Grounding PDF

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Design And Application

Of System Grounding
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Electrical
File Reference: EEX20501
For additional information on this subject, contact

W.A. Roussel on 874-1320
Electrical
Design and Application of System Grounding
CONTENTS
PAGE
Locating System Grounding Information.......................................................... 1

Basis For Installation Of System Grounds In Saudi Aramco
Electrical Systems.......................................................................................... 12
Determining The Appropriate Method Of System Grounding For
Saudi Aramco Electrical Systems .................................................................. 21
Designing A Substation/Plant Ground Grid For Saudi Aramco
Electrical Installations..................................................................................... 38
Work Aid 1: Saudi Aramco And Industry Standards For
Locating System Grounding Information .................................. 55
Work Aid 2: Table Of Saudi Aramco System Grounding
Methods .................................................................................... 56
Work Aid 3: Procedures And References For Designing
Substation/Plant Ground Grids ................................................. 57
Glossary ......................................................................................................... 69
Electrical
LOCATING SYSTEM GROUNDING INFORMATION

An Engineer should consult the following Saudi Aramco documents and the following
industry codes and standards for information on system grounding:
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Saudi Aramco Design Practices (SADP's)

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards (SAES's)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards (IEEE)
National Electrical Code (NEC)
Saudi Aramco Design Practices

The purpose of the SADP's is to provide the background information that is needed to
explain, amplify, and apply the mandatory requirements of the SAES's. An Engineer should
reference a SADP when he needs tutorial or background information on the design and
application of system grounding. The information in the SADP's is not mandatory, and
written approval is not needed to deviate from the SADP's. Statements in the SADP's that are
in capital letters are mandatory because they are taken from the SAES's. The SADP that
contains information on the design and application of system grounding is SADP-P-111.
Electrical
Saudi Aramco Design Practices (Cont'd)

SADP-P-111
The title of SADP-P-111 is "Grounding." This SADP includes two parts. Part one provides
the rationale for technical requirements in SAES-P-111 that are not obvious. This rationale is
based on Saudi Aramco experience.
Part two contains fourteen chapters of tutorial information that explains the principles and
application of grounding to meet the requirements of Saudi Aramco installations. An
Engineer can use this information to clarify the technical requirements that are given in
SAES-P-111. Figure 1 shows the table of contents for SADP-P-111. Only Chapters One,
Two, Three, Four, Five, Seven, Ten, Eleven, and Thirteen contain information that is
applicable to system grounding. Each of the sections that follow describes the scope of one of
these chapters.
Chapter One describes the general grounding requirements for Saudi Aramco
installations. This chapter also contains a list of all the references that were used to
write SADP-P-111. The latest edition of the references that are listed are for use in
interpreting and/or in modifying the text in SADP-P-111.
Chapter Two contains the definitions of the technical terms that are related to grounds
and grounding.
Chapter Three provides guidance on the selection and installation of grounding
conductors for high and low voltage systems.
Chapter Four provides guidance on the design of grounding electrodes. This chapter
discusses the design of all types of grounding electrodes from single rods to extensive
buried grids.
Chapter Five provides guidance on the design and application of the various methods
that are available to ground Saudi Aramco electrical systems. This chapter includes
both generator transmission system and distribution system grounding.
Chapter Seven provides guidance on the measures that Saudi Aramco uses to combat
the corrosion that is associated with grounding.
Electrical
SADP-P-111 Table of Contents

Figure 1
Electrical

Chapter Ten provides guidance on the measurement of soil resistivity for the purpose of
ground grid design. The information in this chapter is for use with the information in
Chapter Four.
Chapter Eleven defines ground potential rise (GPR) and other electric power parameters
that have an effect on communication systems.

Chapter Thirteen provides guidance on the measurement of a ground grid's resistance
after the ground grid has been installed.

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards
The SAES's contain the minimum mandatory requirements for the design and installation of
electrical equipment and systems. Engineers cannot deviate from the requirements of the
SAES's without written approval from the Saudi Aramco Chief Engineer (Dhahran).
User/specifier requirements that exceed the minimum requirement of the SAES's need no
waiver approval, even though the requirements are different.
The following SAES's apply to system grounding:
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SAES-P-100
SAES-P-111
SAES-P-119
SAES-P-100
This SAES states the minimum mandatory requirements for the design and installation of
electrical power systems. This standard is intended to assist Design Engineers in areas that
are not specifically referenced in another Saudi Aramco standard. The only sub-section of
this SAES that applies to system grounding is sub-section 4.4. Sub-section 4.4 contains a
table that lists the system grounding methods that should be used according to the voltage
level of the system that is being grounded.
Electrical
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards (Cont'd)

SAES-P-111
This SAES states the minimum mandatory requirements for the grounding of electrical
equipment and for the design and installation of grounding and lightning protection systems.
The following sub-sections apply to system grounding:
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Sub-section Four
Sub-section Five
Sub-section Four, titled "System Design," states the minimum mandatory requirements
for the design of a ground system.

Sub-section Five, titled "Materials," states the minimum mandatory requirements for the
materials that are used in the design and installation of a ground system.
SAES-P-119
This SAES states the minimum mandatory requirements for the design and installation of
onshore power substations. The only sub-section of this SAES that applies to system
grounding is sub-section six. Sub-section six states the minimum mandatory requirements for
terminating surge arrestors and overhead ground wires to the system ground grid.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Standards (IEEE)
IEEE Standards provide information on how to design, test, measure, and specify electrical
systems. The information in the IEEE Standards represents the consensus opinion of a group
of subject matter experts. The requirements and procedures that are given in IEEE Standards
are useful in the design and application of grounding systems. The following IEEE Standards
apply to system grounding:
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IEEE 80
IEEE 81
IEEE 142
IEEE 367
Electrical
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Standards (IEEE) (Cont'd)

IEEE 80
IEEE 80 is titled "IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding." The intent of IEEE
80 is to provide guidance and information to ensure that safe grounding practices are applied
in AC substation designs. Figure 2 shows the table of contents of IEEE 80. The sections that
follow provide a brief description of the scope of each chapter.
Chapter One describes the purpose and scope of the standard.
Chapter Two reviews the objectives of safe grounding system design and the potential
dangers that must be considered during grounding system design.

Chapter Three discusses the effects of passage of an electric current through the vital
parts of a human body. The effects are discussed in terms of the electric current's
frequency, amplitude, and duration.
Chapter Four discusses how to determine the limits to the amount of electrical current
that can pass through the human body.

Chapter Five discusses calculations involving the resistance of the human body when
the body becomes an accidental ground circuit.

Chapter Six discusses the four voltages that must be considered in the design of a
ground system to prevent electrical shocks:

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Step voltage
Touch voltage
Mesh voltage
Transferred voltage
Chapter Seven discusses the principal design considerations for a grounding system.
Chapter Eight discusses grounding requirements for gas-insulated substations.
Chapter Nine discusses the requirements for grounding conductor materials and sizes.
Electrical
IEEE 80 Table of Contents

Figure 2
Electrical

Chapter Ten discusses the soil characteristics that relate to system grounding.
Chapter Eleven discusses the different soil structures and how to select a soil model for
use in ground system design.
Chapter Twelve discusses how to evaluate the ground resistance of a ground system.
Chapter Thirteen discusses how to calculate the maximum ground grid current.
Chapter Fourteen discusses grounding system design criteria and provides a procedure
for use in ground grid design.

Chapter Fifteen reviews the hazards that can result during ground fault conditions that
are due to the transfer of potential between the ground-grid area and the points that are
outside the ground grid area.
Chapter Sixteen discusses the grounding of equipment that requires special attention:
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Operating handles
Fences
Cable sheathes
Surge arrestors
Chapter Seventeen describes the different methods for construction of a ground grid.
Chapter Eighteen discusses methods for performance of field measurements on an
installed grounding system.

Chapter Nineteen describes methods for use of scale models in the design of a
grounding system.
Electrical

IEEE 81
IEEE 81 titled "IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground Impedance, and Earth
Surface Potentials of a Ground System," discusses present techniques for performance of the
measurements. The discussion includes the types of instruments that are available and the
possible sources of error. The following specific testing methods are covered in IEEE 81:
_
The measurement of the resistance and the impedance to earth of

electrodes. The electrodes can be small rods, plates, or large grounding
systems.
Ground potential surveys that include the measurement of step-andtouch voltages and potential contour surveys.
Scale-model tests for a laboratory determination of the ground

resistance and the potential gradients for an idealized design.
The measurement of earth resistivity.
IEEE 142
IEEE 142 is titled "IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial
Power Systems." Also called the "Green Book," IEEE 142 contains four sections of
information, two of which apply to system grounding:
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Section One
Section Two
Section One discusses the problems that are associated with system grounding and the
advantages and disadvantages of grounded versus ungrounded systems. This section

also provides information on how to ground an electrical system, where to ground an
electrical system, and how to select equipment for the grounding of neutral circuits.
Section Four discusses the problems of obtaining a low-resistance connection to the
earth. The discussion includes the use of ground rods, ground grids, and buried pipes.
Electrical

