Early Antiquity

Antiquity

Early Antiquity
Antiquity
Early
I. M.
M. Diakonoff
DiakonofF
Volume
Volume Editor
Editor

Philip L.
L. Kohl
Philip
Kohl
Project Editor

Project Editor

Translated by Alexander Kirjanov

Translated by Alexander Kirjanov

The
The University
University of
of Chicago
Chicago Press
Press
Chicago and
and London
London
Chicago

I. M.
M. DIAKONOFF
DIAKONOFF is
is aa senior
senior research
research scholar
scholar of
of ancient
ancient history
history at
at the
the
I.
Institute of
of Oriental
Oriental Studies,
Studies, Leningrad
Leningrad Academy
Academy of
of Sciences.
Sciences.
Institute
PHILIP
PHILIP L.
L. KOHL
KOHL is
is professor
professor of
of anthropology
anthropology at
at Wellesley
Wellesley College.
College.
The
University of
The University
of Chicago
Chicago Press,
Press, Chicago
Chicago 60637
60637
The
University of
The University
of Chicago
Chicago Press,
Press, Ltd.,
Ltd., London
London

1991
1991 by
by The
The University
University of
of Chicago
Chicago
All rights
rights reserved.
reserved. Published
Published 1991
1991
All
Printed
Printed in
in the
the United
United States
States of
of America
America

91
00
00 99
99 98
98 97
97 96
96 95
95 94
94 93
93 92
92 91

55 44 33 22 11

Originally published
published as
as Istoriya
IstoriyaDrevnego
Drevnego
Mira,
Mira,
volume
volume
1: 1:
Originally
Rannyaya Drevnost',
revised
edition.

1982,
1989
Chief
Rannyaya
Drevnost',
revised
edition.
1982,
1989
Chief
Division
Nauka Press.
Press.
Division of
of Eastern
Eastern Literature,
Literature, Nauka
Library of
of Congress
Congress Cataloging
Cataloging in
in Publication
Publication Data
Data
Library
Istoriia drevnego
drevnego mira.
1, Rannlala
Ranniaia drevnost'.
drevnost'. English
English
lstor'ITa
mira. 1,
Diakonoff, volume
Philip L.
Early antiquity
/ 1 . M.
M. Diakonoff,
volume editor;
editor ; Philip
L. Kohl,
Kohl,
Early
antiquity II.
project editor.
editor,
project
p.
cm.
p.
cm.
Translation
Translation of:
of: Istorila
Istoriia drevnego
drevnego mira.
mira. 1.
1. Rannlala
Ranniaia drevnost'.
drevnost'.
Includes
Includes index.
index.
ISBN 0-226-14465-8
0-226-14465-8
ISBN
1.
1. History,
History, Ancient.
Ancient. I.
I. D'lakonov,
D'Skonov, Igor'
Igor' Mikhailovich.
Mikhailovich.
II.
II. Title.
Title.
D57.I88 1991
1991
D57.188
930dc20
90-24148
90-24148
930-dc20
CIP
CIP
The
The paper
paper used
used in
in this
this publication
publication meets
meets
@)

the minimum
minimum requirements
requirements of
of the
the American
American National
National
the
of
Standard for
for Information
Information Sciences-Permanence
SciencesPermanence of
Standard
Paper for
for Printed
Printed Library
Library Materials,
Materials, ANSI
ANSI Z39.48-1984.
Z39.48-1984.
Paper

Contents
Contents

Foreword by
byPhilip
PhilipL.L.Kohl
Kohl
Foreword
Introduction
Board
Introduction by
by the
theEditorial
Editorial
Board

vii
Vll

11

General Outline
Outline of
of the
the First
First Period
Period of
of the
the History
History of
of the
the
1 General

2
3
4
5
6

8
9

Ancient
Ancient World
World and
and the
the Problem
Problem of
of the
the Ways
Ways of
of
Development
Development
I. M.
I.
M. DIAKONOFF

27
27

The
The City-States
City-States of
of Sumer
Sumer
I. M.
I.
M. DIAKONOFF

67
67

Early
Early Despotisms
Despotisms in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
I. M.
M. DIAKONOFF

84
84

The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period of
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian History
History
The
N.
N. V. KOZYREVA

98
98

Sumerian
Sumerian Culture
Culture
V. K.
K. AFANASIEVA

124
124

The
The Predynastic
Predynastic Period
Period and
and the
the Early
Early and
and the
the Old
Old
Kingdoms in
in Egypt
Kingdoms
Egypt
I. V. VINOGRADOV

137
137

The
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Hyksos
Hyksos Invasion
Invasion
I. V. VINOGRADOV

158
158

The
The New
New Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt
I. V. VINOGRADOV
I.

172
172

The
The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Ancient Egypt
Egypt
I. A.
I.
A. LAPIS

193
193

10
India and
the Pre-Urban
10 The
The First
First States
States in
in India
and the
Pre-Urban Cultures
Cultures
of
of Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and Iran
Iran
G.
G. F. IL'YIN and
and I. M.
M. DIAKONOFF

214
214

11
11 Asshur,
Asshur, Mitanni,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe
N. B. JANKOWSKA
N.

228
228

12 Mesopotamia
to Eleventh
B.C.
Mesopotamia in
in the
the Sixteenth
Sixteenth to
Eleventh Centuries
Centuries B.C.
V. A.
A. JAKOBSON
jAKOBsON

261
261

13 The
The Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom
G.
G. G.
G. GIORGADZE

266
266

vi
vi

Contents
Contents

Third and
14 Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine in the Third

Second Millennia B.C.

B.C.
I.
I. M.
M. DIAKONOFF

286
286

15 The
T h e World of
of Crete and Mycenae
Yu. V.
V. ANDREYEV
Yu.

309
309

16 Greece of
of the Eleventh to Ninth Centuries B.C.
B.C. in the
Homeric Epics

Yu.
Yu. V.
V. ANDREYEV

328
328

Phoenician and Greek Colonization

Colonization
17 Phoenician
Yu. B.
Yu.
B. TSIRKIN

347
347

Half of
of the
18 India, Central Asia, and Iran in the First Half

First Millennium B.C.

B.C.
G.
G. F. IL'YIN AND I.
I. M.
M. DIAKONOFF

366
366

19 The
T h e First States in China
T. V.
T.
V. STEPUGINA

387
387

Half of
of the First Millennium B.C.
B.C.
20 China in the First Half

T.
V. STEPUGINA
T. V. STEPUGINA

420
420

Maps
Maps
Index
Index

433
433
441
441

Foreword
Foreword
PHILIP L. KOHL
KOHL
PHILIP

On
On the
the English
English translation
translation

The organization
organization and
and nature
nature of
this book,
book, Early
Antiquity,and
anditsitsconconThe
of this
Early Antiquity,
ceptual
ceptual relation
relation to
to the
the two
two remaining
volumes in
in the
the three-volume
three-volume
remaining volumes
Soviet study
study on
on The
The History
Historyofofthe
theAncient
Ancient
World
discussed
in the
World
areare
discussed
in the
In-InSoviet
troduction.
troduction. This
This Foreword
Foreword explains
explains some
some difficulties
difficulties associated
with
associated with
this work
and tries
tries to
to familiarize
familiarize its
its EnglishEnglishthe English
translation of
of this
the
English translation
work and
reading audience
audience with
with certain
certain characteristics
characteristics of
of Soviet
Soviet Marxist
Marxist hisreading
historiography on
on antiquity.
antiquity. First,
First, aa brief
brief description
description of
of the
the history
history of
of the
the
toriography
translation is
is required.
required.
translation
first learned
learned of
of the
the three-volume
three-volume study
study The
The History
Historyofofthe
theAncient
Ancient
II first
World
whilevisiting
visitingLeningrad
Leningrad ininfall
fall 1983
1983asasaamember
memberof
ofan
anAmeriAmeriWorldwhile
can delegation
delegation of
of archaeologists
archaeologists to
to the
Soviet Union.
Union. Dr.
Dr. l.
I. M.
M. Dithe Soviet
Dican
akonoff
the Leningrad
akonoff of
of the
Leningrad Branch
Branch of
of the
the Oriental
Oriental Institute
Institute of
of the
the
USSR, Accademy
Accademy of
of Sciences,
Sciences, provided
provided the
delegation with
single
the delegation
with aa single
USSR,
copy of
of the
the first
edition of
of the
the work
work and
and suggested
suggested that
that it
would be
be
first edition
it would
copy
worthwhile to
to translate
translate this
this recent
recent synthesis
synthesis of
of his
his and,
and, primarily,
primarily, felfelworthwhile
low Leningrad
Leningrad colleagues'
colleagues' historical
studies of
of the
ancient world.
world. This
This
historical studies
the ancient
low
single copy
copy of
the limited
limited first
ended up
in my
single
of the
first edition
edition ended
up gathering
gathering dust
dust in
my
library in
in Wellesley,
Wellesley, dutifully
having been
been set
set aside
in my
"To Do"
file
dutifully having
aside in
my "To
Do" file
library
on
research with
with Soviet
Soviet scholars.
scholars. It
might have
have remained
remained
on collaborative
collaborative research
It might
there had
not had
had the
the opportunity
opportunity the
the following
following year
year to
to travel
travel to
to
there
had II not
Leningrad
to participate
in the
the Rencontre
Internationale,
Leningrad to
participate in
Rencontre Assyriologique
Assyriologique Internationale,
where II again
again met
met with
with Dr.
Diakonoff and
and discussed
discussed with
with him
him at
at
where
Dr, Diakonoff
length his
his desire
desire to
to have
have aa major
major work
work of
of his
translated into
into English.
English.
length
his translated
Several possibilities
possibilities presented
presented themselves,
themselves, including
including the
the recently
recently pubpubSeveral
lished
work
primarily
written
by
him:
Istoriya
drevnego
Vostoka:
lished work primarily written by him: Istoriya drevnego Vostoka:
Zarozhdenie drevneishikh
drevneishikh klassovykh
klassovykh obshchestv
obshchestv ii pervye
ochagi rabovlaZarozhdenie
pervye ochagi
rabovladeVcheskoi
tsivilizatsii
[The
history
of
the
ancient
East:
The
birth
of the
birth
of the
del'cheskoi tsivilizatsii [The history of the ancient East: The
most
ancient
class
societies
and
the
first
centers
of
slave-owning
civilimost ancient class societies and the first centers of slave-owning civilization] (Moscow,
(Moscow, 1983),
1983), but
but he
he reaffirmed
reaffirmed his
his desire
desire to
to have
have the
the multimultization]
of the
the Ancient
World translated,
translated,
authored three-volume
three-volume The
The History
authored
History of
Ancient World
since it
it was
was in
in his
opinion more
more up-to-date,
up-to-date, better
better represented
represented his
his curcursince
his opinion
rent understanding
understanding of
of developments
developments in
in ancient
ancient Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, and
and
rent
offered the
the inestimable
inestimable advantage
advantage of
of providing
providing aa synthetic
synthetic overview
overview
offered
to
antiquity as
as aa whole.
whole. Its
introductory chapters
chapters (see
(see the
Introduction
Its introductory
the Introduction
to antiquity
and Lecture
1, this
this volume)
volume) attempt
attempt to
to structure
structure and
and interpret
interpret the
the disand
Lecture 1,
discussed historical
historical materials
materials according
according to
to an
an explicit,
explicit, consistent,
consistent, and
and exexcussed
panded historical
historical framework
framework as
as evolved
evolved by
by Soviet
Soviet scholars
scholars in
in the
the
panded

viii

Foreword

general
general Marxist
Marxist tradition,
tradition, which,
which, Dr.
Dr. Diakonoff
Diakonoff believed,
believed, would
would be
be of
of
considerable interest
interest to
to Western
Western readers.
readers.
considerable
In fall
fall 1984
1984 the
the University
of Chicago
Chicago Press
Press contacted
contacted me
me about
about the
the
In
University of
possibility
work, which
which had
by then
then appeared
possibility of
of translating
translating this
this work,
had by
appeared in
in its
its
second
revised edition
the Soviet
Union, and
second revised
edition in
in the
Soviet Union,
and details,
details, as
as acknowlacknowledged
below, concerning
edged below,
concerning the
the translation
translation and
and editing
editing of
of the
the final
final text
text
eventually were
were hammered
hammered out
out among
among the
the interested
interested parties
in Chiparties in
Chieventually
cago,
cago, Leningrad,
Leningrad, and
and Wellesley.
Wellesley. Some
Some of
of these
these details,
details, as
as well
well as
as spespecific problems
of aa general
general popular
work of
of
popular work
cific
problems related
related to
to the
the translation
translation of
this kind,
kind, should
should be
be explicated
explicated further.
further. All
All of
of volume
1, Early
Early AntiqAntiqthis
volume 1,
uity, initially
initially was
was translated
translated by
Mr. Alexander
Alexander Kirjanov
and then
then enenuity,
by Mr.
Kirjanov and
tered by
Ms. Daria
Daria Kirjanov,
Kirjanov, his
his daughter,
daughter, into
into my
my file
on the
the
tered
by Ms.
file on
Wellesley College
College mainframe
mainframe computer.
computer. These
These rough
rough translations
translations
Wellesley
were then
then sent
sent lecture
lecture by
by lecture
lecture to
Dr. Diakonoff
Diakonoff in
in Leningrad
Leningrad for
for
to Dr.
were
corrections and
and revisions,
revisions, aa process
complicated not
not only
only by
longcorrections
process complicated
by longdistance mail
mail service
service but
also by
by the
the fact
fact that
that aa substantially
substantially revised
revised
distance
but also
third edition,
edition, upon
upon which
which this
this English
English translation
translation is
is ultimately
ultimately based,
based,
third
appeared in
in the
the Soviet
Soviet Union
Union during
during the
the course
course of
of this
this editing.
editing. II then
then
appeared
incorporated the
revised and
and edited
edited text
on my
word processor
processor and
and
incorporated
the revised
text on
my word
mailed the
the corrected
corrected copy
copy once
once more
more to
to Dr.
Dr. Diakonoff
Diakonoff for
for his
his final
mailed
final
approval.
approval.
Though
Though necessary,
necessary, such
such aa laborious
laborious procedure
procedure is,
is, to
to say
say the
the least,
least,
time-consuming and
and helps
helps explain
explain why
why so
so few
few outstanding
outstanding works
works of
of
time-consuming
Soviet historical
scholarship are
are translated.
Some particular
particular diffidiffiSoviet
historical scholarship
translated. Some
The History
Historyofofthe
theAncient
Ancient
World
culties beset
the translation
of the
the The
translation of
World
be-beculties
beset the
cause it
it is
is intended
intended for
for aa general
general educated
educated lay
lay audience.
audience. First
First and
and
cause
fundamentally, the
the reading
reading publics
of different
different countries
countries differ,
differ, and
and
fundamentally,
publics of
this fact
fact is
is particularly
striking when
when contrasting
contrasting the
the potential
"marthis
particularly striking
potential "market,"
if you
you will,
for this
this book
in the
the Soviet
Soviet Union
in the
the United
United
ket," if
will, for
book in
Union to
to that
that in
States. A
A cursory
cursory comparison
comparison of
of the
the reading
available for
for
reading materials
materials available
States.
purchase
in aa subway
subway stall
stall or
or street
street corner
corner kiosk
kiosk in
in any
any major
major Soviet
Soviet
purchase in
city with
with those
those on
on sale
sale at
at equivalent
equivalent locations
locations in
in American
American cities
cities would
would
city
quickly
convince
anyone
of
this
difference.
The
interested
Soviet
quickly convince anyone of this difference. The interested Soviet
reader
does
not
expect
a
novel
approach
to
the
data
or
the
advancereader does not expect a novel approach to the data or the advancement of
new all-encompassing theory
theory to
to provide
provide the
the latest
perspecment
of aa newall-encompassing
latest perspective
on
ancient
history;
a
product
is
not
expected
to
be
sold,
but
tive on ancient history; a product is not expected to be sold, but
current
knowledge
is
to
be
presented
in
a
straightforward,
accessible
current knowledge is to be presented in a straightforward, accessible
form within
an understood
understood and
and generally
generally unquestioned
unquestioned theoretical
theoretical
form
within an
History
of
theAncient
Ancient
framework.
It
is
for
such
an
audience
that
The
framework. It is for such an audience that The History of the
World
was
originally
written.
The
English-reading
audience
is
likely
to
World was originally written. The English-reading audience is likely to
be
considerably diverse,
diverse, consisting
consisting of
of specialists
specialists from
of discibe considerably
from aa range
range of
disciplinesanthropology,
history, Assyriology,
Assyriology, classical
classical studies,
studies, etc.,
etc., ininplines-anthropology, history,
terested in
in aa theoretically
distinctive materialist
interpretation of
of the
the
terested
theoretically distinctive
materialist interpretation

Foreword
Foreword

IX
ix

pastas
interested in a general overview to
past-as well as university students interested
antiquity.
antiquity.
The
T h e expectations of
of such potential readers necessarily will differ.
differ.
explained in the Introduction, this book was not primarily
primarily written
As explained
for specialists; it is not annotated
annotated or extensively footnoted
footnoted and, not
infrequently,
infrequently, controversial
controversial theories and interpretations
interpretations are presented
presented
just mention
mention two examples in
as unproblematic, as givens. Let me just
of American
fashwhich theories of
American scholars are cited favorably in this fashion; D. Schmandt-Besserat's
Schmandt-Besserat's theory (itself
(itself originally based on an idea
significance of
of "tokens" for understanding
understanding
of P. Amiet) on the use and significance
of
the beginnings of
of writing (see Lecture 2); and D. McAlpin's thesis that
ancient Elamite and the Dravidian language family are cognate (Lecancient
ture 10).
10). Scholars
Scholars familiar
familiar with
the literature
literature will
immediately realize
realize
ture
with the
will immediately
interpretations are either
either sharply
sharply contested
contested or inconthat such interpretations
Such controversy
controversy also
also occasionally
occasionally concerns
concerns
clusively demonstrated.
clusively
demonstrated.11 Such
fundamental questions
questions of
of interpretation
interpretation and
and classification,
classification, such
such as
as the
the
fundamental
scale and
and nature
nature of
the private/communal
private/communal sector
sector in
in ancient
ancient MesoMesoscale
of the
potamia.
Debates on
on some
some of
of these
these issues
issues also
also rage
rage within
within the
the Soviet
Soviet
potamia. Debates
specialist literature
literature (see
(see below).
below).
specialist
A related difficulty
difficulty is due to the lack of
of access to or familiarity with
of Western research on particular
particular problems. Thus,
the latest results of
for example, H. Weiss's fundamental
fundamental work on the beginnings of
of urnorthern Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and his writings on the productivbanism in northern
ity/unit area of
of the dominantly rainfall-based
rainfall-based agriculture in northern
northern
Mesopotamia
compared with the exclusively irrigation-based
irrigation-based agriculMesopotamia compared
presented here. 22 There
There is an inevitable lag
ture in the south are not presented
diffusion of
of knowledge across the still-significant
still-significant political
time in the diffusion
frontier that separates Soviet from
from Western scholarship, though
though fair
fair
frontier
recognition of
of this
recognition
this fact admits that this temporal gap works in the opignorant of
of
posite direction as well; indeed, we tend to be far more ignorant
recent Soviet
Soviet scholarship
scholarship on
on antiquity
antiquity than
they are
are of
of our
our work.
work. In
In
recent
than they
any event,
event, one
one of
of the
the primary
primary purposes
of this
this volume
volume is
is to
to facilitate
facilitate
any
purposes of
the
transmission
of
knowledge
across
this
unfortunate
boundary.
the transmission of knowledge across this unfortunate boundary.
The
T h e editor
editor of
of the English edition, thus, is presented
presented with a problem. Should one flag such debatable theories by reference
reference to the rele1. For
For serious
serious criticisms
the former
former theory,
theory, see
see M.J.
M. J. Shendge,
Shendge, "The
"The Use
Use of
of Seals
Seals
1.
criticisms of
of the
and the Invention
Invention of
of Writing," Journal
Journal of
of the Economic and Social History of
of the Orient 26,
part 22 (1983);
(1983); for
for reservations
reservations concerning
concerning McAlpin's
McAlpin's thesis,
thesis, see
see the
the thoughtful
thoughtful (and
(and
part
of McAlpin's Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and Its Imlargely sympathetic) review of
plications by the Dravidian
of the American Oriental
Dravidian scholar K. V. Zvelebil in the Journal
Journal of
Society 105, no. 2 (1985).
Society
2. See, e.g.,
e.g., The Origins of
of Cities
Cities in
in Dry-Farming
Dry-Farming Syria
Syria and
and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamiaininthe
theThird
ThirdMilMillennium
lenniumB.C.,
B.C.,ed.
ed. by
byH.
H. Weiss
Weiss(Guilford,
(Guilford, Conn.:
Conn.: Four
Four Quarters
Quarters Publishing
Publishing Co.,
Co., 1986).
1986).

Foreword
Foreword

vant
vant opposed
opposed literature?
literature? Should
Should one
one note
note recent
recent research
research that
that
supports or
or contradicts
contradicts an
an interpretation
interpretation made
made in
in one
one of
of the
supports
the "lec"lectures"? In
In my
my opinion,
opinion, two
two arguments
arguments militated
militated against
against such
such interintertures"?
ference. First,
First, given
given the
the considerable
considerable time
and geographic
geographic areas
areas
time and
ference.
covered in
in this
collectively written
study of
of antiquity-literally
antiquityliterally
this collectively
written study
covered
stretching in
in time
time from
from Neolithic
origins to
to the
the fall
fall of
of Rome
Rome and
and in
in
stretching
Neolithic origins
space from
from the
the western
western Mediterranean
Mediterranean to
to East
East Asia-no
Asiano single
single editor
editor
space
could possibly
note all
all controversial
controversial areas
areas of
of interpretation.
interpretation. Collective
Collective
could
possibly note
editorship was
not feasible.
feasible. Second
Second and
and more
more important,
important, the
the docudocueditorship
was not
mentation required
required to
to address
address this
this problem
would change
change the
the characcharacproblem would
mentation
ter
of the
the work.
work. The
The introductory
introductory chapters
chapters of
of each
each volume
and all
all
ter of
volume and
the lectures
lectures are
are clearly
clearly synthetic
synthetic interpretations
interpretations of
of aa vast
vast corpus
corpus of
of
the
data. Final
truths never
never should
should be
be expected
expected in
in history,
and intelligent
intelligent
data.
Final truths
history, and
readers will
will immediately
immediately recognize
recognize that
that their
their approximation
approximation will
will be
be
readers
rougher
and less
less precise
in aa generalizing
generalizing work
of this
this kind.
kind. In
In aa
rougher and
precise in
work of
very few
few cases
cases II took
took the
the liberty
liberty of
of noting
noting some
some relevant
relevant research.
research.
very
These always
always occur
occur in
in the
the footnotes
footnotes and
and are
are marked
marked "Editor's
"Editor's note
note
These
(PLK)"; the
other, more
more numerous
instances designated
designated "Editor's
"Editor's
(PLK)";
the other,
numerous instances
note (IMD)"
(IMD)" refer
refer to
to additions
additions made
made by
the principal
principal Soviet
Soviet editor,
editor,
note
by the
I.M.
Diakonoff.
I.
M. Diakonoff.
One must
must not
not exaggerate
exaggerate the
the problem;
problem; nearly
nearly all
all of
of what
what is
is prepreOne
sented is consensually
consensually accepted
accepted by
by all
all historians.
historians. For
For the
remainder, it
it
sentedis
the remainder,
should suffice
suffice simply
simply to
to let
let the
the reader
reader beware
of these
these difficulties
difficulties at
at
beware of
should
the
the outset
outset and
and seek
seek on
on his
his or
or her
her own
own alternative
alternative perspectives
perspectives on
on parparticular topics
of interest.
interest.
ticular
topics of
Early Antiquity, volume 1 of
of The History of
of the
the Ancient
Ancient World,
World,isisaawork
work
written by
by aa group
group of
of historians
historians and
and linguists
linguists largely
largely working
working at
at the
the
written
Oriental Institute
Institute in
in Leningrad.
Leningrad. Difficulties
Difficulties associated
associated with
with collective
collective
Oriental
authorship are
are discussed
discussed in
in the
the Introduction,
Introduction, but
it is
is important
important to
to
authorship
but it
emphasize here
here that
that substantial
substantial differences
differences of
of interpretation
interpretation exist
exist
emphasize
even within
within this
this closely
closely collaborating
collaborating circle
circle of
of scholars.
scholars. Some
Some lectures
lectures
even
devote more,
more, some
some less,
less, space
space to
to straightforward
straightforward political
political history
history or
or
devote
cultural description.
description. Others
Others focus
focus more
more intensely
intensely on
on socioeconomic
socioeconomic
cultural
reconstruction.
Such diversity
diversity in
in perspective
and presentation,
presentation, of
of
reconstruction. Such
perspective and
course, may
may constitute
constitute more
more aa strength
strength than
than aa liability,
liability, and
and the
the reader
reader
course,
should evaluate
evaluate each
each lecture
lecture on
on its
its own.
own.
should
The
The historical/linguistic
historical/linguistic perspectives
perspectives of
of the
the authors
authors also
also should
should be
be
noted;
provides the
noted; we
we are
are told
told that
that the
the study
study of
of languages
languages provides
the key
key for
for
penetrating
the mental
processes or
or spiritual
spiritual world
of antiquity,
antiquity,
penetrating the
mental processes
world of
whereas
archaeological data,
data, the
the material
material culture
culture record,
record, often
often are
are
whereas archaeological
implicitly or
or even
even explicitly
explicitly regarded
regarded as
as of
of relatively
relatively limited
limited value
value for
for
implicitly
reconstructing the
socioeconomic structure
structure of
of ancient
ancient societies.
societies. Such
Such
reconstructing
the socioeconomic
perspective, of
of course,
course, has
has merit
merit and
and may
may indeed
indeed be
be more
more right
right than
than
aa perspective,
wrong,
but
again
caveat
lector.
wrong, but again caveat lector.

Foreword
Foreword

Xl
xi

Finally, the overall organization

lecorganization of the work, the sequence of lectures, should
should be mentioned: materials are presented
presented roughly in
chronological order, though each individual lecture treats separately
separately
chronological
a specific area of early civilization. Thus, fourth through early second
second
millennia
B.C.
developments
in
Egypt
are
presented
after
a
compamillennia B.C. developments in Egypt are presented after a comparable review
review of
of the
the early
early history
history of
of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia but
but before
before treattreatrable
ments of the beginnings of civilization in South Asia, Central Asia,
and, finally,
finally, East
East Asia.
Asia. Such
Such aa framework
framework is
is logical
logical and,
and, given
given the
the colcoland,
lective authorship, constitutes perhaps the only feasible structure.
However, by its very nature this structure tends to minimize historical
interconnections among
among separate
separate areas;
areas; it threatens to obscure the
the
interconnections
development in which all the sosingle "world historical" process of development
comprehensive history
cieties were involved. Thus, paradoxically, this comprehensive
of antiquity can be read from
from a perspective that stresses the internal
of
evolution of separate societies, each of which finally reaches the same
evolution
development (see below).
typological stage of development
fulfills
Despite this inherent, if not inevitable, limitation, the work fulfills
T h e format
format of the lectures, the
the periodization
periodization and
its main purpose. The
elucidated in the introductory
introductory lectures, and the guiding
guiding
typology elucidated
Diakonoff and the editorial board
board are all responsible for
hand
hand of Dr. Diakonoff
unified work; the fundamental
fundamental goal of presenting
presenting
the creation of a unified
the histories
histories of separate early civilizations as part of an integral or unithe
(vsemirnaya istoriya)
istoriya) is
is achieved, despite the
versal historical process (vsemirnaya
organizational
problems associated with collective authorship and organizational
framework. Certain questions, however, inevitably emerge and must
be addressed.
addressed. How
How are separate early states with their incipient
incipient class
be
anstructures temporally, typologically, and historically related to one ansatisfactory or complete is this canvas that purports to
to
other? How
How satisfactory
sketch in broad strokes the main features of the ancient world? What
study
is the vision of the past,
past, the view of history, that permeates this study
how does it conform
conform to or distinguish itself
itself from
from an orthodox
orthodox
and how
stage theory
theory of development? And,
finally, how
stage
And, finally,
how does this macrohistorical collective
collective Soviet
Soviet overview
overview compare
compare with
with the
the overviews
overviews of
of
historical
Western macrohistorians-be
macrohistoriansbe they
they explicitly
explicitly Marxist-inspired
Marxist-inspired or
or not?
not?
Western
Soviet Historiography on Antiquity: Common Problems,
Particular Solutions
An outside observer attempting to describe any complex "school" or
unified corpus of scholarship always confronts
confronts the doublerelatively unified
edged difficulty
difficulty of
of disentangling common features, more or less uniof the school, from those characteristics
versally shared by adherents of
difficulty is particuand concerns specific to individual scholars. This difficulty
larly pronounced when generalizations are made concerning Soviet

xii

Foreword
Foreword

scholarship, for
for the
the Western
Western observer
observer must
must be
be aware
aware of
of and
and somehow
somehow
scholarship,
consciously
prejudices that
consciously correct
correct for
for stereotypic
stereotypic prejudices
that permeate
permeate Western
Western
understanding of
of all
all things
things Soviet.
Soviet. One
One such
such grossly
grossly inaccurate,
inaccurate, albeit
albeit
understanding
all-pervasive,
all-pervasive, image
image is
is that
that of
of aa monolithic,
monolithic, dogmatic,
dogmatic, highly
highly enentrenched orthodoxy
orthodoxy to
which everyone
everyone submits
submits either
either through
through brainbraintrenched
to which
washing
washing or
or coercion.
coercion. Whether
Whether applied
applied to
to society
society at
at large
large or
or to
to aa
branch of
of scholarship,
scholarship, such
such as
as ancient
ancient history,
history, this
this image
image distorts
distorts realrealbranch
ity, actually
actually shedding
shedding more
more light
light on
on Western
prejudice than
than Soviet
Soviet
Western prejudice
ity,
practice.
is also
legitimate to
of rerealso legitimate
to describe
describe national
national traditions
traditions of
practice. Yet,
Yet, it
it is
search in
in the
the historical
historical sciences,
sciences, and
and Soviet
Soviet scholars
scholars themselves
themselves conconsearch
sciously refer
refer to
to "the
"the Soviet
Soviet school
school of
of economic
economic historians
historians of
of the
the
sciously
ancient Orient"3-a
Orient"3a phrase
phrase that
explicitly acknowledges
acknowledges the
the existence
existence
ancient
that explicitly
of such
such aa school
school and,
and, correspondingly,
correspondingly, some
some commonality
commonality of
of interest
interest
of
or approach
approach that
that defines
defines it.
it.
or
the features
Before
Before attempting
attempting to
to list
list some
some of
of the
features characteristic
characteristic of
of
Soviet
Soviet writings
writings on
on antiquity,
antiquity, one
one first
first must
must demolish
demolish the
the aboveabovementioned
mentioned caricature.
caricature. Soviet
Soviet historical
historical and
and social
social science
science writings
writings
abound
abound in
in polemic,
polemic, sharply
sharply contested
contested points
points of
of view,
view, the
the articulation
articulation
of
uninitiated Western
readers. As
of which
which often
often shocks
shocks uninitiated
Western readers.
As illustration
illustration of
of
this
penchant for
within Soviet
this penchant
for polemic
polemic within
Soviet historiography
historiography on
on antiquity,
antiquity,
one
were featured
major Soviet
one can
can cite
cite two
two recent
recent debates
debates that
that were
featured in
in major
Soviet
Vestnikdrevnei
drevneiistorii
istorii
[The
journal
of ancient
history]
devoted
journals.
[The
journal
of ancient
history]
devoted
journals. Vestnik
several issues
issues44 to
to the
the presentation
presentation and
and criticism
criticism of
of aa new,
new, detailed
detailed linlinseveral
guistic theory
theory purporting
purporting to
to reconstruct
reconstruct Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European lanlanguistic
guage and
and culture.
culture. Disagreements
Disagreements ran
ran deep
deep and
and were
baldly
guage
were baldly
NarodyAzii
Aziii iAfriki
Afriki[Peoples
[Peoples
expressed. Similarly,
Similarly, two
two recent
recent issues
issues of
of Narody
expressed.
of Asia
Asia and
and Africa]
Africa] (1984,
(1984, nos.
nos. 2-3)
2-3) presented
presented aa roundtable
roundtable discusdiscusof
sion (kruglyi
(kruglyistoll
stol)onon"the
"thestate
stateand
andlaw
lawininthe
theancient
ancientEast"
East"led
ledbybyV.V.A.A.
sion
5
5 Many
EarlyAntiquity.
Antiquity.
Manyfascinating
fascinating
Jakobson, one
one of
of the
the contributors
contributors to
to Early
Jakobson,
issues were
were raised
raised in
in this
this discussion,
discussion, some
some of
of which
which are
are also
also discussed
discussed
issues
in The
The History
Historyofofthe
theAncient
Ancient
World:
including
origins
of law;
World:
including
the the
origins
of law;
the the
re- rein
3.
Ancient
3. See
See I.
I. M.
M. Diakonoff's
Diakonoff's prefatory
prefatory remarks
remarks to
to his
his edited
edited volume
volume in
in English
English Ancient
(Moscow:Nauka,
Nauka,1969).
1969).
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (Moscow:
4.
1980,
no. no.
3; 1981,
no. no.
2; 1982,
nos.nos.
3-4;
andand
1984,
no. no.
2. 2.
4. Vestnik
Vestnikdrevnei
drevneiistorii,
istorii,
1980,
3; 1981,
2; 1982,
3-4;
1984,
pubFortunately,
Fortunately, these
these and
and related
related articles
articles have
have been
been translated
translated into
into English,
English, initially
initially published in Soviet Studies in History 22, nos. 1-2
1-2 (1983), and in Soviet Anthropology and
Archeology
22
(1984),
V.V.
GamArcheology23,23,no.
no.
(1984),and
andsubsequentiyreprinted
subsequently reprintedwith
withthe
theresponse
responseofT.
of T.
GamV. V.
V. Ivanov
Ivanov to
to I.I. M.
M. Diakonoff's
Diakonoff's criticisms
criticisms in
in Journal
Journal of
of Indo-European
Indo-European
krelidze and
and V.
krelidze
Studies13,
13,nos.
nos.1-2
1-2 (1985).
(1985).An
AnEnglish
Englishtranslation
translationof
ofthe
thedefinitive
definitivestatement
statementof
ofGamGamStudies
yazyk ii indoevropeitsi:
indoevropeitsi:Rekonstruktsiya
Rekonstruktsiyai iistorikoistorikothesis, Indoevropeiskii
Indoevropeiskii yazyk
krelidze and Ivanov's thesis,
typologicheskiianaliz
analizprayazyka
prayazykai protokul'tury
i protokuVtury[Indo-European
[Indo-Europeanand
andthe
theIndo-Europeans:
Indo-Europeans:AA
typologicheskii
reconstruction and
and aa historical-typological
historical-typological analysis
analysis of
of aa proto-language
proto-language and
and aa protoprotoreconstruction
culture] (2
(2 vols.,
vols., Tbilisi,
Tbilisi, 1984),
1984), is
is currently
currently being
being prepared.
prepared.
culture]
5. Fortunately,
Fortunately, this
this was
was also
also translated
translated and
and appeared
appeared in
in Soviet
SovietAnthropology
Anthropology
Arche5.
andand
Archeology24,
24,no.
no.44(1986);
(1986);and
and25,
25,no.
no.44(1987).
(1987).
ology

Foreword

Xlll
xiii

lationship or relative dependence/independence

dependence/independence between religion
and ethical and moral norms, on the one hand, and law or legal justice, on the other; culturally based differences
differences in the expression of
of
law, which is defined
defined in classic Marxist terms as written codes that express and sanction the interests of
of the ruling class. During this discusdifferent source materials, differed
differed sharply
sion, specialists, utilizing different
in their views on fundamental
fundamental questions of
of interpretation;
interpretation; similarly
structured presentations with rebuttals in Western jounals may wan in
structured
of this debate.
comparison to the tone and tenor of
One of
of the major points of contention in this roundtable discussion
on ancient law also forms the major theoretical question addressed in
Early Antiquity:
Antiquity:namely,
namely,the
thedistinctiveness
distinctivenessofofhishisthe Introduction to Early
torical development in the East relative to the West (i.e., for antiquityclassical Greece and Rome). There is no reason to recapitulate
uity-classical
of scholarly writings on this seemingly timeless, perenthe history of
nially recurring question; the summary in the Introduction sketches
its main contours quite adequately, though it also may partially misunfamiliar reader. The Introduction discusses the debate
lead the unfamiliar
over the distinctiveness of the East, the phenomenon of Oriental desof the Marxist concept of
of an Asiatic mode of
of propotism, the validity of
formulated and today still
duction, and so on, as a problem intially formulated
of Soviet
scholarship.6 In its review of
raging primarily within Western scholarship.6
writings on the subject, the Introduction is uncharacteristically mild,
intentionally conciliatory,
conciliatory, as
as it
it glosses
glosses over
over very
very real
real and
and profound
profound
intentionally
differences among Soviet scholars that appear regularly-indeed,
regularlyindeed,
differences
The History
ofthe
theAnAnwith increasing
increasing frequency-in
frequencyin their
their literature.
literature.77 The
with
History of
cient World
World aims
aims atat presenting
presenting developments
developments inin antiquity
antiquity asas part
part of
of
cient
single, unified
unified process-the
processthe universal
universal history
history of
of humanity;
humanity; its
its intent
intent
aa single,
is to
to emphasize
emphasize the
the common,
common, shared
shared features
features at
at the
the expense
expense of
of the
the
is
particular
and, in
in so
so doing,
doing, lump
lump together
together disparate
disparate civilizations
civilizations into
into
particular and,
similar typological
typological categories.
categories. From
From this
this perspective,
perspective, classical
classical Greece
Greece
similar
and Rome
Rome theoretically
theoretically must
must resemble
resemble ancient
ancient Near
Near Eastern
Eastern civiliand
civilizations.
zations.
The disagreements within Soviet historiography on such fundafunda6.
6. One
One might
might add
add that
that today
today this
this debate
debate in
in the
the West
West experiences
experiences perhaps
perhaps its
its clearest
clearest
manifestation in
battle raging
raging over
manifestation
in the
the battle
over the
the question
question of
of Western
Western scholarship
scholarship on
on the
the East,
East,
the phenomenon
phenomenon of
the
of Orientalism
Orientalism or
or disciplines
disciplines that
that took
took shape
shape under,
under, and
and presumably
presumably
by their
their association
association with,
with, Western
Western colonial
colonial rule,
rule, the
the resulresulwere permanently
permanently affected
affected by
were
tant image
image being
that of
tant
being that
of aa distinctive,
distinctive, unchanging,
unchanging, and
and monolithic
monolithic Orient.
Orient. See
See E.
E. W.
W.
Said,
Orientalism(New
(NewYork:
York:Random
RandomHouse,
House,1978).
1978).
Said, Orientalism
7.
7. For
For aa thorough
thorough review
review of
of the
the earlier
earlier Soviet
Soviet debate
debate on
on the
the Asiatic
Asiatic mode
mode ofproducof production
from its
its appearance
appearance in
in the
the thirties
thirties through
through the
the sixties
sixties and
and early
early seventies,
seventies, see
see S.
S. P.P.
tion from
Dunn,
The Fall
Falland
andRise
Riseofofthethe
Asiatic
Asiatic
Mode
Mode
of Production
of Production
(Boston:
(Boston:
Routledge
Routledge
and Kegan
and Kegan
Dunn, The
Paul,
1982).
Paul, 1982).

