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There are various units followed for pressure. They are given below.
1 bar
Pa
1 Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure
=
=
=
=
10 5 N / m 2
1N/m2
1.013 x 10 5 N / m 2
760 mm of Hg
1mm of Hg
1N/m2
=
=
1013 x 10 2 / 760
760 / 1013 x10 2
=
=
133.3 N / m 2
7.5 x 10 -3 mm of Hg
736 mm of Hg
pabs = patm
pg
* Normal temperature and pressure ( NTP ): Normal temperature and pressure refers to the
conditions of atmospheric pressure at 760 mm of Hg and 20 C
Standard temperature and pressure (STP): STP refers that the temperature and pressure of any
gas in standard atmospheric pressure are taken at 760 mm of Hg and 0 C.
2. Fahrenheit scale
(ii)
(iii) Thermocouple:
A few thermocouple metal pairs that are commonly used for temperature measurements are Iron
Constantan, Copper Constantan, Chromel Alumel, Platinum/Platinum rhodium etc.
(iv) Pyrometers:
1.3.4 FORCE:
1.3.5 ENERGY:
A capacity to do work is called energy. Energy may be given in two forms: a) Stored
energy, b) Transit energy
Stored energy:
Transit energy:
Kinetic energy:
Potential energy:
Flow energy:
Energy is a thermodynamic property of system. The energy is a point function and the value of it
depends on the end states only and not on the path by which the change of state occurs in a process.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY:
Concepts Of Thermodynamics :
Thermodynamic system:
Boundary
Surroundings
Boundary
System
System
Gas filled in a vessel
Closed system
Open system
Isolated system
Closed system: A system, which has a fixed mass in it and allows only energy transfer in to the
system and out of the system, is referred as closed system.
Open system:
Isolated system:
Thermodynamic Properties:
Thermodynamic property is classified in to two types:
1. Intensive property 2. Extensive property
Intensive property:
Extensive property:
State:
Change of state:
Thermodynamic Process:
Path:
Thermodynamic cycle:
Equilibrium:
Mechanical Equilibrium:.
Chemical equilibrium:
Thermal equilibrium:
Thermodynamic equilibrium:
Reversible process
It is defined as a process, which proceeds in such a manner that the system remains ,
almost close to an equilibrium state at all time . It is also called quasi static process: It is shown in
Fig 1.13.
2
Equilibrium states
Fig 1.13
1.3.6 WORK :
In thermodynamics, the work done by the system is considered as positive work transfer. The work
done on the system is considered as negative work transfer.
There are a few forms of work transfer considered in thermodynamics. They are given below:
1. Displacement work 2. Shaft work 3. Electrical work 4. Paddle wheel work 5. Flow work 6.
Work done of a stretching wire
7. Work done in changing the area of surface film 8.
Magnetization of paramagnetic solid 9. Free expansion
Form of work
Compression or
expansion work
Shaft work
Electrical work
Flow work
Magnetic work
Surface tension
Paddle wheel work
Work in a
stretching wire
Work
Torque
Electric field
pressure
Magnetic field
Surface tension
Torque
Rotation
Polarization
Volume
Magnetic moment
Peripheral area
Change in volume
Stress
Strain
- AL2 / 2
1.3.7 HEAT :
It is a form of energy in transit, which occurs due to the temperature difference between
two points in a substance or a body. Heat can be transferred across the boundary only when a
system at a higher-level temperature to a system at a lower level temperature. It can never happen
in the reverse direction by nature. This contrary will be discussed in the Second law of
thermodynamics. Heat is measured in Joules or Kilo Joules. Heat can only be sensed due to the
temperature difference. Heat can be transferred by any of the following modes:
(i) Conduction (ii) Convection (iii) Radiation
1) Conduction:
It is the transfer of heat within a body or more than a body by the physical contact but in the
absence of fluid motion. Example for conduction is a metal rod heated up at one end by an external
source of heat. Heat is transferred from the source end to the other end of the rod by movement of
molecules from one end to the other end.
2) Convection:
It is the transfer of heat within a fluid or gas or between two mediums by the motion of
molecules from one region to another region. Water heated up in a vessel is an example for
convection heat transfer.
3) Radiation :
It is the transfer of heat from hot body to cold body by movement particles in the space or
between gas mediums.