IEEE 367
IEEE 367 is titled "IEEE Recommended Practice for Determining the Electric Power Station
Ground Potential Rise and Induced Voltage from a Power Fault." IEEE 367 provides
guidance on how to calculate the values of ground potential rise and longitudinally induced
voltages that interfere with wire-line telecommunications facilities. IEEE 367 also provides
guidance on how to reduce the worst case values of ground potential rise and longitudinally
induced voltages for use in wire-line telecommunications protection design.
National Electrical Code
The NEC is published by the National Fire Protection Association. The intent of the NEC is
the practical safeguarding of persons and property from the hazards that can arise from the
use of electricity. The NEC is updated every three years through proposals that are submitted
by the public. The proposals must be reviewed and approved by a series of committee's and
councils before the public proposal can become part of the standard.
The NEC has two articles that contain information on grounding:
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Article 100
Article 250
Article 100
Article 100 contains the definitions of terms that are used in the NEC and that are essential to
the proper application of the NEC. Article 100 defines the term "ground" as a conducting
connection (whether intentional or accidental) between an electrical circuit or equipment and
the earth, or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
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Electrical
National Electrical Code (Cont'd)

Article 250
Article 250 provides information on the requirements for the grounding and bonding of
electrical installations. Article 250 is divided into the following 12 parts, A through M,
excluding I:
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Part A, General Requirement

Part B, Circuit and System Grounding
Part C, Location of System Grounding Connections
Part D, Enclosure Grounding
Part E, Equipment Grounding
Part F, Methods of Grounding
Part G, Bonding
Part H, Grounding Electrode System
Part J, Grounding Conductors
Part K, Grounding Conductor Connections
Part L, Instrument Transformers, Relays, Etc.
Part M, Grounding of Systems and Circuits of 1 kV and Over (High
Voltage)
11
Electrical
BASIS FOR INSTALLATION OF SYSTEM GROUNDS IN SAUDI ARAMCO

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
The basis for installation of system grounds is to ensure stable and safe operation of an
electrical system. This section discusses the following topics pertinent to stable and safe
operation:
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Electrical Shock Avoidance

Fire Protection
Ground Fault Protection
Electric Noise Control
Lightning Protection
Static Control
Electrical Shock Avoidance

A ground fault in an electrical system can expose a person to a hazardous potential gradient
near the fault. Anyone who touches "electrically-live equipment" is exposed to a potential
gradient that causes current to flow. The human body operates through the use of low level
electrical impulses. A shock current from an electrical power system will overpower these
low level electrical impulses.
Currents that overpower the impulses that control the voluntary muscles, such as arms and
legs, can also affect the involuntary muscle systems of the heart and lungs. The heart and
lungs are usually involved with fatalities due to electrical shock. The heart system becomes
uncoordinated, going into what is known as fibrillation, in which the pumping action is lost.
Once this fibrillation starts, normal operation is rarely resumed even when the shock current is
removed. Without blood circulation, human tissues start to die very quickly, particularly in
the brain. Even when fibrillation is ended by massage or countershock, irreparable damage
has been done if the fibrillation period exceeds one or two minutes.
Stoppage of breathing has the same general effect. Even if blood circulates, the lack of
oxygen reaching human tissues causes rapid degradation. Resuscitation, when started
immediately, does get oxygen into the blood, even before the victim starts breathing naturally.
The effects of an electric current passing through the vital parts of a human body depend on
the duration, the magnitude, and the frequency of the current. Humans are very vulnerable to
the effects of electric current at frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz. Currents of approximately 0.1 A
can be lethal. Authorities generally agree that the human body can tolerate more current at
low AC frequencies (e.g., 25 Hz or less). Authorities also agree that the body can tolerate five
times more DC current than AC current. Even higher currents can be tolerated at frequencies
of 3000 - 10,000 Hz.
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Electrical
Electrical Shock Avoidance (Cont'd)

A current of 1 mA is generally recognized as the threshold of perception. The threshold of
perception is the current magnitude at which a person is able to detect a slight tingling
sensation (in his hands or fingertips) that is caused by the passing current.
Currents of 1 to 6 mA (often termed let-go currents) are unpleasant to sustain, but these
currents generally do not impair the ability of a person who is holding an energized object to
control his muscles and release the object.
Currents can be painful in the 9 to 15 mA range. People who receive shocks of this
magnitude also experience great difficulty in releasing the energized object that is causing the
shock. For still higher currents, muscular contractions can make breathing difficult. These
effects are not permanent and disappear when the current is interrupted unless the contraction
is very severe and breathing is stopped (not for seconds, but for minutes). Such cases often
respond to resuscitation.
In the range of 60 to 100 mA, ventricular fibrillation, stoppage of the heart, or inhibition of
respiration might occur and cause injury or death.
A person who is trained in
cardiopulmonary resuscitation should administer CPR until the victim can be treated at a
medical facility.
Design guides emphasize the importance of the fibrillation threshold. If shock currents can be
kept below this value through a carefully designed grounding system, injury or death can be
avoided. The probability of electric shock is greatly reduced through fast fault clearing times,
in contrast to situations in which the fault currents persist for several minutes, or possibly
hours. Both tests and experience show that the chance of severe injury or death is greatly
reduced if the duration of current flow through the body is brief. The allowed current value
can be based on the clearing time of primary protective devices or that of the back-up
protection.
Studies have determined that 99.5% of all healthy persons (50 kg or more) can tolerate a
current through the heart region that is defined by the following formula:
where:
IB
=
body current in amperes
ts
=
duration of current in seconds
Electrical Shock Avoidance (Cont'd)
The following publications contain further information on the hazards of electrical shock:
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IEEE Standard, 80 "IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation

Grounding," Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 5.
13
Electrical
IEEE Standard 399, "IEEE Recommended Practice for Power System

Analysis," Chapter 12.
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Electrical
ISA Monograph 110, "Electrical Safety Practices," Chapter on "Human

Electrical Safety."
Pages 28 and 29 of the publication "Grounding and Shielding in Facilities," by Morrison and
Lewis, discuss how shock hazards are developed in electrical equipment and show the
importance of grounding conductors in preventing electrical accidents.
Fire Protection
When a fault occurs in an electrical system, heat is generated at the fault point. If the system
is properly grounded, a conductor provides a low-impedance return path for the fault current.
This low-impedance path results in a high-fault current that trips the circuit protective device.
Improper system grounding or poor ground connections can result in reduced fault currents
that might not trip the circuit breaker or fuse. Heating is a function of time. More heat is
generated for long-duration faults than for short-duration faults. In addition, electrical faults
tend to get worse until the faults burn themselves out. As the two previous statements
indicate, when faults are removed in a timely manner, the chances of fire are greatly reduced.
The hazard of an electrical fire can be eliminated or reduced through adequate grounding, in
accordance with relevant codes and standards, such as those issued by the IEEE and NEC.
The IEEE Standards generally deal with the grounding of large electrical substations or
distribution systems. The NEC grounding regulations are primarily concerned with lower
voltage equipment that are installed within buildings and plants and that are accessible to
untrained personnel.
Read grounding for fire protection in the supplemental text "Grounding and Shielding in
Facilities," page 28. This section provides information on the generation of heat due to faults.
Ground Fault Protection
Good system grounding, coupled with a low impedance ground return path, will result in a
current flow during fault conditions that will activate a ground fault protection device and that
will isolate the damaged circuit. There are two forms of ground fault protection: one
designed to protect people and the other designed to protect equipment.
Devices that protect people operate on currents of 5 mA. The rating of 5 mA is far too
sensitive to be applied to normal industrial systems. In industrial systems, the protection
(safety) for people is provided through use of the ground grid and ground system. Ground
fault protection for many power systems of 480V and less is provided by circuit breakers and
fuses. Low voltage circuit breakers and fuses trip on current values that exceed their ampere
ratings. However, the NEC defines ground-fault protection as a system that is intended to
protect equipment from damaging line-to-ground fault currents by causing a disconnecting
means to open all ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit. This protection is provided at
current levels that are less than the levels that are required to protect conductors from damage
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Electrical
through the operation of a supply circuit overcurrent device. The NEC has specific rules
where ground fault protection is required.
16
Electrical
For voltage levels above 480V, circuit breakers and fuses are used to isolate circuits for
ground faults.
Circuit breakers can be controlled through ground fault or overcurrent relays. Ground fault
relays operate on low ground fault currents. The type of relay that is used depends on how
the system is grounded and on the location of the circuit breaker in the system.
Fuses are devices in which tripping time depends on the magnitude of the ground fault
current. If the system has a high grounding resistance or is otherwise poorly grounded, a fuse
might not operate.
For more information on ground fault protection, the Engineer should consult the following
standards:
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IEEE Std. 242 - 1986 Protection and Coordination of Industrial and

Commercial Power Systems, Chapter 7, Ground-Fault Protection.
National Electrical Code - 1990- Article 250.
17
Electrical
Electrical Noise Control

