G.T. Heydt, R. Ayyanar, R.

Thallam

Power Acceptability
The essence of power quality is the ability to accept power from the distribution bus for ultimate utilization, compatible with characteristics of
loads. In commercial or industrial applications, this
may involve a process that may entail a dynamic relationship to the ac voltage supply. One method to assess the power quality of the bus voltage involves
examination of the amplitude of momentary events,
undervoltages, or overvoltages, and the duration of
these events. This general approach is termed power
acceptability or bus voltage tolerance. The main issue is to be able to distinguish the cases in which the
power received at the bus can be utilized or not.
In this article, the power acceptability curves and
bus voltage sags are discussed. The objective is to
convey the use of power acceptability curves and
how to calculate bus voltage sags.
PCC and Short-Circuit Calculations
The term point of common coupling (PCC) refers to
the point in the interconnected power system where
loads are connected to the network. The PCC is the
point at which the load interacts with other loads and
the network itself. Typically, there are many residences served from the secondary of a distribution
transformer, and, for this reason, the PCC for typical
residential applications is at the distribution transformer secondary. At many large industrial and commercial services, a distribution transformer serves a
single customer, and, in these cases, the PCC is usually the transformer primary.
Voltage regulation is defined as

V,

=I 00(1

A popular mmure of whether

electric power delivered

the

is compatblehmdaok
sth swith

lo

power

systm

of the
am
sensity
to voltag

(and ovet

V-d
Vrte
-)

IVI

15-minute intervals over one calendar year is nommnal one finds a

where VR is the percent voltage regulation (ideally 100%) and
and Vrated are the measured rms voltage and rated circuit voltage, short-circuit ratio of SCR = I SC I I -ommal
Typical values of SCR are in the 20 to 100 range for residential
respectively. The regulation of voltage is closely related to the
"strength" of the bus, that is, the ability of the bus to supply cur- circuits and typically much higher (e.g., to 1,000 or more) for inrent without changing voltage amplitude. The short-circuit cur- dustrial circuits. The SCR is often limited mainly by the distriburent of the bus, ISC, is the three-phase (or single-phase, if tion transformer when the PCC is at the transformer secondary. If
applicable) current due to a bolted short circuit to ground. If the the nominal load current is at the transformer rated current, the
circuit nominal (maximum) current measured and averaged in SCR is often estimated as the inverse of the transformer reactance
expressed in per unit. This is a result of the assumption that the
transformer high side is an infinite bus and the only circuit
reactance is the leakage reactance of the transformer.
This article is part of a series of articles on power quality appearing in this
Most distribution systems are radial, and the SCR is calcuandfuture issues of IEEE Power Engineering Review. G. Heydt and R. Ayyanar
with Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA. R. Thallam is with Salt lated using a short-circuit computer program that gives the positive sequence short-circuit current.
River Project, Phoenix, Arizona, USA.
12

0272-1724101/10.00f200 1 LEEE

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250

200
00a)
0)
Ce
0

Overvoltage Conditions

150

a1)

C)

100

Ia Rat

C,)

Ce

50

a)c)

CZ

C-)

co
Ce

)le

a1)C)

i
::
Voltage
E.
I

-50

-100

Cen

co.

,e

/1

..

CZ

0Undervoltage Conditions
,

0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

1
Time (Seconds)

10

.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

100 1000

Time (Seconds)

Figure 1. CBEMA power acceptability curve

Figure

Power Acceptability (Voltage Tolerance) Curves

bus voltages throughout the system until the fault is cleared. The
degree of this bus voltage sag is plotted on the power acceptability curve; the intent is a rapid way to determine whether the sag
is tolerable.
The lower limb of the power acceptability curve relates to
voltage sags and momentary outages. The cause of voltage
sags and the three-phase analysis of voltage sags are studied,
noting that the transmission, subtransmission, and distribution
networks are basically linear. A fault at a remote bus causes a
fault current (largely determined by the impedances seen at the
faulted bus), and this fault current results in a depression of
system voltages remote from the fault. Figure 3 shows a simplified pictorial in symmetrical component notation. Examination of Figure 3 shows that under faulted conditions the voltage
at bus C will generally contain positive, negative, and zero sequence components. How loads respond to the three symmetrical components depends on the load type. For example, simple
resistive loads can accept energy from bus C in any sequence
(for grounded wye connected loads) or in positive and negative sequence (i.e., the balanced components, for delta connected or ungrounded wye connected loads). Other types of
loads have different characteristics, and they must be treated
differently.

