CHA

FOU
HA
CO
AN
H
EXAM
4.3.
In
varied
contex
one
chord
(the
secon
in
each
meas
is
heard
as
(a)
rel~y
loca
an
inte
wit
the
()'y
EXAM
4.4.
Five
basic
gmups
of
interva
(a)
open/
(b)
ambi
rrnl
as
ihe
bot
2f~
od
(t
f
a
sixt
Ro~
of
com
int
th
sa
a;
ro
o
c
does
not
fit
any
categor
and
~
almos
entirel
~..and
conte
for
its
me~n
its
stro
inte
tha
int
low
no
(C
is
(h
rq
of
th
c
(
4
W&
The
interval
of
the
third
group,
majQr
are
consi
foun
upp
not
(C)
is
rhu
the
roo
of
rh
ch
(E
4.
T
s
in
e
agai
has
the
fou
as
its
stro
int
so
th
fo
up
n
is
a
C
.dtspJac
tendt~
we;r(en
dis;ona
a
m
seven
separ
by
sever
ajar
J~
o
lo;e~
ir;
ha;4l1;
~d
can
ctave~
b~
oversh
by
a
m
secon
now
heard
as
ajar
onance
relation
Two
oboes
10udJ;
e~
e~
perc~iv
as
more
disson
asily
chao
two
flutes
softl~
playin
a
m
secan
ina
EXA
4.6.
Roo
pos
C-m
tria
(m
C)
EXA
4.7.
Firs
C-m
tri
(m
C)
E
4.5,
Spacing
as
an
aspect
of
conson
XAMP
relatio
EXA
4.8.
Sec
Ctri
(m
C)
~
atends
to
weaken
interva
raran
srreng
so,me
In
extrem
cases
interv
garesuo
conson
tend
to
sound
hke
rhe
mterv
mtO
wlllc
rhey
ryp40

41

"

.."

l'

..,-

icaIl);. resolve. For example, widely spaced and fairly weak minar sixths might sound
like widely spaced and very strong perfect fifths. Likewise, widely spaced majar sevenths can sound like perfect octaves.

I ..

"

11

"

:~

Roots

atively consonant,

(b) relatively neutral,

or (c) relatively

dissonant.

closer

j!lJclq~iQnshjp_~o

thdu!}d~m.smqLaS-thqti!l~tYats...root

(Hindemith

1937).

~!;~

For insrance, rhe perfect fifth's root is its lower note, since the first fifth that appears
in rhe overtone series has as irs lower note an octave doubling of the fundamental.
The opposite is rrue of the fourtb, whose upper note is an octave doubling of the fun-

(c) consonant,

(d) relatively dissonant,

and (e) harshly dissonant.

..

1- chis

chapter) , it 1s sometimes considered a dissonant interval reqlliring resolution,"

although style and context can contradict chis definidon. The second group has one
member. The Q.ugmented fourtb (diminished fifth), which divides the octave in hal~

damental

and tbus is (he interval's root. The roots of simple intervqls can be easily

sevenths)

and the top note of a1l even-numbered

Those

~represent

. ~acing

of the

fourth

and

fifthgroups,

With

knowledge

of interval

strengths

and roots,

e majar

The e majar criad in frst inversion

njoL.3.lliLminoLseconds.and..se"v-

(seconds, fourths, and

intervals within the octave. Forexample, the root of a ninth isits top note, as it
reduces to a secando
for its root. Because a root position

con~onan<;~s.

intervals

anv tVpe of chorcl..can

hf. :malyzecL

criad, for example, has a perfect fifth as

has the fourth as its strongest

interval;

the

disSQill\Pc~lithat in cosonant surroundings usuaIly requlre resolution~

is a critical

aspect

of consonance-dissonan~~.rel~tiQnsJ1l!2,

Because

OJ;;IPYc-

(he root of the chord

more dissonant

(Ex. 4.5). Qynamics

and timbre

can also contextualize

~r-;C;;~d,

(Ex. 4.8).

consonance-disexampJe,

'Zould

#~

{or

'

'~~

,~-j

~=

t)

Strengths

~IntervalstrengthstendtO

(~-----

~,fourth,

third,

sixth,

ses.,0!:!.1, aniJex~nth

the-Y~P.JQg~es

(Hindemith

.\!P~ld

1937).