Electrical noise is a disturbance in an electrical system or in an instrumentation and control
system that interferes with the transmission of the signal containing the information.
Noise adversely affects both analog and digital electronic equipment systems that are below
30V. Analog systems that operate in the mA ranges and digital signals are most affected by
electrical noise. The ability of a control system to perform its designed function is directly
dependent upon the quality of the signal of the measured variables. This quality is dependant
upon the elimination or attenuation of noise that can deteriorate the actual transducer signal.
Electrical noise can be a severe problem in industries such as steel, power, and petroleum,
where power consumption is high and complex electrical networks exist.
Electrical noise can be reduced in a number of ways. The proper selection of cables and
installation is important. Careful evaluation of grounding methods help to ensure that noise
generation is eliminated. Conformance with the requirements of the National Electrical Code
will also help to eliminate noise generation.
Read the supplemental text "Grounding and Shielding," chapters 6 and 7. These chapters
provide detailed information on electromagnetic interference (EMI) in different situations and
present solutions to noise problems.
Lightning Protection
Lightning is the discharge of high-potential cells (usually negative) within clouds to the earth.
The discharge current increases from zero to a maximum in 1 to 10 _s and then declines to
half the peak value in 20 to 1000 _s. This discharge current can be repeated one or more
times, over the same path, in rapid succession. The average peak stroke is about 20,000A -although some peak strokes are as great as 270,000A.
Lightning can strike a facility in two ways. One way is a direct strike on a building or on
another elevated structure; such a strike causes fires or physical damage. The other way is
through a lightning strike on an overhead power line. The overvoltage surge can be
transmitted through the power line to the facility substation and through the transformers to all
the electrical equipment in the facility.
It would be necessary to completely enclose a building in metal to provide the building with
100% protection from lightning. This extent of protection is not practical. Design techniques
for lightning protection are based on the building size, occupancy, location, and other such
factors to provide a practical level of safety at a reasonable cost.
18
Electrical
Lightning Protection (Cont'd)

Read the supplemental text "Grounding and Shielding in Facilities," pages 46 and 85. These
pages provide general information on lightning protection for buildings, including the
following:
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Where lightning terminals are required.

Installation of lightning terminals.
Installation of ground cables.
The electrical path for lightning should be straight to ground. Preferably, this path should not
include bends. If bends in the path are required, the bend should have a large radius. When
possible, multiple air terminals should be interconnected vertically and horizontally.
High voltage lightning surges on transmission lines are eliminated or greatly reduced through
the use of devices that are known as lightning or surge arresters. Surge arresters act as
insulators during normal system operation. During a high voltage surge, however, these
devices directly shunt the current to ground without developing dangerous voltages. These
devices should be connected directly to the system ground. An overhead grounding wire that
runs above the phase wires and is grounded at frequent intervals also is used to protect
equipment from lighting strokes.
For more information on lightning protection, the Engineer should refer to the following
standards:
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IEEE Std. 142-1982-IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, Chapter 3, Static and
Lightning Protection Grounding.
NFPA 78 - 1989 - Lightning Protection Code.
The following Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards and Saudi Aramco Design Practices
apply to lightning protection:
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SAES-P-111 Chapter 9, Lightning Protection

SAES-P-119 Chapter 6, Substation Yard
SADP-P-111 Chapter 9, Lightning Protection of Building and
Structures
19
Electrical
Static Control
Static electricity is the accumulation of electrostatic charges on the surfaces of nonconductors or on conducting bodies that are insulated from their surroundings. The following
are the common ways that static electricity is generated in industry:
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Belts that are made of rubber, leather, or other insulating materials that
are running at moderate or high speeds generate considerable quantities
of static electricity. The generation occurs where the belt separates from
the pulley. The charges will occur on the pulley (regardless of whether
it is conducting or nonconducting) and the belt.
When a tank truck that is insulated from the ground by dry rubber tires
is being filled with liquid, a charge develops on the surface. This
surface charge will attract a charge of the opposite polarity on the
interior of the metal tank wall. The exterior of the tank will have a free
charge of the same polarity as the surface charge of the liquid. This
charge is capable of producing a spark to ground.
The human body in a low-humidity area can accumulate static charges

of several thousand volts in different ways. Contact of shoes with floor
coverings can develop a charge. Also, proximity to machinery that
generates static electricity can also result in a charge being developed.
Static electricity can be controlled and eliminated in industrial processes. A common method
of control is to allow the static charge to bleed off through bonding or grounding. Unlike
general system grounding, a low resistance to ground is not necessary to dissipate static
charges.
For information on static control, the Engineer should consult the following Saudi Aramco
and industry codes and standards:
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SADP-P-111 Chapter 14 - Safeguard Against Static Electricity,

Lightning and Stray Currents.
IEEE Std. 142 - 1982 IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of

Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, Chapter 3 - Static and
Lighting Protection Grounding.
NFPA 77 - 1988 Static Electricity.
NFPA - Electrical Installations in Hazardous Locations.
20
Electrical
DETERMINING THE APPROPRIATE METHOD OF SYSTEM GROUNDING FOR

SAUDI ARAMCO ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Electrical Engineers must be able to determine the appropriate method of system grounding
before ground grids can be designed for Saudi Aramco electrical systems.
Work Aid 2 provides a table showing the grounding methods that should be used for different
combinations of voltages, phases, and loads. The sections that follow provide information on
the following topics:
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Solid Grounding
Grounding Transformers
Impedance/Resistance Grounding
Reactance Grounding
Ungrounded Systems
Comparison of Methods (Advantages/Disadvantages)
Solid Grounding
A solidly-grounded system is a system of conductors in which one conductor or point is
grounded. Figure 3 shows a 115 kV transmission system, a 69 kV transmission system, a
480V bus and a 240/120 V bus that are all solidly grounded. Solid grounding indicates that
no impedance is intentionally inserted between the electrical system and the earth ground
point. The connection point is normally the middle wire or the neutral point of a transformer
or generator winding. Solid grounding provides the highest level of ground fault current and
the lowest level of transient overvoltages.
All Saudi Aramco systems that are rated 600V and below should be solidly grounded. Saudi
Aramco transmission and distribution systems of 34.5 kV, 69 kV, 115 kV, and the receiving
point of 230 kV systems should also be solidly grounded. The reasons for solid grounding at
higher voltages are as follows:
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Rotating equipment is seldom rated above 15 kV.
It is not necessary to limit ground fault current to protect motors at

higher voltages.
Voltages above 15 kV are usually outdoors.
Hazards to buildings and personnel are reduced at high voltages.
21
Electrical
Solid Grounding (Cont'd)
Solidly Grounded Systems

Figure 3
22
Electrical
Grounding Transformers
Saudi Aramco 2400V distribution systems receive power from transformers with ungrounded
delta secondary windings. These ungrounded systems are subject to overvoltage conditions
and unstable phase voltage conditions due to lack of a grounded neutral.
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards and current engineering practices require that all
electrical systems be grounded for reasons of safety and reliability. The existing ungrounded
delta secondary winding could be corner grounded, but corner grounding places the other two
phases at line-to-line voltage, which is undesirable. The preferred method for provision of a
neutral point for grounding in an existing ungrounded delta system is to use a grounding
transformer. A grounding transformer is a transformer that is installed in a system for the sole
purpose of providing a neutral point for grounding the system.
Saudi Aramco uses two types of grounding transformers:
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Distribution Transformers
Zig Zag Transformers
Both types of grounding transformers provide a suitable system ground connection, although
the zig zag transformer is more economical and should be selected over the distribution
transformer for most installations. The only time a distribution transformer is normally used
is when a distribution transformer is readily available and a zig zag transformer is not readily
available.
Distribution Transformers
A three-phase distribution transformer with wye-delta connections or three single-phase

distribution transformers that are connected in a wye-delta configuration can be used to
provide a system ground on an existing ungrounded system. Figure 4 shows a three-phase
distribution transformer that is connected to provide a system ground.
The distribution bus that is shown in Figure 4 receives power from the ungrounded deltaconnected secondary of the system power supply transformer. The system ground for the
distribution bus is obtained through connection of the distribution type grounding transformer.
When a phase-to-ground fault occurs on the distribution bus, a complete path for the groundfault current (shown by the arrows) exists:
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Ground-fault current will flow through the phase-to-ground fault from

the power supply end and the load end of the distribution bus.
23
Electrical
Grounding Transformers (Cont'd)
Three-Phase Distribution Transformer Connected to Provide a System Ground

Figure 4
24
Electrical

_
The ground-fault current will then flow through the earth and into the
system ground connection.
The ground-fault current will flow through the grounding resistor and
into the neutral of the wye connected primary of the distribution type
grounding transformer.
The ground-fault current will flow out of the wye-connected primary of

the distribution type grounding transformer and back to the distribution
bus to complete the path for the ground-fault current.
When the ground-fault current flows through the wye-connected

primary of the distribution type grounding transformer, current will also
flow in the delta-connected secondary of the distribution type grounding
transformer.
When a distribution transformer with wye-delta connections is used to provide a system

ground, the secondary winding must be a closed-delta connection to allow zero sequence
currents to flow. An open-delta secondary connection would also reflect an extremely high
impedance into the primary winding, and the resulting high primary winding impedance
would severely limit the amount of ground-fault current that could flow.
Zig Zag Transformers
Zig Zag is defined as a line or course that turns sharply in one direction and later turns sharply
in another direction. A zig zag transformer has two phase windings on each leg of the
transformer core. The internal connection of the transformer is shown in Figure 5. The
impedance of the zig zag transformer to a balanced three-phase voltage is high. The zig zag
transformer has a neutral lead that is connected to ground and three other leads (line leads)
that are connected to the bus. When there is no fault on the system, only a small magnetizing
current flows in the transformer winding. However, the transformer impedance to zerosequence voltages is low so that the transformer allows high ground fault currents to flow.
The transformer divides the ground fault current into three equal current components. These
equal currents are in phase with each other and flow in the three windings of the zig zag
transformer. The method of winding, shown in Figure 5, is such that when these three equal
currents flow, the current in one section of the winding on each leg of the core is in a direction
that is opposite to the current flow in the other section of the winding on that leg of the core.
The result is that the ground-fault current is equally divided in the three lines. This division
accounts for the low impedance of the transformer to ground currents.
25
Electrical
Zig Zag Transformer