XIV
xiv

Foreword
Foreword

mental issues
of interpretation,
real; and
mental
issues of
interpretation, however,
however, are
are real;
and it
it is
is healthy
healthy
that they
they are
are debated
debated openly
openly in
in their
their literature.
literature. Those
Those who
who have
folthat
have followed
English translations
translations of
of several
several of
of Diakonoff's
Diakonoff's major
major theoretical
theoretical
lowed English
studies on
on the
the private/communal
private/communal sector
sector in
in ancient
ancient Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, the
the
studies
nature of
the dependent
phenomenon of
nature
of the
dependent labor
labor force,
force, and
and the
the phenomenon
of "helots"
"helots"
in early
early antiquity,
that his
interpretations
in
antiquity, for
for example,
example, will
will also
also realize
realize that
his interpretations
have
have been
been critcized
critcized (almost
(almost predictably)
by Soviet
Soviet theorists
theorists and
and histopredictably) by
historians,
Georgian scholar
scholar G.
G. A.
Melikishvili, whose
whose
A. Melikishvili,
rians, particularly
particularly by
by the
the Georgian
mentioned only
The disdiscriticisms
criticisms are
are mentioned
only in
in passing
passing in
in the
the Introduction.
Introduction.8s The
agreement between
scholars continues,
continues, as
as reflected
reflected in
agreement
between these
these two
two scholars
in
Melikishvili's
summary article
article "Ob
"Ob osnovnykh
etapakh razviMelikishvili's recent
recent summary
osnovnykh etapakh
razvitiya
drevnego blizhnevostochnogo
obshchestva" [On
[On the
basic stages
stages
blizhnevostochnogo obshchestva"
the basic
tiya drevnego
of the
development of
of ancient
ancient Near
Eastern societiesJ,9
societies],9 which,
which, among
among
of
the development
Near Eastern
other points,
attacks the
the periodization
periodization of
of antiquity
antiquity presented
in The
other
points, attacks
presented in
The
Historyof
ofthe
theAncient
AncientWorld.
World.
Other
issues
of contention
include
scale
History
Other
issues
of contention
include
thethe
scale
and significance
significance of
of the
the so-called
so-called private/communal
private/communal sector
sector in
in third
third miland
millennium B.C.
B.C. Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and
and the
the related
of the
the relative
relative
lennium
related problem
problem of
size and
and dominance
dominance of
of the
temple/state sector
sector in
in early
early Near
Eastern
the temple/state
Near Eastern
size
irrigation civilizations;
civilizations; the
the character
character of
of the
the later
later military
military states
states of
of the
the
irrigation
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. (or
(or Diakonoff's
Diakonoff's "third
"third way
way of
of development,"
development,"
second
see Lecture
Lecture 1);
1); the
the nature
nature of
of the
the classical
classical Greek
Greek polis
compared with
with
polis compared
see
contemporary and
and later
later Near
Eastern cities;
cities; and
and property
property relations
in
contemporary
Near Eastern
relations in
classical Greece
Greece and
and Rome
Rome and
and how
should be
distinguished
how they
they should
be distinguished
classical
from those
those present
in Near
Near Eastern
societies. The
The interested
interested reader
reader
from
present in
Eastern societies.
should consult
consult Melikishvili's
Melikishvili's cited
cited works
and contrast
contrast his
interpretashould
works and
his interpretations with
with the
the overview
overview presented
in The
The History
Historyofofthe
theAncient
Ancient
World.
presented in
World.
tions
Here, one
one should
should only
only be
be aware
aware that
that the
the debate
debate on
on fundamental
fundamental quesquesHere,
tions
of interpretation
interpretation both
both outside
outside and
and within
Soviet Union
conwithin the
the Soviet
Union contions of
tinues and
and that
that The
The History
of the
the Ancient
World provides
provides only
only aa
tinues
History of
Ancient World
particular
on aa vast
vast corpus
corpus of
of data,
data, aa particular
reading set
set
particular perspective
perspective on
particular reading
forth
in
a
logically
consistent,
economical,
and
readable
form.
forth in a logically consistent, economical; and readable form.
If
what then
If answers
answers to
to fundamental
fundamental questions
questions differ,
differ, what
then unites
unites Soviet
Soviet
Can one
refer to
historical writings
writings on
historical
on antiquity?
antiquity? Can
one legitimately
legitimately refer
to aa Soviet
Soviet
school of
of economic
economic historians
of the
the ancient
ancient world?
It is insufficient
insufficient
historians of
world? !tis
school
8.
the Ancient
in
8. Contrast,
Contrast, e.g.,
e.g., I.
I. M.
M. Diakonoff's
Diakonoff's "The
"The Commune
Commune in
in the
Ancient East
East as
as Treated
Treated in
the Works
Researchers," Soviet
andand
Archeology
2, no.2,2no.
(1963),
and and
SovietAnthropology
Anthropology
Archeology
2 (1963),
the
Works of
of Soviet
Soviet Researchers,"
"Slaves,
andand
Archeology
15, nos.
"Slaves, Helots,
Helots, and
and Serfs
Serfs in
in Early
Early Antiquity,"
Antiquity," Soviet
SovietAnthropology
Anthropology
Archeology
15, nos.
2-3
(1976), with
with G.
A. Melikishvili's
the Most
2 - 3 (1976),
G. A.
Melikishvili's studies:
studies: "On
"On the
the Character
Character of
of the
Most Ancient
Ancient
Class
Introduction totoSoviet
Ethnography,
ed. ed.
by S.byP.S.Dunn
and and
E. Dunn,
Soviet
Ethnography,
P. Dunn
E. Dunn,
Class Societies,"
Societies," in
in Introduction
vol. 2,
vol.
2, pp.
pp. 549-73
549-73 (Berkeley:
(Berkeley: Highgate
Highgate Road
Road Social
Social Science
Science Research
Research Station,
Station, 1974);
1974);
"The
SovietAnthropolAnthropol"The Character
Character of
of the
the Socio-economic
Socio-economic Structure
Structure in
in the
the Ancient
Ancient East,"
East," Soviet
ogy and
15,15,
nos.nos.
2-32-3
(1976);
andand
"Some
Aspects
of the
Question
ofthe
Socioogy
andArcheology
Archeology
(1976);
"Some
Aspects
of the
Question
of the
Socioeconomic
Ancient Near
Near Eastern
Eastern Societies,"
Anthropology and
and
economic Structure
Structure of
of Ancient
Societies," Soviet
Soviet Anthropology
Archeology 17,17,
no.
Archeology
no.I (1978).
1 (1978).
9.
istorii,
1985,
no. no.
4. 4.
Vestnikdrevnei
drevnei
istorii,
1985,
9. Vestnik

Foreword
Foreword

xv
xv

simply to label Soviet scholarship on the ancient world as Marxist or to

common denominator
find a common
denominator in historical materialism as an answer to
these questions for, at least, two reasons. First, not all Soviet historians
are Marxists,
Marxists, though
though it probably would be fair to say that those who
are
who
are not
Marxists, have
pursued their
their historical
historical researches
researches without
without
are
not Marxists,
have pursued
challenging Marx's
Marx's or Lenin's writings,
indeed often
often without referring
referring
writings, indeed
challenging
paradigm and its classic literature at all. That
That is, the debatesdebates
to this paradigm
occasionally vitriolic-that
vitriolicthat have
have occurred
occurred and continue to rage in the
occasionally
the
whether or
Soviet literature have taken place within recognized limits; whether
as self-circumscribed
self-circumscribed in the future
future
not Soviet historical writings will be as
whether this silence or
is unclear, though it, at least, is questionable whether
default by omission will continue as Soviet society evolves and accepts
default
and openly debates more of its own
own internal contradications.
and
Second, as any observer
observer of Western Marxism immediately recognizes, not all Marxists, including Soviet historians, interpret
interpret Marx and
his successors in the same fashion. In the
the West, tremendous, at times
differences exist among scholars professing
professing to write
irreconcilable, differences
within the Marxist tradition;IO
tradition; 10 in the Soviet Union, this tendency may
may
be muted, but it is still possible to detect differences,
find
differences, and one may find
interpretations
relatively more deterministic or vulgar materialistic interpretations
emphasizing the more voluntaristic, class struggle
alongside others emphasizing
side of Marxism.
The
shared interests and
T h e Introduction
Introduction to Early Antiquity stresses the shared
common
common perspectives of the numerous contributors to The History of
of
the Ancient
Ancient World,
World, asserting that it was
was the conscious decision of the
editorial board
particular approach
board to select scholars sharing a particular
approach or oriorientation to historical data. This claim too should be tempered
tempered someinsofar as it is fair to judge
judge the orientation
orientation of specific
specific
what, at least insofar
contributors in terms of their other
other published works.
contributors
A. Dandamaev, a contributor
contributor to volvolFor example, the views of M. A.
ume 2 of The
Ancient World,
The History of the Ancient
World, The
The Florescence
Florescence of
ofAncient
Ancient
Societies,
Societies,on
onthe
theslave-owning
slave-owningcharacter
characterofofNeo-Babylonian
Neo-Babylonianand
andAchaeAchaemenian societies differ
differ markedly from the long-accepted, more orthoof Diakonoff
Diakonoff that more or less slavelike dependents were
dox position of
major exploited labor force throughout all periods of
of antiquity.
the m~or
The contrast is explicitly drawn by Dandamaev in his recently transSlavery in
in Babylonia:
Babylonia: From
From Nabopolassar
to Alexander
the Great
lated Slavery
Nabopolassar to
Alexander the
Great
(626-331 B.C):
(626-331
B.C.):
Slavery never reached in Babylonia such a degree of
of developof slave labor as having the leading
ment that one can speak of
10.
10. For
For divisions
divisions within
within Western
Western Marxism,
Marxism, see
see P.
P. Anderson's
Anderson's fine
fine studies:
studies: ConsideraConsiderations of Western
Western Marxism (London: NLB,
NLB, 1976), Arguments
Arguments within English
English Marxism (Lon(LonNLB, 1983).
don: NLB,
NLB, 1980), and In the Tracks
Tracks of
of Historical Materialism (London: NLB,

XVI
xvi

Foreword
Foreword

role
role in
in the
the economy.
economy. Slave
Slave labor
labor was
was only
only one
one of
of several
several types
types
of forced
forced labor
labor and
and not
always the
the most
significant.....
. . . That
That
of
not always
most significant
there
was no
predominance of
branch of
of
there was
no predominance
of slave
slave labor
labor in
in any
any branch
the
Babylonian economy
economy is
is not
the main
more imporimporthe Babylonian
not the
main point;
point; more
tant is
is that
that labor
labor in
in agriculture
agriculture was
was furnished
furnished primarily
tant
primarily by
by
free farmers
farmers and
and tenants
labor also
also dominated
dominated
free
tenants and
and that
that free
free labor
in craft
craft industriesY
industries.11
in

Certainly, not
not all
all the
the contributors
contributors consider
consider themselves
themselves represenrepresenCertainly,
tatives of
of aa particular
"school," though,
though, as
as noted,
noted, it
it is
is not
not without
without inintatives
particular "school,"
terest for
for both
theoretical and
and obviously
obviously practical
reasons that
that nearly
nearly
terest
both theoretical
practical reasons
all the
in Leningrad.
Leningrad. Dr.
Dr. DiakonofI
Diakonoff and
and his
his edithe contributors
contributors work
work in
ediall
torial board
board have
have chosen
chosen scholars
scholars whom
they personally
have known
known
torial
whom they
personally have
and collaborated
collaborated with
with for
for years.
years. Given
Given this
this context,
context, it
it would
would be
be sursurand
prising
if one
one could
could not
not detect
detect certain
certain common
common themes
themes and
and frameframeprising if
works
for understanding
understanding the
characterize the
works of
of this
this
works for
the past
past that
that characterize
the works
Leningrad circle
circle of
of historians
historians of
of the
the ancient
ancient world.
world.
Leningrad
Even outside
outside this
this circle,
circle, within
Soviet historiography
as aa whole,
Even
within Soviet
historiography as
whole,
one can
can detect
detect aa common
common sense
sense of
of problem,
common arena
arena of
of dedeone
problem, aa common
bate
that unites
scholars as
as sharply
sharply opposed
opposed as
Diakonoff and
and
bate that
unites scholars
as DiakonofI
Melikishvili. Here,
Here, reference
reference to
reading of
of Marx
Marx is
is approapproMelikishvili.
to aa particular
particular reading
priate.
Melikishvili writes
that
priate. Melikishvili
writes that
in order
order to
to arrive
arrive at
at aa characterization
characterization of
of the
the socioeconomic
socioeconomic
in
system of
of any
any society,
society, it
it is
is quite
quite important
important to
to identify
identify its
its class
system
class
structure, particularly
particularly the
the status
status of
of the
the direct
direct producers.
producers.
structure,
However, one
one must
must not
not forget
forget that
the class
class structure
structure of
of sothat the
soHowever,
ciety is
is itself
itself derivative
derivative and
and depends
depends on
on the
the division
division of
of labor
labor
ciety
operative in
in that
that society-the
societythe economic
economic base,
base, the
the fundamenfundamenoperative
tal expression
expression of
of which
which is
is property
relationships.....
. . .since
tal
property relationships
since it
it
is the
the economic
economic basethe
totality of
of the
the relationships
relationships of
of prois
base-the totality
productionthat
defines aa system
system (society),
(society), it
it will
understood
duction-that defines
will be
be understood
that one
one system
system may
may be
be distinguished
distinguished from
from another
another above
above all
that
all
in terms
terms of
of that
that base,
of the
the relationships
relationships of
of production,
production,
in
base, of
which,
in the
words of
of Marx,
are expressed
expressed in
in property
relawhich, in
the words
Marx, are
property relations. Proceeding
Proceeding from
from this
this assumption,
assumption, researchers
researchers are
are enentions.
11.
by v.
11. Trans.
Trans, by
V. A.
A. Powell,
Powell, ed.
ed. by
by M.
M. Powell
Powell (co-editor
(co-editor D.
D.B.
B. Weisberger),
Weisberger), (DeKalb:
(DeKalb:
Press, 1984),
1984), p.
p. 660.
660. Also,
Also, see
see his
his review
review of
of the
the slave-owning
slave-owning
Northern Illinois
Illinois University
University Press,
Northern
debate in
in Soviet
Soviet Orientalist
Orientalist literature
literature through
through 1977,
1977, "Problemy
"Problemy istorii
istorii drevnevostochdrevnevostochdebate
nykh obshchestv
obshchestv vv trudakh
trudakh sovetskikh
sovetskikh vostokovedov
vostokovedov (1967
(1967-1977
gg.)" [Problems
[Problems of
of the
the
nykh
-1977 gg.)"
history of
of ancient
ancient Eastern
Eastern societies
societies in
in the
the works
of Soviet
Soviet Orientalists
Orientalists (1967-1977)],
works of
(1967-1977)],
history
Vestnikdrevnei
drevneiistorii,
istorii,
1977,
4. For
a recent
defense
of the
slave-owning
concept
Vestnik
1977,
no. no.
4. For
a recent
defense
of the
slave-owning
concept
theAncient
AncientWorld,
World,
F. Il'yin,
"Drevneby
another contributor
contributor to
The History
to The
History ofofthe
see see
G. F.G.I1'yin,
"Drevneby another
vostochnoe obshchestvo
obshchestvo ii problemy
problemy ego
ego sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi
sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi struktury"
struktury" [Ancient
[Ancient
vostochnoe
Eastern society
society and
and the
the problem
problem of
of its
its socioeconomic
socioeconomic structure],
structure], Vestnik
Vestnikdrevnei
drevnei
istorii,
Eastern
istorii,
1983, no.
no. 3.
3.
1983,

Foreword

xvii

tirely justified
justified in recognizing
recogmzmg property relationships as the
system-forming
system-forming element of
of a given society.12
society.12
This is developed from a straightforward,
straightforward, unambiguous interpretaof Marx's famous "Introduction" to A Contribution
ContributiontotothetheCritique
Critique
tion of
of of
Political
Political Economy
Economy
and
and
summarizes
summarizes
thethe
orthodox,
orthodox,
oror
classic,
classic,
Marxism
Marxism
es-esof antiquity. Certain emphapoused by most Soviet Marxist historians of
ses, however, are apparent. The primary task of the historian is to
characterize
the
socioeconomic
system
a society.
Thus,
there
a concharacterize
the
socioeconomic
system
ofof
a society.
Thus,
there
is is
a concern for definition, a need to construct a typology that reduces the
bewildering kaleidoscopic array of
of historical data into a manageable,
understandable
whole.
Primary
effort
is expended
expended on
on defining
defining stages
stages
understandable whole. Primary effort is
of development and describing their characteristics; less energy is deof
voted to explaining processes of
of change or how societies evolve from
from
one developmental stage to another. The Marxism shared by many
Soviet historians of
of antiquity is certainly not vulgarly materialist in the
of reducing social complexity to features of
of the environment
environment or
sense of
of
of explaining institutions in terms of
of the functions they perform
perform to
solve problems ultimately posed by nature. Nor is theirs a Marxism
of production. The general disemphasizing changes in the forces of
13
of archaeological data already has been noted;
paragement of
noted;13
while
mentioned, technological
technological developments
developments are
are not
not emphasized
emphasized relative
relative
mentioned,
to the
the reconstruction
reconstruction of
of social
social groups
groups in
in terms
terms of
of their
their access
access to
to means
means
to
of production.
The concern,
concern, quite
quite properly,
properly, is
is with
with the
the recoristruction
reconstruction
of
production. The
of direct
direct primary
primary production,
production, which
which for
for antiquity
antiquity always
always meant
meant agriagriof
cultural productionthus,
the emphasis
emphasis on
on the
the critical
critical variables
variables of
cultural
production-thus, the
of
landownership and
and land
land use.
landownership
use.
theAncient
Ancient
World
As the reader soon will discover, The History
History ofofthe
World
is is
not a speculative accouI:1t
account but a rich summary based on the distillation
of primary source materials. Most contributors are internationally
of
known specialists in their fields, and their lectures here detail current
historical knowledge. As emphasized in the Introduction, however,
often are so incomplete that they cansource materials for antiquity often
not serve as the sole basis for reconstruction, and consequently, the
of the authors help them fill
theoretical perspectives of
fill in the lacunae
and guide
guide them
consciously or
or not
not in
in fleshing
out their
their portraits
and
them consciously
fleshing out
portraits of
of
past
societies and
and epochs.
epochs. One
One aid
aid frequently
frequently employed
employed in
in this
this task
task is
past societies
is
the use
use of
of an
an evolutionary
evolutionary theory
theory that
its Marxist
Marxist origins
origins in
in F.
the
that finds
finds its
F.
12.
A. Melikishvili,
the Questions
the Socioeconomic
12. C.
G. A.
Melikishvili, "Some
"Some Aspects
Aspects of
of the
Questions of
of the
Socioeconomic StrucStructure of
Ancient Near
Near Eastern
Eastern Societies,"
p. 26.
26.
of Ancient
Societies," p.
ture
to contrast
the once-popular
13.
13. It
It is
is instructive,
instructive, for
for example,
example, to
contrast the
once-popular summary
summary of
of ancient
ancient
to the
the fall
fall of
of Rome
What Happened
HappenedininHistory,
History,
written
Marxist
archaeolohistory to
history
Rome What
written
by by
thethe
Marxist
archaeoloGordon Childe
(rev. ed.
with that
gist
ed. [London:
[London: Penquin
Penquin Books,
Books, 1954),
1954), with
that presented
presented
gist V.
V. Gordon
Childe (rev.
here by
Soviet Marxist
Marxist linguists/historians.
linguists/historians.
here
by Soviet

XVlll
xviii

Foreword
Foreword

Engels, Origin
Origin of
of the
the Family,
Family, Private
Private Property,
Property,and
andthe
theState.
State.For
Forthe
theWestWestern
particular evolutionern reader,
reader, the
the terminology
terminology associated
associated with
with this
this particular
evolutionary perspective
may have
have aa slight
slight anachronistic
anachronistic ring.
For example,
example, in
in
ary
perspective may
ring. For
the
the second
second section
section of
of Lecture
Lecture 1,
1, we
we read
read that
that "accelerating
"accelerating progress
progress
distinguishes the
the early
early class
class society
society from
from barbarism,
barbarism, the
level that
that
distinguishes
the level
even
the most
primitive society
even the
most developed
developed primitive
society cannot
cannot exceed."
exceed." Societies
Societies
are ranked
on an
an ascending
ascending scala
societatis,
and
it may
always
are
ranked on
scala societatis,
and
it may
notnot
always
be be
clear how
they can
mutate or
or so
so transform
in order
order to
be
clear
how they
can mutate
transform themselves
themselves in
to be
classified at
at aa new
new evolutionary
evolutionary level.
classified
level.
Evolutionary
theory also
the basis
basis for
Evolutionary theory
also sometimes
sometimes serves
serves as
as the
for reconreconstruction when
are silent.
silent. For
his controversial
controversial interpretation
interpretation
struction
when the
the texts
texts are
For his
of aa large
large and
and important
economic sector
sector in
in third
third
of
important private/communal
private/communal economic
millennium
Mesopotamia, Diakonoff
Diakonoff utilizes
utilizes aa variety
variety of
of arguargumillennium B.C.
B.C. Mesopotamia,
ments,
one of
is based
based principally
principally on
on his
his understanding
of the
the
ments, one
of which
which is
understanding of
final stage
stage of
of advanced
advanced patriarchal
barbarism:
final
patriarchal barbarism:

In
the medieval
In the
the same
same way
way as
as the
medieval society
society inherited
inherited certain
certain
the ancient
features
features of
of the
the ancient
ancient society
society structure,
structure, the
ancient society
society
did also
certain still
more ancient
did
also inherit
inherit certain
still more
ancient structures
structures from
from the
the
society
which preceded
Arising from
the. primitive
primitive presociety which
preceded it.
it. Arising
from the
preurban, pre-class
pre-class society,
the ancient
ancient society
not have
urban,
society, the
society could
could not
have
been divided
and slaves;
the numerbeen
divided solely
solely into
into slave-owners
slave-owners and
slaves; the
numerically
predominant part
of the
ically predominant
part of
the population
population could
could not
not fail
fail to
to
had been
been inherited
the mass
consist
consist of
of what
what had
inherited from
from the
mass of
of the
the
population of
the pre-class
pre-class society
mass
population
of the
society.....
. . . it
it certainly
certainly was
was aa mass
of
personally free
of personally
free persons,
persons, at
at least
least in
in so
so far
far as
as the
the family
family
heads
14
heads were
were concerned.
concerned.14
Although the
texts themselves
us that
the case,
case,
Although
the texts
themselves do
do not
not inform
inform us
that this
this was
was the
such aa mass
mass of
of free
free citizens
citizens theoretically
theoretically must
such
must have
have continued
continued to
to exist
exist
during
during the
the time
time when
when the
the state
state and
and temple
temple sectors
sectors first
first slowly
slowly develdeveloped;
oped; later
later it
it was
was the
the impoverished
impoverished members
members of
of this
this citizenry
citizenry who
who
hired themselves
themselves out
the large
hired
out as
as laborers
laborers for
for the
large centralized
centralized economies.
economies.
The
to question
this reconstruction,
may seem
logiThe point
point is
is not
not to
question this
reconstruction, which
which may
seem logical and
basis: aa vision
vision
cal
and convincing,
convincing, but
but to
to emphasize
emphasize its
its epistemological
epistemological basis:
of preclass
society that
that is
from Engels's
Engels's Origin,
of
preclass society
is derived
derived ultimately
ultimately from
Origin,
though bolstered,
though
bolstered, of
of course,
course, with
with later
later historical
historical and
and ethnographic
ethnographic
evidence.
evidence.
Evolutionary teminology
teminology permeates
the created
Evolutionary
permeates the
created ordering
ordering of
of antiqantiquity.
different "ways
uity. We
We are
are presented
presented with
with different
"ways of
of development"
development" along
along
which
which preclass
preclass societies
societies evolved
evolved into
into stratified
stratified states.
states. Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
and Egypt
distinguished and
and both
are separated
separated from
the
and
Egypt are
are thus
thus distinguished
both are
from the
military
states (Hittite,
(Hittite, Mitannian,
etc.) that
arose later
later outside
irmilitary states
Mitannian, etc.)
that arose
outside the
the ir14.
Ancient Near
14. 1.
I. M.
M. Diakonoff,
Diakonoff, "The
"The Rural
Rural Community
Community in
in the
the Ancient
Near East,"
East," Journal
Journalof
ofthe
the
Economic and Social History of
of the Orient 28, part
part 2 (1985): 122.

XIX
xix

Foreword
Foreword

rigated heartlands of
rigated
of the Nile and Euphrates valleys. On the one
from history, transcending strict
hand, these types are abstracted
abstracted from
chronological limits:
chronological
. . . societies belonging typologically to early antiquity do
do
...
not necessarily arise only in the chronological
chronological framework
framework of
of
the classical ancient
ancient Orierit:
Orient: in certain places the same tyB.C. andpology can also be traced in the first millennium
millennium B.C.
and
albeit for a short timein
time-in the first millennium
millennium A.D.,
A.D., as, for
for
instance, in northern
northern and eastern Europe. In the tropics, in
mountainous
mountainous zones, and in piedmont
piedmont regions, the same typology may linger and even reemerge as late as the second
I5
half
half of
of the second millennium
millennium A.D.
A.D. 15

On
and make
On the other
other hand, specific
specific discussions always emphasize and
clear that the factor
factor of
of time-the
timethe period
period when early states emerge-is
emergeis
millennium military states (or
crucial. In reference
reference to the later second millennium
of development), Diakonoff
Diakonoff writes that
third way of
his third
the fact that these societies took longer
longer to attain the level ofa
of a
class society and of
of civilization gave Egypt and Lower Mesopotamia the time to exert a powerful
powerful cultural influence
potamia
influence on
these areas-an
areasan influence
influence aimed precisely at strengthening
strengthening
I6
.
the authority of
of temples and of
of the royal power.16
These "types," thus, are related to one another
another historically (i.e., they
mutually influence
influence one another), as, undoubtedly, also would be true
true
for
for which we cannot
their early ways
for areas for
cannot adequately
adequately reconstruct
reconstruct their
of development
development from
from the available historical evidence (e.g., India
India and
of
China).
The
T h e question arises as to whether
whether or
or not an unnecessary
unnecessary tension has
fostered between
between the historical account and the abstracted
abstracted
been fostered
evolutionary
evolutionary types. Are the latter really necessary for writing a uniT h e purpose
purpose they serve must be the simplification
simplification and
versal history? The
ordering
but their use exacts the price (reinforced
ordering of
of data, but
(reinforced by the organizational framework
framework of
of the work) of
of minimizing the historical relaganizational
tionships and
and interconnections
interconnections among the separate societies that
transformed
of the same
transformed themselves into states during the course of
"world-historical" time.
Marxism and Beyond: The Missing Dialogue
The
World
does
notnot
concern
itself
solely
with
thethe
The History
Historyofofthe
theAncient
Ancient
World
does
concern
itself
solely
with
reconstruction
reconstruction of
of socioeconomic
socioeconomic systems.
systems. Its
Its Marxism
Marxism is
is not
not the
the crude
crude
15.
p.46.
15. Lecture
Lecture 1,
1, p.
46.
16.
p.45.
16. Lecture
Lecture 1,
1, p.
45.

xx

Foreword
Foreword

variety
that cleanly
base from
of
variety that
cleanly separates
separates phenomena
phenomena of
of the
the base
from those
those of
the superstructure.
superstructure. Some
Some of
of the
the most
most fascinating
fascinating sections
sections attempt
attempt to
to
the
reconstruct
ancient thought:
mythologies, worldviews,
early systems
systems
reconstruct ancient
thought: mythologies,
world views, early
of "proto-ethics,"
"proto-ethics," and
and later
later philosophies.
philosophies. In
In these
these sections,
sections, ancient
ancient
of
ideology is
is not
not simply
simply reduced
reduced to
to "false
"false consciousness,"
consciousness," though
anthough anideology
cient thought
thought is
is viewed
viewed as
as related
related to
to and
and ultimately
ultimately derivative
derivative of
of social
social
cient
reality;
is, social
social experience
experience determines
determines consciousness,
consciousness, more
more than
than
that is,
reality; that
the reverse.
reverse. The
The discussions
discussions of
of how
how reality
reality colors
colors consciousness
consciousness and,
and,
the
in turn,
turn, is
is changed
changed by
by it
it under
under the
the relatively
relatively low
low level
level of
of development
development
in
of
productive forces
of productive
forces in
in antiquity
antiquity are
are insightful
insightful and
and stimulating.
stimulating.
Dr.Diakonoff
Diakonoff adumbrates
adumbrates an
anagenda
agenda for
for aafuture
future gengenIn
In Lecture
Lecture 11 Dr.
eration of
of historians.
historians. As
As the
the mature
mature reflections
reflections of
of aa great
great scholar,
scholar, his
his
eration
suggestions deserve
attention; as
as recommendations
for aa
suggestions
deserve careful
careful attention;
recommendations for
more complete
complete accounting
accounting of
of the
the past
past by
by aa leading
leading Soviet
Soviet Marxist
Marxist hismore
historian, whose
whose writings
writings over
over aa long
long and
and distinguished
distinguished career
career have
have subsubtorian,
stantially refined
refined and
and sustained
sustained their
their still-dominant
still-dominant stage
stage theory
theory of
of
stantially
successive socioeconomic
socioeconomic formations,
formations, they
they are
are of
of great
great intellectual
intellectual ininsuccessive
terest. The
The attempt
attempt is
is to
to provide
comprehensive understandunderstandprovide aa more
more comprehensive
terest.
ing of
of the
the past
than that
that obtained
obtained from
from an
an exclusive
exclusive focus
focus on
on the
the
ing
past than
interplay between
between changes
changes in
in the
the forces
forces and
and changes
changes in
in the
the relations
relations
interplay
of production.
production.
of
Maintaining his
his materialism
materialism by
by citing
citing the
the well-known
well-known dictum
dictum that
that
Maintaining
an
mass consciousan idea
idea becomes
becomes aa material
material force
force once
once it
it is
is seized
seized by
by mass
consciousness,
Diakonoff argues
argues for
for aa history
history of
of emotions
emotions that
that utilizes
utilizes and
and exexness, Diakonoff
tends analytical
analytical techniques
techniques developed
developed by
by social
social psychologists.
Major
tends
psychologists. Major
universal historical
historical significance,
historical events
events of
of universal
significance, such
such as
as the
the initial
initial
historical
spread of
Islam or
or the
cannot be
be adequately
adequately exexspread
of Islam
the French
French Revolution,
Revolution, cannot
plained
nor deduced
deduced from
from aa consideration
consideration solely
solely of
of developments
developments
plained by
by nor
in the
the forces
forces and
and relations
relations of
of production.
production. Why
Why some
some movements
have
in
movements have
succeeded and
failed and
and why
occurred precisely
when
and others
others failed
why they
they occurred
precisely when
succeeded
they did
did cannot
cannot be
be explained
explained simply
simply by
consideration of
of economic
economic
they
by consideration
phenomena.
His is
is aa call
call for
for aa historical
social psychology,
psychology, aa new,
phenomena. His
historical social
new,
much more
more comprehensive
comprehensive history
of culture
culture that
that considers
considers everyeverymuch
history of
thing "that
"that....
. . has
has an
an impact
impact upon
upon society
society and
and that
that induces
induces men
and
thing
men and
women
socially valid
actions."17
women to
to socially
valid actions."17
These
These thoughtful,
thoughtful, provocative
provocative suggestions
suggestions are
are offered
offered to
to future
future
historians
but they
historians of
of antiquity,
antiquity, but
they are
are of
of interest
interest to
to other
other specialists
specialists
concerned either
either empirically
empirically or
or theoretically
concerned
theoretically with
with macrohistorical
macrohistorical dedevelopments: anthropologists,
anthropologists, archaeologists,
archaeologists, historical
historical sociologists,
sociologists,
velopments:
minded economists,
psyeconomic historians
historians and
and historically
historically minded
economists, social
social psyeconomic
chologists, and,
and, of
course, medieval
medieval and
and modern
modern historians.
historians. It
It is
is imimof course,
chologists,
possible to
to read
read this
this section
section without
without reflecting
reflecting upon
the unfortunate
unfortunate
upon the
possible
17. Lecture
Lecture 1,
1, p.
63.
17.
p.63.

