UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Steet, Oxford OX2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department ofthe University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York ‘Auckland CapeTown DaresSalaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile CzechRepublic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford isa registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States bby Oxford University Press Inc, New York © Michele Maggiore 2008 ‘The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2008, All rights reserved. No par ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization, Enguiris concerning reproduction culsde the scope of the above shouldbe sent othe Rights Department, Oxford University Press tthe address above ‘You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover, and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Printed in Great Britain ‘on acid-free paper by Anthony Rowe, Cippenhamn ISBN 978-0-19-857074-S (Hbk) 10987654321Gravitational Waves Volume 1 Theory and Experiments Michele Maggiore Département de Physique Théorique Université de Geneve OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSA Maura, Sara, Ilaria e LorenzoContents Notation xvi Part I: Gravitational-wave theory 1 1 The geometric approach to GWs 3 1.1 Expansion around flat space 4 1.2 The transverse-traceless galige T 1.3 Interaction of GWs with test masses 13 1.3.1 Geodesic equation dnd geodesic deviation 13 1.3.2 Local inertial frames and freely falling frames 15 13.3 TT frame and proper detector frame 17 14 The energy of GWs 26 14.1 Separation of GWs from the background 7 14.2 How GWs curve the background 29 1.4.3 The energy-momentum tensor of GWs 35 1.5 Propagation in curved space-time 40 1.5.1 Geometric optics in curved space 42 1.5.2 Absorption and scabtering of GWs 46 1.6 Solved problems 48 1.1. Linearization of the Riemann tensor in curved space 48 1.2. Gauge transformation of hy. and RY 49 Further reading | 51 2. The field-theoretical approach to GWs 52 2.1 Linearized gravity as a classical field theory 53 2.1.1 Noether’s theo 53 2.1.2 The energy-momentum tensor of GWs 58 2.1.3 The angular momentum of GWs. 61 22 Gravitons 66 2.2.1 Why a spin-2 field? 66 2.2.2 The Pauli-Fierz action 70 2.2.3. From gravitons to gravity 74 224 Bifectve field theories and the Planck scale 79 2.3 Massive gravitons a1 2.3.1 Phenomenological hounds 82 2.3.2 Field theory of madsive gravitons 84 24 Solved problems 95 2.1. The helicity of gravitons 95 2.2. Angular momentum and parity of graviton states 98 Further reading ' 100 perereviii Contents 3 Generation of GWs in linearized theory 31 3.2 3.3 3.6 Weak-field sources with arbitrary velocity Low-velocity expansion Mass quadrupole radiation 3.3.1 Amplitude and angular distribution Radiated energy Radiated angular momentum Radiation reaction on non-relativistic sources 3.3.5 Radiation from a closed system of point masses Mass octupole and current quadrupole Systematic multipole expansion 3.5.1 Symmetric-trace-free (STF) form 2. Spherical tensor form Solved problems 3.1. Quadrupole radiation from an oscillating mass 3.2. Quadrupole radiation from a mass in cireular orbit 3.3, Mass octupole and current quadrupole radiation from a mass in circular orbit 3.4. Decomposition of S* into irreducible representations of SO(3) 3.5. Computation of f dQ (THe) t nin ish Further reading 4 Applications 41 43 44 4.5 Inspiral of compact binaries 4.11 Circular orbits. The chirp amplitude 4.1.2 Elliptic orbits. (I) Total power and frequency spectrum of the radiation emitted 4.1.3. Elliptic orbits. (IT) Evolution of the orbit under back-reaction 4.14 Binaries at cosmological distances Radiation from rotating rigid bodies 4.2.1 GWs from rotation around a principal axis 4.2.2. GWs from freely precessing rigid bodies Radial infall into a black hole 4.3.1 Radiation from an infalling point-like mass 4.3.2 Tidal disruption of a real star falling into a black hole. Coherent and incoherent radiation Radiation from accelerated masses 4.4.1 GWs produced in elastic collisions 4.4.2 Lack of beaming of GWs from accelerated masses Solved problems 4.1. Fourier transform of the chirp signal 4.2. Fourier decomposition of elliptic Keplerian motion Further readingContents ix 5 GW generation by post-Newtonian sources 236 5.1 The post-Newtonian expansion 237 5.1.1 Slowly moving, weakly self-gravitating sources 237 5.12 PN expansion of Binsteih equations 239 5.1.3 Newtonian limit 240 5.14 The 1PN order 242 5.1.5 Motion of test particles in the PN metric 245 5.1.6 Difficulties of the PN expansion 247 5.1.7 ‘The effect of back-reactipn 249 5.2. The relaxed Einstein equations 250 53. The Blanchet-Damour approach 253 5.3.1 Post-Minkowskian expansion outside the source 253 5.3.2 PN expansion in the near region 259 5.3.3 Matching of the solutiols 263 5.3.4 Radiative fields at infinity 266 Radiation reaction | 275 54 The DIRE approach i 279 5.5 Strong-field sources and the efficement principle 282 5.6 Radiation from inspiraling compact binaries 289 5.6.1 ‘The need for a very high-order computation 290 5.6.2 The 3.5PN equations of|motion 202 5.6.3 Energy flux and orbital phase to 3.5PN order 294 5.64 The waveform | 296 Further reading 299 Experimental observation of GW emission in compact binaries i 302 6.1 The Hulse~Taylor binary pulsat! 