Figure 5
26
Electrical
The distribution bus in Figure 6 receives power from the system power supply transformer.
The system ground is obtained through connection of a zig zag transformer, as shown in
Figure 6. When a phase-to-ground fault occurs, zero sequence currents will flow. Zero
sequence currents are in phase and have same magnitude. The zero sequence currents will
flow through the grounding resistor and into the zig zag transformer, where the currents
divide equally in the three legs of the transformer. Each leg has two windings that are wound
in the reverse direction. The two windings cancel each other's magnetic flux. This
cancellation results in a low impedance for zero sequence currents.
Under normal operating conditions, the windings of each leg are 120o out of phase. Because
this phase relationship results in a large transformer impedance, only a small magnetizing
current flows through the zig zag transformer when there is no ground fault in the system.
27
Electrical
Zig Zag Transformer Connected to Provide a System Ground

Figure 6
28
Electrical
Impedance/Resistance Grounding
The terms "impedance grounding" and "resistance grounding" have similar meaning. The
electrical characteristic that is known as resistance is actually a component of the electrical
characteristic that is known as impedance. SADP-P-111 defines both impedance grounding
and resistance grounding. In an impedance grounded system, the neutral line is connected to
ground through an impedance. SAES-P-111 lists grounding impedances as a resistor, a
reactor, or a distribution transformer. In a resistance grounded system, the neutral line is
connected to ground through an impedance, and the principal element of that impedance is
resistance.
IEEE-Std. 142-1982 and SADP-P-111 give the "resistance grounded system" the same
definition. IEEE Std. 142-1982 does not define the term "impedance grounded." IEEE Std.
142-1982 uses the terms "resistance grounded" and "reactance grounded" to refer to the two
methods of grounding an electrical system through an impedance. When the Saudi Aramco
Standards refer to impedance grounding, these standards are actually referring to resistance
grounding because resistors are the preferred type of grounding impedance for Saudi Aramco
electrical systems. In cases where Saudi Aramco does not use resistors as the grounding
impedance, the type of grounding impedance that is required will be specified by a term other
than "impedance grounded" (e.g., reactance grounded).
In an ideal electrical system, impedance grounding would be used for all voltages above 600V
because the short circuit capability of the system increases as the system voltage increases.
The short circuit capability of a system refers to the ability of the system to damage itself
under fault conditions (grounds) due to the excessive current that flows through the system
under ground-fault conditions.
When a ground-fault occurs in a system, the ground fault current must flow from the power
line through ground and must return through the grounded neutral line. The magnitude of the
ground-fault current can be significantly reduced through placement of an impedance in series
with the neutral line. The specific reasons for limiting the amount of ground-fault current that
can flow in a system can include one or more of the following:
_
To reduce the burning and melting effects in failed electrical equipment

such as transformers, cables, and rotating equipment
To reduce the mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus that are

carrying fault currents
29
Electrical
Impedance/Resistance Grounding (Cont'd)

_
To reduce the electrical shock hazards to personnel that are caused by

ground-fault currents in the ground return path
To reduce the arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who may have
caused or who are close to the ground-fault
To reduce the momentary line voltage drop caused when ground-faults

occur and when ground-faults are subsequently cleared
With high resistance grounding to gain control of transient overvoltages

and to avoid the shutdown of a faulty circuit on the occurrence of the
first ground fault.
Saudi Aramco follows the current engineering practice of using impedance grounding only in
medium voltage electrical systems (1001V - 15,000V). The main reason impedance
grounding is not used above 15,000V is that the required resistors are so large that the costs
are prohibitive.
Two classes of impedance grounding are available:
_
_
high resistance
low resistance
The two classes of impedance grounding differ in the magnitude of ground-fault current that
is permitted to flow. The sections that follow describe each class in more detail.
High Resistance Impedance Grounding
Saudi Aramco does not have any normal applications for high resistance impedance
grounding. High resistance impedance grounding uses grounding resistors that limit the
ground-fault current to 10A or less. High resistance impedance grounding has very few
practical applications because of this low level (10A) of ground-fault current. 10A of groundfault current is not enough to reliably operate protective devices. High resistance impedance
grounding can only be used in applications in which power supply continuity is critical and in
which the system can tolerate a ground-fault for the anticipated period of time that is
necessary to locate and clear the ground-fault.
30
Electrical

Low Resistance Impedance Grounding
Low resistance impedance grounding uses grounding resistors that limit the ground-fault
current to 25A or more. Low resistance impedance grounding is the preferred method of
impedance grounding because low resistance impedance grounding limits the ground-fault
current to safe levels and provide sufficient ground-fault current to reliably operate protective
devices.
In the following systems, Saudi Aramco uses low resistance impedance grounding with
resistors that are sized to limit the ground-fault current to 400 amps for ten seconds:
_
_
Distribution systems serving 4160 volt, three-phase loads

Distribution systems serving 13,800 volt, three-phase industrial loads
In 13,800 volt residential distribution systems, Saudi Aramco uses low resistance impedance
grounding with resistors that are sized to limit the ground-fault current to 1000 amps for ten
seconds.
Sizing Impedance Grounding Resistors
Three electrical ratings are required to select the correct size of grounding resistor:
_
_
_
Grounding Resistor Voltage Raging

Grounding Resistor Current Rating
Grounding Resistor Time Rating
Grounding Resistor Voltage Rating - The grounding resistor voltage rating is equal to the
phase-to-neutral voltage of the system. The phase-to-neutral voltage is also called the
phase-to-ground voltage. The phase-to-neutral voltage of the system is calculated
through division of the phase-to-phase voltage by the . The phase-to-phase voltage is
also called the line-to-line or system voltage. For example, the phase-to-neutral
voltage of a 13,800 volts distribution system would be calculated as follows:
This example shows that the required grounding resistor voltage rating for a 13,800
volt distribution system is 7967 + 10% voltage variation = 8764 volts.
31
Electrical

Grounding Resistor Current Rating - The grounding resistor current rating is equal to the
value of ground-fault current that will flow in the system. The designer of the system
must choose the grounding resistor current rating on the basis of a compromise of the
following two requirements:
_
The ground-fault current must be low enough to minimize the damage

resulting from a ground-fault.
The ground-result current must be high enough to reliably operate

protective relays.
The generally accepted engineering standard is that ground relays should operate on
10% of the maximum current allowed by the grounding resistor. Most distribution
systems use grounding resistors with current ratings of 50 amps and higher because of
this 10% standard. With 50 amps or higher ground-fault currents, there are many
readily available relays and CT's that will reliably operate on 5 amps of current (10%
of 50 amps). Saudi Aramco uses grounding resistor current ratings of 400 amps.
Grounding Resistor Time Rating - The standard grounding resistor time ratings are as
follows:
_
_
_
_
Ten seconds
Nine minute
Ten minutes
Extended time
The grounding resistor time rating indicates the amount of time that a grounding
resistor can operate under ground-fault conditions without exceeding the allowable
temperature rise above 50oC. The allowable temperature rises above 50oC are as
follows:
_
_
_
_
_
60oC temperature rise for ten second time ratings.

60oC temperature rise for one minute time ratings.
10oC temperature rise for ten minute ratings.
10oC temperature rise for extended time ratings.
85oC temperature rise for steady state conditions.
32
Electrical

Grounding resistors with ten second time ratings should be specified for systems that
have protective relays to isolate the circuit under ground-fault conditions. The ten
second time rating is standard for Saudi Aramco electrical systems. Some Engineers
may specify a one minute or ten minute time rating for an extra margin of safety;
however, grounding resistors with higher time ratings are more expensive. The
extended time rating is normally only specified for distribution systems that must
continue to operate with a ground-fault for more than ten minutes. An example would
be a distribution system that supplies power to a facility that cannot be shutdown in
mid-process without a significant cost.
Reactance Grounding
A reactance grounded system is a system in which the neutral line is connected to ground
through an impedance and in which the principal element of that impedance is reactance. The
reactance is provided through the use of a grounding reactor.
Grounding reactors are less expensive than grounding resistors for low impedance, high
current applications. Saudi Aramco uses reactance grounding in place of solid grounding for
systems in which the ground-fault current could exceed the three-phase fault current by 25%.
A possible application might arise on a system when a solid ground is indicated, but the
ground fault currents could exceed the three-phase fault levels and the circuit breaker short
circuit capacities.
Ungrounded Systems
In an ungrounded system, the generator or transformer neutral does not have a physical
connection to ground. In reality, all systems are grounded to some degree because of the
natural capacitance between the system elements and ground through the insulation system.
Ungrounded electrical systems were originally designed on the basis of the assumption that an
ungrounded system would provide greater service continuity than a grounded system. Greater
service continuity is achieved because grounding of any one phase of an ungrounded system
will not cause the protective devices to operate; a complete path for the ground fault current
will not exist. The only change in the system will be an increase in the voltage of the
ungrounded phases.
Recent experience has shown that in many systems greater service continuity is obtained with
grounded-neutral systems than with ungrounded neutral systems. Because of this recent
experience, current engineering practice is to install grounded rather than ungrounded
electrical systems.
33
Electrical
Ungrounded Systems (Cont'd)