Foreword
Foreword

XXI
xxi

absence of
of reference
reference to trends in contemporary
contemporary Western historiogmacrohistorical studies and critiques and.
and deraphy and to Western macrohistorical
of historical materialism.
materialism.
fenses of
One would like to know, for example, how Diakonoff
Diakonoff would evaluate the macrohistorical works of
Annales historians in
of certain French Annales
of his called-for
called-for historical social psychology. Would Braudel's
terms of
use of
of a plurality of
of times from
from the longue duree to the event be considered a useful
useful or a confused
confused and obfuscatory
obfuscatory analytical technique for
for
ordering
ordering history on a macroscale? Superficially,
Superficially, at least, the wellknown attempts to write histories of
of the mentalites
mentalites of
oi given periods
(e.g., the studies of
of G. Duby, J. LeGoff, P.
P. Aries) seem to have already
set in practice Diakonoff's
Diakonoff's recommendations
recommendations for a more complete
understanding
understanding of
of the past. Or
Or do they? Would Diakonoff
Diakonoff criticize
them on fairly obvious materialist grounds? Diakonoff
Diakonoff undoubtedly
undoubtedly
would insist that whether
whether one writes an histoire
histoire des
desmentalites
mentalitesor
or aa hishistorical social psychology of
of the sort he envisages, the critica1
critical task is to
of a society at a
relate the collective representations or psychology of
particular point in time to its social structure, internal contradictions,
particular
and class
class antagonisms.
antagonisms. He
He would
would correctly
correctly assert
assert that
that if
if these
these connecconnecand
of muddled, imprecise
tions are not made, the result may be a kind of
of ideas in which the mentalites
mentalites are viewed either as inexplicahistory of
"drift tobly resisting change or teleologically exhibiting a gradual "drift
wards enlightenment."IB
enlightenment." 18
In certain respects, Diakonoff's
Diakonoff's discussion of
of the limitations of
of previous socioeconomic historical research and suggestions for a history
of emotions and a broadened
broadened history of
of culture seem to anticipate or
of
independently voice many of
of the objections articulated
articulated by M. Sahlins
independently
andto a Marxist puristdisturbing
of
in his not-insensitive and-to
purist-disturbing critique of
"practical reason."1919 Conceptual differences,
differences, of
of course, are manifest.
manifest.
of Western (or, here, indusSahlins emphasizes the symbolic ordering of
conditioned belief
belief in "obtrial) society and its nonreflective, culturally conditioned
18.
18. The
The phrase
phrase is
is M.
M. Gismondi's.
Gismondi's. See
See his
his penetrating
penetrating analysis
analysis of
of the
the histoire
histoiredes
des
menmentalites,ororwhat
whathehesarcastically
sarcasticallyrefers
referstotoasasthis
this"new
"newapproach
approachtotoilluminating
illuminatingthe
therole
roleofof
talites,
Theory': A
A Critique
Critique of
of the
the Histoire
Histoire
the common
common people
people in
in history."
history." See
See his
his '''The
"'The Gift
Gift of
of Theory':
the
desMentalites,"
Mentalites,"Social
Social
History
10, 2no.(1985).
2 (1985).
an extended
discussion
of the
early
des
History
10, no.
For For
an extended
discussion
of the
early
histoiredes
desmentalites
mentalites
in the
Annales
the divergent
emphases
development of
of the
the histoire
development
in the
Annales
and and
the divergent
emphases
given it
it by
by L.
L. Febvre
Febvre and
and M.
M. Bloch,
Bloch, see
see A.
A. Burguiere,
Burguiere, "The
"The Fate
Fate of
of the
the History
History of
of MenMengiven
talities in
in the
the Annales,'"
Comparative Studies
Studies in
in Society
Society and
and History
History 24,
24, no.
no. 3
3 (1982).
(1982). In
In aa
talities
Annales," Comparative
personal communication,
communication, Dr.
Dr. Diakonoff
Diakonoff has
has informed
informed me
me that
that he
he evaluates
evaluates the
the contricontripersonal
bution of
of Braudel
Braudel and
and the
the annalistes
annalistesinina agenerally
generallypositive
positivelight.
light.
bution
(Chicago:
University
of of
Chicago
19.
19. See
See M.
M. Sahlins,
Sahlins, Culture
Culture and
andPractical
PracticalReason
Reason
(Chicago:
University
Chicago
Press, 1976),
1976), as
as well
as his
his later
later historical
historical essays
essays on
on Polynesia:
Polynesia: Historical
Metaphors
Press,
well as
Historical Metaphors
andand
of the
the Sandwich Islands Kingdom (Ann ArMythical Realities: Structure in the Early History of
bor: University
University of
of Michigan,
Michigan, 1981),
1981), and
and Islands
History(Chicago:
(Chicago:University
UniversityofofChiChiIslands ofofHistory
bor:
cago Press,
Press, 1985).
1985).
cago

XXll
xxii

Foreword

jective" reality
jective"
reality and
and the
the dominance
dominance of
of pragmatic
pragmatic activities
activities and
and seeks
seeks aa
posed alternatives,
historical
historical synthesis
synthesis of
of conventionally
conventionally posed
alternatives, such
such as
as strucstructure
ture and
and history,
history, materialism
materialism and
and idealism,
idealism, or
or infrastructure
infrastructure and
and susuperstructure. Diakonoff
perstructure.
Diakonoff appeares
appeares unaware
unaware or,
or, at
at least,
least, unconcerned
unconcerned
with the
the problem
problem of
of subjectivity
subjectivity and
and never
abandons an
an essentially
essentially
with
never abandons
historical materialist
materialist position,
position, though
though attempting
attempting to
to extend
extend the
the traditradihistorical
tional
reading of
of Marx
Marx among
among Soviet
Soviet historians.
certain
historians. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, certain
tional reading
points
of similarity
similarity remain.
remain. It
It can
can be
be argued
argued that
that with
some modificamodificawith some
points of
tion,
Diakonoff's recommendations
incorporephrased to
to incorpotion, Diakonoff's
recommendations might
might be
be rephrased
rate the
the anthropological
anthropological concept
concept of
of culture
culture initially
initially developed
developed by
by F.
rate
F.
Boas, aa change
change that
that for
for Sahlins
Sahlins would
would represent
represent the
the initial,
initial, minimally
minimally
Boas,
necessary
emendation to
to Marx.
Marx. If
If this
this were
were attempted,
attempted, one
one could,
could,
necessary emendation
perhaps, more
more clearly
clearly detect
detect and
and understand
understand the
the differences
differences that
that sepperhaps,
separate aa more
more sophisticated
sophisticated historical
historical materialism
materialism from
from the
the symbolic
symbolic
arate
anthropological or
or "culturological"
"culturological" approach
approach of
of Sahlins.
Sahlins.
anthropological
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, this
this exercise
exercise is
is unlikely
unlikely ever
ever to
to be
be undertaken,
undertaken, for
for
these
disthese possible
possible protagonists
protagonists carryon
carry on totally
totally different
different scholarly
scholarly discourses. Here,
Here, one
one can
can only
only note
note and
and regret
regret the
lack of
of common
common conconthe lack
courses.
ceptual
ceptual ground,
ground, the
the absence
absence of
of aa shared
shared vocabulary
vocabulary and
and literature
literature
among scholars
scholars concerned
concerned with
with essentially
essentially similar
similar theoretical
theoretical probprobamong
lems on
on either
either side
side of
of the
the East-West
East-West political
political divide.
divide. The
The absence
absence of
of
lems
dialogue is
is as
as apparent
apparent as
as it
it is
is unnecessary.
unnecessary. Western
Western readers
readers of
of The
dialogue
The
History
ofthe
theAncient
AncientWorld
World
appreciate
quality
historical
willwill
appreciate
thethe
quality
of of
historical
re-reHistory of
search on
oh antiquity
antiquity conducted
conducted by
by Soviet
Soviet specialists,
specialists, aa fact
fact long
long recogrecogsearch
nized by
by ancient
ancient Near
Near Eastern
Eastern scholars.
scholars. However,
However, when
when one
one turns
turns to
to
nized
broader
theoretical concerns,
concerns, an
an unfortunate
unfortunate vacuum
vacuum exists
exists in
in which
which
broader theoretical
Soviet and
Western scholars
scholars seem
seem to
to be
either unaware
unaware of
of or
or out-ofout-ofSoviet
and Western
be either
date with
with each
each other's
other's works.
works. There
There are
are for
for example,
example, more
more recent
recent
date
Western overviews
overviews and
and macrohistorical
macrohistorical theories
than those
advanced
Western
theories than
those advanced
by Spengler
Spengler and
and Toynbee
Toynbee (as
(as intimated
intimated in
in the
the Introduction).
Introduction). In
In realby
reality, though,
though, the
problem is
is more
more serious
serious on
on the
the Western
side, where
where
the problem
Western side,
ity,
the tendency
tendency is
is to
to dismiss
dismiss out
out of
of ignorance
ignorance (including
(including the
the inability
inability to
to
the
read Russian)
Russian) Soviet
Soviet writings
writings as
as dogmatic
dogmatic and
and uninteresting.
uninteresting. The
The conconread
demnation is
is not
not only
only uninformed
uninformed but
but paradoxical:
how can
can such
such bedemnation
paradoxical: how
benighted
theory
produce
such
quality
scholarship?
One
is
reminded
of
nighted theory produce such quality scholarship? One is reminded of
the
equally
illogical
political
view
that
fears
a
Soviet
Union
bent
on
the equally illogical political view that fears a Soviet Union bent on
world domination
domination while
while at
at the
the same
same time
time predicts
predicts the
the imminent
imminent colworld
collapse
of
its
economya
thought
that
inexorably
leads
one to
the
to the
lapse of its economy-a thought that inexorably leads one
gloomy,
if
realistic,
expectation
that
communication
among
scholars,
gloomy, if realistic, expectation that communication among scholars,
as well
as politicians,
politicians, is
is likely
likely to
to improve
improve substantially
substantially only
only when
when the
the
as
well as
objective
conditions
for
its
persistence
themselves
change;
that
objective conditions for its persistence themselves change; that is,
is,
when
sides move
move beyond
the cold
cold war
realities of
of the
the last
last forty
forty
both sides
beyond the
war realities
when both
Antiquity,obobyears and
and define
define aa new
new relationship.
relationship. Translation
Translation of
of Early
Early Antiquity,
years
viously
represents
no
such
breakthrough,
but
it
does
provide
us
with
viously represents no such breakthrough, but it does provide us with aa

Foreword

XXlll
xxiii

unified current overview of antiquity and constitutes a small step toward maintaining and extending a sadly underdeveloped dialogue
among interested, open-minded scholars and laypersons on the naof long-term historical developments. For the moment, all we
ture of
should do is simply sit back and enjoy this integrated vision of ancient
history presented
presented to
to us
us by
by aa group
group of
of Soviet
Soviet specialists.
history
specialists.
Many people worked on the English translation of Early
Early Antiquity.
Antiquity.A.A.
Kirjanov provided a rough translation of the entire volume and completed his task in the time promised. My duties as project director and
final editor were immensely simplified by the fact that Mr. Kirjanov's
translations were entered into the Wellesley computer by Ms.
Ms. Daria
Kirjanov, a former student at the College. Initially, I must confess to
being somewhat intimidated by the rigorous standards of
of editing insisted upon by Dr. Diakonoff;
Diakonoff; his command of
of English and impeccable sense of grammar, no doubt, increased ,my
jny consternation.
Obviously, he is primarily responsible for the standards of consistency
and editorial uniformity present in the work. Wellesley College must
be acknowledged for the support it provided, especially for covering
the expenses of mailing rough and edited drafts to Leningrad; the
of the Department of Anthropology's
help of
Anthropology's secretary at Wellesley, Ms.
Ms.
Edna Gillis,
Gillis, in
in the
the final
final preparation
of Lectures
Lectures 11
11 and
and 19
19 also
also must
must
Edna
preparation of
be mentioned. Publication would have been impossible without the assistance, indeed
indeed encouragement,
encouragement, of
of the
the University
of Chicago
Chicago Press,
sistance,
University of
Press,
particularly
of its
its most
most able
able and
and understanding
editor Ms.
Ms. Karen
Karen
particularly of
understanding editor
Wilson. II would
would also'like
also like to
to thank
thank Dr.
Dr. Norman
Yoffee at
at the
the UniverUniverWilson.
Norman Yoffee
sity of
of Arizona
for his
his support
support and
and for
for originally
originally suggesting
suggesting to
to people
people
sity
Arizona for
of Chicago Press that I actively participate in this
at the University of
project and Dr. C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky of Harvard University for
critiquing the
the initial
initial draft
draft of
of this
this Foreword.
My wife,
wife, Barbara
Barbara Gard,
Gard,
critiquing
Foreword. My
son, Owen, and daughter, Mira (who was born
born during the long gestamy sequestersequestertion of
of this
this work),
work), must
must be
be praised
praised for
for their
their tolerance
tolerance of
of my
tion
myself for inexplicably interminable hours in our "computer
ing myself
room." Without
Without their
their unreasonable
unreasonable patience
patience and
and encouragement
encouragement this
this
room."
work would
would not
not have
have appeared.
appeared.
work
And, finally, I wish to acknowledge that it has been a privilege to
M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff on this project. The breadth of
have worked with Dr. I. M.
of
his erudition and stature as a scholar require no more comment. Once
we had
had agreed
agreed upon
upon aa system
system of
of editing
editing and
and regularly
regularly corresponded,
corresponded,
we
all work proceeded smoothly. I like to believe this was accomplished
not only
only because
because we
we shared
shared the
the same
same professional
professional goal
goal of
of producing
producing aa
not
scrupulously accurate
accurate and readable translation but also because we
scrupulously
grew to
to appreciate
appreciate each
each other
other as
as colleagues
colleagues and
and friends.
friends. II am
am most
most
grew
grateful to have had this opportunity.
grateful

Introduction
Introduction
THE EDITORIAL
EDITORIAL BOARD
BOARD
THE

General Remarks
Remarks
General

The
The occasion
occasion to
to write
write this
this book
book arose
arose out
out of
of work
work conducted
conducted over
over
many years
years by
by aa large
large group
group of
of collaborators
collaborators at
at the
the Oriental
Oriental Institute
Institute
many
of the
the USSR
USSR Academy
Academy of
of Sciences
Sciences and
and other
other scholarly
scholarly institutions
institutions
of
during the
the preparation
preparation of
of the
the extensively
extensively documented,
documented, multivolume
multivolume
during
Istoriya
drevnegoVostoka
Vostoka
[History
of the
ancient
orient].
latter
Istoriya drevnego
[History
of the
ancient
orient].
As As
the the
latter
publication is
is oriented
oriented toward
toward specialists,
specialists, our
our editorial
editorial board
board and
and
publication
group of
of authors
authors decided
decided to
to write
write the
the present
present work
work in
in the
the interest
interest
group
of reaching
reaching aa broader
broader public.
public. Directed
Directed at
at aa wider
wider audience,
audience, this
this work
work
of
examines the
the history
of ancient
ancient class
class societies
societies and
and states
states that
that once
once
examines
history of
existed in
in Asia,
Asia, Europe,
Europe, and
and North
North Africa
Africa as
as part
part of
of the
the process
of the
the
process of
existed
historical development
development of
of humanity.
humanity. Scholars
Scholars of
of numerous
numerous scientific
scientific
historical
and educational
educational institutions
institutions from
from all
all parts
parts of
of the
the Soviet
Soviet Union
Union participarticiand
pated in
in this
this effort.
effort.
pated
Thus,
publication, which
(Early
Thus, our
our publication,
which will
will consist
consist of
of three
three volumes
volumes (Early
Antiquity,
Florescence of
ofAncient
Ancient Societies,
Societies,and
andThe
TheDecline
DeclineofofAncient
Ancient
Antiquity, The Florescence
Societies),isisananattempt
attempttotocreate
createa ahistorical
historicalaccount
accountinvolving
involvingthe
theenenSocieties),
tire
tire ancient
ancient world.
world. It
It is
is based
based on
on contemporary
contemporary knowledge
knowledge and
and aa
clearer understanding
understanding not
not only
only of
of the
the individual
individual features
features of
of specific
specific
clearer
societies but
but also
also of
of the
the general
general features
features characteristic
characteristic of
of ancient
ancient class
class
societies
societies as
as aa whole.
whole. We
We hope
hope that
that it
it also
also will
contribute to
to the
the solution
solution
will contribute
societies
of ongoing
ongoing theoretical
theoretical controversies
controversies on
on this
this subject.
subject. The
The authors
authors beof
believe that
that the
the idea
idea that
that specific
specific ancient
ancient societies
societies exhibit
exhibit an
an absolute
absolute dislieve
dissimilarity among
among themselves
themselves has
has arisen
arisen through
through examining
examining them
them
similarity
according to
to unsuitable
unsuitable reference
reference scales
scales that
that are
are either
either too
too restricted
restricted
according
spatially or
or too
too narrow
narrow temporally.
temporally. The
The authors
authors contend
contend that
that aa comcomspatially
prehensive view
view of
of all
all ancient
ancient societies,
societies, seen
seen in
in relation
relation to
to each
each other,
other,
prehensive
will reveal
reveal general
general outlines
outlines of
of aa .regularity
regularity in
in the
the historical
historical developdevelopwill
ment of
of humanity.
humanity. The
The readers
readers will
will judge
or not
not we
we were
were
ment
judge whether
whether or
right.
right.
Today's
Today's universities
universities offer
offer separate
separate courses
courses on
on the
the specific
specific histories
histories
of
of Greece,
Greece, Rome,
Rome, and
and the
the ancient
ancient Orient.
Orient. In
In the
the case
case of
of the
the Orient,
Orient,
the courses
courses end
end abruptly
abruptly at
at arbitrary
arbitrary periods
periods in
in the
the development
development of
of
the
the various
various Asian
Asian or
or African
African societies,
societies, and
and their
their histories
histories are
are not
not preprethe
universal historical
historical process.
process. Vsemirnaya
Vsemirnayais-issented as
as integral
integral parts
parts of
of aa universal
sented
toria [Universal
[Universal history]
history] (vols.
(vols. 1-2,
1-2, Moscow,
Moscow, 1955-56)
1955-56) does
does permit
permit aa
toria
comparison between
between the
the more
more significant
significant societies
societies in
in the
the context
context of
comparison
of
universal historical
historical development;
development; however,
however, it
it is
is too
too voluminous
voluminous and,
and,
universal

2
2

Introduction
Introduction

therefore,
therefore, does
does not
not offer
offer aa general
general perspective.
perspective. Moreover,
Moreover, new
new data
data
have
made this
this work,
work, to
to aa considerable
considerable degree,
degree, obsolete.
obsolete.
have made
Other
Vsemirnayaistoria,
istoria,
nono
general,
general,
comprehensive
comprehensive
survey
survey
of of
Other than
than Vsemirnaya
the
the ancient
the Soviet
the history
history of
of the
ancient world
world has
has appeared
appeared in
in the
Soviet Union.
Union.
This lack
lack is
is due
due to
to the
the difficulty
difficulty of
of treating
treating material
material covering
covering so
so many
many
This
societies and
and periods
(a fact
fact that
that sometimes
sometimes leads
leads to
to general
general textbooks
textbooks
societies
periods (a
being
authors insufficiently
in the
the historiography
historiography of
of
being written
written by
by authors
insufficiently versed
versed in
some of
of the
the societies
societies treated).
treated). It
It was
therefore decided
decided to
to assign
assign the
the
some
was therefore
writing
of each
each section
section of
of the
specialists in
in particular
particular fields.
writing of
the book
book to
to specialists
fields.
Keeping in
in mind
mind the
the experience
experience gained
gained in
in the
the publication
publication of
of VsemirVsemirKeeping
naya istoria,
istoria,wewetried
triedtotoavoid
avoidexcessive
excessiveunification
unificationofofthe
theauthors'
authors'texts.
texts.
naya
Thus, the
publication is
is actually
actually aa collection
collection of
of lectures
lectures in
in
Thus,
the present
present publication
book form,
form, read
different experts,
experts, each
each in
in his
his or
or her
own way,
way, but
but
book
read by
by different
her own
presented
so as
as to
to create
create aa general
general overview.
overview. Without
Without supplying
supplying expresented so
exhaustive data
data (because
(because the
the contents
contents of
of each
each lecture
lecture were
were determined
determined
haustive
by
the specific
specific interests,
abilities, and
and resources
of the
the individuallecindividual lecby the
interests, abilities,
resources of
turer), such
such aa series
series should
should ideally
ideally offer
offer aa general
general notion
notion of
of the
the subsubturer),
ject
matter with
it deals.
The contents
contents of
however, are
are
ject matter
with which
which it
deals. The
of the
the book,
book, however,
ultimately
determined by
by the
staff of
of "lecturers"
"lecturers" available.
available. Our
Our book,
book,
ultimately determined
the staff
thus,
suffers from
gaps, and
and there
are some
some differences
differences in
in
there are
thus, suffers
from inevitable
inevitable gaps,
the
views adopted
by the
various writers
on specific
specific questions,
questions, as
as well
the views
adopted by
the various
writers on
well
as some
some dissimilarities,
dissimilarities, for
for example,
example, in
in treating
treating cultural
cultural questions
questions
as
concerning different
different societies.
societies. Each
or her
own
concerning
Each lecturer
lecturer presents
presents his
his or
her own
view; and
and depending
depending on
on an
an author's
author's individual
individual interests
interests and
and
point of
of view;
point
preferences,
the character
character of
of the
the presentation,
as well
well as
as the
relative
preferences, the
presentation, as
the relative
emphasis on
on the
different materials
materials presented
presented (e.g.,
(e.g., the
amount of
of ininthe different
the amount
emphasis
formation on
on political,
ethnic, or
or cultural
cultural history
history relative
relative to
to socioecosocioecoformation
political, ethnic,
nomic information),
information), changes
changes from
from lecture
lecture to
to lecture.
lecture. The
The editorial
editorial
nomic
board
assumes responsibility
for the
scientific and
and methodmethodboard assumes
responsibility for
the overall
overall scientific
ological quality
quality of
of this
book without
agreeing with
the ininthis book
without necessarily
necessarily agreeing
with the
ological
dividual authors
authors or
or particular
questions.
particular questions.
dividual
On
unanimity among
On theoretical
theoretical issues,
issues, there
there is
is no
no unanimity
among Soviet
Soviet historians
historians
(the
below). This
This lack
(the problem
problem is
is discussed
discussed in
in more
more detail
detail below).
lack of
of agreeagreement naturally
naturally is
reflected in
ment
is reflected
in our
our text.
text. The
The editorial
editorial board
board did
did not
not
consider it
it possible
to impose
impose its
its own
own viewpoint,
though aa general
general ediediconsider
possible to
viewpoint, though
torial statement
the introductory
torial
statement appears
appears in
in the
introductory chapter
chapter to
to each
each volume.
volume.
In order
order to
to ensure
ensure aa certain
certain degree
degree of
of structural
structural integrity
integrity for
for the
the
In
book, however,
editorial board
board preferred
to invite
invite scholars
scholars to
to conconbook,
however, the
the editorial
preferred to
tribute who
who share
share most
most of
of their
their theoretical
theoretical positions
positions and
and who
who work
work
tribute
within
mainstream tradition
of Soviet
Soviet scholarship.
scholarship. Such
Such authors
authors
the mainstream
tradition of
within the
would,
we believed,
believed, reflect
reflect more
more or
or less
less faithfully
faithfully the
of the
the mamawould, we
the views
views of
jority
of Soviet
Soviet scholars.
scholars. However,
However, other
other opinions
opinions on
on aa number
number of
jority of
of
important theoretical
theoretical questions
questions do
do exist
exist among
among scholars,
scholars, as
as we
will atatimportant
we will
tempt to
to show
show below.
tempt
below.

Introduction
Introduction

33

Notwithstanding
the closeness
is
Notwithstanding the
closeness of
of their
their theoretical
theoretical viewpoints,
viewpoints, it
it is
quite understandable
understandable that
that there
there are
are disagreements
disagreements among
among our
our auauquite
thors,
thors, as
as an
an attentive
attentive reader
reader will
will easily
easily discover.
discover. Yet,
Yet, it
it is
is important
important to
to
emphasize that
that despite
despite disagreements
disagreements on
on minor
minor points,
points, the
the authors
authors
emphasize
based themselves
themselves on
on similar
similar theoretical
theoretical premises
premises and
and had
had aa similar
similar
based
understanding of
of their
their task,
task, so
so that
that these
these lectures
lectures by
by no
no means
means consticonstiunderstanding
tute aa shapeless
shapeless collection.
collection. Rather,
Rather, it
it represents
represents aa well-defined
well-defined entity
entity
tute
whose parts,
parts, ultimately,
ultimately, are
are closely
closely knit
knit together.
together.
whose
During
During the
the editing
editing process,
process, the
the editors
editors made
made various
various suggestions
suggestions
and
and asked
asked the
the authors
authors for
for certain
certain modifications
modifications of
of their
their texts.
texts. The
The
final
final decision,
decision, nevertheless,
nevertheless, lay
lay with
with the
the author.
author. In
In the
the interest
interest of
of
unity,
unity, the
the editorial
editorial board
board also
also took
took the
the liberty
liberty of
of expressing
expressing its
its own
own
opinion
presented by
opinion about
about the
the material
material presented
by the
the individual
individual authorsauthors
namely,
namely, in
in the
the general
general theoretical
theoretical sections
sections preceding
preceding each
each of
of the
the three
three
volumes
volumes of
of the
the work.
work. The
The editors
editors actually
actually intervened
intervened only
only where
where the
the
designed length
length of
of the
the book
book or
or other
other technical
technical considerations
considerations warwardesigned
ranted
ranted such
such action.
action. The
The suggestions
suggestions and
and factual
factual corrections
corrections of
of nunumerous scholars
scholars who
who read
read the
the manuscripts
manuscripts were
were taken
taken into
into careful
careful
merous
consideration.
consideration.
publication as
book form,
Given
Given the
the character
character of
of this
this publication
as lectures
lectures in
in book
form, the
the
sections
sections are
are called
called "lectures"
"lectures" rather
rather than
than "chapters."
"chapters." There
There are
are four
four
reasons justifying
such aa designation:
designation: the
the independence
independence of
of the
the secreasons
justifying such
sections;
tions; the
the fact
fact that
that some
some of
of them
them are
are actually
actually based
based on
on lectures
lectures delivdelivered
universities or
ered at
at universities
or other
other institutions;
institutions; the
the fact
fact that
that the
the amount
amount of
of
material, in
in most
most cases,
cases, fits
fits into
into the
the time
time span
span normally
allotted to
to aa
material,
normally allotted
be helpful
helpful in
lecture;
lecture; and,
and, finally,
finally, the
the fact
fact that
that such
such aa format
format may
may be
in
using
book as
to emphasize
using this
this book
as aa reference
reference manual.
manual. It
It is
is necessary
necessary to
emphasize
that
pretend to
that this
this book
book does
does not
not pretend
to replace
replace existing
existing textbooks,
textbooks, particuparticularly university
university texts
texts on
on Greece
Greece and
and Rome,
Rome, which
which develop
develop the
the material
material
larly
in
but fail
the societies
in more
more detail
detail but
fail to
to show
show the
the position
position of
of the
societies treated
treated
within
within the
the overall
overall human
human historical
historical process.
process. As
As we
we have
have already
already
stressed,
all
stressed, this
this book
book does
does not
not claim
claim to
to be
be an
an exhaustive
exhaustive treatment
treatment of
of all
regions
regions and
and problems
problems of
of the
the ancient
ancient world.
world. At
At the
the same
same time,
time, the
the leclectures, written
independently by
different authors,
authors, partially
overlap.
tures,
written independently
by different
partially overlap.
We hope,
nevertheless, that
that this
this book
book conveys
conveys an
an integral
integral and
and more
more or
or
We
hope, nevertheless,
less internally
internally consistent
consistent view
of the
the ancient
ancient world.
world.
less
view of
Convinced
the historical
historical process,
process, the
Convinced of
of the
the unity
unity of
of the
the authors
authors considconsidered it
it possible
to adopt
adopt aa single
single periodization
system for
for the
the history
history
ered
possible to
periodization system
of ancient
class societies
societies and
and divided
divided the
into three
three stages,
stages,
of
ancient class
the materials
materials into
constituting three
three separate
separate volumes.
The first
first stage
stage (the
(the formation
formation of
volumes. The
of
constituting
class
class society
society and
and the
the state
state and
and the
the early
early forms
forms of
of this
this society)
society) encomencompasses
long time
time span,
span, stretching
stretching from
from the
the end
end of
of the
the fourth
fourth to
the
passes aa long
to the
end
of the
the second
B.C. The
end of
second millennium
millennium B.C.
The second
second stage
stage (the
(the florescence
florescence
of ancient
ancient societies
societies and
and the
development of
of the
"slave" econeconof
the highest
highest development
the "slave"

44

Introduction
Introduction

omy) begins
with the
the introduction
introduction of
of iron
iron at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the second
second and
and
omy)
begins with
beginning
first millennium
beginning of
of the
the first
millennium B.C.
B.C. and
and lasts
lasts throughout
throughout the
the entire
entire
first millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. The
The third
third stage
stage (the
(the decline
decline of
of ancient
ancient societies
societies
first
and the
appearance offeatures
of features indicating
indicating the
the transition
transition to
feudalism)
and
the appearance
to feudalism)
A.D.
occupies approximately
approximately five
centuries of
of the
the first
millennium A.D.
occupies
five centuries
first millennium
The detailed
detailed characterization
characterization of
of each
each stage,
stage, of
of its
its economic,
economic, politipolitiThe
cal, and
and cultural
cultural features,
features, is
is given
given in
in the
the introductory
introductory lectures
lectures preprecal,
ceding each
each of
of the
the three
three volumes.
volumes. Within
Within each
each volume
volume we
we tried
tried to
to
ceding
examine the
the individual
individual countries
countries chronologically.
chronologically. Each
Each volume
volume is
is subsubexamine
ject
to aa typological
typological principle
of periodization.
As far
far as
as possible,
ject to
principle of
periodization. As
possible, we
we
characterized the
the various
various countries
countries according
according to
to their
their respective
respective stage
stage
characterized
of historical
historical development.
development. Expecting
Expecting aa wide
wide readership
readership (i.e.,
(i.e., students,
students,
of
teachers, and
and anyone
anyone interested
interested in
in ancient
ancient history),
history), the
staff of
of writers
writers
the staff
teachers,
aimed for
for simplicity,
simplicity, clarity,
clarity, and
and an
an accessible
accessible presentation
presentation (based
(based on
on
aimed
scientific data
data available
available in
in the
the early
early 1980s).
1980s).
scientific
Discussion of
of Theoretical
Theoretical Problems
Problems
Discussion
in Contemporary
Contemporary Ancient
Ancient Historiography
Historiography
in
Any textbook
textbook on
on history
history in
in our
our country
country is
is usually
usually preceded
preceded by
by an
an ininAny
troductory section
section defining
denning the
the subject
subject under
consideration and
and
troductory
unger consideration
stating the
the fundamentals
fundamentals of
of the
the Marxist
Marxist approach
approach to
to history.
history. The
The
stating
present work
work is
is not
not aa textbook;
textbook; it
it is
is intended
intended for
for readers
readers with
with aa suffisuffipresent
ciently high
high educational
educational background
background who
who are
are sufficiently
sufficiently versed
in the
the
versed in
ciently
fundamentals of
of historical
historical materialism.
materialism. Today,
Today, the
the Marxist
Marxist method
method
fundamentals
maintains aa dominant
dominant place
place among
among Soviet
Soviet historians
historians and
and occupies
occupies an
an
maintains
important position
all over
over the
the world.
world. As
As admitted
admitted by
by many
many Western
Western
important
position all
scholars, there
there does
does not
not exist
exist in
in the
the West
West any
any complete
complete and
and consistent
consistent
scholars,
theory of
of history
history regarded
regarded as
as aa single
single process,
process, aa theory
theory comprehencomprehentheory
sive enough
enough to
to match
match that
that of
of historical
historical materialism.
materialism. We
We will
will assume
assume
sive
that the
the latter
latter is
is known
known to
to the
the readers
readers and
and will
will attempt
attempt to
to acquaint
acquaint
that
them with
with those
those theoretical
theoretical problems
problems that
that today
today remain
remain unresolved.
unresolved.
them
The central
central questions
questions of
of the
the discussion,
discussion, which
which some
some years
ago conconThe
years ago
cerned
Soviet
historians,
can
be
formulated
in
philosophical
terms
as
cerned Soviet historians, can be formulated in philosophical terms as
follows:
What
is
the
correlation
between
the
general
and
the
particufollows: What is the correlation between the general and the particular in
in the
the development
development of
of the
the different
different societies
societies and
and civilizations
civilizations durdurlar
ing the
the precapitalist
precapitalist period?
period? The
The question
question can
can be
be rephrased
rephrased in
in terms
terms
ing
of historical
historical science
science as
as follows:
follows: Is
Is there
there aa single,
single, common
common path
of dedeof
path of
velopment for
for all
all precapitalist
precapitalist societies
societies (unavoidably
(unavoidably with
with local
local varivelopment
variants), or
or are
are there
there several?
several? Of
Of course,
course, all
all Marxist
Marxist historians
historians adhere
adhere to
to
ants),
the
concept that,
that, in
in the
analysis, the
the relations
relations of
of production
production are
are
the concept
the final
final analysis,
determined by
the level
level of
of development
development of
of the
the means
means of
of production.
production.
determined
by the
Yet,
in theory,
theory, it
it is
is quite
quite possible
possible to
to accept
accept that
that specific
specific local
local features
features
Yet, in
of the
depending on
on geographical
geographical
of
the means
means of
of production
production (e.g.,
(e.g., those
those depending