302 6.2 The pulsar timing formula | 305 6.2.1 Pulsars as stable clocks 305 6.22 Roemer, Shapiro and Bhstcn time delays 306 6.2.3 Relativistic corrections for binary pulsars 34 6.3. The double pulsar, and more cdmpact binaries 326 Further reading 331 art II: Gravitational-wave experiments 333 Data analysis techniques i 335 } 7.1 The noise spectral density | 35 72 Pattern functions and angular gens 339 } 7.3. Matched filtering | 343 74 Probability and statistics 346 7.4.1 Frequentist and Bayesidn approaches 346 7.4.2 Parameters estimation | 350 7.4.3 Matched filtering statistics 356 75 Bursts | 361 7.5.1 Optimal signal-to-noise| ratio 361x Contents 7.5.2 'Time-frequency analysis, 7.5.3 Coincidences 7.6 Periodic sources 7.6.1 Amplitude modulation 7.6.2 Doppler shift and phase modulation 7.6.3 Efficient search algorithms 7.7 Coalescence of compact binaries 7.7.1 Elimination of extrinsic variables 7.7.2 The sight distance to coalescing binaries 7.8 Stochastic backgrounds 7.8.1 Characterization of stochastic backgrounds 7.8.2 SNR for single detectors 7.83 Two-detector correlation Further reading Resonant-mass detectors 8.1 The interaction of GWs with an elastic body 8.1.1 The response to bursts 8.1.2 The response to periodic signals 8.1.3 The absorption cross-section 8.2 The read-out system: how to measure extremely small displacements 8.2.1 The double oscillator 8.2.2 Resonant transducers 8.3 Noise sources 8.3.1 Thermal noise 8.3.2 Read-out noise and effective temperature 8.3.3 Back-action noise and the quantum limit 8.3.4 Quantum non-demolition measurements 8.3.5 Experimental sensitivities 8.4 Resonant spheres 8.4.1 The interaction of a sphere with GWs 8.4.2 Spheres as multi-mode detectors Further reading Interferometers 9.1 A simple Michelson interferometer 9.1.1 The interaction with GWs in the TT gauge 9.1.2 ‘The interaction in the proper detector frame 9.2 Interferometers with Fabry-Perot cavities 9.2.1 Electromagnetic fields in a FP cavity 9.2.2 Interaction of a FP cavity with GWs 9.2.3. Angular sensitivity and pattern functions 9.3 Toward a real GW interferometer 9.3.1 Diffraction and Gaussian beams Detection at the dark fringe Basic optical layout Controls and locking9.4 Noise sources 9.4.1 Shot noise 9.4.2 Radiation pressure 9.4.3. The standard quantum limit 9.44 Displacement noise 9.5 Existing and planned detectors 9.5.1 Initial interferometers 9.5.2 Advanced interferometer Further reading Bibliography Index 515 516 519 522 524 528 528 532 535 537 549 Contents xiPreface The physics of gravitational waves is in @ very special period. At the time of writing (2007) various gravitational-wave detectors, after decades of developments, have reached a sensitivity where there are significant Bances of detection, and future improverhents are expected to lead, in few years, to advanced detectors with even better sensitivities. As a result of these experimental efforts, there are good reasons to hope the next decade will witness the direct detection of gravitational wves and the opening of the field of gravitational-wave astronomy and, bly, cosmology. Stimulated by this intense experimental activity, there has also been in parallel a vigorous theoretical effort. We now un- derstand much better many potentially interesting mechanisms for the production of gravitational waves, both in astrophysics and in cosmol- ated to the production of gravitational waves by self-gravitating sys- toms (such as coalescing binaries) have bgen solved. For these reasons, is now appropriate to attempt a summary of the knowledge that has ulated over the last few decades. The theory of gravitational waves is a rich subject that brings to- her different domains such as general relativity, field theory, astro- hysics, and cosmology. The experimental side is as rich, with extra- ordinary techniques that nowadays allow us to obtain sensitivities that, ttuitively, might seem totally out of reach. For instance, one can now onitor the length L of the two arms ofan interferometer (with L ~ afew kms), detecting a relative displacement AL many orders of mag- itude smaller than the size of a nucleus; or one can detect vibrations srresponding to just a few tens of phonots, in a resonant-mass detector hich weights several tons. The aim of this book is to bring the reader to e forefront of present-day research, both theoretical and experimental, uming