Saudi Aramco still has some 2400V ungrounded electrical systems; however, Saudi Aramco
does not permit the installation of new ungrounded systems. Saudi Aramco also does not
permit the extension of existing ungrounded electrical systems without the approval of the
Consulting Services Department, Dhahran.
Comparison of Methods (Advantages/Disadvantages)
The advantages and disadvantages of each method of system grounding change with the
voltage level of the system in which the grounding method is used. The following sections
list the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of system grounding for the
following three ranges of system voltages:
_
_
_
80 Volts and Below

1.4 kV to 13.8 kV
above 13.8 kV
480 Volts and Below
Solidly grounded systems in this voltage range provide the following advantages:
_
Transient overvoltages will not be excessive.
The faulted zone of the system can be automatically segregated.
Initial costs for installation are lowest.
Sufficient ground-fault currents are provided at remote locations to

operate protective devices when the ground network is installed
properly.
Solidly grounded systems in this voltage range have the following disadvantage:
_
The grounding network for the system must provide a very low
impedance return path for the ground-fault currents in order for the
protective devices to operate properly.
There are no stated advantages and disadvantages for low resistance grounding in 480 volt
systems. Low resistance grounding is not specifically covered by the National Electrical
Code and should not be considered as an adequate grounding system.
34
Electrical
Comparison of Methods (Advantages/Disadvantages) (Cont'd)

High resistance grounding in this voltage range is permitted when all of the following
conditions are met:
_
The conditions of maintenance and supervision ensure that only

qualified people will service the installation.
Continuity of power is required.
Ground detectors are installed on the system.
Fine-to-neutral loads are not served.
High resistance grounding in this voltage range provides the following advantages:
_
Because one ground fault will not isolate power to electrical equipment,
operation will not be interrupted.
Transient overvoltages will not be excessive.
High resistance grounding in this voltage range has the following disadvantages:
_
A dangerous potential will exist on the faulted equipment until the

ground fault is cleared.
Most circuit breakers do not sense a sufficient amount of ground current

to function.
Ground fault can be difficult to locate.
ine-to-neutral loads cannot be used.
lectrical coordination is lost.
Additional expense of ground fault detection is required.
Ground fault on one phase increases the voltage of the other phases to
line voltage-to-ground.
35
Electrical

2.4 kV to 13.8 kV
Solidly grounded systems in this voltage range provide the following advantages:
_
Transient voltages are limited.
Solidly grounded systems are less expensive than are resistance or

reactance grounded systems.
Solidly grounded systems in this voltage range have the following disadvantages:
_
_
Ground fault currents may exceed three-phase fault currents.

Ground fault currents at this level are dangerous to equipment and
people.
Low resistance grounded systems in this voltage range provide the following advantages:
_
_
_
Phase-to-ground fault currents are greatly reduced.

Haulted zones are automatically tripped.
Transient overvoltages are not excessive.
Low resistance grounded systems in this voltage range have the following disadvantages:
_
_
These systems are more expensive than solid grounding.

Relaying is required.
High resistance grounded systems in this voltage range provide the following advantages:
_
_
_
Phase-to-ground fault current is reduced to a low level.

Power is not disconnected for ground faults.
Transient overvoltages are not excessive.
High resistance grounded systems in this voltage range have the following disadvantages:
_
_
_
_
These systems are more expensive than solidly grounded systems.

Ground detection equipment is required.
Fault levels are too low for normal relaying.
Ground faults on the system are dangerous to people and equipment.
36
Electrical

Above 13.8 kV
Solidly grounded systems in this voltage range provide the following advantage:
_
_
Transient voltages are limited.

These systems are the least expensive.
Solidly grounded systems in this voltage range have the following disadvantages:
_
High fault currents can be produced and these fault currents represent a
hazard to personnel if these voltages are carried inside buildings.
Resistance grounded systems in this voltage range provide the following advantage:
_
_
Tansient voltages are limited

Phase-to-ground fault currents are reduced
Resistance grounded systems in this voltage range have the following disadvantages:
_
Resistors are too expensive at this level
Low reactance grounded systems in this voltage range provide the following advantages:
_
These systems reduce ground fault currents to produce 26-100% of the

three-phase fault value.
Transient overvoltages are limited.
Faults can be automatically isolated.
Low reactance grounded systems in this voltage range have the following disadvantage:
_
These systems are more expensive than solid grounding.
37
Electrical
DESIGNING A SUBSTATION/PLANT GROUND GRID FOR SAUDI ARAMCO

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS
An Engineer must be familiar with the following topics in order to design substation/plant
ground grids:
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Ground Grid Concepts

Surface Soil Resistivity
Ground Potential Rise
None of Influence
Transfer Potential
Step-and-Touch Potential
Grid Depth and Number of Ground Rods
Wire Sizing
Fault Times
Ground Grid Concepts

As explained in SAES-P-111, grounding systems perform the following main functions:
_
To safeguard a person from electric shock by ensuring that, under fault

conditions, all surfaces with which a person is in simultaneous contact,
including those of metallic equipment and the ground, remain at safe
relative potentials.
To safeguard electrical equipment by grounding power systems to

ensure that, under fault conditions, both voltages and currents are within
predictable limits and that the protective devices will operate reliably
and with appropriate discrimination.
To provide a path to ground from lightning arrestors that might operate

due to direct lightning strikes, to lightning induced surges, or to
switching surges.
To reduce the possibility of static electricity discharge that would

present a fire risk in hazardous areas.
A grounding system consists of the grounding conductors that connect all items to be
grounded and of a grounding electrode or grounding electrodes. The use of multiple
grounding electrodes is known as a ground grid, and the ground grid forms the medium of
contact with the earth. The ground grid can consist of buried conductors in a cross, of a grid,
or of another formation.
38
Electrical
Ground Grid Concepts (Cont'd)

The purposes of the ground grid are to provide a low resistance path to earth for fault currents
and to limit the rise of ground potentials that could generate surface gradients that are unsafe
for human contact.
The following factors influence the design of a grounding system:
_
The maximum prospective ground-fault current that can pass between

the fault location and the system neutral point or points and the duration
of the ground-fault current flow. The size of the ground fault current
governs the grounding conductor size.
The proportion of the ground fault current that will pass between the
grounding system and the body of earth and the duration of the current
flow. This factors govern the electrode design.
Site soil resistivity.
The degree of exposure to mechanical damage and corrosion. This

factor will influence the choice of materials and the manner of
installation.
Surface Soil Resistivity

The grid resistance and the voltage gradient within a substation are directly dependent on the
soil resistivity. The surface soil resistivity is the resistivity of the upper layer of the soil. This
resistivity is important because it helps limit the body current through addition of resistance to
the equivalent body resistance. That is, if the upper layer of the soil is high in resistivity, the
amount of current through the body of a person in contact with an energized component is
reduced. A thin layer of crushed rock on the surface can raise the surface soil resistivity and
can result in higher permissible step and touch voltages.
Because the effective length of the grid conductor is inversely proportional to the permissible
body contact voltages, an increase in surface soil resistance allows a greater body contact
voltage; consequently, a shorter grid length can be used for the same area. The result is
greater grid spacing.
39
Electrical
Ground Potential Rise (GPR)

Ground potential rise (GPR) is an AC potential difference between remote earth (reference of
zero potential) and local ground. The magnitude of the maximum expected GPR determines
the type of protection that is required for communication equipment as follows:
_
Locations at which the maximum expected GPR (or voltage stress

magnitude) is less than 300V are classified as low risk sites. The
amount of protection that is required for circuits at these sites is minimal
and depends upon the reliability needs.
Locations at which the maximum expected GPR (or voltage stress

magnitude) is between 300V and 1500V are classified as moderate
hazards. Protection must be applied to all circuits. The acceptable
protection methods should be determined by SAES-T-887.
Locations at which the maximum expected GPR is above 1500V are

considered severe hazard sites. Protection methods will include
isolating or neutralizing transformers as determined by SAES-T-887.
Ground potential rise (GPR) is essentially the product of the following:

_
The total ground grid resistance to a remote earthing point (outside the
zone of influence of the GPR at the power system fundamental
frequency).
The total net fault current that flows through the ground grid.
GPR can be expressed by the following equation:

GPR
where:
IG x RG
IG
grid
portion of the total fault current that flows through the

to remote earth.
RG
ground grid resistance to remote ground.
40
Electrical
Ground Potential Rise (GPR) (Cont'd)