~t.he_se~:octa~

Example

de~erioraH:_,!s

Again,

octave

sep-

4.9

shows

a number

of more

complex

chords

and

their

roots.

The

frsr

chord ofren occurs as the final chord in cadences of various rypes of jazz and popular music. According to tradicional tenan techniques, described in chapter 2, the
chord should be analyzed as a submediant six-five chord (seventh chord in frst
inversion),

suggesring rhat cadences rhar end on this chord are deceptive. Yer tl~e ear

",

:~"

lnterval

CHA
NINE
TEX
AN
MO
EXA
9.1.
Tw
exc
wit
cha
tex
can
alw
be
a
m
fac
lC
ho
the
ex
w
t
co
ir
in
li
m
o
~ompos
COE~
d.2!iL
!if.e~
i-m.
~
!Iilltter
what
notes,:
or
timbre
Qf.9!!
While
some
comp
creat
such
The
are
a
n
of
wa
oth
rha
cIu
um
ro
ac
th
re
E
9
can
be
effectiv
as
long
as
the
contex
is
seriou
consid
Exam
9.1
show
two
show
t
cal
mic
ech
(so
G
sp
m
lend
consiste
[Q
music.
The
materi
of
the
secon
excer
which
is
simil
Iv
varied
in
texrure
is
fanal
and
confin
within
span
of
two
octav
Dvna
If
the
music
chis
second
excerp
were
[Q
occur
in
alwork
whos
fram
arger
100

..-.-

101

i.
i
t
.,.
Jj:

9.1.

Simple

overview

of work

in terms

texture.

FIGURE

FIGURE9.3.

o concepts

in Figures 9.1 and 9.2.

_--

Sva-~~~

."1

Combination

E~,;; =::>
1

I=--~..

-..

3 -..,.,

E-~.=~_..

E-..

1=_..

- I~i:=~"

7ft

~.

=':-,;-

pp

ff

Jff

:>

Contrasting

texture

overview.

8vL~)~~

FIGURE 9.2.

become so complex as to be literally meaningless. Often,-only sharp timbres and spedal effects penetrate such massive clusters. .'
.
Figure 9.3 combines the fluidity ol Figure 9.1 and the angularity of Figure 9.2.
Here the diag~amsuggests thar the dense textures thin by the subtraction of various
pitches and timbres. The simplidty of direction of Figure 9.1 is replaced by a ser of
transitions. The addition of an introduction and coda would further soften the texrural contrasts.
These

~nd

cure

three

overviews

thin[vspaced

was

not

liDes

a considered

~y;-cme:

demonstrate

how texture

can be e:raphed

iQ.terms

of wide-

of densty~Such graphs should be analyzed and reanalyzed

Jactordy!,in.&

compositions

that

ner, the music would most likely be ineffective. These examples, though simple, emphasize the need for rhe composer's control and analysis of texture during composition.

com~sition.

