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    Hypercommercialism PDF

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    THE MEDIA VOLUME 1 (A-N) Edited by Robin Andersen and Jonathan Gray GREENWOOD PRESS Westport, Conectcut « London brary of Coogee Cataloging in Paitin Date Batgrond:the medi ced by Robin Andersen and jonathan Gey en (Batu) Ince isla ences and index ISBN 78-030 oe? (le pape) phatseteda Po apes Paden Robin on osha A) SoaBeder wasn ei Lary Cataloging ia Fabio Da ivi Cony © 2008 Rote Andersen nd ata ay Alig rea oto fh bok maybe fered ype gs wate ‘Spr ween ont of he pas brary of Congres Cog Cad Nb: 200708854 isan Suerte Feo Ms Ne) 978-0 13 Sen atl} Ft pb in 008 Srenool Pe ot Rend Wes, Wego CO Anyi of rem Pb Crouh is coedcanood com Primed in the United State of Arica eS “he pape se in his book compe vith he Perot Paper Standardised by oe Raton Information StandrdsOnznton (2848-188) CONTENTS Guide to Related Topics Introduction Entries Aa Carte Cable Pricing Advertising and Persuasion AL aneera Alternative Media inthe United States ‘Anonymous Sources, Leaks, and National Security “Audience Power to Resist Bias and Objectivity Blogosphere: Politics and Internet fournatism Body Image Bollywood and the Indian Diaspora Branding the Globe Cable Carriage Disputes Celebrity Worship and Fandom Children and Effect: From Sesame Stet to Columbine HYPERCOMMERCIALISM “The landscape of popular culture is cluttered with on air commercial messages and many media analysts and public interest groupe charge that advertising, promotion, corporate slogans and icons have become inescapable intrusions on everyday life. The tend toward weaving advertising and promotion into the fb: "ic of mainstream media has been termed hypercommercalism and describes the increasing prevalence of sales and marketing in all aepects of media pro duction and structure. Product branding has been recognizable fr decades, but nov “branded entertainment” embeds advertising int the design of enter ‘ainment progeams themselves. Along the way, television i transformed into a ‘marketing tool and viewers become consumers of product, not audiences 10 be entertained. Media managers argue that combining entersinment and sales will satisfy the publi, ifdone with skill and ingenuity. Critics eounter that the consequences of hypercommercalsm extend tothe foundations of American democracy, because such practices affect news programming and pres report ing, as wells entertainment genres. The parameters of hypercommercialiam are in constant flux, changing with new ownership structures, media technologie, marketing philosophies, symbolic techniques, and production formas, al of ‘which make contemporary commercial culture a dynamic realm, anda bate ground issue, from ciical and cultural perspectives. ‘THE COMMERCIAL MEDIA ‘The economics of TV has hada particular historical trajectory: When com: mercial interests won the battle over broadcasting in the 1920s, it was decided im J Hypecommerciism that television and radio programming was tobe paid for by corporate sponsors. But the controversy did result in broadcast cegulation that required networks and station owners to broadcast in the ‘public interest, convenience and neces sity" Advertsing would pay for TV programming and commercialism came to be the dominant force in American media, the ramifications of which we are ‘nly now beginning to fully understand. In the 1950s, one sponsor paid to produce each program. This practice gave sway by the end ofthe decade to spot advertising, which continues today. Com- mercial inserted during programming breaks are purchased by multiple ad- vertisers at negotiated price determined by a combination of ratings, program demographics, time, content, and availability In recent times, commercial mes- sages have lost some of their persuasive power as ads become shorter, more frequent, and easier to zap (for example, TiVo). In addition, viewers are media liverate and wary of such overt persuasions. Celebrity endorsements hep, but now celluloid and video stars pitch everything from aspirins to phone compa- ries. Audiences have come to know that every endorsement has its price, mak ing them a litle less effective. But when stars use products in movies and TY programs, it still appears to be the discourse of entertainment, not sles. In a strategie game of leapfrog, advertisers step up persuasive technique and media strategy a8 the old ones lose some oftheir puch. "Now promotional messages are no longer restricted to spot advertising In the age of deregulation, when restrictions on the number of commercials a lowed ip any hour of programming have been removed, contemporary teev sion places products int just about every nook and cranny of airtime. Although Spot advertising is not going away, it now coexists with product placement, & practice that embeds the promotion within the program. Both advertising prac- tices continue to evalve, and as they do critics charge that they exert inordinate influence over TV programs and feature films alike. INFLUENCING MEDIA CONTENT Placing brands in films reall took of after 1982 when Steven Spielberg’ cute len, ET, ate Reese's Pieces and sles shot up. Then, in 198, Tom Cruise wore Ray Ban sunglasses in the movie Risky Busines. Public interest researchers Michael Jacobson and Laurie Mazur noted that in one month Ray Ban reported sles of 13000, more pars of that style sold then during the previous 3 yeas. As plugging in film came to be understood as the industry golden goose, agencies directed more cients toward the movies, and as adverticng interest cose so di its nfl ence on films. Media cholar Mark Crispin Mile fist noted that films with prod uct placement contained scenes that slowed