The total prospective ground-fault current at a location should be determined through a
system fault current study. The sub-transient symmetrical R.M.S. value of the ground-fault
current "Ig" should be used. Frequently, a fault level analysis or relaying study will have
been performed for the location and will give the required information. For all power plants,
it should be assumed that the maximum ground-fault current is equal to the breaker's
symmetrical interrupting capability.
The Electrical Engineer should determine the proportion of this current that is passing
between the electrode and earth; he should then apply a factor for future system growth. This
factor is a matter of judgement and is based on the following indicators:
_
Nearness of the calculated three-phase symmetrical fault level for the

location to the circuit breaker interrupting capacity. If these values are
close, the location is at a point of high fault level and the chance of
future increases are limited.
The probability of development in the area (especially power

generation). A remote location on the fringe of an established oil field
can increase little in fault level. A location in an area of future
development can increase greatly.
The computer program MALT, developed for Saudi Aramco installations, can analyze the
effects of buried grounding electrodes. MALT should be utilized to review the grounding
electrode design for all major industrial facilities (e.g., desalting facilities, seawater injection
plants, gas plants, etc.). MALT can be used to determine the following:
_
The resistance to remote earth of grounding electrodes (grid) in a one

layer soil model (regardless of shape, depth of burial, and size of
conductors).
The resistance to remote earth of electrodes (grid) in a two-layer soil

model (regardless of shape, depth of burial and size of conductors).
The GPR of a given site.
Zone of Influence
The elevated potential of the industrial site grounding electrode during a ground fault results
in a rise in potential of the earth inside and outside of the plant boundaries. The potential
gradient that is outside of the site decreases as the distance outward increases. This
decreasing potential gradient is known as the zone of influence.
41
Electrical
Zone of Influence (Cont'd)

A potential contour survey can locate the hazardous potential gradients near grounded
electrical structures for each fault type and location. The voltage drop to points surrounding
the structure are measured from a known reference point and is plotted on a map of the
location. A potential contour map then can be drawn through connection of the points of
equal potential with continuous lines. If the contour lines have equal voltage differences
between them, greater hazards are indicated by closer lines. Actual gradients that are due to
ground fault currents are obtained through multiplication of test current gradients by the ratio
of the fault current to the test current. A typical contour map of a substation grid is shown in
Figure 7. The area that is contained by the perimeter (B) in Figure 7 is termed the zone of
influence of the GPR. The permissible magnitude of the voltage that is along the perimeter
(B) is by choice or design and is often limited by an agreement among the authorities
concerned to a maximum of 300V.
The most accurate measurements of potential gradients are made through use of the voltammeter or current injection method. A known current, usually between 1 and 100 A and
between 55 and 70 Hz, is injected into a remote ground test electrode through use of an
insulated conductor. A current that is greater than 50 A (personnel and equipment safety
considerations are to be observed) is preferred where the ground impedance is less than 1_.
Where electronic measuring instruments are used (for example, a digital frequency selective
voltmeter), a test current much less than 50 A is satisfactory.
This procedure would not apply where insulated overhead ground wires are employed and
where calculations would be required. A remotely located ground test electrode is necessary
to prevent gradient distortion from the mutual impedance of inadequately spaced ground
electrodes. The distance between the ground under test and the remote current electrode can
vary from less than 300 meters for a small ground grid or an isolated station to a kilometer or
more for larger installations and for installations in densely populated areas. Measurements
of the potential should be made with a very high impedance meter that is connected between
the ground grid and a test probe, which is driven into the earth along the profile lines radial to
the power station. Unless suitable means are employed to mask out the residual ground
current and the other interference, the test current must be of sufficient magnitude to do the
masking. External power frequency and harmonic components are removed through use of
filtering. At the same time, in order to avoid variations in voltage gradients during a series of
measurements, care must be taken to prevent heating and drying of the soil that is in contact
with the ground grid or the test electrode. Low-current test methods will produce
approximate results.
Economics and the necessary or the desired accuracy that is required will dictate the use of
these methods or other methods and the number of measurements to be made.
42
Electrical
Boundary of the GPR Zone of Influence

Figure 7
43
Electrical

When more than one overhead or underground cable is connected to a substation, potential
gradients in and around the substation can be quite different for faults that are on different
lines or cables. Similarly, faults at different locations in large substations also can result in
differences in potential gradients in and around the power station. Potential gradients in and
around a large substation should be determined for two or more fault conditions.
Underground metallic structures, metallic structures on the surface of the earth, metallic
fences, and overhead ground wires that are near a substation, whether connected to the ground
grid or not, will usually have a significant effect on the potential gradients and should be
considered in potential gradient measurements. These structures include neutral conductors,
metallic cable sheaths, metallic water and gas lines, and railroad rails.
When a potential gradient study cannot be economically justified, potential gradients can be
calculated from ground resistance and soil resistivity measurements. The accuracy of such
calculations will depend on the accuracy of the measurements and on the unknown
abnormalities of the earth around and below the ground grid. The adequacy of such
calculations then can be verified with relatively few potential gradient measurements.
Depending upon the magnitude of a GPR, the following effects can arise outside a substation
or adjacent to a power line grounding electrode or transmission line tower (within the zone of
influence of the GPR):
_
The potential can be transferred through a metal part, bonded with or

coupled resistively to the plant grounding electrode(s), to remote
locations.
The touch voltage between a part that is grounded to the plant

grounding electrode and a local ground (for example, a high-voltage
interface ground) can be excessive.
Reversed touch voltage (or voltage stress) between the local ground and
a part having a lower or even zero potential (for example, a telephone
cable protection interface) can become excessive.
44
Electrical

Paragraph 4.1.6 in SAES-P-111 describes a situation in which a new grounding system is
connected to an existing grounding system. The resultant zone of influence is that of the
composite system. SAES-P-111 paragraph 4.1.6 reads as follows:
"Where a new grounding system is connected to or located within the zone of
influence of an existing grounding system, the two grounding systems shall be
interconnected by a minimum of two conductors per grid. The designer of the new
grounding system shall be responsible to review the overall grounding system.
Recommendations for upgrading the existing system(s), if required, shall be made to
the Operations Department of the respective area."
Transfer Potential
Transfer is defined as the relocation of a hazardous potential from a ground-grid area to points
that are outside of the ground-grid area. A serious hazard may result during a fault from the
transfer of potentials between the ground-grid areas and outside points. This transfer of
potentials is done by conductors (such as communication and signal circuits, low-voltage
neutral wires, conduit, pipes, rails, and metallic fences). The danger usually is from contacts
of the touch type. The importance of the problem results from the very high magnitude of
potential difference that is often possible. Induced voltages on unshielded communication
circuits, static wires, and pipes, can result in transferred potentials exceeding the sum of the
GPR's of both the faulted substation and the source substation. Rails entering the station,
when connected either intentionally or otherwise to the ground grid, can theoretically create a
hazard at a remote point by transferring the grid potential rise during a fault. Similarly, if the
rails are grounded remotely, a hazard can be introduced into the station area.
Hazards are possible where the neutrals of low-voltage feeders or secondary circuits that serve
points that are outside of the station area are connected to the station ground. When the
potential of the station ground grid rises as the result of ground-fault current flow, all or a
large part of this potential rise can appear at remote points as a dangerous voltage between
this grounded neutral wire and the adjacent earth. Where other connections to earth are also
provided, the flow of fault current through these connections can, under unfavorable
conditions, create gradient hazards at points that are remote from the station. Each installation
should be reviewed for transfer potential hazards, and corrective action should be taken as
required.
45
Electrical
Transfer Potential (Cont'd)

For communication circuits, schemes have been developed that involve protective devices
and insulating and neutralizing transformers to safeguard personnel and terminal
communication equipment. The introduction of fiber optics to isolate the substation
communications terminal from the remote terminal can eliminate the transfer of high
potentials. Fiber optics should be considered when potentials cannot be easily controlled by
more conventional means.
Rail hazards can be removed by removable track sections where the rails leave the groundgrid area, or through installation of several insulating joints in the rails that are leaving the
grid area. A second set of insulating joints that are beyond the first set would protect against
the shunting of a single set by a metal car or the soil itself and would also reduce the remote
hazard of potential differences across a joint itself. The insulating joints must be capable of
withstanding the potential difference between remote earth and the potential transferred to the
joint. Adequate creepage distance should be ensured to offset any pollution or contamination
problems.
Step and Touch Potential
Step potential (voltage) is the difference in surface potential that is experienced by a person
that is bridging a distance of one meter with his feet, without contacting any other grounded
object.
Touch potential (voltage) is the potential difference between the ground potential rise and the
surface potential at the point where a person is standing with his hands in contact with a
grounded structure. The maximum touch voltage is to be found within a mesh of a ground
grid.
Death can occur from step and touch potentials, depending on the magnitude and the duration
of the fault. Body conditions that can reduce resistance, such as wet hands or shoes, also can
increase the probability of death or injury.
46
Electrical
Step and Touch Potential (Cont'd)

As given by IEEE Std. 80, the following formulas are used to determine the allowable stepand-touch potentials:
_
The maximum driving voltage of any accidental circuit should not

exceed the following limits:
For step voltage the limit is for a man weighing 50 kilograms is:
Similarly, the touch voltage limit is:

where:Cs (hs1 K)
1 for no protective surface layer.
_s
the resistivity of the surface material in ohm - M =