sustain

a sin,gle

texture

become

~~~:lgJlQ

Micropolyphony

single-focused

~re

works,

variabl~

can supp"ort other

textJ;.es

parameters

Ils1dillrp-IID'",uig:lifi;aI)t..rQI~jn

~QroP'QsitiQ.n.

QIJ.emai.t:!...e.ntir.cly...5,e.patate.

Either

approach

small excerpts for piano. In the fese, although the texture is constantly varying, the
choices of register, dynamics, and other elements support the changes of textyre to

phtmie. is retained

~tJone

~(twelv'::..ir1

in English).

~ca~e),

of these

This thick

texture

~.(~~dal~Ltriplets~

polyphonic

li~es

results from a simultaneirv

of different

~intllpl~~ir.h~~,

is p~rticu~~r'!y

wd.tim;

iI1}po!!~~!..asjtSQD.![ibut~..!Q

the crearion.,Q.fa rhick, active con1posite. Micropolvphony resembles cluster chords, but

root progressions, and rhe orher musical elements all help produce a direcred phrase
of music. The texture, however, contradicts chis direcredness.
chis contradicrory

approach,

rhen

chis combinaran

mar succeed.

in its use-:clill9v!pg

ratherili;n~tatic..!!D~.

Micropolvphonic

textures

ha;:d1y

resemble. for example, the palm and forearm keyboard cIusters discussed in chapter 5.
While micropolyphony is masr easily achieved in large ensembles, it also can be
creared on a single insrrumenr such as rhe piano. The dense rexrure in Example 9.3

Conrext

4f

.~

demanded

differs

,;

CHA
NINE
TEX
AN
MO
sation
boxes
that
provide
raw
materi
from
which
perfor
create
fase
and
even
.
EXAMP
9.5.
Improv
microp
Orc
can
alg
pla
sig
tal
in
th
cr
D
t
E
o
e
a~ring
w
as
to
produce
am
texture
Ha.!W
ay
,\:Qns
achie
odula
b.YJd
vertical
sonorit
with
each
entran
or
exit.
Here
the
chord
rema
fairly
~s
a:;"
ove
of
a
c
bro
'de
fro
on
(h
po
oE
vi
o
t
e
wor
of
com
EE.
and
EN
Th
dis
is
fo
by
am
to
ala
104

105

Example

9.5

shows

a more

subtle

approach.

This

example

presents

small

improvi-

3--,

...-L

Tpt.!

(EN.)

rhythms.

The arder

of the pitches

shown

is unim-

portant.The
likelihood of traditionally notating effective rhythms for either of these
figures is slight indeed. Furthermore, even if it were possible, the resulting notaran

would be extremely difficult to perform and probably produce studied and stiff regules;

oJ

ff

mp

qn"

Tpt,2

tJ

g.

ff

1...'

brh

ff ===-

mp

fase and not even

(EE.) and

f-

'"

"

Tpt,3

oJ

J=42(0-:)

'""'

(o.)

F.N.

pp

vln.~

r-

Ar-1>P

(o.)

f-J)

bo-:;-

F.E

consordo

Jff

====r-

J'

9:g
1=

9g

Vibes

IoJff

=ff-

,"",1
(o/.)

r-

Jff =-1

h.-

L-

Va,

Cromos

rJ)

====-

pp

--

ff

r=-

PP

-=====

==1==-

...

'l:'

~,.,'L~.,~J:~es.'~,--"~,OJff==--1>P

=ff

:
----'"'--"--

IP

I c-....,

...

===-mf-====ff--~f-===::ff==-f

Cb.

ff

=f

----

1-

1>P~~

I ff

==-

Ve.

Tuned

Crvstals it!

-f=

i:'..,.

.,

1<0')

'

-'

pp

r-

(o.)F.N.A1>P

ff

--r

-"'.

Thick textures can algo be created by layering, as sho~n in Example 9.6. Each
note in chis twelve-line passage enters and exits at different times, staggered in such

the previous

examples

were

The

chosen.

Example

would vary significantly

substitution

9.2, for example,

of twelve

would

music ofExample
9.3 would
ber ensemble
or chorus.

constant,

with the exception of register alterations

Combinations

and changes of timbres.

direction

alter

its effect.

fundamentally

techniques

can

th;tenskm-~reateJin

timbres

The

those

monochromatic

if orchestrated

achieve

than

shown

for the instru'ments'shown

thick

(he resulting

in

piano

for a small cham-

textures

with flow and

counterpoint.

Figure

9.4

d=80

of the above

determinedbv

~ets of chimes

greatly

change

ifdifferenr

---

e'

beginning

slowly

dissolves

from

micropolyphony

into

an

improvisational

frame-

~ItI

#p-'"#~--..~~F=1===

The

1--

'

-=9

===P

fP:f:===-pp+--=f====--p

ered texture achieved by the slow infligan of staggered sustained notes. In effect, chis
example begins with a mix of complex pitches, rhythms, and timbres and develops