1.3.7.1 Heat may be classified into two forms :
1. Sensible heat
2. Latent heat
1. Sensible heat:
2. Latent heat :
Three types of latent heat are: a) Latent heat of melting or fusion b) Latent heat of freezing or
sublimation c) Latent heat of vaporization or evaporation
1.3.7.2 Specific heat capacity:
The values of specific heat for heating and cooling the gas may be taken in two ways :
1) Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)
2) Specific heat at constant volume (Cv) .
It is to be noted that the Cp value is always greater than Cv.
Specific heat at constant pressure ( Cp ):
Specific heat at constant pressure ( Cv ):
1.3.7.2 Molar specific heats of gases :
1.4 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
[Qalgebraic] = [Walgebraic ]
cycleQ = cycleW
Qb
Qa
System
Wa
Boundary
Wb
Fig 1.22
Reversible
Irreversible
Fig 1.24
Flow Process
Fig 1.25
Steady flow
Process
Unsteady
flow process
Isochori
c
Constant
Pressure
Constant
Temperature
Process
Process
Isobari
c
Isothermal
Hyperbolic
Reversible
Adiabatic
Process
Polytropic
Process
Process
Isentropi
c
Fig 1.26
2
P/T = Constant
P/T
= P1/T1
= P2/T2
1
V
= m RT
V/T = Constant
V/T
V1/T1
= V2/T2
P
V
Fig 1.29
1.4.2.4 Reversible Adiabatic process:
1. P-V-T relationship:
We know that the general gas equation is
PV = m RT
pV = Constant
P1V1 = P2V2
pV =
pV = Constant
Work
transfer W1-2
V
1. P-V-T relationship:
We know that the general gas equation is
PV
m RT
pV n = Constant
pV n =
P1V1n =
pV n = Constant
p2V2n
It is important to note that the sign conversions for heat and work should be carefully followed
in case of heating or expansion and cooling or compression of gases. The expansion of gases is
considered to be positive work and cooling of gas is considered as negative work. Similarly the
expansion or heating of gas in which positive heat transfer is considered whereas cooling or
compression of gas is negative heat transfer.
1) Boiler : Boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is generated by adding heat to water. Boiler is
assumed as a steady flow heat absorbing system.
Assumptions made :
1. No work transfer (W = 0)
2. Change in kinetic energy is negligible
3. Change in potential energy is negligible
2)Evaporator:
3) Condenser :
4) Turbine :
5) Rotary compressor:
6) Reciprocating compressor :
7) Steam nozzle
P-V
P-T
Process
relationship
Constant
volume
process
P/T = C
( Isochoric
)
Constant
pressure
process
(Isobaric)
Reversible
adiabatic
process
in
internal
energy
transfer
in
enthalpy
diagram
m Cv T
m Cv
m Cp T
P
2
V
P/T = P1/T1
= P2/T2
V/T = C
V/T = V1/T1 P (V2- V1)
=
V2/T2
m Cv T
m Cp T
m Cp T
2.3 P1V1
log10
(V2/V1 )
pV = C
pV = p1V
1
2.3 P1V1
log10
(V2/V1 )
m Cv T
1
2
P
2
T
m Cv
T
1
2
V
P
[ P2V2 P1V1 ] / (1)
2
T
2.3 P1V1
log10
(V2/V1 )
2.3 P1V1
log10
(V2/V1 )
pV = C
pV = p1V1
= pV2
= pV
Diagram
Constant
Temperatu pV = C
re process pV = p1V1
= pV2
(Isotherma
l)
Hyperboli
c process
transfer
1
2
m Cp T
V
P
2
T
Polytropic
process
PVn = C
PVn = p1V
1
= pV
2
m Cv
T
1
m Cp T P
2
V
Problem 1:
A system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle . Four processes are involved in the cycle. The values
of work transfer , heat transfer and internal energy in each process are tabulated in the table . Find
rate of work. Check the work and heat transfer follows first law.