150 (assumed measured value) or 3000 ohm-m for
crushed rock.
ts
=
for
duration of shock current in seconds - (1 second

Saudi Aramco installations).
Grid Spacing
If either the step voltage limit or the touch voltage limit are exceeded, a revision of the grid
design is required. The revision may include smaller conductor spacings, and adding
additional ground rods. Details of the potential revision can be found in IEEE Std. 80,
Section 14.7.
Even if the step voltage limit or touch voltage limits are met, additional grid conductors and
ground rods can be required if the grid design does not include conductors that are near the
equipment to be grounded (such as surge arrestors and transformers).
47
Electrical

Another method to improve step and touch potentials is addition of crushed rock on the
surface of the soil. Crushed rock will change the K factor in the CS (hS1K) portion of the
step voltage limit and touch voltage limit formula as follows:
where:
_s
crushed rock resistivity in ohm-m
earth resistivity in ohm-m
The reduction factor Cs is also changed as a function of the change in K and the change in the
thickness of the layer of crushed rock (hs), as shown in Figure 8.
Reduction Factor Cs as a Function of Reflection Factor K and

Crushed Rock Layer Thickness hs
Figure 8
48
Electrical

Example:
Find the ETouch 50 for the following conditions:

_s
ts
hs
_
=
=
=
=
2000 (using crushed rock)

1
0.1
150
for this example, K is determined as follows:

From Figure 8, Cs = 0.58
Therefore:
= 318V
Grid Depth and Number of Ground Rods
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-P-111 states that ground grids are to be buried to
a minimum depth of 460 mm (18 in.). This method effectively reduces step and touch
voltages on the earth's surface.
The total length of the grid reduces the step and touch voltages and the grid resistance. The
grid length includes both conductor length and ground rod length.
The physical conditions at a substation dictate the number and the length of the ground rods
vs. the conductor grid length. The ground rods are normally installed at the perimeter of the
grid to moderate the increase of the surface gradient that is near the peripheral meshes.
Ground rods should also be installed at major equipment and especially at lightning arresters.
Rods that penetrate the lower resistivity soil are far more effective in dissipating fault currents
when a two-or-multilayer soil is encountered and when the upper soil layer has higher
resistivity than the lower soil layers. Ground rods that are in proximity are far less effective at
dissipating fault currents than individual ground rods that are well spaced.
Wire Sizing
In AWG, the numbers are regressive: that is, a larger number denotes a smaller wire. Each
wire size (in AWG) often is represented in circular mils. One circular mil (cm) is the area of a
wire with a diameter of 0.001 inches. The cm measure is simply the diameter in mils squared.
49
Electrical
Under fault conditions, all of the heat is assumed to be retained in the conductor, because little
time is available to dissipate the heat. The fusing temperature of the conductor, the
temperature limit of the connections, and the physical strength of conductors are evaluated to
determine a conductor size. The conductor size must relate to the current/time rating of the
neutral grounding device or the devices, subject to a minimum size of 780 sq. mm. (No. 2/0
AWG) for mechanical robustness. Figures 9 and 10 show the minimum size for conductors to
be used to ground Saudi Aramco systems.
Solidly Grounded Systems over 600V

50
Electrical
Figure 9
51
Electrical
Wire Sizing (Cont'd)
Impedance Grounded Systems over 600V

Figure 10
Fault Times
Fault time is the duration of time that the fault current flows before being interrupted. The
required wire size (Figures 9 and 10) may not be adequate for assumed long fault times. If
long fault times are assumed, larger wire sizes may have to be used. The required wire size,
based on fault times, can be calculated to determine whether the required wire size is within
the suggested size in Figures 9 and 10.
52
Electrical
Fault Times (Cont'd)

The following formula is used to relate the conductor's size to the assumed fault
time/temperature limits:
where:
_r
I
=
=
=
=
Ta
=
Ko
tc
TCAP
=
=
=
A
TM
Ta
ar
=
RMS current in kA.
conductor cross-section in cmils.
maximum allowable temperature in oC.
Ambient temperature in oC.
thermal coefficient of resistivity at reference temperature
in oC.
the resistivity of the ground conductor at reference
temperature Ta in __-cm.
I/ao, or (I/dr) - Tr.
time of current flow in sec.
thermal capacity factor, in J/cm3/oC.
For standard annealed soft copper wire:

ar @ 20oC
0.00393
_r @ 20oC
1.7241
TCAP (J/cm3/0o)
3.422
Tm(0oC)
1083
Ko (1/ao @ 0oC)
234
I = KA
53
Electrical
Fault Times (Cont'd)

As an example, assume a ground fault of 22,000A that lasts for a duration of five seconds.
By calculation, the required wire size for a 22 kA fault that is assumed to last five seconds is
530 cm. Because the calculated value exceeds the values that are given in Figure 9, the
calculated value must be used.
54
Electrical
WORK AID 1: SAUDI ARAMCO AND INDUSTRY STANDARDS FOR

LOCATING SYSTEM GROUNDING INFORMATION
This Work Aid is designed to help the Participants in performing Exercise 1.
Saudi Aramco Design Practices
_
SADP-P-111 : Grounding
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards

_
_
_
SAES-P-100 : Basic Power System Design Criteria

SAES-P-111 : Grounding
SAES-P-119 : Substations
IEEE Standards
_
IEEE 80 : IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
IEEE 81 : IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground

Impedance, and Earth Surface Potentials of a Ground System
IEEE 142 : IEEE Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power

Systems
IEEE 367 : IEEE Recommended Practice for Determining the Electric

Power Station Ground Potential Rise and Induced Voltage from a Power
Fault
National Electrical Code
55
Electrical
WORK AID 2:
TABLE OF SAUDI ARAMCO SYSTEM GROUNDING METHODS
This Work Aid is designed to assist the Participants in performing Exercise 2. This Work Aid
shows the grounding method that should be used for different combinations of voltage,
phases, and loads.
System Voltage
120/240V
208/120V
480V
4160V
Phase
1
3
3
3
13,800V
13,800V
69,000V
115,000V
230,000V
3
3
3
Grounding Method
Solidly Grounded
Solidly Grounded
Solidly Grounded
Low Resistance Grounded
(400A, 10 Sec, Resistor)
(400A, 10 Sec, Resistor)
(1000A, 10 Sec. Resistor)
Solidly Grounded
Solidly Grounded
Solidly Grounded
Comments
Industrial Load
Residential Distr.
System
56
Electrical
WORK AID 3:
PROCEDURES AND REFERENCES FOR DESIGNING

SUBSTATION/PLANT GROUND GRIDS
This Work Aid is designed to help the Participants in performing Exercise 3. Exercise 3
requires the Participants to design a substation/plant ground grid for a hypothetical
installation. The Participant must complete the following steps that are covered in the
designated Work Aid to design a substation/plant ground grid.
_
Determine need for Ground Grid Protection - Work Aid 3A
Determine Step Potential - Work Aid 3B
Determine Touch Potential - Work Aid 3B
Determine Required Grid Spacing - Work Aid 3B
Determine Number of Grounding Rods - Work Aid 3C
Determine Ground Wire Sizes - Work Aid 3D
Adjust Ground Wire Size for Fault Time - Work Aid 3E
57
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)

Work Aid 3A:
Checklist for Evaluating the Need for Ground Potential Rise (GPR)
Protection
This Work Aid is designed to help the Participant in performing Exercise 3A.
To evaluate the need for ground potential rise protection, perform the following steps:
_
Calculate Rg; the impedance to remote earth of the grounding electrode.
where:
_
A
h
L
_
Earth resistivity of substation in ohms-m.

Area occupied by ground grid in m2.
Depth of the ground grid in m.
Buried length of conductors in m not including
ground rods.
Calculate Ig; fault current flowing to the grounding electrode.

Ig
=
=
=
=
Ground fault current current division factor
Calculate GPR; Ground potential rise

GPR
Rg
Ig
If the GPRis less than 300V, the area is classified as a low risk site. No
protection is required for communication equipment.
If the GPR is between 300V to 1500V, the area is classified as a

moderate hazard site. Protection must be applied to all communication
equipment circuits.
If the GPR is above 1500V, the area is classified as severe hazard site.
Protection must be applied to all communication equipment circuits.
58
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)