Introduction
Introduction

55

factors)
under certain
factors) can
can lead,
lead, under
certain specific
specific conditions,
conditions, to
to peculiar
peculiar trends
trends
in production
production relations,
relations, thus
thus producing
typologically different
different soin
producing typologically
societies.
cieties. In
In its
its most
most general
general form,
form, this
this question
question asks
asks whether
whether the
the "West"
"West"
(i.e., Europe)
Europe) and
and the
the "East"
"East" (i.e.,
(i.e., virtually
virtually the
the rest
rest of
of the
the world)
world) have
have
(i.e"
been developing
developing in
in more
more or
or less
less the
the same
same way,
way, or
or whether
whether the
the course
course
been
of development
development each
each has
has followed
followed is
is radically
radically different.
different.
of
The
West
The idea
idea of
of aa radical
radical difference
difference between
between the
the East
East and
and the
the West
arose
hisarose in
in European
European scholarship
scholarship long
long ago.
ago. European
European philosophers,
philosophers, historians, and
and writers
writers of
of belles-lettres
belles-lettres became
became interested
interested in
in the
the East
East as
as
torians,
early
early as
as the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century.
century. They
They built
built their
their theories
theories on
on the
the
Bible,
Bible, on
on the
the sparse
sparse and
and not
not always
always reliable
reliable information
information of
of GraecoGraecoRoman
Roman writers,
writers, and
and later
later on
on information
information acquired
acquired from
from European
European
ambassadors
ambassadors at
at the
the courts
courts of
of Oriental
Oriental rulers,
rulers, from
from travelers,
travelers, missionmissionaries,
aries, and,
and, since
since the
the middle
middle of
of the
the eighteenth
eighteenth century,
century, from
from colonial
colonial
functionaries.
by ideologues
functionaries. These
These theories
theories were
were used
used by
ideologues of
of the
the growing
growing
bourgeoisie
political aims.
bourgeoisie for
for their
their political
aims. The
The attitude
attitude toward
toward the
the political
political
order
order of
of the
the East
East swung
swung from
from idealization,
idealization, which
which presented
presented the
the social
social
and
and state
state order
order of
of Oriental
Oriental societies
societies (especially
(especially of
of China)
China) as
as models
models to
to
be
be emulated
emulated (L.
(L. Levalier,
Levalier, Voltaire,
Voltaire, F.
F. Quesnay),
Quesnay), to
to sharp
sharp condemnacondemnations
tions of
of and
and warnings
warnings against
against any
any attempts
attempts to
to follow
follow these
these examples
examples
(F.
De(F. Bernier,
Bernier, Ch.
Ch. Montesquieu,
Montesquieu, and
and J. J. Rousseau
Rousseau in
in France
France and
and D.
D. Defoe in
in England).
England). On
On the
the whole,
whole, however,
however, the
the dominant
dominant viewpoint
viewpoint was
foe
was
that
that the
the fundamental
fundamental difference
difference between
between the
the East
East and
and the
the West
West conconsisted in
in the
the absence
absence of
of private
private property
property in
in the
the Orient.
Orient. It
It was
was assumed
assumed
sisted
that all
all the
the land
land in
in that
that part
part of
of the
the world
world belonged
belonged to
to the
the monarchs
monarchs as
that
a!.
their property,
and that
that this
this supreme
supreme proprietorship
proprietorship was
was the
the foundafoundatheir
property, and
tion of
of "Oriental
"Oriental despotism"
despotism" and
and of
of "general
"general slavery."
slavery."
tion
The
same
point
of
view,
with
sundry
variations,
The same point of view, with sundry variations, predominated
predominated in
in
the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century.
century. Representatives
Representatives of
of prepreMarxian
Marxian political
political economy
economy (Adam
(Adam Smith,
Smith, J. Stuart
Stuart Mill,
Mill, et
et al.)
al.) and
and
philosophy
philosophy (G.
(G. F.
F. W.
W. Hegel)
Hegel) subscribed
subscribed to
to this
this idea,
idea, despite
despite informainformation
tion available
available at
at that
that time
time about
about the
the existence
existence in
in many
many nations
nations of
of comcommunity
munity relationships,
relationships, private
private property,
property, and
and so
so on.
on.
In studying
studying the
the problems
problems of
of capitalist
capitalist society,
society, Marx
Marx and
and Engels
Engels inevinevIn
itably
itably became
became interested
interested in
in societies
societies that
that had
had not
not yet
yet reached
reached the
the level
level
of capitalist
capitalist development-hence,
developmenthence, their
their interest
interest in
in the
the Orient.
Orient. HowHowof
ever, they
they began
began studying
studying the
the Orient
Orient only
only in
in 1853,
1853, with
with most
most of
of their
their
ever,
efforts
efforts concentrated
concentrated between
between 1857
1857 and
and 1859.
1859. Their
Their opinions
opinions stemstemming from
from these
these studies
studies were
were outlined
outlined in
in aa draft
draft of
of aa manuscript
manuscript by
ming
by
Economic
Formations
published
during
Marx's
Marx, Precapitalist
Marx,
Precapitalist Economic
Formations
(not(not
published
during
Marx's
lifetime). The
The Preface
Preface to
to The
The Critique
CritiqueofofPolitical
Political
Economy
offers
a more
lifetime).
Economy
offers
a more
succinct review
review of
of this
this subject.
subject. In
In his
his analysis,
analysis, Marx
Marx formulates
formulates the
the
succinct
regular succession
succession of
of modes
of production:
"In broad
broad outlines
outlines Asiatic,
regular
modes of
production: "In
Asiatic,
ancient, feudal,
feudal, and
and modern
modern bourgeois
modes of
of production
production can
can be
be
bourgeois modes
ancient,

Introduction
Introduction

designated
designated as
as progressive
progressive epochs
epochs in
in the
the economic
economic formation
formation of
of sosoThis is
is the
the first
first expression
expression of
of aa dialectical
dialectical materialist
materialist view
view of
of
ciety."
ciety." Il This
history as
as aa single
single developmental
developmental process.
process. This
conclusion, of
of course,
course,
history
This conclusion,
was drawn
drawn from
from the
the scientific
scientific data
data accumulated
accumulated up
to that
that time.
time. Let
Let us
us
up to
was
point out,
out, however,
however, that
that Marx's
Marx's formula
formula assumes
assumes that
that an
an "Asiatic"
"Asiatic"
point
mode of
production precedes
is, the
mode
of production
precedes the
the ancient-that
ancientthat is,
the slave-owning
slave-owning
mode of
of production.
production. Also
Also his
his formula
formula lacks
lacks another
another natural
natural human
human
mode
developmental stage:
stage: the
primitive mode
mode of
of production.
The later
later
developmental
the primitive
production. The
works of
of Marx
Marx and
and Engels
Engels developed
developed the
the fundamental
fundamental principles
principles of
of
works
historical materialism
materialism in
in more
more detail,
detail, and
and as
as new
new data
data became
became available,
available,
historical
these principles
evolved further,
further, and
and particular
features of
of historical
historical
particular features
these
principles evolved
processes were
were better
understood.
better understood.
processes
Information
the work
work of
the period
period in
quesInformation about
about the
of historians
historians during
during the
in question (i.e.,
(i.e., about
about writings
were used
Marxist theoreticians),
theoreticians), can
can
writings that
that were
used by
by Marxist
tion
be found
found in
in special
special publications
publications dedicated
dedicated to
to historiography.
historiography. Here
Here we
be
we
Society;or,or,
will
only mention
mention the
the work
by L.
L. H.
H. Morgan:
Morgan: Ancient
work by
Ancient Society;
Re-Rewill only
searchesininthe
theLine
Lineof
ofHuman
Human Progress
Progressfrom
fromSavagery
Savagerythrough
throughBarbarism
Barbarismtoto
searches
(1877). In his Origin of
of the Family,
Civilization (1877);
Family, Private Property,
Property, and the
State, Engels
Engels notes
notes that
that Morgan's
Morgan's book
book has
has"the
"the same
same significance
significance for
for
State,
the history
history of
of primitive
society as
as Darwin's
Darwin's theory
theory of
of evolution
evolution has
for
the
primitive society
has for
Morgan's book
was written
written from
from an
an independently
independently derived
derived
biology."2 Morgan's
biology."2
book was
materialist
and contained
contained considerable
considerable data
data about
about preclass
preclass sosomaterialist position
position and
cial structure
structure as
as well
as about
about approaches
approaches to
the emergence
emergence of
of class
cial
well as
to the
class
society; that
that is,
is, about
about data
data illustrating
illustrating the
the fundamental
fundamental positions
of
positions of
society;
historical materialism,
materialism, which
which could
could and
and did
did lead
lead to
to further
further and
and deeper
deeper
historical
studies.
studies.
We must
must point
point out
out that
that after
after the
the appearance
appearance of
of the
first volume
volume of
of
the first
We
Capital,the
theterm
term"Asiatic
"Asiaticmode
modeof
ofproduction"
production"disappears
disappearsfrom
from the
the
Capital,
writings of
writings
of Marx
Marx and
and Engels.
Engels. It
It is
is also
also absent
absent from
from Lenin's
Lenin's works
works (ex(except, of
of course,
course, in
in references
references to
to the
the earlier
earlier publications
publications of
of Marx
Marx and
and
cept,
Engels).
Engels). On
On the
the whole,
whole, the
the development
development of
of historical
historical materialism
materialism led
led
to the
the conclusion
conclusion that
that society
society passed
passed through
through three
three consecutive
consecutive develdevelto
opmental stages
stages or
or formations
formations in
in the
the precapitalist
primitive
opmental
precapitalist period:
period: primitive
order, slave-owning
slave-owning order,
order, and
and feudalism.
feudalism.
order,
The
The end
end of
of the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century
century and
and the
the first
first decades
decades of
of the
the
twentieth
twentieth century
century saw
saw aa rapid
rapid development
development of
of Oriental
Oriental studies
studies and
and an
an
accumulation
which was
was
accumulation of
of enormous
enormous amounts
amounts of
of new
new information,
information, which
not
easy to
sort out.
out. Among
Among the
the professional
of that
that time,
not easy
to sort
professional historians
historians of
time,
there was
was no
no unified
unified conception
conception of
of history,
history, except
except for
for the
the hypothesis
hypothesis
there
of cyclical
cyclical development,
development, aa theory
theory that
that was
was rapidly
rapidly losing
losing its
its supportsupportof
1. K.
Progress
K. Marx and F.
F. Engels, Selected
SelectedWorks
Works(Moscow:
(Moscow:
ProgressPublishers,
Publishers,1973),
1973),
1:504.
2. Ibid., 3:201.

Introduction
Introduction

ers.
ers. According
According to
to this
this hypothesis,
hypothesis, development
development occurred
occurred from
from primiprimitive feudalism
feudalism to
to Graeco-Roman
Graeco-Roman capitalism,
capitalism, from
from capitalism
capitalism back
back to
to
tive
feudalism, from
from there
there to
to aa new
capitalism, and
and so
so on.
on. This
This hypothesis
hypothesis
feudalism,
new capitalism,
presented by
by Eduard
Meyer in
was
was most
most vividly
vividly presented
Eduard Meyer
in the
the several
several volumes
volumes of
of
his
History of
ofAntiquity
Antiquity(published
(publishedbetween
between1884
1884and
and1902;
1902;numerous
numerous
his History
reeditions appeared
until the
the middle
the twentieth
A
reeditions
appeared until
middle of
of the
twentieth century).
century). A
somewhat similar
similar cyclical
cyclical theory
theory was
suggested by
Oswald Spengler
Spengler
somewhat
was suggested
by Oswald
(The
Decline of
Based on
his theory,
(The Decline
of the
the West,
West, 22 vols.,
vols., 1918-23).
1918-23). Based
on his
theory,
Spengler
thought it
present "the
Spengler thought
it possible
possible to
to present
"the spiritual
spiritual form,
form, duration,
duration,
rhythm, meaning,
rhythm,
meaning, and
and product
product of
of the
the still
still unaccomplished
unaccomplished stages
stages of
of
our Western
However, Spengler'S
Spengler's predictions
predictions did
did not
not come
come
our
Western history."
history." However,
true. In
In the
the West
the views
views of
of the
the philosophers
W. Dilthey,
Dilthey, B.
B. Croce,
Croce,
true.
West the
philosophers W.
and R.
Collingwood became
important. They
They thought
that hisand
R. Collingwood
became most
most important.
thought that
history
could be
be understood
only insofar
insofar as
as it
it is
is made
comprehensible by
tory could
understood only
made comprehensible
by
professional
on specific
specific problems;
more
professional historians
historians working
working on
problems; nothing
nothing more
can reasonably
reasonably be
expected. Most
Most historians
historians limited
limited themselves
themselves to
to the
the
can
be expected.
accumulation of
of new
data.
accumulation
new data.
That the
the cyclical
cyclical theory
theory of
of history
for explaining
explaining
That
history is
is unsatisfactory
unsatisfactory for
the
became evident.
the latest
latest events
events of
of world
world history
history soon
soon became
evident. It
It followed
followed
from this
this that
that its
its explanation
explanation of
of any
any stage
stage of
of history
history could
could be
be quesfrom
questo aa great
to the
tioned. This
This lack
lack of
of satisfaction
satisfaction contributed
contributed to
great degree
degree to
the
tioned.
rise among
historians of
rise
among Russian
Russian historians
of an
an interest
interest in
in the
the Marxist
Marxist theory
theory of
of
the historical
historical process,
process, which
had its
the
which had
had already
already had
its adherents
adherents in
in Russian
Russian
academic
the 1890s
to 1910s
academic circles
circles as
as early
early as
as the
1890s to
1910s (e.g.,
(e.g., N.1.
N. I. Sieber
Sieber and
and
A. I. Tyumenev).
Tyumenev). This
This interest
interest continued
continued to
grow in
in the
the 1920s
1920s and
and
A.1.
to grow
1930s,
began to
with the
rest of
the intelliintelli1930s, when
when historians
historians began
to seek,
seek, along
along with
the rest
of the
gentsia,
niche in
the emerging
gentsia, their
their niche
in the
emerging Soviet
Soviet society.
society.
A general
A
general interpretation
interpretation of
of newly
newly acquired
acquired data
data from
from the
the perspecperspective of
materialism was
retive
of the
the fundamentals
fundamentals of
of historical
historical materialism
was urgently
urgently required.
which different
quired. After
After long
long discussions
discussions in
in which
different solutions
solutions were
were
suggested within
the framework
framework of
of Marxist
Marxist theory,
theory, aa general
general interintersuggested
within the
pretation
was proposed
proposed in
V. V.
V. Struve
Struve (originally,
(originally, aa student
student
pretation was
in 1933
1933 by
by V.
of E.
E. Meyer)
Meyer) in
in his
his address
address "Problem
"Problem of
of the
the Origin,
Origin, Development,
Development, and
and
of
Decline of
of Slave-Owning
Slave-Owning Society
Society in
in the
the Ancient
Ancient Orient"
Orient" and
and in
in his
arDecline
his article
ticle "Plebeians
"Plebeians and
and Helots."
Helots." Struve's
Struve's outstanding
outstanding erudition
erudition (he
(he used
used
Egyptian, Mesopotamian,
Mesopotamian, and
and classical
classical sources)
sources) allowed
allowed him
him to
to supsupEgyptian,
port the
the conclusion
conclusion that
that ancient
ancient Oriental
Oriental society,
society, despite
despite all
all its
its specific
specific
port
features, belonged
belonged to
to the
the slave-owning
slave-owning type.
type. This
This theory
theory was
was not
not imimfeatures,
mediately accepted.
accepted. One
One of
of Struve's
Struve's most
most active
active opponents,
opponents, A.
A. I.
I.
mediately
Tyumenev, learned
learned Sumerian
Sumerian in
in order
order to
to verify
verify this
this conclusion.
conclusion. For
For
Tyumenev,
fifteen years
years he
he investigated
investigated Sumerian
Sumerian administrative
administrative and
and economic
economic
fifteen
documents; his
his findings,
findings, however,
however, can
can be
be regarded
regarded as
as not
not fundamenfundamendocuments;
tally
disagreeing with
those of
of Struve.
Struve.
tally disagreeing
with those
From then
then on,
on, especially
especially during
during the
the postwar
postwar period,
period, the
the concept
concept of
of
From

Introduction
Introduction

the slave-owning
slave-owning character
character of
of ancient
ancient Oriental
Oriental society
society was
was dominant
dominant
the
3
among Soviet
Soviet historians.
This viewpoint
viewpoint affirms
affirms the
the unity
unity of
of the
the uniuniamong
historians. 3 This
versal historical
historical process,
process, leaving
leaving no
no ground
ground for
for the
the "Europe-centered"
"Europe-centered"
versal
and "Orient-centered"
"Orient-centered" concepts
concepts of
of universal
universal history.
history. Almost
Almost all
all the
auand
the authors of
of our
our book
book have
have worked
worked in
in the
the tradition
tradition established
established by
by Struve
Struve
thors
and Tyumenev.
Tyumenev.
and
In the
West during
during this
this period
and slightly
slightly later,
later, Arnold
Arnold Toynbee's
Toynbee's
In
the West
period and
theory
was most
most popular.
popular. He
He presented
presented itit in
in the
the ten
ten
theory of
of universal
universal history
history was
volumes
of his
Study of
of History
(1934-57). According
According totoToynbee,
Toynbee,
volumes of
his A
A Study
History (1934-57).
"civilizations"twenty-one in
in number-successfully
numbersuccessfully emerged
emerged and
and
"civilizations"-twenty-one
grew in
in response
response to
to certain
certain sociocultural
sociocultural "challenges,"
"challenges," under
under the
the
grew
leadership of
of creative
creative minorities.
minorities. Civilizations
Civilizations declined
declined when
when the
the leadleadleadership
ers failed
failed to
to act
act according
according to
to the
the demands
demands of
of the
the historical
historical situation.
situation.
ers
Actually, Toynbee's
Toynbee's theory
theory is
is simply
simply an
an elaborate
elaborate rationalization
rationalization of
of the
the
Actually,
popular notion
notion that
that history
history is
is aa multicolored
multicolored kaleidoscope
kaleidoscope of
of irregular
irregular
popular
events. Despite
Despite aa number
number of
of useful
useful ideas
ideas and
and acute
acute observations,
observations,
events.
Toynbee's theory,
theory, on
on the
the whole,
whole, has
has made
made little
little impact
impact on
on the
the discipline
discipline
Toynbee's
Lately, however,
however, the
the necessity
necessity of
of regarding
regarding the
the historical
historical
of history.4
history.4 Lately,
of
process as
as aa series
series of
of identical
identical stages
stages in
in all
all parts
of the
has also
also
parts of
the world
world has
process
been
in the
human history
history is
is now
now currently
currently subsubbeen recognized
recognized in
the West;
West; human
divided into
into pre-urban,
urban, and
and industrial
industrial societies.
pre-urban, urban,
societies.
divided
The postwar
period saw
saw an
an even
even more
more active
active development
development in
in OrienOrienThe
postwar period
tal
tal and
and African
African studies.
studies. Recently
Recently collected
collected data
data naturally
naturally required
required
new theoretical
theoretical generalizations,
generalizations, since
since the
the new
facts did
did not
not always
always fit
new
new facts
fit
the
When such
two
the old
old historical
historical schemes.
schemes. When
such aa situation
situation arises
arises in
in science,
science, two
solutions
solutions are
are possible;
possible; either
either the
the old
old theories
theories must
must be
be adjusted
adjusted or
or
modified, or
or if
if this
feasible, new
theories must
must be
be substituted.
modified,
this is
is not
not feasible,
new theories
substituted.
(The latter
latter solution
solution may
may also
also consist
consist of
of aa return
return to
to older,
older, formerly
formerly re(The
rejected
that now
appear more
more consistent
consistent with
with the
the new
jected theories
theories that
now appear
new evievidence.) Many
Many Marxist
Marxist historians
historians considered,
considered, and
and still
still consider,
consider, that
that
dence.)
new
facts do
do not
not require
revision of
of existing
existing theories,
theories, particularly
of
new facts
require revision
particularly of
the theory
theory of
of ancient
ancient society
society as
as slave-owning.
slave-owning. More
More accurate
accurate definidefinithe
tions
are all
all that
that is
is required.
required. This
group of
of historians
historians accepts
accepts the
the exisThis group
existions are
tence of
of multiple
multiple development
development variants
variants in
in ancient
ancient society
society similar
similar to
to
tence
3. The
most complete
complete defense
of this
on ancient
ancient history
history can
can be
be found
found in
in
3.
The most
defense of
this perspective
perspective on

G.
G. F.
F. I1'yin,
Il'yin, "Rabstvo
"Rabstvo ii drevnii
drevnii Vostok"
Vostok" [Slavery
[Slavery and
and the
the ancient
ancient Orient],
Orient], Narody
NarodyAzii
Aziii i

Afriki, 1973,
1973, no.
no. 4.
4.
AfTiki,
theory of
4.
4. Perhaps,
Perhaps, one
one also
also should
should mention
mention the
the theory
of hydraulic
hydraulic (irrigation-based)
(irrigation-based) OriOriental civilizations
civilizations that
that was
was popular
in the
the West
West about
about the
the same
same time.
time. According
this
ental
popular in
According to
to this
theory, the
the complete
complete monopoly
monopoly of
of state
state economies,
economies, supposedly
supposedly typical
typical of
of the
the Orient,
Orient,
theory,
was aa form
form of
of state
state socialism.
socialism. Regardless
Regardless of
of the
the obvious
obvious political
political bias
bias of
of this
this theory,
theory, we
we
was
may
state that
it was
was largely
largely mistaken,
mistaken, since
since most
most of
of the
ancient Oriental
societies were
were
may state
that it
the ancient
Oriental societies
not based
based on
on irrigation,
irrigation, and
and their
their state
state economies
economies usually
usually coexisted
coexisted with
with the
the private!
private/
not
communal economic
economic sector.
sector. Today,
Today, this
this theory
theory essentially
essentially has
has been
been abandom~d.
abandoned.
communal

Introduction
Introduction

99

those,
those, for
for example,
example, that
that characterized
characterized nineteenth-twentieth
nineteenthtwentieth century
century
capitalism (except
(except that
that during
during antiquity
antiquity the
the differences
differences between
between the
the
capitalism
variants
pronounced). They
regard the
variants were
were more
more pronounced).
They do
do not
not regard
the variants
variants as
as
different
different socioeconomic
socioeconomic formations
formations characterized
characterized by
by different
different modes
modes
of production
but merely
merely view
view them
as variants
variants of
of one
one and
and the
same
of
production but
them as
the same
ancient mode
mode of
of production.
production. Hence,
Hence, they
they adhere
adhere to
to the
the position
position that
that
ancient
emphasizes the
the "unity
"unity of
of human
human historical
historical development."
development." Most
Most of
of the
the
emphasizes
authors of
of this
book belong
to this
this group.
group.
authors
this book
belong to
On
On the
the other
other hand,
hand, many
many scholars
scholars considered
considered and
and still
still consider
consider that
that
views about
about ancient
ancient Oriental
Oriental societies
societies is
is necessary
necessary
aa radical
radical revision
revision of
of views
in
in order
order to
to overcome
overcome the
the danger
danger of
of overschematization
overschematization and
and dogdogmatism.
matism. Several
Several works
works criticizing
criticizing the
the slave-owning
slave-owning view
view of
of ancient
ancient
Oriental
Oriental societies
societies have
have been
been published.
published. In
In addition,
addition, the
the concept
concept of
of an
an
Asiatic
Asiatic mode
mode of
of production,
production, which
which was
was based
based on
on an
an early
early work
work of
of
Marx and
Marx
and which
which was
was popular
popular in
in the
the 1920s,
1920s, has
has again
again become
become aa subject
subject
of
of discussion.
discussion.
The
The first
first works
works supporting
supporting this
this latter
latter concept
concept appeared
appeared in
in print
print at
at
the
the end
end of
of the
the 1940s,
1940s, but
but debate
debate started
started in
in our
our country
country only
only after
after the
the
1964
journal Pensee,
Pensee,
1964 publication
publication of
of the
the French
French Marxist
Marxist theoretical
theoretical journal
which
which contained
contained several
several articles
articles on
on the
the Asiatic
Asiatic mode
mode of
of production.
production.
Chesnaux, for
for example,
example, wrote
wrote that
that the
the Asiatic
Asiatic mode
mode of
of production
production
J. Chesnaux,
"is characterized
characterized by
by aa conjunction
conjunction of
of the
the productive
productive activity
activity of
of village
village
"is
communities with
with the
the economic
economic intervention
intervention of
of the
the state
state authorities,
authorities,
communities
the state
state simultaneously
simultaneously both
both exploiting
exploiting and
and ruling
ruling these
these commucommuthe
nities."
brief, he
he defined
defined this
this mode
mode of
of production
production as
as "despotic"despoticIn brief,
nities." In
cum-village community."
community." According
According to
to Chesnaux,
Chesnaux, the
the fundamental
fundamental
cum-village
difference between
between the
the Asiatic
Asiatic despotic
despotic state
state and
and other
other precapitalist
precapitalist
difference
states consists
consists in
in the
the fact
fact that
that the
the former
former "is
"is itself
itself the
the organizer
organizer of
of proprostates
duction." The
The main
main contradiction
contradiction of
of such
such aa society
society is
is not
not between
between
duction."
classes but
but between
between the
the state
state and
and the
the communities.
communities.55 Subsequently,
Subsequently,
classes
Chesnaux revised
revised his
his views.
Chesnaux
views.
In
journal Narody
Narody Azii
Aziii iAfriki
Afrikipublished
published the
thetheses
theses
In 1965,
1965, the
the Soviet
Soviet journal
of
of two
two French
French Marxist
Marxist scholars,
scholars, the
the Africanist
Africanist J. Suret-Canal
Suret-Canal and
and the
the
theoretician M.
M. Godelier,
Godelier, as
as well
as Struve's
Struve's responding
responding thesis.
thesis. This
This
theoretician
well as
publication
actually triggered
triggered new
discussions among
scholars in
in our
our
publication actually
new discussions
among scholars
country. The
The controversy
controversy developed
developed in
in two
two directions.
directions. The
The first
first was
was aa
country.
more profound
study of
of the
the classic
classic Marxist-Leninist
Marxist-Leninist writings
in order
order
more
profound study
writings in
to demonstrate
demonstrate that
that Marx,
Marx, Engels,
Engels, and
and Lenin
Lenin actually
actually adhered
adhered consisto
consistently to
the "Asiatic
"Asiatic mode
mode of
of production"
production" concept.
concept. These
These attempts,
attempts,
tently
to the
however,
must be
regarded as
as failures,
failures, since
since in
in their
their later
writings, as
however, must
be regarded
later writings,
as
5. According
According to
to Marxist
Marxist philosophy,
philosophy, any
any process
process is
is moved
moved by
by some
some main
main inner
inner concon5.
tradiction. For
For example,
example, capitalist
capitalist development
development is
is moved
moved by
by the
the contradiction
contradiction between
between
tradiction.
the
class.
the capitalist
capitalist and
and the
the working
working class.

10
io

Introduction
Introduction

already
already mentioned,
mentioned, Marx
Marx and
and Engels
Engels never
never again
again referred
referred to
to this
this conconcept.
cept. Moreover,
Moreover, the
the fundamental
fundamental Marxist
Marxist work
work on
on the
the subject
subject belongs
belongs
theFamily,
Family,Private
Private
among these
these later
later writings,
writings, namely,
namely, The
The Origin
Origin of
ofthe
among
Property,and
andthe
theState,
State,which
whichwas
waswritten
writtenbybyEngels
Engelson
onthe
thebasis
basisofof
Property,
Marx;s
notes.
Marx's own
own notes.
The
The other
other side
side of
of the
the controversy
controversy was
was supported
supported by
by aa number
number of
of
authors
authors who
who criticized
criticized the
the slave-owning
slave-owning concept
concept of
of ancient
ancient Oriental
Oriental
society, proposing
proposing their
their own
own models
models and
and using
using supporting
supporting data
data from
from
society,
their particular
particular areas
areas of
of expertise
expertise without
without always
always paying
attention to
to
their
paying attention
materials from
from other
other regions.
regions. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, many
many of
of these
authors'
these authors'
materials
publications
were based
based on
on secondary
secondary and
and even
even tertiary
tertiary sources.
sources.
publications were
We cannot
cannot enumerate
enumerate all
all the
the participants
in this
this debate
debate or
or all
all their
their
We
participants in
arguments.
We shall
shall only
only mention
mention the
the most
most typical
typical and
and important
important ones.
ones.
arguments. We
all, we
we must
must note
note that
that the
the concept
concept of
of an
an Asiatic
Asiatic mode
mode of
of proproFirst of
of all,
First
duction
duction implies
implies that
that aa special
special structure
structure (or
(or "formation")
"formation") existed
existed paralparallel to
to the
the slave-owning
slave-owning structure
structure (formation).
(formation). This
This particular
particular developdeveloplel
mental
mental path
path was
was determined
determined by
by special
special geographical
geographical conditions,
conditions,
particularly
particularly by
by the
the need
need for
for artificial
artificial irrigation.
irrigation. It
It generated
generated the
the cencentralized
tralized power
power of
of aa despotic
despotic ruler
ruler and
and was
was also
also the
the cause
cause of
of the
the longlongterm preservation
preservation of
of the
the primitive
primitive community,
community, which
which was
was subject
subject to
to
term
exploitation.
soexploitation. Although
Although private
private property
property did
did not
not appear
appear in
in such
such societies, it
it is
is assumed
assumed that
that the
the existence
existence of
of the
the Asiatic
Asiatic mode
mode of
of proprocieties,
duction
duction is
is "everlasting"
"everlasting" (apparently
(apparently since
since the
the disintegration
disintegration of
of the
the
primitive
and
primitive community
community order?).
order?). E.
E. S.
S. Varga
Varga supported
supported this
this view,6
view,6 and
Struve admitted
admitted the
the validity
validity of
of the
the above-mentioned
above-mentioned theses
theses (with
(with cercerStruve
tain caveats),
caveats), though
though as
as applied
applied only
only to
to the
the early
early period
period of
of antiquity.
antiquity.
tain
More complex
complex structures
structures were
were also
also proposed.
proposed. L.
L. S.
S. Vasil'ev
Vasil'ev and
and
More
I. A.
A. Stuchevskii
Stuchevskii proposed
proposed their
their own
own concept
concept of
of aa "secondary"
"secondary" formaforma1.
tion; that
that is,
is, aa formation
formation positioned
positioned between
between the
the primitive
primitive order
order and
and
tion;
According to
to these
these authors,
authors, aa society
society emerging
emerging from
from the
the
capitalism.7 According
capitalism.'
primitive
primitive order
order can
can proceed
proceed along
along one
one of
of three,
three, almost
almost equally
equally pospossible, paths:
paths: slave
slave ownership,
ownership, feudalism,
feudalism, or
or the
the Asiatic
Asiatic order
order (the
(the last
last
sible,
combining
combining features
features of
of the
the first
first two).
two). The
The actual
actual path
path is
is not
not deterdetermined by
by the
the developmental
developmental level
level of
of the
the forces
forces of
of production
production (it
(it is
mined
is
about equal
equal in
in all
all cases.)
cases.) but
but by
the type
type of
of community,
community, which,
which, in
in turn,
turn,
about
by the
is determined
determined mainly
mainly by
by environmental
environmental conditions.
conditions.88
is
6. Ocherki
Ocherki po
po problemam
problemampolitekonomii
politekonomiikapitalisma
kapitalisma[Essays
[Essayson
onthe
thepoliticoeconomic
politicoeconomicprobproblems of
of capitalism]
capitalism] (Moscow:
(Moscow: Nauka.
Nauka, 1964).
1964).
lems
7.
7. "Tri
"Tri modeli
modeli vozniknoveniya
vozniknoveniya dokapitalisticheskikh
dokapitalisticheskikh obshchestv"
obshchestv" [Three
[Three models
models for
for
Voprosyistorii.
istorii,
1966,
the origin
origin of
of precapitalist
precapitalist societies].
societies], Voprosy
the
1966.
no.no.
6. 6.
8.
recent work
work Istoriya
Istoriya drevnego
[History
of the
ancient
Orient].
8. In
In his
his recent
drevnegoVostoka
Vostoka
[History
of the
ancient
Orient],
vols.
1-2 (Moscow:
1985), L.
L. S.
S. Vasil'ev
on the
the one
hand,
vols. 1-2
(Moscow: Nauka,
Nauka. 1985).
Vasil'ev bases
bases his
his arguments,
arguments. on
one hand.
on Hegel
Hegel and
and early
early Marxian
Marxian work
and, on
on the
the other.
other, on
on social
social anthropology
anthropology and
and conconon
work and.
tends that
that all
all class
class societies
societies are
are stagnant
stagnant except
except those
those based
based on
on private
private property
in the
the
tends
property in
means of
of production,
as, for
for example.
example, ancient
ancient Greece.
Greece. Not
Not distinguishing
distinguishing between
between sovmeans
production. as.
sov-

Introduction
Introduction

11
11

A
A similar
similar perspective
perspective is
is advanced
advanced in
in aa number
number of
of writings
writings by
by the
the
prominent
Soviet historian
historian and
and philologist,
G. A.
Melikishvili.99 In
prominent Soviet
philologist, G.
A. Melikishvili.
In
Melikishvili's opinion,
opinion, the
the most
most common
common manifestation
manifestation of
of precapitalist
precapitalist
Melikishvili's
class society
society is
is feudalism.
feudalism. The
The slave-owning
slave-owning order
order appears
appears only
only in
in exexclass
ceptional cases
cases (Phoenicia,
(Phoenicia, Greece,
Greece, Rome),
Rome), culminating
culminating in
in aa return
return to
to
ceptional
the main
main road;
that is,
is, to
to feudalism.
feudalism. During
During the
the early
early developmental
developmental
the
road; that
stages of
of aa class
class society,
society, the
Asiatic mode
mode of
of production
production can
can also
also come
come
the Asiatic
stages
of production
production is
is defined
denned by
as aa
into existence.
existence. This
This mode
mode of
into
by Melikishvili
Melikishvili as
"protofeudal" complex
complex of
of exploitation
exploitation methods.
methods.10
"protofeudal"
19
Although
Although Melikishvili's
Melikishvili's view
view differs
differs from
from the
the one
one adopted
adopted in
in this
this
is nevertheless
nevertheless close
close to
to it
it in
in many
many respects.
respects. We
We actually
actually agree
agree
book, it
book,
it is
with him
him on
on the
the existence
existence of
of various
various types
types of
of development
development within
within the
with
the
framework
we try
feaframework of
of ancient
ancient society.
society. However,
However, we
try to
to stress
stress common
common features, defining
denning the
the different
different types
types of
of ancient
ancient societies
societies as
as ways
ways of
of develdeveltures,
opment
mode of
opment of
of one
one and
and the
the same
same ancient
ancient mode
of production.
production. Melikishvili
Melikishvili
on the
the distinguishing
distinguishing characteristics,
characteristics, which
which he
puts more
emphasis on
more emphasis
he
puts
considers
Melikishvili emphaconsiders different
different production
production structures.
structures. Yet
Yet Melikishvili
emphasizes,
sizes, to
to aa greater
greater extent
extent than
than we
we do,
do, the
the similarity
similarity between
between the
the mode
mode
of
of production
production of
of antiquity
antiquity and
and that
that of
of the
the Middle
Middle Ages.
Ages. To
To us
us the
the difdifference in
in this
this case
case is
is more
more substantial.
substantial. (At
(At the
the same
same time,
time, doubtless
doubtless
ference
no one
meno
one could
could dispute
dispute the
the fact
fact that
that ancient
ancient society
society differs
differs less
less from
from meother
dieval society
society than
than both
both differ
differ from
from capitalism;
capitalism; capitalism,
capitalism, in
in other
dieval
words,
from feudalism
words, is
is separated
separated from
feudalism by
by aa sharper
sharper break.)
break.)
The picture
picture of
The
of world
world history
history drawn
drawn by
by another
another Soviet
Soviet historian
historian and
and
philosopher,
V. P.
P. Ilyushechkin,
Ilyushechkin, seems
seems to
to us
oversimplified.11II He
He studstudphilosopher, V.
us oversimplified.
the forms
forms of
of exploitation
exploitation attested
attested in
in antiquity
antiquity and
and in
in the
the Middle
Middle
ies the
ies
Ages and
and concludes
concludes that
that the
number of
methods of
of exploitaexploitaAges
the number
of possible
possible methods
ereignty and property, Vasil'ev asserts that only state property existed in all other ancient and medieval societies.
9. "K voprosu 0o kharaktere drevneishikh klassovykh obshchestv" [On the problem
of the nature of
of the most ancient class societies], Voprosy
of
Voprosyistorii,
istorii,
1966,
1966,
no.no.
11;11;
"Kharakter
"Kharakter
sotsial'no-ekonomicheskogo stroya na drevnem Vostoke (Opyt stadial'no-tipologichesstadial'no-tipologichessotsial'no-ekonomicheskogo
klassifikatsii klassovykh obshchestv)" [The nature of
of the socioeconomic formation
formation in
koi klassifikatsii
of class societies)],
the ancient Orient (An attempt at a typological-stage classification
classification of
Narody
Aziii iA/riki,
Afriki,1972,
1972,lio.
no.4;4;"Nekotorye
"Nekotoryeaspekty
aspektyvoprosa
voprosa0osotsial'no-ekonomichessotsial'no-ekonomichesNarody Azii
of the problem of
kom stroye drevnikh blizhnevostochnykh
blizhnevostochnykh obshchestv" [Some aspects of
of
Vestnikdrevnei
drevneiistorii,
istorii,
the socio-economic formation in ancient Near Eastern societies], Vestnik
1975, no. 2; and others.
1975,
10. It should be noted that G. G. Giorgadze, one of
of the authors of
of this book and
different types of
of ancient societies
Melikishvili's pupil, adheres to the theory that the different
cannot simply be reduced to varieties of the same slave-owning mode of production.
11. See his Sistema vne-ekonomicheskogo
vne-ekonomicheskogoprinuzhdeniya
prinuzhdeniya i iproblema
problemavtoroi
vtoroiosnovnoi
osnovnoistadii
stadii
obshchestvennoi
evolyutsii
[The
system
of extraeconomic
coercion
problem
obshchestvennoi
evolyutsii
[The
system
of extraeconomic
coercion
andand
the the
problem
of of
Sistemyi istruktury
struktury
the second major
major stage of
of social evolution] (Moscow: Nauka 1970); Sistemy
chastnosobstvennicheskoyekspluatatsii
ekspluatatsii[Systems
[Systemsand
andstructures
structuresofofprecapiprecapidoburzhuaznoy chastnosobstvennicheskoy
talist exploitation by private proprietors] (Moscow: Nauka 1980).