Thermodynamic
process
A-B
B-C
C-D
Work transfer
KJ / min
250
-800
-600
Change in internal
energy kJ / min
-400
Heat transfer
KJ / min
300
-200
D-A
---
100
50
Process A- B :
Q A- B =
300
=
U A- B
W A- B + U A- B
250 + U
=
50 kJ/min
Process B - C :
Q B- C =
Q B- C
Q B- C
W B - C+ U B-C
=
-800 +400
=
-400 kJ/min
Process C - D :
Q C-D =
200
=
U
=
W C - D + U C - D
-600 +U C - D
800 kJ/min
Process D - A :
Q D-A =
50
=
W
=
W D - A + U D - A
W +100
-50 kJ/min
Thermodynamic cycle : Q
Qalgebric = Walgebric
Q A-B + Q B-C + Q C-D + QD-A
300 400+200 + 50
H
H
=
=
1 x 1.036 x (-40)
-41.44 kJ/mole
0.5 kg;
100 + 273 = 373 K;
p
T2
=
=
40 + 273 = 313 K;
1 bar = 1 x 10 5 N/m2;
m
=
1 kg;
p2 = 10 bar = 10 x 10 5 N/ m2 ;
POLYTROPIC PROCESS:
Problem 5:
1 kg of air at a pressure of 7 bar and a temperature of 363 K undergoes a reversible
polytropic process which may be represented by p v 1. 1 = constant. The final pressure is 1.4 bar.
Evaluate a) the final specific volume, temperature . b) the work done and the heat transfer during
the process. Assume R = 287 J/Kg K and = 1.4.
Given:
T1
p1
R
n
=
=
=
=
363 K;
7 bar = 7 x 10 5 N/m2 ;
287 J/Kg K;
1.1.
p2
=
=
=
1Kg;
1.4;
1.4 bar = 1.4 x 10 5 N/m2 ;
Problem 6:
A steam turbine in a steam power plant receives steam at 40 bar. The specific enthalpy and
specific volume of steam at inlet of turbine are 3214 kJ/kg and 0.07m3/kg, respectively. Steam after
expanding on turbine has the pressure at exit of 35 bar. The enthalpy and volume of steam are
3202.6 kJ/Kg and 0.084 m3/Kg, respectively. If the steam is carried in a 0.2m diameter pipe the heat
loss in the pipeline is 8.5 kJ/Kg. Calculate the mass flow rate of steam.
Given:
p1
v1
h2
Q
=
=
=
=
40 bar;
0.073 m3/kg;
3202.6KJ/kg;
8.5 kJ/kg.
h1
p2
v2
=
=
=
3214 kJ/kg;
35 bar;
0.084 m3/Kg;
Problem 7:
Air enters a compressor with a velocity of 60m/s, pressure of 100 kpa, temperature of 40 C and
leaves the compressor with a velocity of 90m/s, pressure of 500 kpa, temperature of 120 C .
Consider the system is adiabatic. Find the power of the motor for a mass rate of flow of 40 kg/min.
Write the assumptions made.
Given:
V1
T1
p2
m
=
=
=
=
60m/s;
p1
=
313 K;
V2
500 kpa = 500 x 1000 N/ m2 ; T2
40 kg/min=0.66 kg/s.
Problem 8:
Air is compressed from 100 kpa and at 22 C to a pressure of 1Mpa while being cooled at
the rate of 16kJ/kg by circulating the water through the compressor casing. The volume flow rate
of air inlet condition is 150m3/min and the power input to the compressor is 500Kw. Determine
Mass flow rate. b) Temperature of air exit. Neglect the datum head.
Given:
p1
=
q
=
w
=
100 kpa;
16 kJ/s;
-500 kw;
p2
v1
T1
=
=
=
1Mpa;
150 m3/min =2.5m3/s;
22 + 273 = 295K.
Problem 9:
Steam enters an adiabatic turbine at 10Mpa and 500 oC at the rate of 3 kg/s and leaves at
50Kpa. If the power output of the turbine is 2Mw, determine the temperature of steam at exit of
turbine. Neglect the kinetic energy changes.
Given:
P1
=
m
=
w
=
10Mpa = 10 x 10 6 N/m2;
3 kg/s;
p2
2Mw = 2 x 10 3Kw.
T1
=
=
500 + 273 = 773 K;
50 kpa = 50 x 10 3 N/m2;
Problem 10:
A steady flow system in which 1 kg/s of air at 20C and consumes a power of 15 kw. The
inlet and outlet velocities of air are 100 m/s and 150 m/s respectively. Find the exit of air
temperature, assuming adiabatic conditions. Take the cp of air is 1.005 kJ/Kg K.
Given:
T1
=
V1
=
20 + 273 = 293 K;
100 m/s;
w
V2
=
=
15 kw;
150 m/s;
Problem 11:
In an heat exchanger, oil is cooled from 90 oC to 30oC. Water is used to cool the oil. Inlet
temperature of water is 25 oC and the outlet temperature is 70oC. The enthalpies of oil and water at
inlet and outlet conditions are given below.