The power acceptability curves are loci drawn in the bus voltage
duration time plane. These curves indicate the tolerance of a
load to withstand momentary low- and high-voltage events, and,
for this reason, an alternate term for the curves is the voltage tolerance curves. The International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) uses the term equipment immunity curve. These loci quantify the acceptability of supply power as a function of duration
versus magnitude of bus voltage disturbances. Figure 1 shows a
well-cited power acceptability curve known as the Computer
Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA)
curve. Examination of the CBEMA curve reveals that there are
two loci: the overvoltage locus above the axis and the
undervoltage locus below this axis. The ordinate of these loci
represents the intensity of a bus voltage amplitude disturbance.
This is measured as a deviation in voltage amplitude from the
rated value. For the CBEMA curve depicted in Figure 1, the ordinate is shown in percent; a percent deviation from rated voltage. Thus, the A|V = 0 axis corresponds to operation at rated
voltage. The abscissa represents the duration of the event being
studied. The disturbance time duration is usually expressed in
either cycles or seconds (Figure 1 shows values of time in seconds on a logarithmic scale). Steady state is at t -X vo, and
short-term events occur to the left on the time axis. Note that the
undervoltage limb of the CBEMA curve asymptotes to -13%
low voltage as t oo. This agrees with the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard C84.1-1989 for
steady-state standard nominal system voltage ranges.
Overvoltages of extremely short duration are usually tolerable if
the event occurs below the upper limb of the power acceptability
curve; that is, in the "acceptable power" region. Examples of
overvoltage events that may occur are: lightning impulses, line
switching surges, and capacitor switching surges.
In 1996, the CBEMA organization and the CBEMA curve
were supplanted by the Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) and the ITIC curve. This curve, depicted in Figure 2,
seems to enjoy less popularity as a power acceptability curve in
industrial applications.

2. ITIC

power

acceptability

curve

->

Voltage Sags

One of the most visible power quality problems is the

undervoltage event. This type of event occurs when a fault occurs in the transmission, subtransmission, or distribution system. The flow of fault current generally causes a depression of

Rectifier Loads

An important class of loads from the viewpoint of power acceptability is the rectifier load. Their application is widespread; all
electronic equipment operating from the ac mains use a
front-end rectifier, and they are among loads that are most sensitive to power line disturbances. Most electronic equipment
(such as personal computers) that have a power rating less than 1
kW use single-phase diode bridge rectifiers, shown in Figure 4.
The output of the diode bridge is filtered using a capacitor, as
shown in Figure 4, or using an LC filter. Loads that require a few
kW typically use a three-phase diode bridge rectifier. The
three-phase bridge is usually a six-pulse type for lower power
applications (e.g., below 1 MW) and twelve pulse for higher
power applications. Diode bridge rectifiers are often followed
by switch-mode power supplies (especially in lower power applications, such as in computer loads). The switch-mode power
supply converts the unregulated dc link voltage to a well-regulated isolated voltage, at different magnitudes suitable for the
various electronic loads.

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13

The vulnerability of the rectifier loads to voltage sags depends on the type and rating of the energy storage elements
used, as well as on the characteristics of the succeeding
switch-mode power supply (SMPS). The SMPS can regulate its
output voltage down to a designed minimum value of the dc link
voltage. If the voltage sag in the ac main voltage is of sufficient
magnitude and duration, then the dc link voltage can fall below
this acceptable minimum value, resulting in the shutdown of the
equipment. For high capacitive loading (i.e., large capacitive filter), the profile of the dc link voltage after the occurrence of a
fault depends mainly on the duration of the fault and not on the
reduction in the voltage amplitude. In the case of LC filters, typical of earlier electronic equipment, the profile of the dc link
voltage depends on both the magnitude and duration of the fault.
In the case of the three-phase diode bridge rectifier, similar to
the single-phase case, the output voltage depends on the peak
magnitude of the individual phase voltages. Hence, for an unsymmetrical fault, the performance of the three-phase rectifier
load depends only on the amplitude of the individual phases and
not on the exact positive and negative sequence components.
The vulnerability of rectifier loads is lessened through the replacement of the diode bridge configuration with a boost converter [14]. These devices take sinusoidal current from the
distribution supply at the unity power factor. The boost converter can be designed to operate at very low supply voltages
and, therefore, this type of rectifier is less vulnerable to supply
voltage sags. The boost configuration is used mainly in lower
power applications.