12
12

Introduction
Introduction

tion was
was limited
of one
one or
or another
tion
limited and
and the
the application
application of
another depended
depended on
on
differences
historical conditions.
this, Ilyushechkin
differences in
in specific
specific historical
conditions. From
From this,
Ilyushechkin
that all
precapitalist societies
deduces
deduces that
all precapitalist
societies constitute
constitute aa single
single "precapitalist
"precapitalist
formation,"
the same
formation," or
or "the
"the second
second stage
stage of
of social
social evolution."
evolution."1212 At
At the
same
time,
time, however,
however, the
the author
author virtually
virtually ignores
ignores the
the forms
forms of
of property
property in
in
the means
of productionespecially
land (real)
(real) property.
But only
only
the
means of
production-especially land
property. But
the
the combination
combination of
of the
the form
form of
of property
property in
in the
the means
means of
of production
production
with the
the form
form of
of exploitation
exploitation determines
determines the
the dominant
dominant mode
mode of
of prowith
proplace in
process. Moreover,
duction
duction and
and its
its place
in the
the historical
historical process.
Moreover, the
the author
author
fails
fails to
to consider
consider the
the development
development of
of ideas,
ideas, which
which depends
depends on
on the
the proprocessual development
of socioeconomic
socioeconomic history.
It is
is well
well known
known that
that an
an
history. It
cessual
development of
idea becomes
force as
as soon
soon as
as it
it possesses
consciousness
idea
becomes aa material
material force
possesses the
the consciousness
of the
masses; but
ideational structure
structure typical
typical of
of antiquity
antiquity is
is quite
quite
of
the masses;
but the
the ideational
dissimilar from
from that
of the
the Middle
also means
means that
the
that of
Middle Ages,
Ages, which
which also
that the
dissimilar
incentives for
for mass
different.
mass behavior
behavior were
were different.
incentives
Finally,
Finally, we
we also
also mention
mention that
that new
new formations
formations have
have been
been postulated
postulated
(though without
sufficiently convincing
convincing argumentation)
argumentation) during
during the
the
(though
without sufficiently
course
by Yu.
Yu.1.
course of
of this
this discussion
discussion (e.g.,
(e.g., by
I. Semenov).
Semenov).
Participants in
in this
this debate
debate variously
variously interpret
role,
Participants
interpret the
the character,
character, role,
and
the factors
and significance
significance of
of the
factors that
that are
are fundamental
fundamental to
to the
the theory
theory of
of
historical materialism.
materialism. Such
include property
property in
the means
means of
of
historical
Such factors
factors include
in the
production (especially
land); the
the character
character of
of exploitation:
exploitation: economic
production
(especially land);
economic
(via the
the market,
market, where
labor force
force becomes
commodity) and
and
where the
the labor
becomes aa commodity)
(via
noneconomic (by
(by compulsion);
compulsion); and
and the
correlation of
of these
facnoneconomic
the correlation
these two
two factors
of property
and exploitation):
exploitation): whether
persons
property and
whether the
the persons
tors (i.e.,
(i.e., forms
forms of
exploited are
are deprived
deprived of
of property
property in
in the
means of
of production
or not.
not.
the means
production or
exploited
In our
our view,
view, property
property as
as aa relationship
relationship of
of classes
classes must
must not
not be
confused
In
be confused
with
simple physical
especially in
in the
the case
case when
when the
the posposwith simple
physical possession,
possession, especially
sessor cannot
cannot legally
legally dispose
dispose of
of the
the oqject
object in
in his
his own
own interest
interest and
and at
at
sessor
Our position
is that
that the
the character
character of
of aa society
society is
is determined
determined by
will.13
will.
IS Our
position is
by
the mode
mode of
of production,
which is
is realized
realized in
in the
the developmental
developmental level
level
the
production, which
of
the means
means of
and is
is achieved
and reflected
(on the
of the
of production
production and
achieved and
reflected (on
the sosocial level) in
in the
character of
of property.
This relation
relation determines
determines both
both
the character
property. This
ciallevel)
the
character of
of the
exploitation and
and the
class structure
structure of
of the
the society.
society.
the character
the exploitation
the class
We believe
our position
in agreement
agreement with
the tenets
of historihistoriWe
believe our
position to
to be
be in
with the
tenets of
cal materialism
and that
that opposing
opposing theories
theories have
have not
offered clear
clear anannot offered
cal
materialism and
swers to
to the
the problem
problem of
of the
the correlation
correlation of
of these.
these decisive
decisive factors
factors in
in
swers
ancient societies.
societies.
ancient
12.
of social
evolution corre12. Ilyushechkin's
Ilyushechkin's precapitalist
precapitalist formation
formation or
or second
second stage
stage of
social evolution
corresponds to
or urban
society.
sponds
to the
the preindustrial
preindustrial or
urban society.
13.
13. That
That is,
is, property
property can
can be
be defined
defined as
as an
an object
object that
that an
an owner
owner can
can use,
use, possess,
possess, and
and
dispose
in his
his own
own interest
interest and
his own
own will,
will, and
exclude any
proprietor
dispose of
of in
and at
at his
and can
can exclude
any non
nonproprietor
from
using, possessing,
possessing, or
disposing of.
from using,
or disposing
of.

Introduction
Introduction

13
13

We will
will not
We
not offer
offer further
further detailed
detailed presentation
presentation of
of the
the views
views and
and ararguments produced
opponents of
of the
slave-owning formation
formation in
in the
the
guments
produced by
by opponents
the slave-owning
ancient
but will
will limit
the fundamental
ancient Orient
Orient but
limit ourselves
ourselves to
to outlining
outlining the
fundamental
directions
by the
to familiarize
directions taken
taken by
the discussion.
discussion. Those
Those desiring
desiring to
familiarize themthemselves
to V.
Nikiforov's book
Vostoki i
selves with
with its
its course
course are
are referred
referred to
V. N.
N. Nikiforov's
book Vostok
vsemirnaya
[The
East
and
world
history]
(Moscow,
1975).
This
vsemirnayaistoriya
istoriya
[The
East
and
world
history]
(Moscow,
1975).
This
work
thorough and,
the whole,
whole, well-argued
work contains
contains aa thorough
and, on
on the
well-argued analysis
analysis of
of
all
viewpoints expressed
all the
the viewpoints
expressed in
in the
the discussion,
discussion, as
as well
well as
as aa comprehencomprehensive
bibliography. In
recent years,
years, this
has subsided.
sive bibliography.
In recent
this debate
debate has
subsided. Its
Its main
main
utility lay
in the
fact that
participants (as
as historians
utility
lay in
the fact
that many
many of
of the
the participants
(as well
well as
historians
who
not take
part in
in the
the arguwho did
did not
take aa direct
direct part
the discussion)
discussion) subjected
subjected the
arguments
their proposed
historical constructions
ments used
used to
to support
support their
proposed historical
constructions to
to aa
new thorough
analysis, redefining
their concepts
concepts where
necessary.
new
thorough analysis,
redefining their
where necessary.
not all
However,
However, obviously,
obviously, not
all the
the questions
questions of
of the
the history
history of
of the
the ancient
ancient
world
resolved. Uncertainty
Uncertainty and
in our
world have
have been
been resolved.
and incompleteness
incompleteness in
our
views
are due
due mainly
mainly to
unequal quality
quality and
and quantity
quantity of
of informainformaviews are
to the
the unequal
tion regarding
different periods
periods and
and countries,
countries, as
as well
as to
an uneven
uneven
tion
regarding different
well as
to an
elaboration of
of some
some trends
trends of
of the
elaboration
the historical
historical process.
process.
The greatest
of documented
documented data
data about
about the
entire period
period of
of
The
greatest wealth
wealth of
the entire
antiquity,
the beginning
of class
class civilizations
civilizations to
of the
antiquity, from
from the
beginning of
to the
the start
start of
the
medieval
point out
medieval era,
era, comes
comes from
from the
the Near
Near East.
East. We
We would
would like
like to
to point
out
that
that the
the taxonomic
taxonomic rank
rank of
of early
early antiquity
antiquity and
and late
late antiquity
antiquity remains
remains
uncertain.
there four
taxonomically equivalent
uncertain. Were
Were there
four taxonomically
equivalent stages
stages of
of one
one
precapitalist society
Ages,
precapitalist
society (early
(early antiquity,
antiquity, late
late antiquity,
antiquity, early
early Middle
Middle Ages,
or were
two consequent
consequent formations-an
late Middle
Ages) or
late
Middle Ages)
were there
there two
formationsan anancient
cient and
and aa medieval
medieval one,
one, each
each of
of them
them subdivided
subdivided into
into an
an early
early and
and aa
late stage
has been
been assumed
in this
book)? Or
Or is
is one
late
stage (as
(as has
assumed in
this book)?
one dealing
dealing with
with
three consequent
three
consequent precapitalist
precapitalist formations:
formations: early
early antiquity,
antiquity, late
late antiqantiquity, and
and the
the Middle
Middle Ages?
Ages? Here
Here we
we arrive
arrive at
at an
an important
important theoretical
theoretical
uity,
in our
We
difficulty,
difficulty, which
which is
is due
due to
to aa certain
certain vagueness
vagueness in
our constructions.
constructions. We
still
the mechanisms
which aa society
still actually
actually do
do not
not know
know the
mechanisms by
by which
society passes
passes
from one
one form
another, nor
can we
even establish
establish whether
whether the
the
from
form to
to another,
nor can
we even
change
change in
in each
each case
case is
is from
from "formation"
"formation" to
to "formation"
"formation" or
or whether
whether it
it
is less
less important.
important.
is
Naturally, because
because of
historical information
Naturally,
of the
the vast
vast amount
amount of
of historical
information that
that
students of
of the
the ancient
ancient Near
East have
have amassed,
amassed, many
many authors
authors of
of our
our
students
Near East
book
have used
kind of
book have
used Near
Near Eastern
Eastern data
data as
as aa kind
of standard.
standard. But,
But, in
in the
the
future,
when our
in India,
future, when
our knowledge
knowledge of
of the
the anciem
anciem :;ocieties
societies in
India, China,
China,
Central Asia,
Iran, Egypt,
Egypt, and
and other
other African
African countries
countries attains
attains the
the
Central
Asia, Iran,
same scientific
scientific level
level as
as our
our present
knowledge of
of the
the Near
East,
same
present knowledge
Near East,
Greece, and
and Rome,
Rome, we
we hope
hope that
that historical
historical science
science will
will advance
advance withGreece,
without the
for extrapolations
extrapolations from
from data
data acquired
acquired in
in one
one region
region to
to
out
the need
need for
other regions.
regions.
other

14

Introduction
Introduction

The
The Problem
Problem of
of Sources
Sources for
for Ancient
Ancient History
History

Sources of
of information
information on
on the
the history
history of
of the
the ancient
ancient world
world are
are manimaniSources
cases, more
more information
information is
is available
from certain
certain
fold. In
In aa number
number of
of cases,
fold.
available from
early periods
from epochs
epochs much
much closer
closer to
our own
own time.
These
than from
to our
time. These
early
periods than
sources, however
however abundant,
abundant, are
are incomplete,
incomplete, aa fact
fact that
that presents
sources,
presents seserious difficulties
difficulties for
for the
the objective
objective study
study of
of ancient
ancient history.
history.
rious
The
history of
The history
of ancient
ancient Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, from
from the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the
third millennium
millennium B.C.
third
B.C. to
to the
the beginnings
beginnings of
of the
the Christian
Christian era
era (first
(first cencentury
tury B.C.
B.C. to
to first
first century
century A.D.),
A.D.), is
is reconstructed
reconstructed from
from original
original contemcontemporary texts,
texts, written
written on
on clay
other objects
objects made
of clay,
clay,
porary
clay tablets
tablets and
and other
made of
stone, and
and metal.
metal. The
The script
script is
is called
called cuneiform,
and the
stone,
cuneiform, and
the writing
writing syssystem
is aa complex,
complex, "word-syllabic"
"word-syllabic" one.
one. The
The quantity
quantity of
of cuneiform
cuneiform
tem is
texts is
is enormous-hundreds
enormoushundreds of
of thousands,
thousands, their
their number
number increasing
increasing
texts
every year
year as
as aa result
result of
of new
new archaeological
archaeological excavations.
excavations. Yet
Yet it
it would
would
every
be
wrong to
to think
think that
that these
these discoveries
discoveries give
give aa completely
completely satisfactory
satisfactory
be wrong
view of
of ancient
ancient Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian society,
society, of
of its
its life
life and
and historic
historic events.
events.
view
Royal inscriptions
inscriptions praise
gods and
king and
and inform
inform us
of the
the
Royal
praise the
the gods
and the
the king
us of
temples
he built
built (and,
(and, less
less frequently,
frequently, other
other structures).
structures). The
The inscripinscriptemples he
tions
of Hittite
Hittite and
and Assyrian
Assyrian kings
relate only
only their
their military
triumphs;
kings relate
military triumphs;
tions of
their accounts
accounts are
are very
very much
much biased.
(Defeats are,
are, of
of course,
course, ignored.)
ignored.)
their
biased. (Defeats
Texts recording
recording laws
are incomplete
incomplete in
in terms
terms of
of the
the social
social relations
relations
Texts
laws are
regulated by
by them
them and,
and, as
as often
often as
as not,
not, are
are poorly
moreregulated
poorly preserved;
preserved; moreover, such
such texts
texts have
have not
not been
recovered for
for all
all historical
historical periods
periods and
and
over,
been recovered
all countries.
Religious-literary texts
texts are
are mostly
in
all
countries. Religious-literary
mostly preserved
preserved only
only in
fragments. They
They are
are difficult
difficult to
date and
and usually
illustrate only
the
fragments.
to date
usually illustrate
only the
official ideology.
ideology. It
It is
is rarely
extract from
from them
them any
any inforinforofficial
rarely possible
possible to
to extract
mation about
about the
the real
real life
life and
and views
views of
of the
the population.
Administramation
population. Administrative-economic texts,
texts, which
which represent
represent the
vast majority
majority of
of the
the available
available
tive-economic
the vast
cuneiform material,
material, originate
originate from
from state
state economies
economies or
or the
economies
cuneiform
the economies
of government
employees, merchants,
merchants, and
and others.
others. Again,
the result
result is
of
government employees,
Again, the
is
society. It
It is
is not
not surprising
surprising that
that historians
historians believed
believed
aa one-sided
one-sided view
view of
of society.
for aa long
long time
time that
that only
only state
state or
or temple
economies existed
existed in
in Mesofor
temple economies
Mesopotamia
during
the
third
millennium
B.C.
Texts
recording
private
potamia during the third millennium B.C. Texts recording private
legal contracts
contracts appear
appear on
on those
those relatively
relatively rare
rare occasions
occasions when
when the
the solegal
social
relations
were
in
the
process
of
change
and
when
verbal
contracts
cial relations were in the process of change and when verbal contracts
based on
on customary
customary law
law were
were inadequate
inadequate for
for aa number
number of
of reasons.
reasons.
based
The
periods
that
are
illustrated
by
numerous
written
documents
The periods that are illustrated by numerous written documents alalternate with
with centuries
centuries from
from which
which not
single written
written document
document has
has
ternate
not aa single
reached
The Hittite
Hittite civilization,
civilization, which
existed in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor durdurreached us.
us. The
which existed
B.C. and
and also
also used
used the
the cuneiform
cuneiform script,
script,
ing the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
ing
left us
us only
only one
one royal
royal archive,
archive, containing
containing accounts
accounts of
of royal
royal victories,
left
victories,
treaties between
states, legislative
legislative texts,
texts, instructions
instructions to
to employees,
employees, and
and
treaties
between states,
innumerable magic
magic rituals-but
ritualsbut not
not aa single
single document
document dealing
dealing with
with
innumerable

Introduction
Introduction

15

the
private lives
the private
lives of
of men
men and
and women.
women. From
From the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the first
first
millennium
parchment, potmillennium B.C.,
B.C., when
when such
such new
new writing
writing materials
materials as
as parchment,
pottery sherds
sherds (ostraca),
(ostraca), and
and papyrus
came into
into use
use in
in the
the Near
Near East,
East,
tery
papyrus came
practically no
no documents
documents have
have reached
reached us;
parchment and
and papyrus
papyrus
practically
us; parchment
disintegrate rapidly,
rapidly, and
and inscriptions
or sherds
sherds rub
rub off
off or
or fade
fade
disintegrate
inscriptions in
in ink
ink or
with
the passage
passage of
of time.
time.
with the
Let
us now
now turn
Let us
turn to
to the
the archaeological
archaeological remains
remains from
from the
the ancient
ancient
Near East.
East. Until
Until recently,
recently, extensive
extensive excavations
excavations were
were conducted
conducted only
only
Near
on
beginning of
twentieth century
on temples
temples and
and palaces.
palaces. Before
Before the
the beginning
of the
the twentieth
century
the unearthed
sites of
of ancient
ancient towns
towns were
were razed
razed in
in search
search of
of tablets
tablets
the
unearthed sites
and
and statues
statues and
and other
other "art"
"art" objects.
objects. Later
Later excavations
excavations in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
and
parts of
and other
other parts
of the
the Near
Near East
East were
were conducted
conducted by
by architects.
architects. ConConsequently,
began emerging
sequently, the
the cities
cities began
emerging with
with more
more clarity
clarity (although
(although
residential
residential houses
houses still
still attracted
attracted only
only minimal
minimal attention),
attention), but
but the
the circircumstances
utensils and
tabcumstances surrounding
surrounding such
such finds
finds as
as domestic
domestic utensils
and even
even tabremained mostly
lets
lets remained
mostly unrecorded.
unrecorded. For
For aa long
long time,
time, the
the excavations
excavations of
of
towns
towns and
and cities
cities did
did not
not proceed
proceed stratum
stratum by
by stratum
stratum to
to lay
lay bare
bare the
the
remains of
of the
the different
different periods.
periods. Even
Even today,
today, many
many pottery
pottery fragfragremains
ments,
bones of
ments, bones
of domestic
domestic animals,
animals, and
and other
other artifacts
artifacts are
are sometimes
sometimes
discardedmaterials that
that could
could provide
provide clues
clues to
to aspects
aspects of
of the
the daily
daily
discarded-materials
life and
and the
the diet
diet of
of the
the inhabitants.
inhabitants. Yet,
Yet, even
even when
when the
the excavations
excavations are
are
life
conducted in
in the
the best
possible way,
way, archaeology
archaeology without
without the
the support
support
conducted
best possible
of written
written records
records cannot
cannot provide
complete picture
of the
the social
social
of
provide aa complete
picture of
structure or
or the
the spiritual
spiritual culture
culture of
of aa past
past society.
society. While
While archaeoloarchaeolostructure
gists were
were gaining
gaining on-the-job
training in
in the
the mastery
of the
the complex
complex
gists
on-the-job training
mastery of
digging techniques
techniques necessary
necessary to
to furnish
furnish proper
material for
for histoproper material
histodigging
rians,
they often
often managed
to destroy
destroy many
many interesting
interesting sites.
sites. As
As aa rule,
rule,
rians, they
managed to
early archaeologists
archaeologists dug
dug the
the best
ancient sites,
sites, and
and after
after
best preserved
preserved ancient
early
having
destroyed them,
they left
left less
less significant
significant sites
sites to
to the
next gengenhaving destroyed
them, they
the next
eration
of
scientists,
whose
methods
were
more
sophisticated.
eration of scientists, whose methods were more sophisticated.
The
has its
vast majority
The history
history of
of Egypt
Egypt has
its own
own sources.
sources. The
The vast
majority of
of writwritten material
material is
is represented
represented by
prayers and
and invocations
invocations recorded
on
ten
by prayers
recorded on
the walls
walls of
of tombs
tombs and
and on
on funeral
funeral stelae
stelae (at
(at times
times with
with much
much embelembelthe
lished, though
standardized, biographies
biographies of
of the
the deceased).
deceased). In
In relarelalished,
though standardized,
tively rare
rare cases,
cases, inscriptions
inscriptions dedicated
dedicated to
exploits of
of pharaohs
pharaohs
tively
to the
the exploits
were engraved
engraved on
on temple
temple walls.
walls. More
More important
important even
even than
than the
inwere
the inscriptions are
are the
the wall
and reliefs
reliefs illustrating
illustrating the
the religious
religious
scriptions
wall paintings
paintings and
ideas of
of ancient
ancient Egyptians,
Egyptians, who
imagined the
the afterlife
afterlife to
to be
be aa copy
copy of
of
ideas
who imagined
their earthly
earthly existence.
existence. In
In these
these pictures,
we find
find numerous
numerous scenes
scenes of
of
their
pictures, we
everyday life,
life, although
although it
it is
is difficult
difficult to
use them
them to
to re-create
re-create the
the social
social
everyday
to use
aspects of
of this
this life.
life. The
The texts
texts written
written on
on the
the well-known
Egyptian papaaspects
well-known Egyptian
pyri stem
stem from
from relatively
relatively later
later times
(second millennium
and espepyri
times (second
millennium and
espeA.D.). A
A few
few
cially first
first millennium
B.C. through
through the
the first
first millennium
millennium A.D.).
cially
millennium B.C.
ostraca containing
containing economic
economic and
and legal
legal information
information have
have survived.
survived.
ostraca

16

Introduction
Introduction

The
The first
first code
code of
of law
law was
was found
found recently
recently but
but has
has not
not yet
yet been
been fully
fully
published.
published.
It was
was mainly
mainly religious,
literary, and,
and, occasionally,
occasionally, scientific
scientific subjects
subjects
It
religious, literary,
that
were recorded
that were
recorded on
on papyri,
papyri, although
although documents
documents originating
originating from
from
state
state administrative
administrative institutions
institutions have
have also
also come
come down
down to
to us.
us. (Most
(Most of
of
them are
are from
from the
the end
end of
of the
the second
second through
through the
the first
first millennium
millennium
them
B.C., as
as well
well as
as from
from the
the Hellenistic
Hellenistic and
and Roman
Roman periods.)
periods.) A
A relatively
relatively
B.C.,
small number
number (except
(except for
for later
later periods)
of legal
legal contracts
contracts also
also exist.
exist.
small
periods) of
mind that
acKeeping in
in mind
that scholars
scholars understand
understand Egyptian
Egyptian texts
texts with
with less
less acKeeping
curacy than
than they
they do
do the
the Babylonian
Babylonian texts,
texts, one
one may
may say
say that
that reconreconcuracy
struction of
of socioeconomic
socioeconomic life
life in
in ancient
ancient Egypt
Egypt is
is aa very
very difficult
difficult
struction
matter, and
and much
much remains
remains unclear.
unclear. Art
Art experts,
experts, as
as well
well as
as comcommatter,
paratively narrowly
narrowly oriented
oriented philologists,
more success
success in
in their
their
paratively
philologists, have
have more
efforts than
than economic
economic historians.
historians.
efforts
The
number of
The smaller
smaller the
the number
of documental
documental sources,
sources, the
the more
more difficult
difficult
it is
is to
to reconstruct
reconstruct the
the history
history of
of aa society.
society. Documental
Documental sources
sources have
have
it
two
two invaluable
invaluable advantages.
advantages. First,
First, they
they are,
are, as
as aa rule,
rule, contemporary
contemporary
with the
the events
they relate
thus, provide
provide more
objective accounts
with
events they
relate and,
and, thus,
more objective
accounts
of
is
of what
what really
really occurred.
occurred. Second,
Second, given
given that
that the
the number
number of
of texts
texts is
sufficiently large
large and
and that
that we
we can
can ascertain
ascertain that
that the
the large
or small
small
sufficiently
large or
number
reaching us
us is
result of
number of
of aa certain
certain type
type of
of document
document reaching
is not
not the
the result
of
the
were found,
the fortuitous
fortuitous conditions
conditions under
under which
which these
these documents
documents were
found,
we can
as to
to whether
particular social
social phenomephenomewe
can draw
draw conclusions
conclusions as
whether aa particular
non was
was common
common or
or unusual
unusual during
during the
the period
period in
in question.
question.
non
With regard
narrative sources
purely literary
With
regard to
to the
the so-called
so-called narrative
sources (both
(both purely
literary
works and
and works
ancient historians),
historians), it
it is
is important
important to
to realize
realize that
that
works
works by
by ancient
they do
do not
not inform
inform us
us of
of actual
actual facts
facts but,
but, rather,
rather, only
only of
of what
what the
the auauthey
thors,
or the
group to
to which
they belonged,
thought about
about the
the subthors, or
the group
which they
belonged, thought
subject.
Though such
such information
information is
is certainly
certainly useful
useful to
to the
the historian,
historian,
ject. Though
we can
can rarely
rarely check
check the
the correctness
correctness of
of the
the data
data transmitted
transmitted by
by aa narnarwe
rative source.
source. Details
Details describing
describing sundry
sundry events
events and
and quotations
quotations of
of proprorative
nouncements made
made by
historical figures
figures are,
are, in
in particular,
particular, nearly
nearly
nouncements
by historical
always fictitious.
fictitious.
always
The
The history
history of
of Palestine
Palestine is
is known
known almost
almost exclusively
exclusively through
through narnarrative sources,
sources, although
although recently
recently discovered
discovered archaeological
archaeological data
data can,
can,
rative
to
to some
some extent,
extent, be
be used
used in
in checking
checking their
their validity.
validity. The
The narratives
narratives have
have
been preserved
preserved in
in the
the Bible-the
Biblethe holy
holy scriptures
scriptures of
of the
the Jewish
Jewish and
and
been
Christian religions.
religions. The
The Bible
Bible is
is not
not aa book
an entire
entire library
library conconChristian
book but
but an
taining aa number
number of
of writings
writings dating
dating from
from the
the twelfth
twelfth to
to the
the second
second
taining
centuries
B.C.
(Old
Testament)
and
from
the
first
to
the
second
cencenturies B.C. (Old Testament) and from the first to the second centuries
A.D.
(New
Testament).
The
Bible
includes
mythological
and
turies A.D. (New Testament). The Bible includes mythological and leglegendary accounts
accounts relating
relating to
to the
the creation
creation of
of the
and to
to the
life of
endary
the world
world and
the life
of
the peoples
in and
and around
around Palestine
Palestine (mainly
Jews). It
It also
also includes
includes
the
peoples in
(mainly Jews).
criminal, civil,
civil, and
and ritual
legislation; prosaic
prosaic historical
accounts (these
(these
criminal,
ritual legislation;
historical accounts

Introduction
Introduction

17

can
can be
be verified
verified to
to aa substantial
substantial degree
degree by
by comparing
comparing them
them with
with ararchaeological
chaeological data,
data, as
as well
well as
as with
with Assyrian,
Assyrian, Babylonian,
Babylonian, and
and Egyptian
Egyptian
royal
royal inscriptions
inscriptions and,
and, occasionally,
occasionally, even
even with
with documents);
documents); religious
religious
and secular
secular poetry;
fragments of
of epic
epic poems;
poems; religious
and secular
secular
and
poetry; fragments
religious and
didactics;
rhythmical religious
religious (prophetic)
didactics; rhythmical
(prophetic) sermons-actually
sermonsactually often
often
speeches
speeches on
on political
political events
events of
of the
the day
day (these
(these can
can also
also be
be substantiated
substantiated
by
historical information
information from
from other
by historical
other Near
Near Eastern
Eastern countries);
countries); ficfictional
this diverse
material is
tional stories;
stories; and
and more.
more. Clearly,
Clearly, this
diverse material
is of
of quite
quite ununequal
equal historical
historical value,
value, but
but with
with the
the aid
aid of
of historical
historical criticism,
criticism, biblical
biblical
texts
great deal
reliable information.
Unfortunately, the
texts provide
provide aa great
deal of
of reliable
information. Unfortunately,
the
almost
almost complete
complete lack
lack of
of documental
documental sources
sources severely
severely limits
limits the
the ininvestigation of
of ancient
ancient Palestine,
Palestine, despite
the fact
fact that
that the
the number
vestigation
despite the
number of
of
documents has,
in the
past few
few years,
increased, especially
especially with
with the
the
documents
has, in
the past
years, increased,
sensational discovery
discovery of
of the
the Dead
Dead Sea
Sea scrolls,
scrolls, dating
dating from
from around
around the
the
sensational
second
B.C. to
to the
the second
second century
century A.D.
A.D.
second century
century B.C.
The
historiography of
presents aa very
DeThe historiography
of India
India presents
very difficult
difficult problem.
problem. Despite
the flourishing
spite the
flourishing of
of numerous
numerous sciences
sciences in
in ancient
ancient India-philosoIndiaphilosophy,
phy, mathematics,
mathematics, astronomy,
astronomy, grammar,
grammar, and
and others-the
othersthe science
science of
of
history
history did
did not
not come
come into
into being
being... The
The ancient
ancient religious
religious hymns,
hymns, the
the
Veda, ritual-legislative
ritual-legislativecollections,
collections,epics,
epics,and
and philosophical
philosophicaland
andother
other
Veda,
treatises that
reached us
us can
can be
be dated
dated only
only with
with the
the greatest
greatest diffidiffitreatises
that have
have reached
culty. Although
there are
are some
some royal
inscriptions carved
carved in
stone (dat(datculty.
Although there
royal inscriptions
in stone
ing from
from aa time
time not
earlier than
than the
the third
third century
century B.C.),
B.C.), in
in most
ing
not earlier
most cases,
cases,
they
are not
not very
very informative.
informative. Documental
Documental sources
sources are
are completely
completely
they are
lacking. In
In the
the past
half-century, Indian
Indian archaeology
archaeology has
has made
made great
great
past half-century,
lacking.
progress. One
One of
of its
its major
major successes
successes was
the discovery
discovery of
of the
the ancient,
ancient,
progress.
was the
previously
unknown Indus
Indus civilization,
which existed
existed during
during the
third
previously unknown
civilization, which
the third
and second
second millenia
millenia B.C.
its written
consist only
only
and
B.C. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, its
written texts
texts consist
of very
brief inscriptions
inscriptions on
on seals
seals and
and other
other such
such items;
items; they
they are
are
of
very brief
insufficient
to
decipher
the
script.
The
structure
of
the
grammar
can
insufficient to decipher the script. The structure of the grammar can
be
ascertained, but
we are
are unable
read the
the words.
words.
be ascertained,
but we
unable to
to read
The
ancient history
history of
of China
exclusively on
The ancient
China is
is based
based almost
almost exclusively
on narnarrative
rative sources.
sources. In
In contrast
contrast to
to India,
India, historical
historical literature
literature flourished
flourished in
in
China.
secChina. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, it
it only
only covered
covered the
the period
period starting
starting with
with the
the second
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.,
historians of
ond half
half of
of the
B.C., although
although historians
of that
that time
time
had access
access to
to more
more ancient
ancient records,
which have
have not
not reached
us. InInhad
records, which
reached us.
scriptions from
earlier periods
periods are
preserved on
on bronze
bronze vessels
vessels of
scriptions
from earlier
are preserved
of
various kinds;
kinds; divinatory
various
divinatory texts,
texts, dating
dating from
from the
the second
second millennium
millennium
B.C., are
are also
also inscribed
inscribed on
on sheep
sheep shoulder
shoulder blades,
blades, turtle
shells, etc.
etc. We
B.C.,
turtle shells,
We
also have
ancient hymns
hymns and
and legends,
legends, but
but they
they have
have reached
reached us
us in
in ververalso
have ancient
sions written
written down
down much
much later
later than
than the
original compositions.
compositions. There
There
sions
the original
are numerous
numerous philosophical,
philosophical, scientific,
scientific, economic,
and military
treaare
economic, and
military treatises,
but until
lately, there
were scarcely
scarcely any
any documentary
documentary sources
sources
tises, but
until lately,
there were
available. Despite
Despite the
the fact
fact that
that important
important discoveries
already
discoveries have
have already
available.

i8
18

Introduction
Introduction

been made,
made, the
the archaeology
archaeology of
of China
China is
is still
still in
in its
its initial
initial phase.
phase. The
The
been
most
most sensational
sensational discovery
discovery was
was that
that of
of the
the tomb
tomb of
of the
the first
first Chinese
Chinese
emperor, Ch'in
Ch'in Shih
Shih Huang-ti,
Huang-ti, which
which remained
remained hidden
hidden throughout
throughout
emperor,
antiquity. It
It was
was surrounded
surrounded by
by an
an entire
entire army
army of
of realistically
realistically and
and
antiquity.
brightly colored
colored terra-cotta
terra-cotta warriors
warriors of
of the
the imperial
imperial guard
guard with
with all
all the
the
brightly
details
details of
of their
their arms,
arms, clothing,
clothing, and
and horses'
horses' accoutrements.
accoutrements. Less
Less sensasensational finds
finds also
also promise
promise aa considerable
considerable increase
increase in
in our
our knowledge
knowledge
tional
about
about ancient
ancient China.
China. Much
Much has
has also
also been
been accomplished
accomplished in
in the
the historihistorical criticism
criticism of
of the
the written
written sources.
sources.
cal
Until
Until recently,
recently, the
the most
most ancient
ancient period
period of
of Greek
Greek history
history could
could be
be
studied only
only from
from nontextual
nontextual archaeological
archaeological objects;
objects; just
few dedestudied
just aa few
cades ago,
ago, the
the mysterious
mysterious Mycenaean
Mycenaean word-syllabic
word-syllabic writing
writing of
of the
the seccades
second half
half of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. was
was deciphered.
deciphered. But
But the
the texts
texts
ond
appeared to
to be
accounts of
of the
the palace
palace household,
household, and
and for
for aa number
number of
of
appeared
be accounts
reasons, scholars
scholars believe
that the
the Greeks
Greeks of
of that
that time
time did
did not
not record
record
reasons,
believe that
anything else.
else. In
In addition
addition to
to archaeological
archaeological materials,
materials, the
the next
next period
period
anything
is illuminated
illuminated by
by epics,
epics, which
which were
were composed
composed during
during the
the eighth
eighth to
to
is
seventh centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. and
and are
are attributed
attributed to
to Homer:
Homer: The
The Iliad
Iliadand
and The
The
seventh
Odyssey,These
Thesepoems
poemspose
posea most
a mostcomplex
complexproblem
problemininhistorical
historicalcriticritiOdyssey.
cism: how
how to
to separate
separate the
the poet's
poet's imagination
imagination from
from historical
historical reality.
reality.
cism:
Almost no
no original
original documents
documents written
written on
on perishable
perishable materials
materials and
and
Almost
contemporary
have reached
reached us
contemporary with
with the
the events
events described
described have
us from
from Greece
Greece
and Rome.
However, two
two fortunate
fortunate circumstances
circumstances neutralize
neutralize this
this
and
Rome. However,
drawback. First,
the Greeks
Greeks (and
(and later
later the
the Romans)
produced aa very
very
drawback.
First, the
Romans) produced
rich and
and most
most diverse
diverse narrative
narrative literature,
literature, including
including some
some remarkremarkrich
able works
works of
of history
history that
that will
will be
be frequently
frequently quoted
quoted in
in our
our book.
book.
able
Thucydides (ca.
(ca. 460-396
460-396 B.C.)
B.C.) can
can rightly
rightly be
regarded as
as the
the founder
founder
Thucydides
be regarded
of scientific
scientific historical
historical criticism.
criticism. Unfortunately,
all these
these writings
writings have
have
of
Unfortunately, all
reached us
us only
only in
in the
the form
form of
of medieval
medieval copies
copies or
or on
on papyri,
papyri, mostly
mostly
reached
from Egypt,
Egypt, of
of the
the first
first centuries
centuries A.D.
A.D. They
They have
have required
required aa huge
huge
from
amount of
of critical
critical work.
work. Second,
Second, in
in Greece
Greece and
and later
later in
in countries
countries ininamount
fluenced by
by Greek
Greek culture
culture (essentially
(essentially the
the entire
entire Near
Near and
and Middle
Middle
fluenced
East and
and the
the Roman
Roman Empire),
Empire), it
it was
was customary
customary to
to record
record on
on stone
stone all
all
East
sorts
of
private
and
social
events.
Among
these
inscriptions
we
can
sorts of private and social events. Among these inscriptions we can
find aa detailed
detailed account
account of
of the
the reign
reign of
of Augustus
Augustus written
written by
the Roman
Roman
find
by the
emperor himself,
himself, as
as well
well as
as aa few
few heartfelt
heartfelt words
words in
in memory
memory of
of aa
emperor
slave's concubine;
concubine; or
or an
an enormous
enormous customs
customs tariff
tariff on
on international
international
slave's
trade, as
as well
well as
as the
the record
record of
of aa private
private sacrifice
sacrifice to
to aa deity.
deity. In
In some
some
trade,
cases private
private deeds
deeds were
were also
also reproduced
reproduced on
on stone.
stone. A
A large
large number
number of
of
cases
documentary materials
materials from
from the
the times
times of
of Graeco-Macedonian
Graeco-Macedonian and
and
documentary
Roman rule
rule have
reached us
us on
on papyri
from Egypt.
Egypt. Numerous
Numerous legisRoman
have reached
papyri from
legislative records
records and
and legal
legal commentaries
commentaries (mainly
(mainly Roman)
Roman) have
have also
also been
been
lative
preserved (again
(again as
as medieval
medieval copies).
preserved
copies).