Work Aid 3B:
Formulas and Procedures for Determining Step and Touch

Potentials and Grid Spacing
This Work Aid is designed to help the Participant in performing Exercise 3B.
_
To calculate the step voltage limit for a man weighing 50 kg, use the
formula:
where:
Cs (hsiK)
_s
ts
seconds
=
=
=
factor for surface soil

resistivity of surface soil material
duration of shock current in
To calculate the touch voltage limit for a man weighing 50 kg use the
formula:
Compare the resultant ESTEP 50 limit and the ETOUCH 50 limit to the
calculated GPR. If both the ESTEP 50 limit and the ETOUCH 50 limit
are above the GPR, no further actions are required, the ground grid
design is complete. If either (or both) of the ESTEP 50 limit or the
ETOUCH 50 limits are below the GPR, further design improvements of
the ground grid are required.
If the ground grid design uses the normal soil as the surface soil,
consider addition of a layer of crushed rock to the surface, which will
increase the resistivity of the surface.
If crushed rock is added recalculate ESTEP 50 and ETOUCH 50.
A further reduction in ESTEP 50 and ETOUCH 50 can be accomplished

through an increase in the length of the ground grid conductor and
through an increase in the number of ground rods. (Note: An increase
in the length of the ground grid conductor and the number of ground
grids can only be accomplished through change to the grid spacing
because the overall dimensions of the grid have already been
established). The following equation will give an estimation of the
required length of the ground grid conductor to obtain the maximum
voltage below the ESTEP 50 and ETOUCH 50 limits:
59
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)

here:
Total length of grounding grid including length of

grid conductor and ground rods in m.
Ki
0.656 + 0.172n.
Number of parallel conductors in one direction; also

equals
for equally spaced rectangular grids where
NA is the
number of conductors running in one
direction, and NB is
the number of conductors
running in the other direction.
_
=
Soil resistivity in ohm-m.
IG
=
grid
Maximum grid current that flows between the ground

and the surrounding earth.
ts
Duration of shock current in seconds.
Factor for surface soil.
_s
Resistivity of the surface soil.
Km
Mesh factor determined by formula below:
spacing between parallel conductors in m.
depth of ground grid in m.
diameter of ground grid conductor.
Kh
Cs(hs1K)
where:
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)

Kii
1 if ground grid has rods along perimeter.
or
Kii
for grids with no ground rods or only a few ground rods

and not on perimeter.
60
Electrical
When the required length of ground grid (L) is known, determine how
much of L will be Lc (total grid conductor length) and how much will
be LR (total ground rod length). L can be expressed by the equation:
L = Lc - LR
For the new value of LC and LR, determine the maximum mesh
voltage. The maximum mesh voltage should be less than (or equal to)
the ETOUCH 50 limit. The maximum mesh voltage (Em) is calculated
through use of the following equation:
Use the new value of L to calculate the maximum step voltage. The
maximum step voltage should be less than (or equal to) the ESTEP 50
limit. The maximum step voltage (Es) is calculated through use of the
following equation:
If Em and Es are equal to or less than the ETOUCH 50 and ESTEP 50

limits, the length of LC and LR are acceptable.
61
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)

Work Aid 3C:
Formulas, Procedures, and References for Determining Number of

Ground Rods
This Work Aid is designed to help the Participant perform Exercise 3C.
_
To calculate the total resistance for a group of ground rods, the

resistance of one rod must be calculated first.
Through use of SADP-P-111, the resistance of one rod can be

determined from Figure 13.
Ratio the value taken off of Figure 13 to the actual soil resistivity
through use of the following equation:
Find the group ratio for the spacing of the ground rods for Figure 14.
To find the resistance for the group of ground rods, take the value
calculated as the actual value for a single rod, and the group ratio; use
the following equation to calculate:
62
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)
Resistance of a Single Rod

Figure 13
63
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)
Ground Ratio
Figure 14
64
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)

Work Aid 3D:
Table of Wire Sizes and Ampacity
Use Work Aid 3D to complete Exercise 3D.

The size of ground grid conductors is determined by the magnitude of the fault current and
the time of flow, based on the maximum allowable temperature rise.
Figures 15 and 16 show wire sizes vs. short-time ampacity for Saudi Aramco Systems.
Solidly Grounded Systems over 600V

Figure 15
65
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)
Impedance Grounded Systems over 600V

Figure 16
66
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)

Work Aid 3E:
Procedures and References for Adjusting Ground Wire Sizes for

Fault Times
Use Work Aid 3E to complete Exercise 3E.

_
After the size of the ground wire has been determined, the ability of the
ground wire to handle the expected short-time current without
exceeding the temperature limit must be verified. The temperature limit
of 450oC is for use when the ground grid has brazed connections. The
250oC limit is for use when the connections are bolted.
Use Figure 17 to find the minimum allowed circular mils for the
expected fault current, given the time duration.
Multiply the value from Figure 17 by the expected ground fault current.
67
Electrical
WORK AID 3 (Cont'd)
Nomogram for Conductor Sizing

Figure 17
68
Electrical
GLOSSARY
circuit breaker
A device that is designed to open and close a circuit by

nonautomatic means and to open the circuit automatically on a
predetermined overcurrent without damage to itself when
properly applied within its rating.
electric potential
The potential difference between the point and some

equipotential surface, usually the surface of the earth, which is
arbitrarily chosen as having zero potential (remote earth).
electrical noise
The disturbance in an electrical system that interferes with the

normal transmission of signals carrying information.
equipment ground
A ground connection to non-current carrying metal parts of a

wiring installation or of electric equipment, or both.
fault time
The duration for which a fault current flows prior to being

interrupted.
ground
A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, by

which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to the earth,
or to some conducting body, of relatively large extent and that
serves in place of the earth.
ground bus
A bus to which the grounds from individual pieces of equipment

are connected and that, in turn, is connected to ground at one or
more points.
ground circuit
A circuit in which one conductor or point (usually the neutral

conductor or neutral point of transformer or generator windings)
is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through a grounding
device.
ground conductor
A conductor or system that is intentionally grounded, either

solidly or through a current-limiting device.
ground current
Current that is flowing in the earth or in a grounding connection.
69
Electrical
ground grid
A system of grounding electrodes consisting of interconnected

bare cables that are buried in the earth to provide a common
ground for electric devices and metallic structures.
ground potential
An AC potential difference between remote earth and local rise

(GPR) ground.
grounded
Connected to earth or to some extended conducting body that

serves in place of the earth, whether the connection is intentional
or accidental.
grounding conductor
The conductor that is used to establish a ground and that

(ground conductor) connects an equipment, device, wiring
system, or another conductor (usually the neutral conductor)
with the grounding electrode or electrodes.
grounding electrode
A conductor that is used to establish a ground (for instance,

(ground electrode) ground grids, ground rods, or groundwells).
grounding transformer
A transformer that is primarily intended to provide a neutral

point for grounding purposes.
impedance grounded
Grounded through impedance.
neutral ground
An intentional ground applied to the neutral conductor or neutral

point of a circuit, transformer, machine, apparatus, or system.
reactance grounded
Grounded through impedance, the principle element of which is

reactance.
resistance grounded
Grounded through impedance, the principle element of which is

resistance.
resistivity (material)
A factor such that the conduction-current density is equal to the

electric field in the material divided by the resistivity.
service ground
A ground connection to a service equipment or a service

conductor or both.
70
Electrical
solidly grounded
Grounded through an adequate grounded connection in which

(directly grounded) no impedance has been inserted
intentionally.
static electricity
The accumulation of electrostatic charges on the surfaces of

conducting and non-conducting bodies that are insulated from
their surroundings.
step potential
The potential difference between two points on the earth's

surface, separated by a distance of one pace, that will be
assumed to be one meter, in the direction of maximum potential
gradient.
71
Electrical
surface soil
resistivity
The resistance of the upper layer of soil in a ground-grid area.
transfer potential
The relocation of a hazardous potential from a ground-grid area

to outside points.
touch potential
The potential difference between a grounded metallic structure

and a point on the earth's surface separated by a distance equal to
the normal maximum horizontal reach (approximately one
meter).
ungrounded
A system, circuit, or apparatus without an intentional connection

to ground except through potential indicating or measuring
devices or other very high impedance devices.
voltage to ground
The voltage between any live conductor of a circuit and the

earth.
zig zag transformers
A special grounding transformer that has two-phase windings on

each core leg.
zone of influence
The potential gradient outside of the site.
72

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Design And Application

For additional information on this subject, contact

Locating System Grounding Information.......................................................... 1

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

LOCATING SYSTEM GROUNDING INFORMATION

Saudi Aramco Design Practices (SADP's)

Saudi Aramco Design Practices

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco Design Practices (Cont'd)

the corrosion that is associated with grounding.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco Design Practices (Cont'd)

SADP-P-111 Table of Contents

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco Design Practices (Cont'd)

that have an effect on communication systems.

after the ground grid has been installed.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco Engineering Standards (Cont'd)

for the design of a ground system.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Standards (IEEE) (Cont'd)

dangers that must be considered during grounding system design.

that can pass through the human body.

the body becomes an accidental ground circuit.

ground system to prevent electrical shocks:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Standards (IEEE) (Cont'd)

IEEE 80 Table of Contents

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Standards (IEEE) (Cont'd)

for use in ground grid design.

installed grounding system.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Standards (IEEE) (Cont'd)

The measurement of the resistance and the impedance to earth of

Scale-model tests for a laboratory determination of the ground

The measurement of earth resistivity.

advantages and disadvantages of grounded versus ungrounded systems. This section

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Standards (IEEE) (Cont'd)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

National Electrical Code (Cont'd)

Part A, General Requirement

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

BASIS FOR INSTALLATION OF SYSTEM GROUNDS IN SAUDI ARAMCO

Electrical Shock Avoidance

Electrical Shock Avoidance

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Electrical Shock Avoidance (Cont'd)

IEEE Standard, 80 "IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

IEEE Standard 399, "IEEE Recommended Practice for Power System

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

ISA Monograph 110, "Electrical Safety Practices," Chapter on "Human

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

IEEE Std. 242 - 1986 Protection and Coordination of Industrial and

National Electrical Code - 1990- Article 250.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Electrical Noise Control

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards