a device used in power systems and telecommunications systems to
protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of lightning. The
typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning
surge (or switching surge, which is very similar) travels along the power line to the arrester, the
current from the surge is diverted through the arrestor, in most cases to earth.

Figure 26

10. TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

Transformers are totally enclosed static devices and generally oil immersed. Therefore chances
of fault occurring on them are very easy rare, however the consequences of even a rare fault may
be very serious unless the transformer is quickly disconnected from the system. This provides
adequate automatic protection for transformers against possible faults. Various protection
methods used for transformers are: Buchholz Relay
Buchholz relay is a safety device mounted on some oil-filled power transformers and reactors,
equipped with an external overhead oil reservoir called a conservator. The Buchholz Relay is
used as a protective device sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure inside the equipment.
Depending on the model, the relay has multiple methods to detect a failing transformer. On a
slow accumulation of gas, due perhaps to slight overload, gas produced by decomposition
of insulating oil accumulates in the top of the relay and forces the oil level down. A float
switch in the relay is used to initiate an alarm signal. Depending on design, a second float may
also serve to detect slow oil leaks. If an arc forms, gas accumulation is rapid, and oil flows
rapidly into the conservator. This flow of oil operates a switch attached to a vane located in the
path of the moving oil. This switch normally will operate a circuit breaker to isolate the
apparatus before the fault causes additional damage.

Figure 27

Conservator and Breather

When the oil expands or contacts by the change in the temperature, the oil level goes either up or
down in main tank. A conservator is used to maintain the oil level up to predetermined value in
the transformer main tank by placing it above the level of the top of the tank. Breather is
connected to conservator tank for the purpose of extracting moisture as it spoils the insulating
properties of the oil. During the contraction and expansion of oil air is drawn in or out through
breather silica gel crystals impregnated with cobalt chloride. Silica gel is checked regularly and
dried and replaced when necessary.

Figure 28

Marshalling box

It has two meter which indicate the temperature of the oil and winding of main tank. If
temperature of oil or winding exceeds than specified value, relay operates to sound an alarm. If
there is further increase in temperature then relay completes the trip circuit to open the circuit
breaker controlling the transformer.

Figure 29

Transformer cooling

When the transformer is in operation heat is generated due to iron losses the removal of heat is
called cooling.
There are several types of cooling methods, they are as follows:
1. Air natural cooling
In a dry type of self-cooled transformers, the natural circulation of surrounding air is
used for its cooling. This type of cooling is satisfactory for low voltage small
transformers.
2. Air blast cooling
It is similar to that of dry type self-cooled transformers with to addition that continuous
blast of filtered cool air is forced through the core and winding for better cooling. A fan
produces the blast.
3. Oil natural cooling
Medium and large rating transformers have their winding and core immersed in oil,
which act both as a cooling medium and an insulating medium. The heat produce in the
cores and winding is passed to the oil becomes lighter and rises to the top and place is
taken by cool oil from the bottom of the cooling tank.
4. Oil blast cooling
In this type of cooling, forced air is directed over cooling elements of transformers
immersed in oil.
5. Forced oil and forced air flow (OFB) cooling
Oil is circulated from the top of the transformers tank to a cooling tank to a cooling
plant. Oil is then returned to the bottom of the tank.
6. Forced oil and water (OWF) cooling
In this type of cooling oil flow with water cooling of the oil in external water heat exchanger
takes place. The water is circulated in cooling tubes in the heat exchan

11. CONCLUSION
Now from this report one can conclude that electricity plays an important role in our life. At the
end of the training, I came to know about the various parts of substations and how they are
operated. Also I learnt about how transmission is done in various parts of M.P.
As evident from the report, a substation plays a very important role in the transmission system.
Thats why various protective measures are taken to protect the substations from various faults
and its smooth functioning. Madhya Pradesh Power Transmission Corporation Limited takes
such steps so that a uniform and stable supply of electricity can reach in every part of this state.

12. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Energy efficiency in electrical utilities, Guide book for National certification examination for
energy managers and energy auditors, Bureau of energy efficiency, Ministry of Power, Govt. of
India, 2003.
2. General aspect of energy management and energy audit, Guide book for National certification
examination for energy managers and energy auditors, Bureau of energy efficiency, Ministry of
Power, Govt. of India, 2003.
3. www.wikepedia.com
4. www.slideshare.com
5. www.electrical-installation.org
6. www.home-energy-metering.com
7. www.enspecpower.com
8. www.allaboutcircuits.com