Evolution of Quality Concepts:

History of Quality Concepts

1875

Taylorism (inspect, detect defects)

1925

Shewhart (statistical process control)

1930s

Dodge/Roming acceptance sampling methods

1950s

Deming's approach to quality and productivity management

1950s

Taguchi's robust design

1980s

The U.S. organizations recognize Deming's approach

1990s

Turkish organizations recognize Deming's approach

2000s

Many Turkish organizations excel at TQM, but building quality upstream is not emphasized yet

Walter A. Shewhart
pioneer and visionary of modern quality control
developed control charts (e.g., X-bar and R charts)
statistical contributions
define two common aspects of quality

objective quality: independent of existence of man

subjective quality: relative to what man thinks, feels or senses
W. Edwards Deming

described the "chain reaction", Out of Crisis

proposed a 14-point quality architecture, Out of Crisis

1. Create and publish to all employees a statement of the aims and purposes of the company or other organization.
The management must demonstrate constantly their commitment to this statement.
2. Learn the new philosophy, top management and everybody.

3. Understand the purpose of inspection for improvement of process and reduction of cost.
4.

End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag alone.

5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service.

6. Institute training.
7. Teach and institute leadership.
8. Drive out fear. Create trust. Create a climate for innovation.
9. Optimize toward the aims and purposes of the company the efforts of teams, groups, staff areas.
10. Eliminate exhortations for the workforce.

creating a work environment that is conducive to quality improvement and pride in workmanship
stressed process stability and system changes as keys to quality improvement
understanding and use of statistical tools
developed the PDCA cycle (Plan, Do, Check, Act)
You may find more on Deming at Deming Web Site.

Joseph M. Juran
quality management
Juran trilogy, Juran on Leadership for Quality
1. quality planning
2. quality control
3. quality improvement

basics of QFD (Quality Function Deployment)

Philip B. Crosby

Author of the book:

"Quality is Free"
Crosby's quality philosophy, Quality Without Tears
1. Quality is defined as conformance to requirements, not goodness or elegance.
2. The system for causing quality is prevention, not appraisal.
3. The performance standard must be zero defects, not "that's close enough".
4. The measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance, not indexes.
14-step program, Quality is Free
1. Management commitment
2. Quality improvement team

3. Quality measurement
4. Cost-of-quality innovation
5. Quality awareness
6. Corrective action
7. Ad-hoc committee for the zero defects program
8. Supervisor training
9. Zero defects day
10. Goal-setting
11. Error-cause removal
12. Recognition
13. Quality councils
14. Do it over again

Evolution of Quality Concepts (cont.)

Armand V. Feigenbaum
Author of the book Total Quality Control
Total Quality Control concept and strategies
quality-development
quality-maintenance
quality-improvement
Full customer satisfaction,
System approach to quality,
Total quality control as a cross-functional concept,
Karou Ishikawa

provided leadership in shaping the Japanese quality movement

6 quality control characteristics, What is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way

1. Company-wide quality control; participation by all members of the organization in quality control
2. Education and training in quality control
3. Quality control circle activities
4. Quality control audits (for effectiveness)
5. Utilization of statistical methods
6. Nationwide quality control promotion (including training) activities
true quality characteristics: the customer's view of product performance
substitute quality characteristics: the producer's view of product performance
proposed the basis of QFD
developed seven tools of quality control, Guide to Quality Control
1. Cause-effect (Ishikawa) diagram
2. Stratification
3. Check sheet
4. Histogram
5. Scatter diagram
6. Pareto chart (vital few, trivial many)
7. Graphs and statistical control charts

Ishikawa's concept of TQC

1. Quality first - not short-term profits first
2. Consumer orientation - not producer orientation (think from the standpoint of other party)
3. The next process is your customer - breaking down the barrier of sectionalism
4. Using facts and data to make presentations - utilization of statistical methods
5. Respect for humanity as a management philosophy, full participatory management
6. Cross-functional management (by divisions and functions)

Genichi Taguchi

Engineering approach to quality

importance of variance
developed robust design, loss function, SNRs (signal-to-noise ratios)
identified noise factors that affect variation
focused on 3 design levels, Introduction to Quality Engineering: Designing Quality into Products and Processes

1. System design (primary) - functional design focuses on pertinent technology or architectures

2. Parameter design (secondary) - a means of both reducing cost and improving performance without removing causes of
variation
3. Tolerance design (tertiary) - a means of reducing variation by controlling causes, but at an increased cost

Shigeo Shingo

maintains that statistical-based quality control is not conducive to zero defects

proposes the poka-yoke (mistake-proofing) system, Zero Quality Control: Source Inspection and the Poka-Yoke System
1. Use source inspection - the application of control functions at the stages where defect originate (real-time feedback / feedforward information)
2. Always use 100 percent source inspections (rather than sampling inspections)
3. Minimize the time to carry out corrective action when abnormalities appear

4. Set up poka-yoke (mistake-proofing) devices, such as sensors and monitors, according to product and process
requirements

QUALITY PARADIGMS
Quality System:
A culture (concepts, beliefs, knowledge, thoughts, skills, and practices) of people who function as a unit or team to
define, design, develop, produce, deliver, sell, service, support, use, and dispose of products that meet customer
needs and expectations.
Quality Paradigms:

1. Custom-Craft Paradigm:
The custom-craft paradigm focuses on the product and product performance relative to customer demands.
Each product unit is designed and built exactly the way the customer wants it.