~~.~o~..~===p..qo~!OJ====-pp-==.rr--~PP~==-~P-===!ffI~3~L:,-3~---L~

into a chord of sustained pitches.

pe-e-j*f:--o'o~e~~i~.1==IPP-=f==--pf====-pp----ff~;,,~~,-.H~I,....~-~~=_l~~_~

1>l2

1""""'.

ff

-===='-I/I

i -

1--

H~.~~'o'-~n=

'P

--'

p~-==ff.=:;=~~I/I
'P

1
I oJ

1/1 -=-~-====--':

=::::::

~._-

=---r~

--=--~-

!'P-Iff-RIP---=t==--,---ff---=~EXAMPLE9,6.Thicktexturecreatedbylayering.(cominued)

n.2

FIGURE 9,4.

Overview

of a conrinuously

--

thick

ano

---

varying

density,

MU
CO
Ana
tape
reco
ron
at
tw
sp
se
an
on
a
Rec
leve
met
are
com
an
do
nO
pr
fo
d
Heads
on
tape
recorde
whethe
two
or
three
in
numb
have
a
v
of
crack
arie
two
setti
for
a
g
situ
to
ret
dy
iv
in
machine
while-u
for
mono
only,
Clllow
for
record
in
ix?,Sh
direc
thus
and
then,
by
reversin
the
reels,
record
tracks
two
and
tour
the
other
doubles
the
usable
fength
of
tape.
This,
howev
poses
two
probl
,cros
DAT
(dig
auc
tap
rec
ad
an
im
di
to
th
reco
proc
Wh
DA
tec
su
~h
sa
la
of
ra
a
in
aIl
tour
tracks
soundin
simulta
two
fotwar
backw
Fourloca
spec
poi
non
pro
an
in
rfo
qual
low
reco
Mo
im
D
re
aI
edhoA
1958
The
mos
com
one
are
list
be
an
th
in
tU
di
in
d
,..
...

170

CHAPTER

-.,.

FIFTEEN

171

b)mini

ph

on.

machines (four channels in one ~irecrion only), eight-track machines, and so on,
exist as weIl, but t:hese represent more expensive equipment.

canncm(oicl:~..

alt===m~phono(RCAI,~~'cumon(&onu

---i

()

()

in

~O~~-

FIGURE15.2.

k=--i
o..,

IDf.hes per seconQ.jips). Generally, the higher the speed, the berree the fidelity;
though 15 ips is usually the limit, as tape passing the head at faster speeds tends to
increase background noise.

Standard

, phon.'

three-head

rn

tape recorder

(a); plug types (b).

cussion here. The red parton (denoting the dangerous distortion leve!) does not
always mean it is a poDe arca in which to record. Pinning needles to the right on some
machines will not cause distortion, while on orher machines disrortion occurs imme-

a number

required to gauge an individual machine before recording. AIso, meter needles need
not always move to record. Constantly riding gain controls duringrecording
results
in a flatter dynamic uncharacteristic
of the recrded source. In general, use one or

diate!y opon

or channel

arrangemenrs.

Figure

15.3

shows

of these.

FuIl-track

mono,

usuaIly found in older recorders or mode!s used by professionals, has a single crack
covering mosr of rhe width of the recording tape. The half-track monophonic

j
..

analog machines for semiprofessional

and professional recording. Quarter-track
stereo machines arealso common; recording tracks one and rhree in one direction

of sound

from

one

channel

to another

due

to their

proximity

the red zone. Reading

the manual

and experimenring

is

Choice of tape, particularly for analog tape recorders, can be extreme!y importalle, with 1.5-mil polyester (high leve!, low noise) generaIly the bese. Thinner tape
contributes to higher leve!s of print-through-magneric
particles (domains) influencing each other from one layer of tape on the spool to another. The only possible
reason for using 1.0-mil or O.5-mil rape would be extraordinarily long continuous
recording times.

doubling the usable length of the tape. Half-track stereo recorders are the standard

0[, leakage

entering

to one

another, and the possibilityof accidentl playback on 'ahalf-trak machine, res-ulring.

that analog tapes do (Le., it requires the use of fast-fotward

ti
If

1 track (mono)

..

.....

>(

112track mono

to computer

..

memory,

where

music

can be edired

using

music-editng

soft-

ware. There, the music can be accessea nonlinearly; that is, any locationcan be referenced immediately.
Samplers use digitized samples of recorded sound (usuaIly at 44.1 kilohertz).
Samplers provide digital concrete sources for editing or assigning to keyboards, where
a single pitch can be cransposed to other pitches.

Tape Manipulation

..

and Effects

Tape can be manipulated in a variety of ways once sounds have been coIlected (Varese