Water : hinlet = 593.64 kJ/kg; houtlet = 699.77 kJ/kg;
Oil
: hoilin = 748.19 kJ/kg;
hoilout = 605.43 kJ/kg;
Calculate the mass flow rate of water required to cool the oil for cooling 2.78 kg/s of oil ?
Given:
Tw1
=
25 + 273=298 K;
Tw2
=
90 + 273=363 K;
Toil1 =
70 + 273=343 K;
Toil2 =
30 + 273=303 K;
moil
=
2.78 kg/s.
12.
13.
When a system is taken from state l to state m, in Fig., along path lqm, 168 kJ of heat flows into the system, and
the system does 64 kJ of work :
(i) How much will be the heat that flows into the system along path lnm if the work done is 21 kJ?
(ii) When the system is returned from m to l along the curved path, the work done on the system is 42 kJ. Does
the system absorb or liberate heat, and how much of the heat is absorbed or liberated?
(iii) If Ul = 0 and Un = 84 kJ, find the heat absorbed in the processes ln and nm.
Qlqm = 168 kJ
Wlqm = 64 kJ
We have, Qlqm = (Um Ul) + Wlqm
168 = (Um Ul) + 64
Um Ul = 104 kJ. (Ans.)
(i) Qlnm = (Um Ul) + Wlnm
= 104 + 21
= 125 kJ. (Ans.)
(ii) Qml = (Ul Um) + Wml
= 104 + ( 42)
= 146 kJ. (Ans.)
The system liberates 146 kJ.
(iii) Wlnm = Wln + Wnm
= Wlm = 21 kJ
[Wnm = 0, since volume does not change.]
Qln = (Un Ul) + Wln
= (84 0) + 21
= 105 kJ. (Ans.)
Now Qlmn = 125 kJ = Qln + Qnm
Qnm = 125 Qln
= 125 105
= 20 kJ. (Ans.)
A stone of 20 kg mass and a tank containing 200 kg water comprise a system. The stone is 15 m above the water
level initially. The stone and water are at the same temperature initially. If the stone falls into water, then
determine U, PE, KE, Q and W, when
(i) The stone is about to enter the water,
(ii) The stone has come to rest in the tank, and
(iii) The heat is transferred to the surroundings in such an amount that the stone and water come to their initial
temperature.
Mass of stone = 20 kg
Mass of water in the tank = 200 kg
Height of stone above water level = 15 m
Applying the first law of thermodynamics,
14.
(ii) When the stone dips into the tank and comes to rest
Q = 0, W = 0, KE = 0
Substituting these values in eqn. (1), we get
0 = U + 0 + PE + 0
U = PE = ( 2943) = 2943 J. (Ans.)
This shows that the internal energy (temperature) of the system increases.
(iii) When the water and stone come to their initial temperature,
W = 0, KE = 0
Substituting these values in eqn. (1), we get
Q = U = 2943 J. (Ans.)
The negative sign shows that the heat is lost from the system to the surroundings.
A fluid system, contained in a piston and cylinder machine, passes through a complete cycle of four processes.
The sum of all heat transferred during a cycle is 340 kJ. The system completes 200 cycles per min. Complete
the following table showing the method for each item, and compute the net rate of work output in kW.
Process
Q (kJ/min)
12
0
23
42000
34
4200
41
W (kJ/min)
4340
0
E (kJ/min)
73200
W (kJ/min)
4340
0
69000
141340
E (kJ/min)
4340
42000
73200
35540
15.
[1 Nm = 1 J]
16.
= 0.906 m3
U = 3.64 (100 103 0.906 500 103 0.25) J
= 3.64 105 (0.906 5 0.25) J
= 3.64 105 0.344 J = 125.2 kJ
i.e., U = 125.2 kJ. (Ans.)
For a quasi-static process
17.
[1 Pa = 1 N/m2]
= 137.6 kJ
Q = U + W
= 125.2 + 137.6
= 12.4 kJ
i.e., Q = 12.4 kJ. (Ans.)
(ii) Here Q = 32 kJ
Since the end states are the same, U would remain the same as in (i)
W = Q U = 32 ( 125.2) = 157.2 kJ. (Ans.)
(iii) The work in (ii) is not equal to p dV since the process is not quasi-static.