no previous knowledge of gravitational-wave physics. “Part I of this volume is devoted to the theory of gravitational waves s). Here we assume an elementary knowledge of general relativ- ; Typically, we recall the most important notions when we use them; theless, it should be borne in mind that this is not a textbook on. eneral relativity. In some sections, we also require some knowledge of eld theory; in some cases, e.g. for the Ndether theorem, we recall them some detail. ‘We have attempted to rederive afresh and in a coherent way all the ts that we present, trying to clarify or streamline the existing deriva- ons whenever possible. Throughout this book, we try to go into sufxiv 1Dhe exception to this rule will be Chapter 5, on the post-Newtonian gen- eration of GWs. Here the computa- tions are so long that they sometimes required years of work by highly spe- cialized teams. In this case, we explain in detail the basie principles, we per- form explicitly some lowest-order com- putation, and then we quote the final high-order results, ficient detail, and we do our best to avcid standard sentences like “it can be shown that...” or, even worse, “it is easy to show that...”, unless what is left to the reader is really only straightforward algebra.! In order not to burden the main text too much with details, some more technical issues are collected into a “Solved problems” section at the end of some chapters, where we present the relevant calculations in all details. The theory of gravitational waves is a domain where two different traditions meet: one more geometrical, where one uses the language of general relativity, and one more field-theoretical, where one uses the lan- guage of classical and even quantum field theory. This is due to the fact, that, at the fundamental level, linearized gravity is just the field theory of a massless particle, the graviton. At this level, the most appropriate language is that of field theory. However, at the macroscopic level the collective excitations of the gravitational field are described in terms of a metric, and here the geometric language of general relativity becomes ‘the most appropriate. Between these two description there is no real conceptual tension and, in fact, they complement each other very well The field-theoretical point of view often gives a better understanding of some issues of principle; for example, the problem of what is the en- ergy carried by GWs, which in the past has been surrounded by some confusion, can be answered using the Noether theorem, a typical tool of classical field theory, and is further illuminated looking at it from the point of view of quantum feld theory. On the other hand, for example, the interaction of GWs with detectors is much more easily understood using the geometric language of general relativity, making use of tools such as the equation of the geodesic deviation. We will therefore make use of both languages, depending on the situation, and we will often try to discuss the most important conceptual problems from both vantage points. Part II of this volume is devoted to a description of experimental GW physics. We discuss in great detail both resonant-mass detectors and interferometric detectors. The former belong to “small-scale” science, with experimental groups sometimes as small as half a dozen people, and limited needs for funding. They have been important historically for the development of the field, and they are remarkable instruments by themselves, with their ability to detect variation in the length L of a bar at the level AL/L ~ 1078 or better, corresponding, for a bar of length L = 3 m, to about 10-5 fm. Interferometers rather belong to “Big Science”, with collaborations of hundreds of people, and costs of several hundreds millions of euros. At their present sensitivity, interferometers are by now the main actors on the experimental scene, and give us out best chances for detection, while advanced interferometers, planned for the near future, have an extraordinary potential for discoveries. We will also devote a chapter to data analysis for GWs, which is quite a crucial issue, This is also a domain where the interaction between theorists and experimentalists has been very fruitful, since in many instances (in particular for coalescing binary systems) the theoretical predictions ofwaveform are crucial for extracting a real GW signal from a noisy or. A second volume, dedicated to astropliysical and cosmological sources, currently in preparation, and I expect to complete it in a few more . The logic underlying this division is that Vol. 1 presents the pols, theoretical and experimental, of GW physics, while Vol. 2 will cribe what can we learn about Nature, in astrophysics and in cos- logy, using these tools. An Exrrata web page will be maintained at ,/ (theory. physics. unige.ch/“ maggiofe/home.html