Caution in Application

The power acceptability curves are used to quantify the acceptability of supply power. Like most other power quality indices
and measures, the information obtained from compliance or
noncompliance with the power acceptability curves may not
capture all phenomena of interest. For example, a given disturbance may lie well within the power acceptability curve, but a
very sensitive load may fail; on the other hand, a large disturbance may be acceptable for some under some circumstances.
Also, the power acceptability curves were developed for specific load types (e.g., the CBEMA and ITIC curves were developed for computer equipment). Attempts are often made to
correlate the noncompliance to power acceptability curves with
dollar losses. The variability of load sensitivity makes this correlation very difficult and inaccurate.
Another application of power acceptability curves is the
qualitative assessment of power quality as measured by bus
voltage deviations. During the preparation of this article, an informal poll of a few electric utilities and industrial users was
taken to ascertain the typical number of momentary events for
primary distribution feeders. For the case that an "event" is defined as the deviation of bus voltage by -10% or more (i.e., sag)
for one cycle or more, the number of events at a given site is typically in the range of 1.7 to 5.3 events per month.

SARFI %V

.i/NTN

where %V is the rms voltage threshold to define an event, N is

the number of customers that see the event, and NT is the total
number of customers in the study. For the SARFI index, the
voltage threshold allows assessment of compatibility for voltage-sensitive devices. An anecdotal typical annual figure for
SARFI is about 15 for a 70% (or greater) %V event.
Other power quality indices have been proposed based on
calculated energy (or lack of energy) delivered during voltage
sag events [15], [16]. These give a single index for both magnitude and duration of the sag event.
There are other similar indices that relate to power interruptions and interruption durations. Commonly used reliability indices are the system average interruption duration index
(SAIDI) and the system average interruption frequency index
(SAIFI):
SAIDI

(Sum of the number of customer interruption durations) /

(Total number of customers)

SAIFI

(Total number of customer interruptions) /

(Total number of customers).

In the case of three-phase circuits in which unbalanced voltages or currents are anticipated, the unbalance factor, V / V+, is
sometimes used. This notation refers to the negative sequence
voltage (or current) divided by the positive sequence value. In the
balanced case, this measure is zero. The standard ANSI
84.1-1989 [17] specifies the allowable voltage unbalance factors.
Power factor is sometimes cited as a measure of how well a
load accepts power from the supply bus. The definition of power
factor is
Pf

'Psupplied / (lrms nIrms I)

Bus B

Bus A
O

Z+

Fault

Circuit Breaker

z+, z-, zO

Source
Bus C
Load I
Figure 3. Pictorial of a fault at bus B

Reliability and Quality Assessment

In the last 10 years, there has been an array of interesting (and

useful) indices promoted to assess power quality and power acceptability. One of these is the system average rms (variation)
frequency index (SARFI), usually written as SARFl%v. This is
the number of specified short-duration rms variations per system customer (60 s aggregation). The notation "%V" refers to
the bus voltage percent deviation that is counted as an event,
14

Figure 4. Single-phase rectifier load

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The notation Psupplied refers to the total power taken by a load,

and the rms load voltage and current appear in the denominator.
The displacement factor is the cosine between the fundamental
voltage and current at a load. For the sinusoidal case, the power
factor and displacement factor are identical.

Summary

Power acceptability is important because it describes whether

electric power delivered from the power system is compatible
with load characteristics. A popular measure of acceptability is
the use of the power acceptability curves that measure the sensitivity of the load to voltage sags (and also overvoltages). The
best known power acceptability curve is the CBEMA curve.
Rectifier loads and other electronic loads may be susceptible
to bus voltage sags. The use of a switch-mode power supply can
alleviate the vulnerability.
It is possible to quantify the number of low-voltage events
per year seen by a set of customers. The SARFI index is exactly
this measure, and it may be calculated on the basis of different
voltage sag depths.