Requirements: Skilled craftsperson, basic hand tools, demand for unique product.

2. Mass Production and Sorting Paradigm:

The focus in the mass production and sorting paradigm is on production rates. Products are designed and built,
then customers generated.

Requirements: Interchangeable parts, factory power, unskilled labor pool, large customer pool, hard-selling.

3. Statistical Quality Control Paradigm:

The statistical quality control paradigm is similar to the mass production and sorting paradigm with the difference
that more attention is given to production processes. Products are designed and built, statistical process control and
statistical sampling are used, then customers are generated.

Requirements: Interchangeable parts, factory power, unskilled labor pool, large customer pool, hard-selling,
statistical methods.

4. Total Quality Management Paradigm:

The total quality management paradigm involves customers and suppliers in addition to mass production and
statistical methods. Potential customers tell the producer what to design and build. Using proactive and reactive
quality strategies and tools the producer deliver a product the customers want.
Requirements: Interchangeable parts, factory power, statistical methods, empowered employees, supplier
partnerships, customer relationships.

5. Techno-craft Paradigm:
The techno-craft paradigm is the sociotechnical counterpart to the custom-craft paradigm. Each unit is designed
and build exactly the way the customer wants it built.
Requirements: Interchangeable parts, factory power, statistical methods, empowered employees, supplier
partnerships, customer relationships, customer aided design, customer aided manufacturing.
* Poor

** Fair

*** Good

**** Excellent

Product Focus
Custom-craft

Production Focus

Performance

Cost

Timeliness

Process

Production Rate

****

**

Mass Production and

Sorting

**

**

***

****

Statistical Quality
Control

**

***

***

**

****

Total Quality
Management

***

****

****

****

***

Techno-craft

****

****

****

****

***

Comparison of quality paradigms

Quality Organization
In classical organizations, particularly in manufacturing industries, people are grouped into departments
based functions. Hence, we observe departments such as marketing, design, manufacturing, and sales.
Following the same reasoning, quality-related activities have been focused in a "quality department". Such a
department would be responsible for assuring the quality of products through activities such as inspection, and
statistical process control. In the last two decades, a major trend in many organizations has been assigning
quality management tasks to all departments rather than the quality departments only.

A classical organization structure is hierarchic with many levels from

top management to workforce.

Again a major trend has been towards lean organizations where a few
layers exist in the organization structure, and people at all levels work together
in teams. In such organizations, managers, often in teams, monitor
performance of the organization and plan for quality. They identify processes
or problems that need improvement, and organize and lead people to find
solutions. More and more organizations tend to delegate authority to make
decisions to lower levels (empowered teams).

A classical organization structure

A lean organization

Teams
A team is a group of people working together toward a common goal. Teams are essential
elements of a TQM organization.

Why teams?

TQM movement
Empowerment (popular)
Downsizing/Restructuring
middle managers-supervisors are gone
empowered teams replace their place
Teaming increases quality of work life
Growing evidence that teams work

Types of teams
1.
2.

Purpose

Ad-hoc teams
Quality improvement teams (project teams / problem-solving teams)
Natural teams (permanent, part of organization)
self-directed teams (work-unit teams)
process teams

Quality Council

Quality project team Quality circle

Business process
quality team

Develop quality strategy

and guide and support its
implementation

Solve problems
Solve cross-functional
within a
quality problems
department

Plan, control, and

Plan, execute, and control
improve the quality of
work to achieve a defined
a key crossoutput
functional process

Self-managing team

Upper managers, may be

Membership established at corporate,
division, plant levels

Combination of
managers,
professionals, and
work force from
multiple departments

Primarily work
force from one
department

Primarily managers
and professionals
from multiple
departments

Primarily work force from

one work area

Basis of and
size of
Mandatory; 4-8 members
membership

Mandatory; 4-8
members

Voluntary; 6-12
members

Mandatory; 4-6
members

Mandatory; all members in

the work area (6-18)

Continuity

Team disbands after

project is completed

Team remains
intact, project after Permanent
project

Permanent

Other names Quality steering board

Quality improvement
Business process
Employee
team; problem-solving
management team;
involvement group
team
process team

Permanent
Self-supervising team; selfdirecting team;
semiautonomous team

Summary of types of quality teams (adapted from Juran, J.M., Gryna, F.M., Quality Planning and Analysis)

Quality Organization and Classical Organization

Necessary conditions for a team to exist:

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

Task/Goal interdependence
Structure (team member roles, ground rules)
Interpersonal process
communication
problem solving
decision making
leadership
conflict management
Nonsummativity
Team Individuals
(+) nonsummativity = synergy =
what team accomplishes is greater than what individuals
accomplish alone and later pull together
(-) nonsummativity = team < Individuals
(due to poor communication, conflict, etc.)
Dynamic (cycles of good times and bad times)

Stages of team development:

1.

2.

3.

Forming: Members cautiously explore the boundaries of acceptable group behavior.

transition from individual to member status
testing the leader's guidance
Storming: Arguing about what actions the team should take. The team members try to rely solely on their
personal & professional experience, resisting any need for collaborating with other team members.
disunity, increased tension, jealousy
beginning to understand one another
Norming: Accept the team; team ground rules (norms), roles in the team, and individuality of fellow members
more friendliness

Suggested further reading: The Team Memory Jogger, The Team Handbook

Thinking Preferences
Ned Herrman explains physiological and functional specialization of the human brain by
dicothamizing it into four quadrants (models of thinking).
(Click on the quadrant you would like to know more about.)