112 track stereo

..

Splicing

..

1/4 track

transfer

and reverse speeds for

Speed changes

stereo

Reversing sounds

Sound with sound, sound on sound

FIGURE 15.3.
recorders.

Channel

arrangements

for various

tape
Tapeloops

'1\

111~~,

Orher

effects

fj

e
H
A
P
T
E
F
1
T
E
N
'k
M
U
S
1
Q
U
E
e
o
N
R
E
-T
Splicing
be
accomp
in
one
of
tWo
ways.
Profes
splici
of
analo
tapes
caIly
suffice
for
most
splicing
needs.
At
least
ten
winds
of
paper
leade
(if
possi
B10
111
116
111
B9
BI
To
ensure
pinpoin
splicing
with
analog
tape,
rack
the
reels
with
the
tape
in
conTime
llaves
from
left
to
right,
with
the
wavef
appea
vertic
Any
tWo
secin
terms
of
time
(top
to
bortom
and
fteque
(left
tO
right)
Acou
and
elecvoices.
This
chorus
can
then
be
assigne
to
akfor
exam
the
comeyho
172

173

"'-"'..

.100

traditionaIly involves a splicing block, as shown in Figure 15.4. Most splices on analog
tape should be done at an angle so that more tape contacts create surer binding.
Splicing tape far 1/4-inch recording tape is typically 7hz-inch wide so glue does not bleed

from one layer of the tape to the next. One- to tWo-inch lengths of splicing tape typi-

should be attached to the head of the tape. Figure 15.5 shows an hourglass splice made
with a chopping-typ splicer; these splicers are very poar and should be avoided.

'. -20

~...I'~

~O

:-40

I~'N

-so

-100

FIGURE15.4.
ing tape.

P.rofessionalsplcing

block and splicing tape (7h1-inch wide) attached

to record-

FIGURE 15.6.

Qne possible approach

to editing a section

of digitally recorded

sound.

10095-

::s:::

FIGURE

"

15.5..

Hourglass

Amp.
-

splice (very poor) from chopping-type

splicers'. .

095 -"""""j""""""j"""""'"""""j"""""T""'"
0.00 soc

,
0.50

0.25

tact with the playback head. Mark the found spot with a grease pencil at the playback head and then replay,making special note of the accuracy of the initial mark-

ing. If necessary, remark closer to the point of the sound and play again. Usually fouior five playings can provide an accurate splicing location.
Figure 15.6 shows the mechanics

for editing a section of digitally recorded sound.

Here part of a recording has been selected (rhe in verted or filled-black rectangle).

tions of sound can be spliced together, or any amount ofsound

can be removed from

or added to the segmenr by selecting, curting, and pasting using standard

and mouse techniques.

tronic sounds can be manipulated in many ways. For example, a ingle sung note can
be duplicated, played at different pitch levels, and comhined to crea te a chorus of
from thesound

1234:5

FIGURE 15.7.

6 7891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132
The

dynamics

of a digitally

graphed

sound

with

equalizer

below.

keyboard

Figure 15.7 shows how the dynamics of a pitch can be altered by moving the discrece points on the chart (above) or sliding the knobs on the equalizer (below).
Figure 15.8 presenrs an altemative graphics view of a segmenr of sound as it appears

poser mar crea te an enrire choral composition

thus created mar then be reedited and varied.

mmUm~ijUllilli~I~~~

of one voice. Music

SlLeed changes algo create effective variations. Multiple applications of speed

changes, for example, can crea te novel results. Computer software can make changing speeds with digita!ly recorded music quite easy. With each rerecording on analog
tape recorders, however, the signal-ro-noise ratio, or recorded signal in reference to
background noise. gets progressively worse. Rerecording four or five times usuaIly
reaches the limit where noise becomes intOlerable. However, four or five speed
changes can tum a simple flute hile. for example, ioro a low and slow-vibraro tuballke
sound. Conversely, a sped-lIp tUba turns ioro a qllick flurry of high flllte-like sounds.

_B.i'~'P";.~.ig~ by physically reversing the reels on an ana lag recorder can oEren
produce effective regules, though at times, like speed changes, the obvious manipu.

JI'