References
[1] Recommended Practice for Powering and Grounding Sensitive
Electronic Equipment (Emerald book), IEEE Standard 1100, IEEE
Press, 1992.
[2] Guideline on Electric Power for ADP Installations, United States
Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS), Publication No.
94, Washington, DC, 1978.
[3] Guideline on Electrical PowerforADP Installations, United States
Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS), Publication No.
94, National Technical Information Service, United States Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA, 1978.
[4] G.T. Heydt, Electric Power Quality. Scottsdale, AZ: Stars in a Circle Publications, 1995.

[5] E.R. Collins, Jr. and R.L. Morgan, "Three phase sag generator for
testing industrial equipment," IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 11,
pp. 526-532, Jan. 1996.
[6] G. Heydt and M. Negley, "Alternatives for special power acceptability services," in Proc. NSF Conf. Unbundled Power Quality Services, Key West, FL, Nov. 17-19, 1996, pp. 176-181.
[7] T. Key, "Predicting behavior of induction motors during service
faults and interruptions," IEEE Ind. Applicat. Mag., vol. 1, no. 1, p.
7, Jan./Feb. 1995.
[8] R. Waggoner, "Understanding the CBEMA curve," Elect. Construction and Maintenance, vol. 90, no. 10, pp. 55-57, Oct. 1991.
[9] G. Heydt and W. Jewell, "Pitfalls of electric power quality indices,"
IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 13, number 2, pp. 570-578
Apr. 1998.
[10] G.T. Heydt, Computer Analysis of Power Systems, 2nd ed.
Scottsdale, AZ: Stars in a Circle Publication, 1996.
[12] IEEE Recommended Practice for Design of Industrial Power Systems (Gold book), IEEE Standard 493-1980, IEEE Press, 1980.
[13] A.E. Turner and E.R. Collins, "The performance of AC contactors
during voltage sags," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf Harmonics and Quality of Power, Las Vegas, NV, Oct. 1996, pp. 589-595.
[14] N. Mohan, T. Undeland, and W. Robbins, Power Electronics.
New York: Wiley, 1995.
[15] R.S. Thallam and G.T. Heydt, "Power acceptability and voltage
sag indices in the three phase sense," paper presented at the Panel
Session on "Power Quality: Voltage Sag Indices in the Three Phase
Sense" IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Seattle, WA, July 2000.
[16] R.S. Thallam, "Power quality indices based on voltage sag energy
values," paper accepted for presentation at the Power Quality 2001
Conference and Exposition, Chicago, IL, Sept 9-13, 2001.
[17] American National Standard for Electric Power Systems and
Equipment Voltage Ratings (60 Hz), ANSI Standard 84.1, 1989.

Voltage Sags in Three-Phase Systems

(continued from page 1])

mission system, as those will affect both feeders. The two-cycle

switch can be combined with 100-ms energy storage against
transmission system sags.

The Future

Solving the voltage sag problem requires cooperation between

utilities and end-users, with support from equipment manufacturers and standards-setting organizations. It is possible to make
better equipment when the demand for it is high enough. Standards are needed that guide utilities, end-users, and equipment
manufacturers. It is also important that everybody becomes aware
of voltage sags as a potential problem. Education of electrical and
mechanical engineers is very important to achieve this aim.

[2] M.H.J. Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems-Voltage

Sags and Interruptions. Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 2000.
[3] L.E. Conrad and M.H.J. Bollen, "Voltage sag co-ordination for reliable plant operation," IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 33, pp.
1459-1464, Nov. 1997.
[4] L.E. Conrad, K. Little, and C. Griff, "Predicting and preventing
problems associated with remote fault-clearing voltage dips," IEEE
Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. 27, pp. 167-172, Jan. 1991.
[5] M.F. McGranaghan, D.R. Mueller, and M.J. Samotej, "Voltage
sags in industrial power systems," IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol.
29, pp. 397-403, Mar. 1993.
[6] L. Zhang and M.H.J. Bollen, "Characteristic of voltage dips (sags)
in power systems,"IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol. 15, pp.
827-832, Apr. 2000.

Further Reading
[1] M.H.J. Bollen, "Characterisation of voltage sags experienced by
three-phase adjustable-speed drives," IEEE Trans. Power Delivery,
vol. 12, pp. 1666-1671, Oct. 1997.

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15