0.2 m3 of air at 4 bar and 130C is contained in a system. A reversible adiabatic expansion takes place till the
pressure falls to 1.02 bar. The gas is then heated at constant pressure till enthalpy increases by 72.5 kJ. Calculate :
(i) The work done ;
(ii) The index of expansion, if the above processes are replaced by a single reversible polytropic process giving
the same work between the same initial and final states.
Take cp = 1 kJ/kg K, cv = 0.714 kJ/kg K.
Also
= 0.53 m3
= 272.7 K
Mass of the gas,
where, R = (cp cv) = (1 0.714) kJ/kg K
= 0.286 kJ/kg K
= 286 J/kg K or 286 Nm/kg K
18.
n = 1.062
Hence, value of index = 1.062. (Ans.)
A cylinder contains 0.45 m3 of a gas at 1 105 N/m2 and 80C. The gas is compressed to a volume of 0.13 m 3, the
final pressure being 5 105 N/m2. Determine :
(i) The mass of gas ;
(ii) The value of index n for compression ;
(iii) The increase in internal energy of the gas ;
(iv) The heat received or rejected by the gas during compression.
Take = 1.4, R = 294.2 J/kgC.
Initial volume of gas, V1 = 0.45 m3
Initial pressure of gas, p1 = 1 105 N/m2
Initial temperature, T1 = 80 + 273 = 353 K
Final volume after compression, V2 = 0.13 m3
The final pressure, p2 = 5 105 N/m2.
(i) To find mass m using the relation
(3.46)n = 5
Taking log on both sides, we get
n loge 3.46 = loge 5
n = loge 5/loge 3.46 = 1.296. (Ans.)
(iii) In a polytropic process,
19.
(iii) Net work done and heat transferred during the cycle. Assume
cp = 14.3 kJ/kg K and cv = 10.2 kJ/kg K.
Given: V1 = 0.1 m3 ; T1 = 300 K ; p1 = 1 bar ; cp = 14.3 kJ/kg K ; cv = 10.2 kJ/kg K.
(i) Pressure at the end of constant volume cooling, p3:
= 544.5 K
Considering process 31, we have
p3V3 = p1V1
(ii) Change in internal energy during constant volume process, (U3 U2) :
Mass of gas,
20.
ve sign means heat has been rejected i.e., lost from the system. (Ans.)
10 kg of fluid per minute goes through a reversible steady flow process. The properties of fluid at the inlet are: p1
= 1.5 bar, 1 = 26 kg/m3, C1 = 110 m/s and u1 = 910 kJ/kg and at the exit are p2 = 5.5 bar, 2 = 5.5 kg/m3, C2 = 190
m/s and u2 = 710 kJ/kg. During the passage, the fluid rejects 55 kJ/s and rises through 55 metres. Determine :
(i) The change in specific enthalpy ( h) ;
(ii) Work done during the process (W).
Flow of fluid = 10 kg/min
Properties of fluid at the inlet :
Pressure, p1 = 1.5 bar = 1.5 105 N/m2
Density, 1 = 26 kg/m3
Velocity, C1 = 110 m/s
Internal energy, u1 = 910 kJ/kg
Properties of the fluid at the exit :
Pressure, p2 = 5.5 bar = 5.5 105 N/m2
Density, 2 = 5.5 kg/m3
Velocity, C2 = 190 m/s
Internal energy, u2 = 710 kJ/kg
Heat rejected by the fluid,
Q = 55 kJ/s
Rise is elevation of fluid = 55 m.
= 55 6 = 330 kJ/kg
21.
= 12000 J or 12 kJ/kg
PE = (Z2 Z1) g = (55 0) 9.81 Nm or J
= 539.5 J or 0.54 kJ/kg
Substituting the value in steady flow equation,
330 = 12 + 0.54 105.77 + W or W
= 236.77 kJ/kg.
= 39.46 kJ/s
= 39.46 kW. (Ans.)
At the inlet to a certain nozzle the enthalpy of fluid passing is 2800 kJ/kg, and the velocity is 50 m/s. At the
discharge end the enthalpy is 2600 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal and there is negligible heat loss from it.
were Q = 0, W = 0, Z1 = Z2
= 201250 N-m
C22 = 402500
C2 = 634.4 m/s. (Ans.)
(ii) Mass flow rate
:
By continuity equation,
22.
C4 = 473.4 m/s.
Hence, velocity at exit from the nozzle = 473.4 m/s. (Ans.)