nally, a comment about the bibliography. Relevant papers are (and sometimes commented oy in a Further Reading section i the end of each chapter, The principle that guided me in choosing hem is rot historical accuracy. Considering that I am summarizing de- opments that took place along many decades, at least from the 1960s, beyond my competence to give a detailed account of who did what, d who did it first. Rather, the papers that I quote are the ones that usider interesting reading today, and which I recommend for learn- more about the subject. A number of these references will however ide the reader with a more accurate guide through the historical opment of the field. nowledgments rious people have read and commented on some draft chapters. While, fiously, they are not responsible for any statement in the book, I wish press them my gratitude. In particular, Alessandra Buonanno used raft of the book in a graduate course at the University of Maryland, provided very useful feedback. Thibault Damour made remarkably eful comments on Chapters 3, 5 and 6, and Luc Blanchet on Chap- 5. The field-theoretical chapter greatly benefited from comments Iberto Nicolis and Arkady Vainshtein, while Joel Weisberg made ‘useful comments on the chapter on binary pulsars. The experi- ital part benefited from a very careful reading by Massimo Bassan Massimo Cerdonio, and from many discussions with Eugenio Coc- For reading and commenting on the chapter on interferometers, I grateful to Carlo Bradaschia, Giancarlo Cella, Michele Punturo and Saulson. Useful comments on the book also came from Viviana ne and Carlo Ungarelli. Members ofthe experimental collaborations id figures with sensitivities and pictures of the various detectors. v Lyne, John Taylor and Joel Weisberg authorized the repro- of their figures in the chapter on pulsars. Last but not least, rian Dubath, Stefano Foffa, Hillary Sanctuary and Riccardo Sturani it through large parts of the book, and gave many useful suggestions. Iso wish to thank Sonke Adlung a the staff of Oxford University for their competent and friendly help. Geneva, June 2007 Preface xvNotation Constants and units. The Planck constant h and the speed of light care normally written explicitly. Occasionally there are sections where we use units i = c = 1, but in this case the use of these units is always stated at the beginning of the section. The Newton constant G is always written explicitly, and we never set G = 1. The solar mass is denoted by Mo. Indices, metric signature, four-vectors. Greek indices, such as 0, ,... OF py¥,..., take the values 0,...,3, while spatial indices are denoted by Latin letters, i, j, 1,2,3. The totally antisymmetrie tensor e#¥?? has 913 — +1. The flat space metric is Nw = (yt +)4) This is nowadays the most common choice in general relativity, while the: opposite signature is the most common choice in quantum field theory and particle physics. We also define (x°,x) = (: 4,0.) , dtx = dx’ x = cdtdx. A dot denotes the time derivative, so f(t) = &f = cof. Contrary: to widespread use in the literature on general relativity, we never use! commas to denote derivatives (nor semicolons to denote covariant deriv atives) The four-momentum is p* = (E/c,p), 80 put” = —Et + px, and d‘p = (1/c)dEd°p. Repeated upper and lower indices are summed over. When we have only spatial indices we do not need to be careful about raising and lowering of the indices since, with our choice of signature, the spatial metric is J... Then we will also sum over repeated lower spatial indices or over repeated upper spatial indices. In Section 3.5.1 and in Chapter 5, where we study the multipole expan- sion to all orders, we use a multi-index notation where a tensor with l im dices iyi... i) is labeled simply using a capital letter L, so FL = Firis..i4 Various conventions related to this notation are explained on page 134. There, we also used the notation f()(u) = d"f/du” to denote the n-th’ derivative with respect to retarded time, Riemann and Ricci tensor, Einstein equations. Our conventions on the metric signature, Riemann tensor, etc. are the same as Misner,and Wheeler (1973). We denote the curved space-time metric ‘Qu(z) and its determinant by g (so g < 0). The Christoffel symbol Th = | 2, = 59" (Oydou + WGou — Riemann tensor is defined as | Ph vay = OpPK, ~ ATH, $PHATS, — THLE,» Ricci tensor is Ray = R®,ov, and| the Ricci scalar is R = g!” Ruv. energy-momentum tensor T"” is defined from the variation of the iter action Say under a change of the metric guy > Qu + SGuy ling to 65y = 5 | tevat™ bo | Einstein equations read | Sn uc ‘ier transform. Our conventions on the n-dimensional Fourier rm are | Fal- fy . awe Fs Jecrine™. | our choice of metric signature this implies that, for a function of r= [SF we, Pw) =f. dt F(te" Dirac delta satisfies | 1 Ru — 59 R= 5 Tw f @xeit® =p, particular [ue