Introduction

19

Today's
Today's scholars
scholars of
of Greek
Greek and
and Roman
Roman history
history and
and of
of culturally
culturally and
and
politically
related countries
countries (including
(including the
the ancient
ancient Black
Sea littoral)
littoral)
politically related
Black Sea
have aa great
great advantage
advantage over
over those
the Oriental
Oriental countries,
countries,
have
those researching
researching the
because the
the sources
sources for
for Greek
Greek and
and Roman
Roman history
history began
began to
to be
be studied
studied
because
about
four hundred
hundred years
years earlier.
earlier. The
The result
is aa truly
truly enormous
enormous acabout four
result is
accumulation of
of scholarly
scholarly work
work and
and historical
historical criticism.
criticism. However,
However, new
cumulation
new
discoveries and
and interpretations
interpretations of
of old
old materials
materials continue
continue to
to appear
appear
discoveries
every year.
year.
every
Graeco-Roman archaeology
archaeology has
has achieved
achieved brilliant
results. Everyone
Everyone
Graeco-Roman
brilliant results.
is
the excavations
is familiar
familiar with
with the
excavations of
of Pompeii-the
Pompeiithe city
city that
that perished
perished
under
under hot
hot ash
ash during
during aa volcanic
volcanic eruption
eruption in
in the
the first
first century
century of
of the
the
Christian era.
preserved almost
including inscriptions
Christian
era. It
It was
was preserved
almost intact,
intact, including
inscriptions
(graffiti) on
on the
the walls
of the
houses. Other
Other discoveries
discoveries are
are equally
equally fasfas(graffiti)
walls of
the houses.
cinating and
and successfully
successfully complement
complement the
the abundant
abundant written
sources.
cinating
written sources.
Modern science
science has
has developed
developed underwater
underwater archaeology,
archaeology, making
making
Modern
possible the
the discovery
discovery of
of the
the remains
remains of
of sunken
sunken cities,
cities, as
as well
well as
as virtuvirtupossible
ally intact
ships that
with all
all their
their freight
freight two
thousand
ally
intact ships
that went
went down
down with
two thousand
years
ago.
years ago.
In
field of
In the
the last
last few
few years,
years, the
the field
of comparative
comparative historical
historical linguistics
linguistics
has
advanced considerably.
considerably. We
We may
may reasonably
reasonably hope
hope that
this source
source
has advanced
that this
reconstruction not
will
will enable
enable us
us to
to make
make at
at least
least aa partial
partial reconstruction
not only
only of
of the
the
material
culture of
of humanity
humanity far
material (archaeological)
(archaeological) culture
far beyond
beyond the
the range
range of
of
written history
but also
valwritten
history but
also of
of its
its mentality,
mentality, its
its ideology
ideology and
and cultural
cultural values, and
ues,
and certain
certain social
social features.
features. The
The migration
migration routes
routes of
of the
the speakers
speakers
of
hard to
of the
the most
most ancient
ancient languages
languages are
are still
still hard
to reconstruct.
reconstruct. However,
However,
it seems
seems that
that aa collaboration
collaboration of
of linguists
linguists with
with archaeologists,
archaeologists, physical
physical
it
the latest
anthropologists
anthropologists (who,
(who, using
using the
latest discoveries
discoveries in
in genetics,
genetics, have
have
made
progress), palaeobotanists,
palaeobotanists, palaeozoologists,
histomade spectacular
spectacular progress),
palaeozoologists, historians of
of the
the climate,
climate, and
and others
others will
will enable
enable us
us to
create aa base
for the
the
rians
to create
base for
science of
of ethnogenesis
science
ethnogenesis(the
(thestudy
studyofofthe
theorigins
originsofofnations).
nations).Let
Letususnote
note
that finding
finding the
the origin
origin of
of aa nation
implies the
discovery of
of its
its three
threedisdisthat
nation implies
the discovery
tinct
roots: the
the history
history of
of itsitsphysical
physical anthropological
anthropological characteristics;
characteristics;
tinct roots:
the
history of
of its
its language;
language; and
and the
the history
of its
its culture.
culture. We
We very
very
the history
history of
rarely
information about
about all
all three.
three.
rarely have
have information
This
replace aa comprehensive
This brief
brief survey
survey cannot,
cannot, of
of course,
course, replace
comprehensive sumsumming
provide at
ming up
up of
of research
research based
based on
on ancient
ancient sources.
sources. But
But it
it may
may provide
at
least
an approximate
approximate idea
least an
idea about
about the
the character
character of
of the
the sources
sources that
that
served
the degree
served as
as aa basis
basis for
for the
the lectures
lectures in
in our
our book,
book, about
about the
degree to
to
which
be regarded
which the
the reported
reported facts
facts can
can be
regarded as
as reliable,
reliable, and
and about
about the
the
obstacles confronted
confronted by
scholars in
in their
historical research.
research.
obstacles
by scholars
their historical
In
In addition
addition to
to the
the difficulties
difficulties in
in studying
studying these
these sources,
sources, we
we must
must
mention
the philological
philological difficulties.
difficulties. Historians
Historians investigating
investigating the
anmention the
the ancient
to work
materials prepared
cient world
world cannot
cannot afford
afford to
work with
with materials
prepared for
for them
them

20
20

Introduction
Introduction

by
historians themby philologists
philologists or
or archaeologists.
archaeologists. It
It is
is crucial
crucial that
that the
the historians
themnecessary paspasselves
selves read
read in
in the
the original,
original, sort
sort out,
out, and
and interpret
interpret the
the necessary
the results
results of
of
sages
sages of
of ancient
ancient texts.
texts. They
They must
must also
also learn
learn to
to interpret
interpret the
archaeological excavations.
excavations.
archaeological
The
historical sources
The ancient
ancient historical
sources are
are recorded
recorded in
in many,
many, often
often complex
complex
writing systems
systems designed
designed for
for dozens
dozens of
of languages,
languages, some
some of
of which
are
which are
writing
not yet
have not
not been
been fully
denot
yet well
well understood.
understood. Some
Some writing
writing systems
systems have
fully deciphered, so
so that
their interpretation
interpretation is
is controversial.
controversial. The
The languages
languages
that their
ciphered,
themselves were
were always
always changing
changing and
and are
are still
still changing,
changing, so
so that
that fifth
fifth
themselves
century B.C.
B.C. Latin
Latin differed
differed considerably
considerably from
from the
Latin of
of the
the first
first
century
the Latin
century B.C.
B.C. to
to the
the first
first century
century A.D.,
A.D., and
and the
the latter
latter was
was notably
notably distinct
distinct
century
from medieval
medieval Latin,
Latin, which,
in turn,
turn, was
was different
different from
from Renaissance
Renaissance
from
which, in
Latin. Akkadian,
which existed
existed for
for two
two and
and aa half
half millennia,
millennia, and
and ChiLatin.
Akkadian, which
Chinese, which
which existed
existed for
for three
and aa half
half millennia,
millennia, were,
were, of
of course,
course,
three and
nese,
subject to
to still
still more
drastic change.
change.
more drastic
subject
To
the problem
To end
end with
with the
problem of
of sources,
sources, it
it is
is worthwhile
worthwhile to
to dwell
dwell upon
upon
the following
following question:
question: Is
Is it
it not
not aa fact
fact that
that the
the sources
sources reach
reach us
us acthe
accidentally,
cidentally, so
so that
that we
the more
more important
important ones?
ones? To
To this
this
we may
may miss
miss the
legitimate question
question there
there is
is no
no unequivocal
unequivocal answer.
answer. Some
Some countries
countries
legitimate
and
and some
some epochs
epochs are,
are, one
one can
can assume,
assume, elucidated
elucidated satisfactorily.
satisfactorily. Thus,
Thus,
we know
know more
about Rome
Rome under
under Emperor
than about
about
we
more about
Emperor Augustus
Augustus than
seventeenth-century Russia.
Russia. Our
Our knowledge
about, say,
say, the
time of
of
seventeenth-century
knowledge about,
the time
Nebuchadnezzar II
II or
or about
about the
the Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period is
is considerconsiderNebuchadnezzar
able but
fragmentary. We
We know
know by
name hundreds
hundreds and
and thousands
thousands of
of
able
but fragmentary.
by name
few. Of
Of other
other epochs
epochs we
persons and
and the
life histories
of aa few.
persons
the life
histories of
we know,
know, alas,
alas,
next
to nothing,
nothing, and
and considerable
considerable errors
errors in
in reconstruction
reconstruction are
are posnext to
possible and
and even
even probable.
However, we
can be
sure that
that human
society
sible
probable. However,
we can
be sure
human society
lives and
and develops
develops in
in accordance
accordance with
certain uniform
uniform socioeconomic
socioeconomic
with certain
lives
and sociopsychological
sociopsychological laws.
laws. Therefore,
Therefore, with
with great
great caution,
caution, we
may
and
we may
sometimes allow
allow ourselves
ourselves to
to extrapolate
extrapolate from
from the
the known
without too
too
sometimes
known without
great aa possibility
possibility of
of falling
falling into
into error.
error. In
In any
any event,
event, there
there is
is no
no scigreat
science that
that does
does not
not have
its share
share of
of unknown
or erroneously
erroneously ininence
have its
unknown or
terpreted
facts.
Science
is
a
way
to
truth,
a
gradual
approach
to
it;
terpreted facts. Science is a way to truth, a gradual approach to it;
complete,
absolute
truth
is
unattainable.
complete, absolute truth is unattainable.
narrative art,
History
History first
first emerged
emerged in
in antiquity
antiquity as
as aa genre
genre of
of narrative
art, and
and
it still
still retains
some features
features of
of its
its literary
literary origin.
origin. There
There is
is nothing
nothing
it
retains some
wrong
in this,
this, so
so long
long as
as it
it allows
allows the
to present
wrong in
the historian
historian to
present aa living
living picpicture of
of the
the past
past not
not only
only to
to the
the reader's
reader's intellect
intellect but
also to
to the
the reader's
reader's
ture
but also
imagination. However,
However, aa subjective-emotional
subjective-emotional approach
approach to
the facts
facts of
of
to the
imagination.
history can
can do
do incalculable
incalculable harm
harm to
to science
science and
and to
society. One
One must
must
history
to society.
deduce from
from the
the fact
fact what
happened, not
not what
what the
the historian
historian
deduce
what really
really happened,
thinks ought
ought to
to have
The scientist's
scientist's task
is the
the objective
objective
have happened.
happened. The
task is
thinks
cognition of
of facts;
facts; emotions
emotions induced
induced by
facts are
are antithetical
antithetical to
to science.
science.
by facts
cognition
Thus,
Thus, the
the readers
readers of
of our
our book
book must
must clearly
clearly understand
understand that
that it
it does
does

Introduction
Introduction

21
21

not contain
not
contain absolute
absolute and
and final
final truths
truths but,
but, rather,just
rather, just what
what can
can be
be said
said
about
about the
the different
different subjects
subjects involved
involved on
on the
the basis
basis of
of present-day
present-day
knowledge. Development
Development of
the historical
not stop;
knowledge.
of the
historical sciences
sciences does
does not
stop; our
our
ideas about
about the
the past
are changing
changing and
and will
will continue
continue to
to do
do so.
so. Maybe
Maybe it
it
ideas
past are
is the
the gradual
is
gradual revealing
revealing of
of truth
truth that
that makes
makes history
history so
so fascinating.
fascinating.

Problems
Problems of
of Ancient
Ancient Chronology
Chronology
Anyone
will probably
Anyone approaching
approaching the
the study
study of
of ancient
ancient history
history will
probably ask,
ask,
How does
does one
fix the
time at
at which
which aa particular
event in
ancient hisHow
one fix
the time
particular event
in ancient
history
place? How
tory took
took place?
How reliable
reliable are
are the
the assigned
assigned dates?
dates? In
In the
the specialist
specialist
numerous disagreements
to the
literature,
literature, one
one actually
actually finds
finds numerous
disagreements as
as to
the dates
dates
of
not to
of individual
individual events
events and
and entire
entire ancient
ancient epochs,
epochs, not
to mention
mention the
the apapproximate
proximate nature
nature of
of the
the datings.
datings. The
The difficulties
difficulties in
in establishing
establishing the
the
chronology of
ancient history
are due
the absence
absence of
adequate syssyschronology
of ancient
history are
due to
to the
of adequate
tems
year reckoning
most ancient
tems of
of year
reckoning in
in most
ancient lands,
lands, as
as well
well as
as to
to the
the characcharacter
ter and
and condition
condition of
of many
many sources,
sources, which
which are
are not
not always
always dated
dated and
and
which frequently
frequently cannot
cannot be
be dated
dated even
even by
circumstantial evidence
evidence
which
by circumstantial
known from
(such
(such as
as references
references to
to events
events for
for which
which the
the dates
dates are
are known
from
other
writing peculiarities).
other sources
sources or
or spelling
spelling and
and writing
peculiarities).
peSuch
Such is
is the
the case
case especially
especially with
with the
the dating
dating of
of the
the most
most ancient
ancient periods
in
riods of
of oriental
oriental societies.
societies. The
The establishment
establishment of
of the
the chronology
chronology in
ancient
ancient oriental
oriental history
history is
is complicated
complicated by
by the
the fact
fact that
that there
there was
was no
no
single reference
reference point
point from
from which
which to
to count
count the
Each country
country
single
the years.
years. Each
had
its own,
own, very
imperfect way
way of
of determining
determining elapsed
elapsed time.
time.
had its
very imperfect
Thus,
Thus, in
in the
the Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian states
states it
it was
was customary,
customary, at
at one
one time,
time, to
to
designate aa year
year according
according to
to some
some important
important event
event that
that took
took place
place
designate
during that
that year.
year. Lists
Lists of
of such
such year
designations (date
(date formulae)
formulae) were
were
during
year designations
kept. Sources
Sources mention
such dates
dates as,
as, for
for example,
example, the
when aa
kept.
mention such
the year
year when
certain
building was
was erected,
year of
certain building
erected, the
the year
of aa war
war against
against aa certain
certain tribe,
tribe,
and so
so forth.
forth. In
In other
other cases,
cases, the
the years
years were
were counted
counted according
according to
to the
the
and
duration of
of the
the reign
reign of
of each
each king.
king. In
the count
count was
was kept
kept
duration
In Assyria,
Assyria, the
by the
limmu.
by
the annual
annual tenures
tenures of
of certain
certain functionaries-the
functionariesthe so-called
so-called limmu.
Scholars
Assyrian functionaries
by the
Scholars also
also refer
refer to
to these
these Assyrian
functionaries by
the Greek
Greek word
word
eponym.
eponym.InInorder
ordertotocorrelate
correlateevents
eventsthat
thatoccurred
occurredatatdifferent
differenttimes,
times,itit
was necessary
necessary to
to compile
compile lists
lists of
of all
all the
the dating
dating formulae
formulae (names
(names of
was
of
years)
or
lists
of
eponyms,
or
enumerations
of
kings
with
the
lengths
years) or lists of eponyms, or enumerations of kings with the lengths
of their
their reigns.
reigns. Such
Such lists
lists could
could be
be interrupted
interrupted by
wars or
or enemy
enemy conconof
by wars
quests of
of the
the capital
capital city,
city, and
and they
could contain
contain both
accidental and
and
they could
both accidental
quests
intentional errors:
errors: approximation
approximation of
of numbers
and exclusion
exclusion of
of some
some
intentional
numbers and
names, as
as well
well as
as of
of entire
entire dynasties
dynasties that,
that, for
for political
political reasons,
were
names,
reasons, were
not
considered desirable
desirable to
mention.
not considered
to mention.
Such
be correlated
Such records
records can
can be
correlated with
with our
our own
own chronological
chronological system
system
only when
they can
can be
be related
related at
at some
some point
(better yet,
yet, at
at several)
several) to
to
only
when they
point (better

22
22

Introduction
Introduction

firmly
firmly dated
dated astronomical
astronomical events,
events, the
the dates
dates of
of such
such events
events depending
depending
entirely
the laws
celestial mechanics.
reliable referentirely on
on the
laws of
of celestial
mechanics. The
The most
most reliable
referThat is
why all
ence points
points are
ence
are solar
solar eclipses.
eclipses. That
is why
all historical
historical events
events that
that
B.C. are
are usually
usually dated
dated
took
place in
in the
East startiiii
starting^ from
from 1073
1073 B.C.
took place
the Near
Near East
with
an average
average error
error no
no larger
larger than
one to
two years.
years. Less
Less reliable
reliable
with an
than one
to two
are references
references to
other astronomical
astronomical time
time measurements,
measurements, such
such as
are
to other
as
those based
based on
on the
the quite
quite imperfect
imperfect ancient
ancient observations
observations of
of the
planet
those
the planet
Venus. This
This particular
is used
used to
date events
events in
in the
history
Venus.
particular reference
reference is
to date
the history
of Babylonia
Babylonia from
from the
the twenty-fourth
twenty-fourth to
to the
the sixteenth
sixteenth centuries
centuries B.C.
of
B.C.
After aa series
series of
of corrections
corrections that
that resulted
resulted in
in lowering
lowering the
the proposed
proposed
After
dates, we
we are
are left
left with
error of
of sixty-four
sixty-four years,
years, forward
forward or
or
dates,
with aa probable
probable error
backward,
for the
the end
end of
of the
the period
period in
in question,
question, and
and up
to one
one hunhunbackward, for
up to
dred years
years for
for its
its beginning.
Historians have
agreed to
assign aa concondred
beginning. Historians
have agreed
to assign
ventional date,
date, 1792-1750
1792-1750 B.C.,
B.C., to
to the
the reign
reign of
of King
King Hammurapi
Hammurapi of
of
ventional
Babylon, from
from which
which the
the dates
dates of
of other
other events,
events, preceding
preceding or
or followfollowBabylon,
ing, are
are calculated
calculated based
on their
their distance
distance in
in time
time from
from Hammurapi's
Hammurapi's
based on
ing,
rule. This
This dating
dating system
system is
is called
called the
the middle
middle chronology.
chronology.
rule.
When aa certain
certain local
local chronology
chronology has
has aa point
of astronomical
astronomical referreferWhen
point of
ence,
ence, it
it may
may also
also help
help to
to establish
establish absolute
absolute dates
dates for
for the
the ancient
ancient chronchronological systems
systems of
of other
other countries.
countries. This
This determination
determination depends
depends on
on
ological
finding synchronisms
synchronisms between
between them;
them; that
that is,
is, historically
historically verified
verified ininfinding
dications that
that two
two specific
specific public
public figures,
figures, one
one from
from each
each country,
country, were
were
dications
contemporaneous or
or indications
indications of
of battles,
battles, wars,
wars, and
and agreements
agreements becontemporaneous
between the
the two
two countries.
countries. A
A chronological
chronological system
system based
only on
on synsyntween
based only
chronisms with
with another
another system
system (as
(as are
are the
the chronological
chronological systems
systems of
of
chronisms
ancient Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, Palestine,
Palestine, and
and other
other areas)
areas) is
is less
less accurate
accurate than
than aa
ancient
system directly
directly tied
tied to
to the
astronomical time
time scale.
scale.
system
the astronomical
An
An additional
additional difficulty
difficulty in
in establishing
establishing an
an exact
exact chronology
chronology for
for
the
ancient New
East is
is that
the year
year used
in that
was mostly
mostly
the ancient
New East
that the
used in
that region
region was
not
12
not solar
solar (approximately
(approximately 365
365 days)
days) but
but lunar-solar,
lunar-solar, consisting
consisting of
of 12
days,
months, with
with successive
months,
successive months
months alternating
alternating between
between 29
29 and
and 30
30 days,
amounting
to aa total
total of
amounting to
of 354
354 days
days in
in aa year.
year. The
The deviation
deviation from
from the
the
natural
natural calendar
calendar was
was compensated
compensated for
for by
by intercalating
intercalating leap
leap months,
months,
first
first irregularly
irregularly and
and then,
then, since
since the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.C.,
B.C., according
according to
to aa
rigorously applied
applied system.
system.
rigorously
Today,
Today, our
our chronology
chronology is
is strictly
strictly correlated
correlated with
with astronomical
astronomical time.
time.
Small
Small errors
errors caused
caused by
by the
the somewhat
somewhat imprecise
imprecise coincidence
coincidence between
between
the civil
civil and
and the
the astronomical
astronomical year
year are
are corrected
corrected by
adding one
one day
day
the
by adding
during leap
leap years.
during
years.
In
In Egypt,
Egypt, time
time was
was counted
counted by
by the
the length
length of
of reign
reign of
of each
each pharaoh,
pharaoh,
and the
the count
count was
was renewed
renewed with
with each
each new
new ruler.
ruler. A
A list
list of
of pharaohs
pharaohs
and
indicating the
the duration
duration of
of their
their reigns
reigns has
has not
not reached
reached us
us in
in its
its comcomindicating
plete
form; it
it also
also contains
contains gaps
gaps owing
owing to
to scribal
scribal errors.
errors. Moreover,
Moreover,
plete form;

Introduction
Introduction

23

there
there was
was another
another shortcoming
shortcoming in
in this
this list
list that
that led
led to
to unjustified
unjustified
chronological extensions:
extensions: reigns
reigns of
of pharaohs
pharaohs who
who ruled
ruled simultanesimultanechronological
ously (coregents,
(coregents, as
as well
well as
as contemporaneous
contemporaneous kings,
kings, each
each governing
governing
ously
part of
of the
the country
country during
during periods
periods of
of political
political division)
division) are
are presented
presented
part
as
Mesoas sequential.
sequential. (The
(The same
same happens
happens sometimes
sometimes in
in the
the king
king lists
lists of
of Mesopotamia.) As
the estimate
estimate of
of dates
dates during
the third
third millenmillenpotamia.)
As aa result,
result, the
during the
nium
nium B.C.
B.C. oscillates
oscillates within
within aa 300-year
300-year range.
range. It
It isisonly
only at
at the
the beginning
beginning
of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. that
that the
the estimates
estimates improve
improve to
to the
the range
range
of
of one
one or
or two
two decades.
decades. The
The dating
dating becomes
becomes reliable
reliable from
from the
the middle
middle of
of
B.C. on.
on.
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
the
The situation
situation with
with the
the dating
dating of
of ancient
ancient Indian
Indian history
history is
is very
very poor.
poor.
The
The reason
reason is
is the
the nature
nature of
of the
the preserved
preserved sources.
sources. Not
single exexThe
Not aa single
ample of
of historical
historical work
work in
in the
the proper
proper sense-be
sensebe it
it chronicle,
chronicle, historihistoriample
cal account,
account, or
or treatise-is
treatiseis available
available from
from this
this region.
region. Nor
have any
any
cal
Nor have
royal archives
archives or
or any
any other
other official
official written
written documents
documents yet
yet been
been discovdiscovroyal
ered. Virtually
Virtually the
the only
only dated
dated sources
sources available
available for
for ancient
ancient India
India are
are
ered.
inscriptions on
on stone
stone and
and metal.
metal. But
But even
even these
these are
are few
few and
and stem
stem
inscriptions
from aa relatively
relatively late
late time,
time, beginning
beginning with
with the
the third
third century
century B.C.
B.C. Let
Let
from
us remember
remember that
that the
the oldest
oldest dated
dated written
written sources
sources of
of Egyptian
Egyptian and
and
us
Mesopotamian history
history (although
(although these
these dates
dates are
are only
only approximate)
approximate)
Mesopotamian
are from
from the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.
are
B.C. .
In contrast
contrast to
to Indian
Indian sources,
sources, those
those of
of China
China contain
contain numerous
numerous
In
dates. This
This is
is because
because China,
China, like
like Greece
Greece and
and Rome,
Rome, is
is one
one of
of the
the few
few
dates.
ancient countries
countries where
where historical
historical works
works were
were written.
written. Ancient
Ancient China
China
ancient
has left
left us
us chronicles,
chronicles, dynastic
dynastic histories,
histories, and
and valuable
valuable generalizing
generalizing hishas
historical
Shih Chi
Chi[Historical
[Historicalnotes],
notes],SsuSsutorical books.
books. In
In his
his voluminous
voluminous work
work Shih
ma Ch'ien
Ch'ien (145-87
(145-87 B.C.),
B.C.), the
the prominent
prominent historian
of ancient
ancient China,
China,
ma
historian of
paid
great attention
attention to
to chronology.
chronology. This
This work,
work, which
which encompasses
encompasses the
the
paid great
time from
from the
the mythological
creation of
of the
the world
world to
to the
the end
end of
of the
the
time
mythological creation
second century
century B.C.,
B.C., gives
gives aa chronological
chronological outline
outline of
of ancient
ancient Chinese
Chinese
second
history. However,
However, the
the basis
basis for
for the
the system
system of
of dating
dating that
that Ssu-ma
Ssu-ma
history.
Ch'ien and
and other
other Chinese
Chinese authors
authors use
use is
is often
often unclear.
unclear. Therefore,
Therefore,
Ch'ien
their
dates are
are not
always quite
quite reliable.
reliable.
their dates
not always
The situation
situation with
with the
the chronology
chronology of
of Greek
Greek and
and Roman
Roman history
history is
The
is
quite satisfactory
satisfactory because
of the
the great
great number
number of
of historical
historical works
works that
that
quite
because of
have reached
reached us
us and
and that
that contain
contain sufficiently
sufficiently reliable
reliable datings.
datings. These
These
have
works were
were based
based on
on several
several different
different chronological
chronological systems.
systems. Thus,
Thus, aa
works
system of
of dating
dating after
after yearly
yearly tenures
tenures of
of certain
certain high
high state
state functionfunctionsystem
aries (the
(the system
system also
also known
known from
from Assyria)
Assyria) was
was used
used in
in Athens,
Athens, where
where
aries
years were
were counted
counted by
by archon
archon eponyms.
eponyms. In
In Rome
Rome the
the year
year count
count was
years
was
based on
on the
the yearly
terms of
of consuls.
consuls. Partial
Partial records
of archons
archons and
and
based
yearly terms
records of
consuls inscribed
inscribed on
on stone
stone have
have been
there
consuls
been preserved.
preserved. Furthermore,
Furthermore, there
was aa pan-Greek
year count
count based
Olympiadsfestivals that
that
was
pan-Greek year
based on
on the
the Olympiads-festivals

24
24

Introduction
Introduction

bound
the union
union of
bound together
together the
of Hellenic
Hellenic communities.
communities. The
The Olympiads
Olympiads
took
place regularly
regularly every
years. The
Olympiad occurred,
took place
every four
four years.
The first
first Olympiad
occurred,
14
B.C.14
according to
to Greek
Greek legend,
legend, in
in 776
776 B.C.
according
Later,
Romans established
their year
Later, the
the Romans
established their
year count
count from
from the
the legendary
legendary
date of
of the
the foundation
foundation of
of Rome.
date
Rome. The
The Roman
Roman historian
historian Marcus
Marcus TerenTerentius
tius Varro
Varro (first
(first century
century B.C.)
B.C.) dated
dated the
the foundation
foundation of
of Rome
Rome to
to the
the
third
that is,
third year
year of
of the
the sixth
sixth Olympiad;
Olympiad; that
is, to
to 754-753
754-753 B.C.
B.C. Attempting
Attempting
to
to determine
determine the
the date
date of
of the
the foundation
foundation of
of Rome,
Rome, Varro
Varro utilized
utilized synsynyear count
based on
terms of
chronisms
chronisms between
between the
the year
count based
on the
the office
office terms
of consuls
consuls
with the
the Greek
Greek count
count based
on the
the Olympiads.
Olympiads.
with
based on
Claudius
Ptolemaeus, the
Claudius Ptolemaeus,
the great
great Greek
Greek mathematician
mathematician and
and astronoastronomer
the second
with
mer of
of the
second century
century A.D.,
A.D., connected
connected the
the Greek
Greek chronology
chronology with
the Babylonian,
Babylonian, which,
which, as
as mentioned
mentioned above,
above, has
has an
an exact
exact astronomical
astronomical
the
point of
point
of reference.
reference. Moreover,
Moreover, the
the Graeco-Roman
Graeco-Roman chronology
chronology has
has
number of
of other
other independent
independent astronomical
astronomical points
points of
of reference.
reference.
aa number
Ptolemaeus's
references to
Ptolemaeus's "Canon"
"Canon" includes
includes references
to several
several astronomically
astronomically
identifiable solar
solar eclipses.
eclipses.
identifiable
Beginning with
the sixth
sixth to
fifth centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., aa new
independent
Beginning
with the
to fifth
new independent
historical
namely, coins.
Numishistorical and
and chronological
chronological source
source appears,
appears, namely,
coins. Numismatics is
is aa field
field of
of scholarship
scholarship devoted
devoted to
the study
study of
of coins
coins from
from the
the
matics
to the
point
metallic content,
weight, area
point of
of view
view of
of their
their metallic
content, weight,
area of
of diffusion,
diffusion, the
the
declared and
and the
actual face
face value,
inscriptions (called
(called legends),
legends), and
and
declared
the actual
value, inscriptions
the
character of
of depicted
depicted objects
objects and
and persons,
persons, including
including portraits
of
the character
portraits of
the heads
of state
state who
who issued
issued the
the coin.
coin. During
During archaeological
archaeological excavaexcavathe
heads of
tions,
coins are
are often
often found
found that
that have
have inscriptions
inscriptions of
of kings
kings known
known from
from
tions, coins
narrative sources
sources (and
(and sometimes
sometimes unknown),
and in
in aa number
number of
of cases
cases
narrative
unknown), and
the portrait
portrait on
on the
coin can
can be
be identified
identified with
with already
already known
known sculpthe
the coin
sculptural portraits.
Such coins
coins constitute
constitute aa link
link between
archaeological
tural
portraits. Such
between archaeological
data and
and the
the data
data of
of the
the inscriptions
inscriptions and
and narrative
narrative sources.
sources. Besides,
data
Besides,
numismatics supply
supply diverse
diverse historico-economic,
historico-economic, politico-geographic,
politico-geographic,
numismatics
and other
other data
data to
to the
the historian.
historian. This
is especially
especially important
important for
for periperiand
This is
ods on
on which
other sources
sources cast
cast little
little light.
light.
ods
which other
In
A.D., the
the Italian
Italian monk
monk Dionysius
Dionysius Exiguus
Exiguus proproIn the
the sixth
sixth century
century A.D.,
posed aa new
new chronological
chronological system
system based
on the
the birth
of Jesus
Jesus Christ.
Christ.
posed
based on
birth of
point of
used the
the foundation
For
For his
his point
of orientation
orientation he
he used
the date
date for
for the
foundation of
of
Rome.
Rome. Dionysius
Dionysius proposed
proposed December
December 25
25 of
of the
the 753d
753d year
year after
after
Rome's
Jesus' birth.
birth. Accordingly,
Accordingly, the
the founfounRome's foundation
foundation as
as the
the date
date of
of Jesus'
dation of
of Rome
dated in
in the
year 753
753 before
before the
of
dation
Rome began
began to
to be
be dated
the year
the birth
birth of
14.
be mentioned
the first
14. It
It should
should be
mentioned that
that the
the legendary
legendary character
character of
of the
first Olympiad
Olympiad does
does
not in
in any
any way
way invalidate
invalidate the
the correctness
correctness of
the Olympiad-based
chronology. It
not
of the
Olympiad-based chronology.
It is
is imimportant that
portant
that the
the initial
initial point
point from
from which
which the
the years
years are
are counted
counted be
be defined
defined at
at some
some defidefinite
point. There
There is
no need
need for
reference point
point to
to correlate
nite astronomical
astronomical point.
is no
for such
such aa reference
correlate with
with
any
any real
real historical
historical event.
event. The
The date
date of
of any
any event
event calculated
calculated from
from an
an astronomical
astronomical referreference
point can
be recalculated
recalculated into
ence point
can easily
easily be
into our
our chronological
chronological system.
system.