the pacing to feature products had ‘more mythic, less complicated heroes and ended on a happier act, In essence, the flms moved closer tothe upbeat, singular attitudes of commercial design, ‘These changes were predictable consoquences of embedding products in story lines, aad they follow the conventions of industry wisdom. Ads must nat stand out {eam the landscape of mei, rather, they must be integral pars of entertainment _geography, From the early day of commercials on television, broadcast historian ypecommercialam | 173 Eric Barnouw detailed the ways in which advertising professionals learned that commercials that diverged in style and content from programs were ineffective at sling products. Since then, media buyers have long demanded what is called [programming environment pasticula stores and character types that surround the product and its ad campaign with compatible and complimentary messages. In ths way viewers and readers are primed to be more susceptible to ads and the symbolic culture tht sustains them. “The economic succes of broadcasters is dependent on programs tht please two different constituencies ad buyers and TV audiences, whose interests some times diverge. Many network professionals attempt to create intresting, inde pendent programming, but productions must be attractive to sponsors who pay the bill. Because ad agencies and their cliente make “up font” media buys based on the programs they see, prdcers know well that shows dovetailed to sponsore wishes garner the higher rates in these ways, advertisers come to exert ennrmous influence on programming design. Novhere isthe more evi- dent than with reality shows, in which entire programs are designed by and for advertises. BRANDED ENTERTAINMENT Product placement on 7 has evaved into wht the indy now calls branded omertinmert. Meda contract teal aound bran intgaton deals 2 canon feature of ely shows tn many ofthese shows the networks have Sontrated ith os sponsor, companies willing to pay to have en ep Sodes built around thei products Inti season, The Apprentice bal po {vans sound, or instance, Dominos Piz sd Staples, Products were dsgaed nd pitched ta company exectves, nd thrgh the entire episode each how featured brand ogee in an allencompassingcorotsteerafonment. Another, NBC rely show The Reaurant, contacted with Cove, American Expres and Misbish. The thre companies pai the entre prositon cots othe et fodes Inthe frst show, chefowner Rocco DiSpraorers Bey, then corcects imal "Make that Caos ber Kimberly; do nt come ck without Coors beet, forall thee people” he say: In aon, loge with branded cones being dubbed in after flming sted 200) Sich practi ter the programs sad ‘erties influence the scripts, stings and editing process. AS one enertin- rent writer note, The Resturant has the el ofan infomercial Such programs tmght beter be called product placement shows because the sGvertiingconent is being srpted wth any pretence to ely being in name only. These shows hak back to tlevision of the 1980s when sponsors controlled programming and seat the current merger of entertainment and promotion MAGAZINES ‘These precepts hold true to magazines as well, where combining adverts: ing and content has been standard practice. Articles written to augment paid ‘dverting by emphasing promotional themes or featuring products ae called am | Hypercommercises complimentary copy: When articles ate placed on facing pages or used to sur- round the ad text, they ate referred to as adjacencies Much of magazine content is filled with stories generated from advertising departments as complimentary copy, nat from the creative inspiration of editors, or te investigative instincts fof reporters, Magazines also cary advertorials and special advertising supple- ‘ments formatted to look lke feature Journalism. They hope the format tricks readers into being less critical and more open tothe messages Indeed, many ad- vertiserseejet independent story ideas In addition, magazine and newspaper editors increasingly rely on public celatons professionals who represent corpo: rate clients and celebrities who ptch stories and even write copy. (CREATIVE AND EDITORIAL JUDGMENT [Now magazine copy, much like many film scripts is submitted to ad agencies offering them the chance to find appropriate insertion points for their products “This merging of media content and product promotion has resulted in increas: ing demands by manufacturers and their agents that content conform to the 'messages ofthe advertising, Chrysler publicly announced such economic prior restraint as conporate policy in January 1996. The company’s advertising agency senta letter to magazines cacrying its advertising fequiring them to submit ticles to Cheysler for advanced seecning. Ifthe company deemed any editor content provocative or oflensve it warned, it would pull ts advertising. ‘The American Society of Newspaper Editors pepared a response and on June 30, 1997 sent out an appeal to editors to take @ postion not t0 bow to such advertising pressure and to reassert heir right to have final authority over the editorial content of their magazines. Milton Glaser, 2 graphic designer and cofounder of New York magazine, hearing of Cheyer’ policies wrote, "Censor- ship of this kind that ats to curtal the exchange of unpopular ideas is unac- ceptable forall those who care about human freedom and a heathy democratic society" (Glaser 1997). He added that sucha practice “violates our sense of fu ness and our notion of how a ftee press work” Chrysler Corporation responded with surprise to the protest, saying was only making public a policy that many other companies practice covertly In film as well, advertisers sometimes try and succeed in shaping content to theie demands. The