Introduction
Introduction

25
25

Christ.
Christ. Now
Now it
it is
is agreed
agreed that
that Dionysius
Dionysius made
made an
an error
error and
and that,
that, in
in rereality, Jesus
Jesus must
must have
have been
been born
born aa few
few years
years earlier,
earlier, perhaps
perhaps in
in the
the
ality,
fourth or
or even
even fifth
fifth year
year before
before our
our era.
era.
fourth
The
DThe new
new year
year count
count "from
"from the
the birth
birth of
of Christ"-A(nno}.
Christ"A(nno). D(omini).did not
not take
take root
root immediately.
immediately. During
During the
the entire
entire Middle
Middle
(omini}.-did
Ages it
it coexisted
coexisted with
with the
the biblical
biblical tradition
tradition of
of counting
counting years
years "from
"from
Ages
the
15 GradGradthe creation
creation of
of the
the world"
world" adopted
adopted earlier
earlier in
in Christian
Christian nations.
nations.15
ually, the
the calculation
calculation in
in years
years from
from the
the birth
birth of
of Christ
Christ or,
or, more
more corcorually,
rectly, from
from the
the beginning
beginning of
of our
our era
era was
was accepted
accepted in
in many
many countries,
countries,
rectly,
including Russia.
Russia. A
A significant
significant portion
portion of
of the
the world's
world's population
population uses
uses
including
this system,
system, which
which is
is also
also universally
universally accepted
accepted in
in history.
history. Other
Other chronchronthis
ological systems
systems also
also exist,
exist, but
but there
there is
is no
no need
need to
to discuss
discuss them
them here.
here.
ological
In
In recent
recent times,
times, historians
historians have
have relied
relied on
on an
an archaeological
archaeological method
method
to establish
establish absolute
absolute dates
dates with
with the
the aid
aid of
of radioactive
radioactive carbon
carbon dating.
dating.
to
Carbon
Carbon dating
dating is
is based
based on
on measuring
measuring the
the concentration
concentration of
of radioactive
radioactive
carbon
carbon in
in excavated
excavated artifacts.
artifacts. For
For instance,
instance, aa felled
felled tree
tree ceases
ceases to
to take
take
up
up the
the radioactive
radioactive 14
14 isotope
isotope of
of carbon,
carbon, and
and thus,
thus, the
the time
time when
when the
the
tree
tree was
was cut
cut can
can be
be determined
determined according
according to
to our
our present
present chronologichronological scale.
scale. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, radioactive
radioactive carbon
carbon dating
dating is
is imprecise,
imprecise, leadleadcal
ing to
to unavoidable
unavoidable errors,
errors, which
which sometimes
sometimes amount
amount to
to tens
tens and
and even
even
ing
hundreds of
of years
years and
and which
which preclude
preclude its
its application
application to
to cases
cases that
that
hundreds
At the
the present
present time,
time, aa potentially
imrequire more
more accurate
accurate dating.
dating.1616 At
require
potentially important absolute
absolute dating
dating method
method called
called thermoluminescence
thermoluminescence is
is being
being
portant
developed for
for ceramics,
ceramics, as
as well
well as
as other
other physical
methods such
such as
as
developed
physical methods
archaeomagnetism.
archaeomagnetism.
For the
the time
time being,
being, however,
however, all
all dates
dates for
for ancient
ancient Near
Near Eastern
Eastern hishisFor
tory
tory earlier
earlier than
than the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. and
and for
for Europe
Europe and
and
B.C. remain
remain ununChina earlier
earlier than
than the
the middle
middle of
of the
the first
millennium B.C.
China
first millennium
certain;
certain; they
they only
only provide
provide relative
relative orientation.
orientation. The
The situation
situation is
is even
even
worse for
for India,
India, where
where even
even the
the dates
dates in
in the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
worse
B.C. are
are
frequently approximate
approximate and
and inaccurate,
inaccurate, because
because they
they are
are primarily
primarily
frequently
based on
on objects
objects imported
imported from
from other
other countries
countries with
with aa better
estabbased
better established chronology
chronology or
or on
on late
late king
king lists
lists of
of doubtful
doubtful accuracy
accuracy or
or on
on eslished
establishing that
that certain
certain literary
literary works
works influenced
influenced certain
certain others,
others, rather
rather
tablishing
than the
the reverse.
reverse. Generally
Generally speaking,
speaking, the
the farther
farther away
away aa territory
territory is
than
is
from ancient
ancient Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, the
the less
less accurate
accurate is
is its
its chronology
chronology and
and the
the
from
more recent
recent its
its reliable
reliable datings.
datings.
more
15. During
During the
the Middle
Middle Ages,
Ages, the
the mythological
mythological date
date of
of the
the creation
creation of
of the
the world
world
15.
based on
on the
the biblical
biblical legends
legends was
was calculated
calculated in
in various
various ways.
ways. The
The Greek
Greek Orthodox
Orthodox
based
church adopted
adopted the
the year
year 5508
5508 B.C.,
church
B.C, and
and the
the Anglican,
Anglican, the
the year
year 4004
4004 B.C.
B.C.
16.
16. Most
Most of
of the
the radiocarbon
radiocarbon dates
dates relevant
relevant to
to the
the history
history of
of the
the ancient
ancient world
world need
need
to be
be recalibrated
recalibrated by
by adding
adding aa certain
certain correction
correction factor
factor based
based upon
upon dendrochronologidendrochronologito
cally determined
determined dates.
dates. The
The radiocarbon
radiocarbon dates
dates for
for ancient
ancient history
history are
are too
too young
young due
due to
to
cally
past variations
variations in
in the
the production
of radioactive
radioactive carbon
carbon in
in the
the earth's
earth's atmosphere.
atmosphere.
past
production of

1
General
General Outline
Outline of
of the
the First
First Period
Period
of
the History
History of
the Ancient
Ancient World
of the
of the
World
and
Problem of
Ways
and the
the Problem
of the
the Ways
of
of Development
Development
I. M. DIAKONOFF
DlAKONOFF

Preconditions
Preconditions for
for the
the Formation
Formation of
of the
the First
First Class
Class Society
Society
The
Homo separated
The genus
genus Homo
separated out
out of
of the
the rest
rest of
of the
the animal
animal kingdom
kingdom
sapienssapiens,
sapiens,
roughly
million years
years ago.
ago. Our
Our species,
species, Homo
roughly two
two million
Homo sapiens
hashas
existed
existed at
at least
least since
since the
the end
end of
of the
the Middle
Middle Palaeolithic,
Palaeolithic, some
some forty
forty
thousand years.
years. From
From his
his ancestors,
ancestors, who
who belonged
to more.
more ancient
ancient
thousand
belonged to
human species,
species, Homo
sapienssapiens
sapiens
inherited
ability
produce
human
Homo sapiens
inherited
thethe
ability
to to
produce
simple tools
tools for
for labor.
labor. But
But for
for thirty
thirty thousand
thousand years
years of
of history,
history, huhusimple
mans, with
with the
the aid
aid of
of the
the tools
tools they
they made,
made, still
still derived
derived benefits
benefits solely
solely
mans,
from nature,
nature, just
like their
their ancestors;
ancestors; for
for thirty
thirty thousand
thousand years,
years, they
they
from
just like
did not
not sow
sow or
or reap.
reap. Their
Their means
means of
of sustenance
sustenance were
were gathering
gathering wild
did
wild
plants, hunting,
and fishing,
fishing, all
all of
of which
which are
are activities
activities that
are cercerplants,
hunting, and
that are
tainly work.
work. In
In order
order to
to exist,
exist, however,
however, it
it was
was not
not sufficient
sufficient for
for them
them
tainly
to merely
merely produce
produce the
the necessary
necessary work
work tools:
tools: they
they had
had to
to be
be rereto
produced.
But
they
could
not
reproduce
the
products
they
had
exproduced. But they could not reproduce the products they had extracted from
from nature.
nature. For
For this
this reason,
reason, the
the life
life of
of human
human groups
groups
tracted
(communities usually
usually based
based on
on kinship)
kinship) depended
largely on
on environenviron(communities
depended largely
mental conditions,
conditions, such
such as
as climate,
climate, on
on the
the abundance
abundance or
or scarcity
scarcity of
of
mental
game, and
and on
on pure
pure luck.
luck. Successes
Successes alternated
alternated with
with periods
of hunger;
hunger;
game,
periods of
mortality was
was very
very high,
high, especially
especially for
for children
children and
and the
the elderly.
elderly. The
The
mortality
surface of
of the
the enormous
enormous planet
planet was
was inhabited
inhabited by
by very
very few
few people,
people, and
and
surface
if their
their number
number increased
at all,
all, it
it did
did so
so very
very slowly;
slowly; indeed,
indeed, somesomeif
increased at
times it
it may
may have
have even
even decreased.
decreased.
times
This situation
situation changed
changed about
about ten
ten to
to twelve
twelve thousand
thousand years
years ago,
This
ago,
when in
in certain
certain ecologically
ecologically favored
favored regions,
regions, some
some human
human commucommuwhen
nities learned
learned to
to plant
plant grain,
grain, ensuring
ensuring their
their year-round
year-round food
food requirerequirenities
ments, and
and to
to raise
raise sheep,
sheep, goats,
goats, and
and cattle,
cattle, allowing
allowing for
for regular
regular
ments,
consumption of
of meat,
meat, as
as well
well as
as for
for provision
of milk
milk and
and cheese
cheese
consumption
provision of
(curds). The
The domestic
animals also
also provided
leather, which
which was
was supesupe(curds).
domestic animals
provided leather,
rior to
to that
that from
from hunted
hunted animals,
animals, and
and supplied
supplied wool,
wool, which
which people
people
rior
learned to
to spin
spin and
and weave.
weave. Soon
Soon after,
after, humans
humans were
were able
able to
to abandon
abandon
learned

28

I.
/. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

cave
cave dwellings,
dwellings, twig
twig and
and mud
mud huts,
huts, or
or dugouts
dugouts and
and to
to live
live in
in permapermanent houses
houses made
made of
of clay
clay or
or clay-coated
clay-coated rocks
rocks and,
and, later,
later, of
of adobe
adobe
nent
bricks. Community
Community life
life became
became safer:
safer: the
the mortality
mortality rate
rate decreased
decreased
bricks.
somewhat. Population
Population growth,
growth, though
though never
never exceeding
exceeding about
about 0.01
0.01
somewhat.
percent,
noticeable from
from generation
generation to
generation, and
and the
the
percent, became
became noticeable
to generation,
first farmers
farmers and
and livestock
livestock herders
herders began
began to
to expand
expand gradually
gradually over
over
first
the earth's
earth's surface.
surface.
the
The
The first
first humans
humans to
to achieve
achieve these
these successes
successes inhabited
inhabited the
the North
North
Temperate Zone
Zone of
of the
the Eastern
Eastern Hemisphere.
Hemisphere. This
was the
the epoch
epoch
Temperate
This was
when
was not
yet over
when the
the great
great Ice
Ice Age
Age was
not yet
over in
in northern
northern Europe
Europe and
and Asia,
Asia,
but
but to
to the
the south
south of
of the
the glacial
glacial zone
zone the
the cold
cold dry
dry climate
climate of
of the
the
Pleistocene had
had passed.
passed. A
A significant
significant portion
portion of
of the
the Eurasian
Eurasian landlandPleistocene
mass was
was covered
covered by
by pine
pine forests,
forests, separated
separated from
from the
the glacial
glacial zone
zone by
mass
by aa
Greece, Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, and
and most
most
zone of
of tundra.
tundra. The
The peninsulas
peninsulas ofltaly,
of Italy, Greece,
zone
of China
China were
all covered
covered with
deciduous forests.
forests. The
The expanse
expanse of
of
were all
with deciduous
of
North Africa,
Africa, Arabia,
Arabia, and
and other
other Near
Near Eastern
Eastern regions
regions as
as far
far as
as northnorthNorth
ern China
China (covered
(covered today
today by
by dry
dry steppes
steppes or
or scorched
scorched deserts)
deserts) was
ern
was
mostly mixed
mixed forest
forest and
and steppe.
steppe. Farther
Farther to
to the
the south,
south, in
in Africa,
Africa, southsouthmostly
ern India,
India, southern
southern China,
China, and
and Indochina,
Indochina, lush
lush tropical
tropical forests
forests were
were
ern
growing.
growmg.
The partly
partly wooded
wooded steppe
steppe regions
regions were
were the
the most
most favorable
favorable areas
areas
The
for
for human
human life,
life, but
but not
not everywhere
everywhere even
even in
in this
this zone
zone were
were the
the condiconditions sufficiently
sufficiently conducive
conducive for
for aa transition
transition to
to agriculture
agriculture and
and livestock
livestock
tions
raising. A
A region
was suitable
suitable when
it offered
offered wild
wild grains
grains appropriate
appropriate
when it
raising.
region was
for consumption
consumption and
and later
later for
for artificial
artificial sowing
sowing (as
(as documented
documented by
for
by
N. I.
I. Vavilov
Vavilov in
in 1926),
1926), as
as well
well as
as wild
wild animals
animals that
that could
could be
be domestidomestiN.
cated. The
The first
grains harvested
harvested in
in their
their wild
wild state
state (aided
(aided by
by wooden
wooden
first grains
cated.
or bone
bone sickles
sickles with
with embedded
embedded flint
and later
later cultivated
cultivated were
were
or
flint blades)
blades) and
barley and
and einkorn
einkorn and
and emmer
emmer wheat.
Wild stands
stands of
of barley
and these
these
wheat. Wild
barley and
barley
early wheats
grew in
in the
uplands of
Asia Minor,
Minor, Palestine,
Palestine, Iran,
Iran, and
and
early
wheats grew
the uplands
of Asia
southern Turkmenia,
Turkmenia, as
as well
well as
as in
in northern
northern Africa.
Africa. Other
Other cereals
cereals were
were
southern
domesticated later.
later. Though
Though it
it is
is difficult
difficult to
to determine
determine where
where this
this phephedomesticated
nomenon occurred
occurred for
for the
the first
time, it
it is
is certain
certain that
that cereals
cereals were
were
nomenon
first time,
B.C. in
in PalesPalesalready being
sown between
between the
the tenth
and eighth
eighth millenia
millenia B.C.
tenth and
already
being sown
tine, in
in Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, and
and on
on the
the western
slopes of
of the
Iranian uplands.
uplands.
western slopes
the Iranian
tine,
In Egypt,
Egypt, along
along the
the Danube
Danube River,
River, in
in the
the Balkans,
Balkans, and
and in
in southern
southern
In
Turkmenia,
grains
were
being
sown
no
later
than
the
seventh
to sixth
sixth
Turkmenia, grains were being sown no later than the seventh to
millennia
B.C.
At
about
the
same
time,
these
regions
saw
the
domesmillennia B.C. At about the same time, these regions saw the domestication
of goats
goats and
and sheep.
sheep. (Late
(Late Palaeolithic
Palaeolithic hunters
hunters had
had tamed
tamed dogs
dogs
tication of
much
earlier.)
Cattle
and,
sporadically,
pigs
were
domesticated
later.
much earlier.) Cattle and, sporadically, pigs were domesticated later.
The standard
standard ofliving
of living improved
improved even
even more
more during
during the
the eighth
eighth to
to sixth
sixth
The
millenia
B.C.
when
people
learned
to
make
polished
stone
tools,
woven
millenia B.C. when people learned to make polished stone tools, woven
baskets, woven
woven fabrics,
fabrics, and
and fired
fired pottery,
pottery, which
which permitted
permitted better
better food
food
baskets,
preparation
and
storage.
preparation and storage.

General Outline

29
29

With the
the disappearance
disappearance of
of the
the northern
northern glaciers,
glaciers, the
the climate
climate in
in the
the
With
temperate zone
zone of
of the
the Northern
became drier.
drier.
temperate
Northern Hemisphere
Hemisphere gradually
gradually became
Foothill
Foothill agriculture
agriculture depended
depended less
less and
and less
less on
on natural
natural rain
rain irrigation
irrigation
and
and more
more on
on damned
damned brooks
brooks channeled
channeled to
to the
the fields.
fields. For
For aa long
long time,
time,
the
the population
population of
of the
the northern
northern and
and southern
southern forest
forest zones
zones was
was still
still
very scanty
scanty and
and was
was not
not able
able to
to adopt
adopt the
the achievements
achievements of
of the
the inhabiinhabivery
tants
tants of
of the
the forest-steppe
forest-steppe and
and the
the steppe-uplands;
steppe-uplands; with
with the
the tools
tools then
then
available, it
it was
was still
still impossible
impossible to
to clear
clear forests
forests for
for tilling
tilling the
the land.
land.
available,
Archaeologists attribute
attribute significant
significant technological
technological progress
progress to
to three
three
Archaeologists
important periods:
periods: to
to the
the final
final stage
stage of
of the
the Old
Old Stone
Stone Age-the
Agethe
important
Upper Palaeolithic-when
Palaeolithicwhen Homo
sapienssapiens
sapiens
began
prevail;
Upper
Homo sapiens
began
to to
prevail;
to to
the Mesolithic
Mesolithic Age,
Age, which
which in
in the
the temperate
temperate zone
zone coincides
coincides with
with the
the
the
development of
of agriculture
agriculture and
and animal
animal husbandry;
husbandry; and
and to
to the
the Neodevelopment
Neolithic Age,
Age, which
which saw
saw the
the development
development of
of polished
polished stone
stone implements
implements
lithic
and the
the invention
invention of
of weaving
weaving and
and pottery.
pottery. But
But even
even the
the most
most adadand
vanced
vanced Neolithic
Neolithic communities
communities of
of northern
northern Africa,
Africa, the
the Near
Near East,
East, and
and
the Middle
Middle East
East were
were unable
unable to
to reach
reach the
the level
level of
of production
production necesthe
necessary for
for the
the creation
creation of
of aa civilization.
civilization. The
The goal
goal of
of their
their agricultural
agricultural
sary
production and
and animal
animal husbandry
husbandry was;
was, as
as before,
before, solely
solely to
to ensure
ensure the
the
production
survival of
of the
the community
community and
and its
its members.
members. Reserves
Reserves were
were accumuaccumusurvival
lated only
only for
for extreme
extreme emergencies,
emergencies, such
such as
as unexpected
unexpected natural
natural disasdisaslated
ters. Working
Working the
the soil
soil with
with hoes
hoes made
made of
of stone
stone or
or horn
horn was
was very
very
ters.
arduous, even
even in
in the
the softest
softest of
of soils,
soils, and
and provided
provided very
very meager,
meager, alarduous,
although reliable,
reliable, nutrition.
nutrition. Domesticated
Domesticated goats
goats and
and sheep
sheep still
still supsupthough
plied only
only small
small quantities
quantities of
of wool
wool and
and milk.
milk. Dairy
Dairy products
products and
and milk
milk
plied
had to
to be
be consumed
consumed quickly,
quickly, because
because long-term
long-term storage
storage methods
methods were
were
had
unknown. It
It was
was only
only in
in Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, Syria,
Syria, and
and Palestine
Palestine that
that during
during
unknown.
the eighth
eighth to
to sixth
sixth millennia
millennia B.C.,
B.C., there
there arose
arose wealthy
wealthy villages
villages with
with
the
considerable populations
populations and
and sometimes
sometimes even
even surrounded
surrounded by
by walls
considerable
walls
(which means
means that
that there
there was
was something
something to
to protect!).
protect!). These,
These, however,
however,
(which
were exceptions,
exceptions, and
and the
the oldest
oldest of
of these
these cultures-Jericho
culturesJericho in
in Palestine
Palestine
were
and <;atal-Hiiyiik
Qatal-Hiiyuk in
in Asia
Asia Minor-did
Minordid not
not develop
develop into
into civilizations.
civilizations.
and
With
With the
the growth
growth of
of agricultural
agricultural populations
populations in
in the
the foothills,
foothills, some
some
people had
people
had to
to migrate
migrate deeper
deeper and
and deeper
deeper into
into the
the steppes.
steppes. As
As these
these
clan
clan or
or tribal
tribal groups
groups migrated
migrated away
away from
from regions
regions with
with more
more or
or less
less
efficient
pluvial or
efficient pluvial
or brook
brook irrigation,
irrigation, animal
animal husbandry
husbandry became
became aa more
more
important
important factor
factor in
in their
their economy,
economy, while
while the
the cultivation
cultivation of
of barley
barley and
and
emmer wheat
wheat became
became economically
economically less
less reliable
reliable and
and less
less important.
important.
emmer
However,
since humans
had not
not yet
yet domesticated
domesticated the
the horse
horse or
or the
the
humans had
However, since
camel, the
the shepherds
shepherds were
were not
not able
able to
to manage
manage the
the long
long seasonal
seasonal micamel,
migrations necessary
necessary for
for the
the restoration
restoration of
of the
the grassland
grassland used
used to
to graze
graze
grations
sheep and
and cattle;
cattle; that
that is,
is, they
they were
were not
not nomads.
nomads. And
And since
since they
they could
could
sheep
not move
move too
too far
far away
away from
from water
water sources,
sources, they
they did
did not
not entirely
entirely abanabannot
don
agriculture.
When
it
became
impossible
to
feed
the
animals
as aa
don agriculture. When it became impossible to feed the animals as

30

I. M.
/.
M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

result of
of the
sheep and
and goats
goats completely
completely overgrazing
overgrazing the
the meager
meager
result
the sheep
southern grasslands
grasslands or
or after
after aa catastrophic
catastrophic drought,
drought, the
shepherds
southern
the shepherds
migrated
other places.
during the
eighth to
the sixth
sixth millenmillenmigrated to
to other
places. Thus,
Thus, during
the eighth
to the
nia B.C.,
B.C., tribes
speaking Afrasian
Afrasian (Afro-Asiatic,
Semito-Hamitic) diadiatribes speaking
(Afro-Asiatic, Semito-Hamitic)
nia
V. A.
A. Shnirelman,
Shnirelman,
lects (who,
(who, in
in the
the opinion
opinion of
of A.
Militarev and
and V.
A. Yu.
Yu. Militarev
lects
were the
the descendants
descendants of
of the
the Mesolithic
of the
the Near
East)
Mesolithic population
population of
Near East)
were
expanded over
over northern
northern Africa
Africa and
and over
over the
the steppe
steppe regions
regions of
of Westexpanded
Western Asia
Asia (Arabia,
(Arabia, Syria,
Syria, and
and Upper
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, where
where tribes
tribes of
of the
the
ern
Semitic language
language family
family of
of the
the Afrasian
Afrasian languge
languge phylum
had rereSemitic
phylum had
mained or
or had
had immigrated).
immigrated). Beginning
Beginning with
with the
the fifth
fifth to
to third
third millenmillenmained
nia
B.C. (i.e.,
(i.e., at
at the
the beginning
the age
age of
of metal),
groups
beginning of
of the
metal), related
related groups
nia B.C.
speaking Indo-European
Indo-European languages
languages migrated
migrated in
in different
different directions
directions
speaking
from their
their homeland.
homeland. Their
Their homeland
homeland was
thought to
to be
be
from
was previously
previously thought
between
the Elbe
Elbe and
and the
the Vistula
(eastern Germany
Germany and
and Poland),
Poland), but
but
between the
Vistula (eastern
more likely,
likely, one
one should
should locate
locate it
it in
in more
more southerly
southerly areas
areas nearer
nearer the
the
more
Black Sea;
Sea; for
for example,
example, in
in the
the Danube
Danube Valley,
Valley, the
the Balkans,
Balkans, or
or on
on the
the
Black
Eurasian steppes.
steppes.1l By
By the
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., these
tribes had
had
Eurasian
the second
these tribes
passed their
their languages
languages to
to the
the local
local populations
affected by
their
passed
populations affected
by their
movements, and
and these
these then
again, over
over aa vast
movements,
then have
have passed
passed them
them on
on again,
vast
area stretching
stretching from
from the
the Atlantic
Atlantic to
to the
the Indian
Indian Ocean.
Ocean.
area
Minor
Minor migrations
migrations contributing
contributing to
to the
the vast
vast spread
spread of
of language
language famifamiby no
means fortuitous.
lies
lies were,
were, of
of course,
course, by
no means
fortuitous. They
They were
were mainly
mainly conconnected
the climate.
Thus, the
nected with
with secular
secular fluctuations
fluctuations of
of the
climate. Thus,
the sixth
sixth and
and the
the
late third
third to
to the
the second
second millennia
millennia B.C.
B.C. were
of drought
drought that
that
late
were periods
periods of
may have
have stimulated
stimulated tribal
tribal migrations
migrations in
in search
search of
of better
better living
living condicondimay
tions. Drought
Drought may
caused the
decline of
of the
Early Neolithic
may have
have caused
the decline
the Early
Neolithic agagtions.
ricultural
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor and
the rise
of animal
animal husbandry
husbandry and
and
and the
rise of
ricultural villages
villages in
agriculture in
in the
the still-forested
still-forested Balkans
Balkans or
or the
the Danube
But in
in
agriculture
Danube Valley.
Valley. But
the fifth
fifth and
and fourth
fourth millennia
millennia B.C.
B.C. the
the climatic
climatic conditions
conditions were
were more
more
the
favorable; the
mortality rate
rate in
in the
the agricultural
agricultural pastoral
tribes dedefavorable;
the mortality
pastoral tribes
creased somewhat,
somewhat, and
and aa relative
surplus was
was created.
created. The
The
relative population
population surplus
creased
population gradually
gradually spread
spread in
in different
different directions
directions within
within the
the general
general
population
climatic zone
zone favorable
favorable to
to the
the type
type of
of economy
economy of
of such
such tribes.
tribes.
climatic
It
must be
be understood
that the
that time
was very
very thinly
It must
understood that
the earth
earth at
at that
time was
thinly
populated
populated and
and that
that as
as shown
shown by
by the
the data
data of
of historical
historical linguistics,
linguistics, the
the
migration
migration of
of peoples
peoples did
did not
not result
result so
so much
much in
in the
the total
total destruction
destruction or
or
1.
1. Recently
Recently aa hypothesis
hypothesis has
has been
been proposed,
proposed, according
according to
to which
which the
the original
original home
home
of the
the Indo-European
Indo-European languages
is to
to be
sought in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor and
and eastern
eastern Anatolia.
Anatolia.
of
languages is
be sought
This hypothesis,
hypothesis, which
which has
has failed
failed to
to convince
convince most
most linguists,
linguists, cannot
cannot be
into
This
be brought
brought into
harmony
not only
harmony with
with archaeological
archaeological data
data either.
either. More
More likely,
likely, the
the distant
distant forebears
forebears not
only of
of
the
speakers of
of Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European but
some other
other languages
languages (e.g.,
(e.g., South
South
the speakers
but also
also of
of some
Caucasian) may
may have
inhabited these
in the
the eighth
eighth to
to sixth
sixth millennia
millennia B.C.
B.C. and
and
Caucasian)
have inhabited
these territories
territories in
later, in
in connection
connection with
the beginning
beginning of
of an
an arid
arid epoch
epoch about
about 5000
5000 B.C.,
B.C., migrated
migrated to
to
later,
with the
Europe and
and the
Caucasus.
Europe
the Caucasus.

General
General Outline
Outline

31

displacement
displacement of
of native
native tribes
tribes as
as in
in the
the assimilation
assimilation of
of the
the new
new arrivals
arrivals
the natives,
the wave
wave of
with
with the
natives, so
so that
that the
of aa further
further migration
migration could
could differ
differ
ethnically,
not linguistically,
ethnically, though
though not
linguistically, from
from the
the original
original one.
one. People
People
who
who in
in the
the sixth
sixth and
and fifth
fifth millennia
millennia B.C.
B.C. brought
brought Afrasian
Afrasian languages
languages
deep
those who
who in
millennia B.C.
B.C.
deep into
into Africa
Africa and
and those
in the
the second
second to
to first
first millennia
brought Indo-European
Indo-European languages
to the
the shores
shores of
of the
the Bay
of Bengal
Bengal
brought
languages to
Bay of
(present-day Bangladesh)
Bangladesh) were
were not
not at
at all
all similar
similar in
in their
their culture
culture and
and
(present-day
physical features
features to
to those
those who
started the
the first
first wave
of migration
migration of
of
physical
who started
wave of
tribes engaged
engaged in
in agriculture
agriculture and
and animal
animal husbandry.
husbandry.
tribes
Although
Although these
these relatively
relatively mobile
mobile pastoral
pastoral tribes,
tribes, who
who also
also always
always
practiced some
true nomads,
practiced
some form
form of
of subsidiary
subsidiary agriculture,
agriculture, were
were not
not true
nomads,
is justified
justified in
in stating
stating that
that the
the people
people permanently
permanently settled
settled on
on ferferone is
one
tile,
tile, irrigated
irrigated land
land were
were aa population
population group
group opposed
opposed to
to shepherds,
shepherds,
cattle raisers,
and semiagricultural
semiagricultural transhumants;
separation or
or
cattle
raisers, and
transhumants; this
this separation
opposition represents
represents the
the first
first great
division of
of labor.
labor. Exchange
Exchange was
opposition
great division
was
already
at this
this early
early age
age between
between the
groups engaged
in
the groups
engaged in
already established
established at
agriculture
agriculture and
and those
those engaged
engaged in
in animal
animal husbandry.
husbandry. Moreover,
Moreover, there
there
was
need for
for such
such an
an exchange
exchange even
even earlier,
earlier, because
even during
during the
the
was need
because even
late Old
Old Stone
Stone Age,
of people
people was
able to
provide itself
itself with
with
late
Age, no
no group
group of
was able
to provide
all the
without exchange.
exchange. Materials
Materials for
for exchange
included
all
the necessities
necessities without
exchange included
relatively
scarce stones
and ob(fl~nt and
obrelatively scarce
stones suitable
suitable for
for making
making implements
implements (flint
sidian). Later,
the newly
discovered metals-gold,
metalsgold, copper,
copper, and
and silversilver
sidian).
Later, the
newly discovered
began
to be
be exchanged
exchanged for
for various
various handiwork
such as
began to
handiwork products,
products, such
as
textiles. These
These exchanges
exchanges involved
involved several
several intermediaries
intermediaries and
and covtextiles.
covered great
great distances.
distances.
ered
soWe
We can
can trace
trace several
several ways
ways of
of the
the development
development of
of stratified
stratified (class)
(class) societies;
cieties; each
each way
way depended
depended on
on aa specific
specific combination
combination of
of two
two economic
economic
sectors,
ecosectors, and
and their
their ratio,
ratio, in
in turn,
turn, probably
probably depended
depended on
on specific
specific ecological
logical conditions.
conditions.

Societies
Societies in
in Early
Early Antiquity:
Antiquity: The
The First
First Way
Way of
of Development
Development
During
the resettling
During the
resettling of
of communities
communities from
from the
the original
original agricultural
agricultural
regions of
centers
centers (in
(in the
the foothill
foothill regions
of the
the Near
Near and
and Middle
Middle East),
East), other
other
events took
took place
place imperceptibly.
imperceptibly. It
It is
is possible
possible that
that they
they had
had an
an even
even
events
greater
greater significance
significance for
for human
human history.
history.
Between
Between the
the sixth
sixth and
and third
third millennia
millennia B.C.,
B.C., agriculturalists
agriculturalists settled
settled
the
Nile, the
the valleys
valleys of
of three
three great
great rivers
rivers in
in Africa
Africa and
and Asia:
Asia: the
the Nile,
the Lower
Lower
While part
part of
of the
population belonging
belonging to
to
Euphrates, and
and the
the Indus.
Indus.22 While
Euphrates,
the population
agricultural
agricultural communities
communities in
in the
the foothills
foothills either
either was
was displaced
displaced or
or volvoluntarily migrated
migrated further
further into
into the
the steppes,
steppes, aa few
few were
were forced
forced to
to rereuntarily
2.
2. They
They also
also settled
settled the
the valleys
valleys ofthe
of the Karun
Karun and
and Kerkheh
Kerkheh rivers,
rivers, located
located to
to the
the east
east
of
present-day Iraq.
of present-day
Iraq.