fight over how to end the popular film Jerry Maguire is a casein point. In Jerry Maguire, Tom Cruse stars struggling spots agent and (Cuba Gooding Je plays the lovable football player Rod Tidwell, trying to make It bigtime. Products such as Coke, Visa, and Reebok are plugged, but the film goes further in its support of advertising, Tadwells very succes is measured by his popularity with advertisers, His career goa is to appear in a Reebok com merci nt onthe late-night, low-budget, water-be pitches that area sue sign of allure, Reebok’ placement inthe film led to contentions about creative con tral ultimately won by the shoe company. The director cut 47 seconds of Tidwell appearing in 3 Recbok commercial atthe end ofthe movie. Reebok sued, and ‘when the film aired on Shovitime, the pitch had been reinserted. At this point advertisers have enormous contr aver motion picture plot and dialogue, and Hypercommerclism | 178 in this ease, endings. By the end of 1998 the talented Gooding was pitching Pepsi on TV spots, stl in is Tidwell character MEDIA OWNERSHIP: MERGERS, CONSOLIDATION, AND TIGHT DIVERSIFICATION [No discussion of how media culture came to be hypercommercial is complete ‘without mentioning the roe of corporate mergers and acquisitions, hich took place in two significant waves of consolidation it the 19805 and 1990s, Film industry observer Thomas Schatz, documented the 1989 transformation of the steucture ofthe industry, when 3 total of 414 media deals worth over $42 billion ‘were struck, the most notable being the $14 billion merger of Time Warnet. In 1995 another wave hit setting a record of 644 mergers totaling $70.8 bilion. Along with Disney purchasing Cap Cities ABC, Viacomis buyout of Blockbuster, and Westinghouse merger with CBS, the already massive Time Warner bought Turner broadcasting na $7.3 bilon deal Among other things, CNN, TNT, and ‘TBS gave the new company broadeast distribution frit vast media products of film and TV series, resulting in the largest media library in existence. Changing, ‘copyright ownership led othe mining ofthe past for commercial purposes, and bits and pieces from old movies, characters and cartoons turned up everywhere {rom ads to merchandise. Time Warner made spectacular profits with vintage ‘Looney Toons te revenues for syndication and merchandising of Daly Duck and his fiends reached $35 billion in 1996, ‘Media conglomeration has alowed the mega corporations to practice sy ergy, another key piece ofthe expanding commercial mosaic, in which corpora tions cross-promote their own stars, programs, and merchandise on their media outlets When Time Warner wanted to own the production and distribution of its TV shows, it started its own TV network, WB. Because teens comprise the biggest consumer market in the music industry, Dawsons Creek was used to sell the songs and artist signed to Warner Bros. record labels. Paula Cole, { Dorit Wanna Wait, became a top 10 single after being featured as the shows theme song, . ‘Synergy also provides the economic fuel that propels the trend toward huge media franchises, including sumer blockbusters. The primary requirement for synergy is capital, which only huge companies have, firs t9 produce the film that forms the epicenter, then to provide the milions needed to drive the mar keting force behind it. These multipurpose entertainment/marketing machines then create flm franchises that become lengthy promotions fora vast array of Ticensed tie-in and brand-name consumer products, One narativecan als lead to movie sequels, TV series, music videos. and sound tack albums, video games and theme park rides, graphic novels and comic books. Indeed, the fis! giant step in this ditection was the Batman blockbuster. As industry writers like to say, Warner isthe Studio that Batman buil. Barman veas one ofthe first fils to utilize the whole machine ofthe company fom the matketng to the tie-ins and the merchandising, all building wp the momentum needed for international distcibution, Films are no longer singular narratives, rather, they are iterations 176 | Hypercommeriatism ‘ofentertainment supertets, multimedia forms that canbe expanded and resold almost ad infinitum, RETAIL OUTLETS AND MEDIA BRANDS atman—the movie, then the industryinspred the chain of Warner Bros, ‘etal sores, one ofthe most significant tendsinall ofthis. These new entertain ‘ment/commodity facilites, or retail stores feature branded products Before the deregulation of the 19805, merchandise ted 19 TV shows was not allowed be- «cause the program would have been in essence, an extended commercial. Since thee (a inthe 19505), the shows that feature the products that children desice so fervently after seeing them on TV, advertise the product forthe length of the Program. Tying products to TV programs, fms, networks, and the cable ser- ‘ices on which they appear give media firms distinct brand identities that create ‘new marketing horizons for massive amounts of commodities, Cable channels and broadcast networks alike now strive to be regarded as brands, especially de sirable to specific demographic groups targeted by advertisers, especialy chil ‘ren who watch Disney and Nickelodeon. Disney now has over 600 retall ores selling branded products, and Time Warne si hot pursuit with «couple hun ted stores, Viacom has also entered the branded retail-marketng venta. ti this latest aspect ofthe mergerisymergy structure that reduces the cultural dif. ferences between movies and advertisements, programming and promotion, entertainment and shopping As detailed previously, these ecanomic practices also affect content, which 's designed to conform tothe atmosphere of what some describe as commer.

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