32

I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

treat
toward the
plains of
Mesopotamia. There
treat toward
the plains
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia.
There they
they found
found
extremely
unfavorable conditions
to the
of
extremely unfavorable
conditions owing
owing to
the periodic
periodic flooding
flooding of
the
by three
Tigris, and
the land
land by
three rivers-the
riversthe Euphrates,
Euphrates, the
the Tigris,
and the
the Karun.
Karun.
All
flow through
through aa desert
through very
very hot
hot and
All three
three flow
desert area
area or
or through
and dry
dry
steppes where
grain cannot
cannot be
grown without
artificial irrigation.
irrigation. Yet,
steppes
where grain
be grown
without artificial
Yet,
all three
had yearly
of flood,
inundating vast
vast areas
areas for
for
all
three rivers
rivers had
yearly periods
periods of
flood, inundating
long periods
and converting
them into
into swamps.
swamps. Thus,
the
long
periods of
of time
time and
converting them
Thus, the
fields were
either flooded
flooded at
at the
(during the
spring harharfields
were either
the wrong
wrong time
time (during
the spring
vest)
or were
were parched
sun once
the floodwaters
making
vest) or
parched by
by the
the sun
once the
floodwaters receded,
receded, making
agriculture much
much less
less successful
successful here
here than
than in
in the
the foothills,
foothills, and
and food
food
agriculture
supplies much
much less
less secure.
secure. The
The Lower
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valley
lacked buildbuildsupplies
Valley lacked
ing timber
timber (only
were available)
available) and
and stone
stone suitable
suitable for
for
ing
(only giant
giant reeds
reeds were
manufacturing tools.
tools. Since
Since there
were also
also no
no metals,
inhabitants
manufacturing
there were
metals, the
the inhabitants
of this
this valley
valley had
had to
to depend
depend on
on implements
implements made
made of
of reeds
reeds and
and clay
clay or
or
of
had to
obtain stone
stone by
bartering with
neighboring groups.
groups. MeanMeanhad
to obtain
by bartering
with neighboring
while, their
their neighbors
neighbors had
had long
long since
since mastered
mastered copper
copper smelting.
smelting. The
The
while,
inhabitants of
of the
the Lower
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates also,
also, of
of course,
course, knew
knew copper
copper as
as an
an
inhabitants
exotic material,
material, but
it was
was much
much more
difficult for
for them,
them, compared
compared
exotic
but it
more difficult
with
other groups
groups situated
situated closer
closer to
to the
the source
source areas,
areas, to
to obtain
obtain it
it
with other
through exchange.
exchange. Many
dozens of
of generations
generations passed
the inthrough
Many dozens
passed before
before the
inhabitants
of the
the great
great river
of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia managed
managed to
to take
take
habitants of
river valleys
valleys of
practical
advantage of
of the
for agricultural
agricultural purposes.
This then
then
the floods
floods for
purposes. This
practical advantage
became
the first
of humans
over the
natural elements.
elements.
became the
first victory
victory of
humans over
the natural
Control
supply was
accomplished in
in various
various ways.
Control over
over the
the water
water supply
was accomplished
ways. In
In
the Nile
Nile Valley
Valley of
of Egypt,
the river
river begins
begins to
to flood
flood in
une and
the
Egypt, the
in 1
June
and remains
remains
at aa high
high level
level until
People learned
at
until October.
October. People
learned to
to divide
divide the
the fields
fields with
with
earthen dikes.
dikes. After
After the
trapped Nile
Nile floodwaters
floodwaters deposited
deposited their
their ferearthen
the trapped
fertile
water was
was released,
trapped silt
with enough
tile silt,
silt, the
the water
released, leaving
leaving the
the trapped
silt with
enough
moisture
not only
moisture to
to serve
serve as
as an
an excellent
excellent fertilizer
fertilizer not
only for
for germination
germination
but also
also for
for the
the entire
entire growing
growing period
of the
In Sumer
Sumer (i.e.,
(i.e., the
the
but
period of
the grain.
grain. In
Lower
the river
the spring,
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valley)
Valley) the
river overflowed
overflowed its
its banks
banks in
in the
spring,
but
at rather
irregular times.
times. Its
Its water
water was
was diverted
diverted to
to special
special reserreserbut at
rather irregular
to the
fields several
voirs,
voirs, and
and from
from there
there it
it was
was supplied
supplied to
the fields
several times
times during
during
the growing
growing season.
season. Special
Special methods
methods of
of taming
taming rivers
also ememthe
rivers were
were also
ployed
Karun, and
rivers (the
ployed on
on the
the Kerkheh,
Kerkheh, Karun,
and Indus
Indus rivers
(the last
last of
of which
which
was brought
control only
only in
in the
the middle
middle of
of the
the third
third millennium
millennium
brought under
under control
was
B.C.).

It
It must
must not
not be
be assumed
assumed that
that irrigation
irrigation and
and land
land reclamation
reclamation systems
systems
were
created for
for the
entire lengths
lengths of
of the
only local
local systhe entire
the rivers;
rivers; only
syswere being
being created
assotems, such
were within
within the
tems,
such as
as were
the capabilities
capabilities of
of aa community
community or
or an
an association of
of aa few
few communities,
communities, were
developed. But
But this
alone was
an
ciation
were developed.
this alone
was an
enormous accomplishment,
accomplishment, which
which the
the inhabitants
inhabitants owed
owed to
persistence
enormous
to persistence
and cooperation.
cooperation. We
We do
do not
not know
know how
how this
this work
work was
was actually
actually orgaorgaand
nized, because
did not
not yet
exist, and
and thus,
thus, no
no records
have
nized,
because writing
writing did
yet exist,
records have

General Outline

33
33

reached us.
us. However,
However, it
been noticed
that in
reached
it has
has been
noticed that
in those
those areas
areas where
where the
the
creation of
of aa productive
productive agriculture
agriculture required
required the
the cooperation
cooperation of
of nunucreation
merous communities
communities at
at the
earliest stages
stages of
of civilization,
civilization, the
the power
power
merous
the earliest
and wealth
of temples
and cultic
cultic chiefs
chiefs were
much more
more conspicuous
conspicuous
and
wealth of
temples and
were much
than in
in regions
regions where
agriculture was
based on
on rain
rain or
or stream
stream irriirrithan
where agriculture
was based
gation, neither
neither of
of which
large-scale work
work projects.
It has,
gation,
which required
required large-scale
projects. It
has,
therefore, been
that the
the land
land improvement
improvement and
and irrigation
irrigation
therefore,
been postulated
postulated that
tasks must
under the
the management
of the
the priests.
tasks
must have
have been
been placed
placed under
management of
priests.
This is
is reasonable,
reasonable, since
since the
task of
of the
the priests
to ensure
ensure the
the gengenThis
the task
priests was
was to
eral well-being
of the
the community
community by
of cultic
cultic activities
activities and
and proeral
well-being of
by way
way of
propitiation of
of deities.
deities. Considering
Considering the
the Weltanschauung
WeltanschauungororWeltgefuhl
Weltgefuhl
pitiation
at at
the level
level of
of human
human development
development in
in those
those times,
times, cultic
cultic actions
actions were
were no
no
the
less important
important and
and effective
effective than
than technical
technical ones,
ones, and
and it
it was
was only
only natural
natural
less
to
and wisest
in charge
charge of
organizing
to put
put the
the most
most respected
respected and
wisest persons
persons in
of organizing
both
the cultic
cultic activities
activities and
and the
the technical
The priestpriestboth the
technical enterprises.
enterprises. The
chief, precursor
is represented
represented on
some of
of the
the most
most ancient
ancient
chief,
precursor of
of kings,
kings, is
on some
reliefs
of Egypt
Egypt and
and Sumer
Sumer performing
an agricultural
agricultural ceremony,
ceremony, and
and
performing an
reliefs of
this
is significant.
significant.
this is
Mastering
irrigation at
at that
level of
of development
development of
of the
the
Mastering fluvial
fluvial irrigation
that level
forces of
of production
production (the
(the Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic Age)
Age) was
only where
where
forces
was possible
possible only
the
soil was
sufficiently soft,
soft, the
riverbanks not
too steep
steep and
and rocky,
rocky,
the soil
was sufficiently
the riverbanks
not too
and the
river flow
not too
swift. This
This meant
meant that
that many
many rivers,
includand
the river
flow not
too swift.
rivers, including the
the Tigris,
Tigris, Araxes,
Syr Darya,
and Amu
rivers, were
were
ing
Araxes, Kura,
Kura, Syr
Darya, and
Amu Darya
Darya rivers,
not suitable
suitable for
for the
creation of
of irrigation-based
irrigation-based societies,
societies, not
not even
even
not
the creation
where
they flowed
through subtropical
subtropical desert,
desert, desert-steppe,
desert-steppe, steppe,
steppe,
where they
flowed through
and forest-steppe
forest-steppe country.
People began
use of
of their
waters
and
country. People
began to
to make
make use
their waters
only during
during much
much later
only
later periods.
periods.
But where
organized fluvial
fluvial irrigation
irrigation was
was feasible
But
where organized
feasible and
and where
where the
the
soil
was composed
began to
soil was
composed of
of fertile
fertile silt
silt deposits,
deposits, harvests
harvests began
to increase
increase
rapidly. The
to more
rapidly.
The growth
growth of
of labor
labor productivity
productivity also
also contributed
contributed to
more
abundant
to tilling
tilling with
hoes, plowing
plowing was
was pracpracabundant harvests.
harvests. In
In addition
addition to
with hoes,
ticed (with
overall improvement
ticed
(with donkeys
donkeys or
or with
with oxen).
oxen). There
There was
was an
an overall
improvement
in
have remained
alin soil-working
soil-working techniques,
techniques, and
and these
these techniques
techniques have
remained almost unchanged
millennia. In
and Sumer
Sumer by
by the
the end
end
most
unchanged through
through millennia.
In Egypt
Egypt and
of the
the fourth
fourth millennium
B.C., harvest
harvest yields
increased tenfold
to
of
millennium B.C.,
yields had
had increased
tenfold to
twentyfold. This
This meant
meant that
each person
began to
produce signifisignifitwentyfold.
that each
person began
to produce
cantly more
more than
than needed
needed for
for personal
personal sustenance.
sustenance. The
The increased
increased harharcantly
vests were
were also
also especially
especially conducive
conducive to
to the
the development
development of
of livestock
livestock
vests
raising.
livestock economy
economy contributed
contributed to
to an
an
raising. And
And aa well-developed
well-developed livestock
even higher
higher standard
standard of
living. The
The community
was then
then able
able to
to feed
feed
even
of living.
community was
not
only the
the laborers
laborers but
but also
also those
those incapable
incapable of
of production,
such as
not only
production, such
as
children and
and the
the elderly,
elderly, and
and to
create aa reliable
reliable food
food reserve,
reserve, as
as well
children
to create
well
as to
to free
free some
some of
of the
the able-bodied
able-bodied from
from agricultural
agricultural work.
work. This
This labor
labor
as
reserve fostered
fostered the
growth of
of specialized
specialized crafts:
crafts: pottery,
pottery, textexthe rapid
rapid growth
reserve

34
34

I.
Diakonoff
I- M.
M. Diakonoff

tiles
tiles and
and basketry,
basketry, shipbuilding,
shipbuilding, stonecutting,
stonecutting, copper
copper working,
working, and
and
so forth.
forth. The
The mastering
mastering of
of copper
copper was
was of
of the
the utmost
importance.
so
utmost importance.
Copper was
was first
first used
used as
Copper
as just
just another
another variety
variety of
of stone,
stone, but
but eventually,
eventually,
it was
was forged
forged and,
and, finally,
finally, cast.
cast. Numerous
Numerous implements
implements and
and weapons
weapons
it
that could
could not
not be
be made
made of
of stone,
stone, wood,
wood, or
or bone
bone began
began to
to be
be manufacmanufacthat
tured from
from copper.
copper. Moreover,
Moreover, such
such objects
objects could
could be
be remelted
remelted when
when
tured
broken
broken and
and the
the raw
raw metal
metal used
used for
for new
new implements.
implements. The
The separation
separation
of the
the crafts
crafts from
from agriculture
agriculture marked
marked the
the second
second great
great division
division of
of
of
labor.
labor.
The increased
increased surplus
surplus of
of agricultural
agricultural and
and livestock-raising
livestock-raising prodprodThe
ucts
ucts freed
freed some
some of
of the
the community
community members
members from
from having
having to
to perform
perform
productive
productive labor.
labor. Who
Who were
were these
these people
people who
who could
could be
be so
so liberated
liberated
and maintained
maintained at
at the
the expense
expense of
of other
other people's
people's labor?
labor? The
The formaformaand
tion of
of aa ruling
ruling class
class was
was certainly
certainly aa complex
complex and
and nonlinear
nonlinear process.
process.
tion
Already
in primitive
society, the
the structure
structure of
of human
human groups
groups was
was not
not
Already in
primitive society,
homogeneous. The
The primitive
primitive community
community could
could be
be divided
divided into
into differdifferhomogeneous.
ent age-groups
age-groups and
and male,
male, female,
female, and
and cultic
cultic associations.
associations. Military
Military
ent
leaders could
could keep
keep their
their own
own personal
personal armed
armed followers,
followers, recruited
recruited
leaders
from among
among the
the community
community members.
members. Sometimes
Sometimes the
the lives
lives of
of prisfrom
prisoners taken
taken in
in skirmishes
skirmishes with
with neighbors
were spared,
spared, and
and they
they were
were
oners
neighbors were
adopted into
into the
the households,
households, acquiring
acquiring the
the status
status of
of community
community
adopted
members. In
In other
other cases,
cases, they
they became
became slaves.
slaves. However,
However, no
antagmembers.
no antagonistic socioeconomic
socioeconomic classes
classes existed
existed during
during the
the Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic Age.
Age. (By
onistic
(By
classeswe
wemean
meanhere
herehistorically
historicallydeveloped
developedgroups
groupsofofpeople
peoplewith
withdifdifclasses
ferent tasks
in the
the production
production process
and distinguished
distinguished by
by their
different
tasks in
process and
their different relationships
relationships to
to property
property in
in the
of production
production and
and by
ferent
the means
means of
by
their opposing
opposing social
social interests.)
interests.)
their
A
A household
household commune
commune was
was headed
headed by
by aa patriarch
patriarch and
and included
included his
his
sons
grandsons and
While the
the patriarch
patriarch
sons and
and grandsons
and their
their ':Vives
wives and
and children.
children.33 While
was alive,
alive, all
all the
the commune
commune members
members and
and dependent
dependent persons
persons were
were
was
subject to
to his
his total,
total, practically
unlimited authority.
authority. In
In the
the event
event that
that
subject
practically unlimited
the household
household commune
commune did
did not
not subdivide
subdivide following
following his
his death,
death, it
it
the
could
could gradually
gradually grow
grow into
into an
an entire
entire clan,
clan, including
including the
the spouses
spouses of
of
the
the male
male members.
members. (Marriages
(Marriages within
within this
this kinship
kinship group
group were
were mostly
mostly
banned to
to avoid
avoid internal
internal strife.
strife. As
As aa rule,
rule, therefore,
therefore, the
the wives
wives bebanned
belonged
longed to
to other
other lineage
lineage groups.)
groups.) In
In primitive
primitive society,
society, aa clan
clan was
was usuusually
ally part
part of
of aa tribe-a
tribea larger
larger association
association of
of people
people supposed
supposed to
to be
be
related in
in the
the maternal
maternal or
or paternal
line. But
But under
under the
the conditions
conditions of
of
related
paternal line.
an agricultural
agricultural society
society and
and with
with the
the increasing
increasing role
role of
of exchange
exchange bean
between communities,
communities, it
it became
became more
more difficult
difficult to
to maintain
maintain close
close organiorganitween
zational and
and economic
economic unity
unity of
of very
very large
large groups
groups only
only on
on the
the basis
basis of
of
zational
kinship. Thus,
Thus, tribal
tribal ties
ties began
began to
to loosen
loosen and
and relations
relations based
based on
on resikinship.
resi3.
3. Communes
Communes organized
organized along
along matrilineal
matrilineal lines
lines are
are not
not attested
attested in
in the
the Near
Near East.
East.

General
General Outline
Outline

35
35

dence or
or ties
ties formed
formed simply
simply on
on the
of being
neighbors became
became
dence
the basis
basis of
being neighbors
dominant. Neighbors
could be
be related
related through
or not
not be
be redominant.
Neighbors could
through kinship
kinship or
reall. At
At the
the time
time when
when the
the first
first class
class society
society was
was born,
born, the
the role
role of
lated
at all.
lated at
of
the tribal
tribal union
union passed
passed to
to the
the territorial
territorial community
community (village
(village or
or city),
the
city),
which was
was aa group
group of
of neighboring
neighboring household
household communes
communes that
that had
had the
the
which
land and
and water
water more
more or
or less
less at
at their
their common
common disposal.
disposal. The
The territorial
territorial
land
Such
community decided
decided its
its affairs
affairs in
in aa general
general assembly
assembly of
of warriors.
community
warriors. Such
large assemblies
assemblies could
could not
not possibly
possibly go
go into
into all
all the
the details
details of
of adminadminlarge
istration, so
so important
important affairs
affairs had
had to
to be
be entrusted
entrusted to
to aa council
council of
of
istration,
eldersthe most
most experienced
experienced representatives
representatives of
of the
the individual
individual househouseelders-the
hold communes,
communes, which,
which, in
in principle,
principle, were
were considered
considered to
to be
be equals
equals (alhold
(although clans
clans could
could be
distinguished as
as elder
elder and
and younger).
younger). In
In most
most
though
be distinguished
cases, the
assemblies simply
simply approved
approved the
decisions made
made by
councases,
the assemblies
the decisions
by the
the council. The
The assembly
assembly or,
or, more
more often,
often, the
the council
council also
also chose
chose one
one or
or two
two
cil.
leaders
of the
the community
community whose
responsibility it
it was
was to
to serve
serve as
as milileaders of
whose responsibility
military commander
commander and
and community
community representative
representative before
before the
the unknown
unknown
tary
forces of
of the
the world
world that
that were
were personified
personified as
as gods.
gods. Such
Such aa system
system of
forces
of
public administration
administration is
is often
often called
called aa military
military democracy.
democracy.
public
Naturally,
the first
Naturally, the
the amount
amount of
of the
first surpluses
surpluses could
could not
not suffice
suffice for
for
everyone. At
At the
the same
same time,
time, not
not all
all the
the people
people of
of the
the territorial
territorial comcomeveryone.
the same
their livelihood
munity had
munity
had the
same opportunities
opportunities to
to ensure
ensure their
livelihood at
at the
the
expense of
of others.
others. The
The persons
in the
the most
most favorable
favorable situation
situation were,
expense
persons in
were,
on the
the one
one hand,
hand, the
chief and
and his
his entourage
entourage and,
and, on
on the
the
on
the military
military chief
other, the
the high
high priest.
priest. (It
(It is
is assumed
assumed that
that in
in the
the lands
lands with
with fluvial
fluvial irriirriother,
gation, the
the latter
latter was
was also
also the
the manager
manager of
of irrigation
irrigation activities.)
activities.) Not
ungation,
Not uncommonly,
be both
commonly, one
one leader
leader could
could be
both the
the military
military chief
chief and
and the
the high
high
priest. The
The members
members of
of the
the council
council of
of elders
elders also
also ranked
ranked higher
higher than
than
priest.
the rest
rest of
of the
the community
community members,
members, and
and even
even different
different household
household
the
communes could
could have
unequal authority
authority and
and power.
power.
communes
have unequal
The formation
formation of
of aa class
class society
society is
is governed
governed by
strictly logical
logical laws.
The
by strictly
laws.
In
maintain the
highest growth
the means
In order
order to
to maintain
the highest
growth of
of the
means of
of production
production
and cultural
cultural and
and ideological
ideological progress,
society requires
requires people
freed
and
progress, aa society
people freed
from productive
from
productive labor.
labor. This
This certainly
certainly does
does not
not mean
mean that
that aa society
society
consciously releases
releases the
the best
best organizers,
organizers, the
the most
most profound
thinkers,
consciously
profound thinkers,
and the
outstanding artists
artists from
from production
production work.
work. It
It is
is not
not those
those
and
the most
most outstanding
who
are best
best capable
capable of
of utilizing
utilizing the
the surplus
surplus of
of produce
produce in
in the
most
who are
the most
is, rather,
rather, those
those who
are in
in aa position
position to
to
rational way
way who
who acquire
acquire it.
it. It
It is,
rational
who are
do so:
so: individuals
individuals who
who possess
possess resources
of sheer
sheer physical
strength or
or
do
resources of
physical strength
who
the daring
daring or
or the
the armed
armed or
or the
the ideological
ideological power;
power; it
it is
is they
they
who have
have the
who
also
appropriate
the
organizational
power.
Most
of
these
indiwho also appropriate the organizational power. Most of these individuals exploit
exploit the
the labor
labor of
of others
others without
thereby benefiting
society
viduals
without thereby
benefiting society
as aa whole.
certain percentage,
however, are
are people
who are
are really
really
as
whole. A
A certain
percentage, however,
people who
able to
to promote
promote the
the technical
technical and
and cultural
cultural progress
progress of
society.
able
of aa society.
It is
is precisely
precisely this
this accelerating
accelerating progress
progress that
that allows
allows us
us to
to call
call the
the
It

36

/. M. Diakonoff
I.
Diakonoff

very
very first
first class
class society
society aa civilization
civilization(from
(from the
theLatin:
Latin:cives,
cives,"citizen";
"citizen";
civitas,
civitas, "community
"community of
of citizens,"
citizens,""city").
"city").Acclerating
Acclerating progress
progress distindistinguishes
the level
that even
guishes the
the early
early class
class society
society from
from barbarism,
barbarism, the
level that
even the
the
most developed
developed primitive
society cannot
cannot exceed.
exceed.
most
primitive society
When the
the society
society began
began to
to produce
produce aa surplus,
surplus, its
its quantity,
quantity, of
When
of
course,
course, was
was insufficient
insufficient to
to raise
raise the
the standard
standard of
of living
living for
for the
the entire
entire
benefited, which
which means
means that
society.
society. Only
Only aa certain
certain fraction
fraction of
of society
society benefited,
that
economic
economic and
and social
social inequality
inequality inevitably
inevitably arose.
arose. Moreover,
Moreover, at
at the
the level
level
of productivity
productivity characteristic
characteristic of
of that
that period,
progress at
at all
all was
of
period, no
no progress
was
possible without
without such
such inequality
inequality and
and without
the potential
potential for
for growth
growth
without the
possible
of
production forces,
which were
were inherent
of the
the production
forces, which
inherent in
in the
the exploitation
exploitation of
of
the labor
labor of
of one
one group
group for
for the
the benefit
of another.
another. It
It is
is evident
evident that
that no
no
the
benefit of
one
one would
would willingly
willingly agree
agree to
to surrender
surrender his
his portion
portion of
of the
the society's
society's
product
someone else.
else. A
coercive mechanism
was therefore
therefore necesproduct to
to someone
A coercive
mechanism was
necessary to
to force
force the
exploited class,
class, as
as well
as the
entire society,
society, to
to submit
submit
the exploited
well as
the entire
sary
to the
the socioeconomic
socioeconomic order.
order. Such
Such aa mechanism
mechanism was
was found
found in
in the
the state,
state,
to
which developed
developed simultaneously
simultaneously with
with the
the class
class society.
society. Special
Special adminadminwhich
istrative personnel;
personnel; territorial,
territorial, instead
instead of
of clan
clan or
or tribal,
tribal, subdivision
subdivision of
of
istrative
the
administered region;
region; special
special armed
armed forces
forces separate
separate both
from the
the
the administered
both from
people
at large
large and
and from
from their
their own
own popular
armed militia;
militia; and
and taxes
taxes
people at
popular armed
collected from
from the
the inhabitants
inhabitants for
for the
the maintenance
maintenance of
of the
the state
state mamacollected
chinery and
and the
the armed
armed forces-these
forcesthese are
are the
the features
features characteristic
characteristic of
of
chinery
state. The
The taxes
taxes could
could have
have different
different forms,
forms, occasionally
occasionally quite
quite difdifaa state.
ferent from
from those
those of
of today.
today.
ferent
In
In Sumer
Sumer during
during the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. (we
(we have
have less
less informainformathe top
tion
tion about
about the
the other
other riverine
riverine civilizations),
civilizations), the
top echelon
echelon of
of society
society
was
sustained not
not so
so much
much by
(although there
there
was sustained
by requisitioning
requisitioning produce
produce (although
were
were some
some requisitions)
requisitions) as
as by
by giving
giving large
large tracts
tracts of
of communal
communal land
land to
to
the
the temples
temples and
and to
to the
the most
most important
important functionaries
functionaries (and
(and it
it must
must be
be
remembered that
that the
the irrigated
irrigated land
land belonging
belonging to
to the
the community
community was
remembered
was
limited).
of people
this appropriated
appropriated
limited). A
A very
very large
large number
number of
people worked
worked this
land,
land, and
and it
it is
is they
they who
who constituted
constituted the
the majority
majority of
of the
the emerging
emerging exexploited class.
class. Temples
Temples had
had special
special significance
significance for
for the
the community.
community. For
For
ploited
one thing,
thing, the
the produce
of the
the temple
temple economy
economy was
was originally
originally the
the comcomone
produce of
munity
emergency
fund.
Furthermore,
the
sacrificial
offerings
permunity emergency fund. Furthermore, the sacrificial offerings performed
in
the
temple
gave
the
participating
population
virtually
its
formed in the temple gave the participating population virtually its
only opportunity
opportunity to
to consume
consume meat.
meat. At
At the
the same
same time,
time, the
the extensive
extensive
only
area of
of temple
temple land
land made
made possible
possible the
the application
application of
of advanced
advanced agriagriarea
cultural
techniques, such
such as
as plowing.
It was
here that
that the
the bulk
bulk of
of the
the
plowing. It
was here
cultural techniques,
surplus was
was produced.
produced. For
For the
the majority
majority of
of the
the free
free inhabitants
inhabitants (i.e.,
surplus
(i.e.,
those not
not in
in the
the developing
developing state
state bureaucracy,
bureaucracy, to
to which
which we
we must
must add
add
those
4.
4. We
We must
must assume
assume that
that the
the temple
temple economies
economies were
were originally
originally established
established to
to serve
serve
the gods
gods rather
rather than
the priests.
priests. In
In general,
general, the
the concept
concept of
of priesthood,
priesthood, at
at least
least in
in Mesothe
than the
Meso-

General
General Outline
Outline

37
37

the nascent
nascent priesthood),4
priesthood),4 the
the
the segregation
segregation of
of aa substantial
substantial portion
portion of
of
the most
most fertile
benefit of
this elite
was actuthe
fertile community
community land
land for
for the
the benefit
of this
elite was
actuwere levies
ally
ally aa form
form of
of taxation.
taxation. Other
Other forms
forms of
of taxation
taxation were
levies for
for irrigairrigation and
and construction
construction work,
as well
well as
as for
for military
military service.
service.
work, as
tion
It
to note
the primitive
It is
is important
important to
note that
that during
during the
the later
later stages
stages of
of the
primitive
order,
tribes could
unions of
order, whereas
whereas tribes
could form
form unions
of tribes
tribes and
and confederations,
confederations,
the
within aa small
the conthe first
first states
states always
always originated
originated within
small area,
area, within
within the
confines
of aa single
single territorial
territorial community
community or,
or, mote
more frequently,
frequently, within
within aa
fines of
few
few closely
closely knit
knit communities.
communities. The
The security
security of
of such
such aa state
state depended
depended
on
the existence
existence of
of natural
boundaries-mountains surrounding
on the
natural boundaries-mountains
surrounding aa
valley,
valley, aa sea
sea surrounding
surrounding an
an island
island or
or aa peninsula,
peninsula, or
or aa desert
desert encirencircling aa region
irrigated by
by aa master
canal. We
We will
will call
call such
clearly
such aa clearly
cling
region irrigated
master canal.
distinct
in which
distinct region
region in
which an
an early
early form
form of
of state
state emerges
emerges aa nome.
nome. The
The
center of
of aa nome
was usually
temple of
of the
the dominant
dominant local
local deity.
deity. Locenter
nome was
usually aa temple
Lowere the
homes of
cated
cated around
around this
this central
central temple
temple were
the homes
of the
the administrative
administrative
functionaries, warehouses
warehouses for
for food
food and
and other
other supplies,
supplies, armories,
armories, and
and
functionaries,
so
important craft
workshops were
were concentrated
so on.
on. Also,
Also, the
the most
most important
craft workshops
concentrated
here. All
All this
this was
eventually enclosed
enclosed within
security wall
wall and
and consticonstihere.
was eventually
within aa security
tuted
of aa small
primary state.
tuted aa city,
city, the
the center
center of
small primary
state. The
The form
form of
of governgovernment in
in these
these city-states
city-states was
usually, though
though not
not always,
always, monarchic,
monarchic,
ment
was usually,
although bodies
bodies of
of communal
communal self-government
self-government (council
(council of
of elders,
elders, asalthough
assembly of
of warriors)
warriors) were
also usually
retained.
sembly
were also
usually retained.
Since
Since the
the formation
formation of
of cities
cities roughly
roughly coincides
coincides with
with the
the appearance
appearance
of
of the
the earliest
earliest class
class society
society and
and state,
state, Western
Western scholars
scholars frequently
frequently term
term
the
primitive community
the class
class
the transition
transition between
between the
the primitive
community order
order and
and the
order
revolution. This
order the
the urban
urban revolution.
This term
term is
is convenient
convenient but
but not
not unreserunreservedly acceptable,
focuses on
on the
development of
of centers
centers of
of
the development
vedly
acceptable, because
because it
it focuses
trade
and industry
industry and
the main
trade and
and does
does not
not take
take into
into account
account the
main feature
feature
distinguishing the
the final
final stage
stage of
of the
primitive society
society (barbarism)
(barbarism) from
from
the primitive
distinguishing
civilization:
into antagonistic
civilization: the
the stratification
stratification of
of the
the society
society into
antagonistic classes.
classes. It
It
is precisely
this feature
feature that
that provides
provides the
the key
key for
for our
our understanding
understanding
is
precisely this
of the
the course
course of
of the
the subsequent
subsequent history
of ancient
ancient society.
society.
of
history of
The
first
societal
class
differentiation
is
attested
in
Egypt and
The first societal class differentiation is attested in Egypt
and Sumer.
Sumer.
In
had certain
peculiarities deIn both
both of
of these
these countries,
countries, the
the process
process had
certain peculiarities
decisive for
for the
the future
future history
history of
of each
each civilization
civilization and
and for
for their
their specific
specific
cisive
ways
of development
development within
within the
the framework
framework of
of the
same type
type of
of society
society
the same
ways of
(conventionally called
called the
slave-owning mode
mode of
of production).
The
(conventionally
the slave-owning
production). The
first way
of development
development of
of the
the various
various types
types attested
attested in
in ancient
ancient slavefirst
way of
slaveowning societies
societies has
has been
satisfactorily in
in its
early stages
stages
been studied
studied satisfactorily
its early
owning
mostly for
for Sumer.
Sumer. We
We have
already seen
seen that
that economically
economically Sumerian
Sumerian
have already
mostly
potamia,
potamia, belongs
belongs to
to aa much
much later
later time;
time; the
the ancients
ancients did
did not
not at
at first
first distinguish
distinguish priestly
priestly
activities
activities or
or the
the ceremonial
ceremonial and
and magical
magical services
services to
to the
the gods
gods from
from other
other state
state and
and social
social
services.

38

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

society
society was
was divided
divided into
into two
two sectors.
sectors. One
One included
included the
the great
great econoeconomies
temples and
the top
the emerging
mies of
of the
the temples
and the
top functionaries
functionaries of
of the
emerging state.
state.
During the
the first
first centuries
centuries of
of written
written history,
history, these
these economic
economic entities
entities
During
gradually
released themselves
jurisdiction of
gradually released
themselves from
from the
the jurisdiction
of the
the bodies
bodies of
of
the
community's self-government.
self-government. The
The second
second sector
sector comprised
lands
the community's
comprised lands
settled by
by free
free inhabitants
inhabitants who
who participated
participated in
in the
the self-government
self-government
settled
of the
community. The
supreme proprietor
of the
lands of
of
the community.
The supreme
proprietor of
the lands
of the
the secsecond sector
sector was
was the
the territorial
territorial community,
community, but
the lands
lands were
were held
held by
ond
but the
by
extended-family households;
households; that
is, communes
communes headed
headed by
extended-family
that is,
by their
their papatriarchs. In
In the
the third
third or
or fourth
fourth generations,
generations, such
such household
household comcomtriarchs.
munes usually
divided, though
the separated
separated hou~eholds
households still
still regarded
regarded
munes
usually divided,
though the
themselves as
as kin;
kin; they
they had
had aa shared
shared cult
cult of
of ancestors,
ancestors, and
and the
custom
themselves
the custom
of mutual
mutual aid
aid between
them continued.
continued.
of
between them
Later,
property, while
Later, the
the economies
economies of
of the
the first
first sector
sector became
became state
state property,
while
the
economies of
of the
the second
second sector
sector remained
under the
supreme proprothe economies
remained under
the supreme
prietorship
of the
community and
and in
in the
of the
the
prietodhip of
the territorial
territorial community
the possession
possession of
family heads.
In practical
terms, the
of the
latter differed
differed
family
heads. In
practical terms,
the possessions
possessions of
the latter
from full
full property
solely in
in that
only as
as members
of the
territorial
from
property solely
that only
members of
the territorial
(i.e., rural
rural and
and urban)
urban) community
community could
could they
they use
use and
and dispose
dispose of
of the
the
(i.e.,
land at
at will.
land
will.
The
The community
community members
members themselves-that
themselvesthat is,
is, the
the free
free members
members
of
of the
the second-sector
second-sector economies
economies (communal-cum-private)-worked
(communal-cum-private)worked
on
on the
the land
land aided
aided only
only by
by their
their families.
families. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, inequalities
inequalities in
in
wealth
wealth did
did exist,
exist, both
both within
within the
the confines
confines of
of individual
individual extendedextendedfamily communes
communes and
and especially
especially between
between different
different kin-related
kin-related comcomfamily
munes. These
These inequalities
inequalities depended
depended on
on the
the social
social status
status of
of the
the heads
heads
munes.
of
of the
the community
community memof the
the nuclear
nuclear and
and extended
extended families
families (some
(some of
members
bers could
could be
be priests,
priests, elders,
elders, etc.);
etc.); on
on accidental
accidental fortune
fortune or
or misformisfortune;
tune; and
and on
on the
the ability
ability of
of the
the individual
individual members
members to
to manage
manage their
their
movable property,
because such
house, field,
movable
property, because
such items,
items, as
as opposed
opposed to
to house,
field, or
or
date plantation,
considered the
of each
each family
family
date
plantation, were
were considered
the personal
personal property
property of
member. By
By utilizing
mutual aid
by lending
of
member.
utilizing the
the custom
custom of
of mutual
aid or
or by
lending some
some of
their
products to
to less
more fortutheir products
less successful
successful community
community members,
members, the
the more
fortunate
nate families
families could
could also
also profit
profit from
from the
the labor
labor of
of others.
others. Also,
Also, slaves
slaves
were sometimes
sometimes owned,
owned, but
but more
more on
on this
were
this below.
below.
People
who were
by the
the state
held the
People who
were settled
settled on
on land
land owned
owned by
state sector
sector held
the
land as
as conditional
conditional possessions;
it was
was allotted
allotted for
for their
their sustenance
sustenance or
or
land
possessions; it
in payment
for services
services or
or work
work performed
for the
the temple,
the chief,
chief,
in
payment for
performed for
temple, the
or
or other
other functionary.
functionary. Such
Such land
land was
was granted
granted on
on an
an individual
individual basis
basis to
to
nuclear, rather
rather than
than to
to an
an extended,
extended, family
family unit.
unit. In
In other
other words,
words,
aa nuclear,
sons and
and grandsons
grandsons performed
performed their
their duties
duties individually
individually and
and were
were
sons
awarded
land
separately
from
their
fathers
and
grandfathers.
From
awarded land separately from their fathers and grandfathers. From
each of
of them,
them, the
the land
land could
could be
away or
or replaced
replaced with
with other
other
each
be taken
taken away

General
General Outline
Outline

39
39

land
the administration.
workers in
land at
at the
the discretion
discretion of
of the
administration. Many
Many workers
in the
the state
state
sector did
did not
receive any
any land
land at
at all,
all, just
just aa ration.
ration.
sector
not receive
however, there
there existed
Even among
Even
among state
state dependents,
dependents, however,
existed well-to-do
well-to-do
persons,
the standards
standards of
of that
that time,
time, who
who profited
from
persons, according
according to
to the
profited from
the
labor of
of others
others and
and who
could own
slaves of
of both
sexes. These
These
the labor
who could
own slaves
both sexes.
were state
state functionaries,
functionaries, the
were
the elite
el~te military
military commanders,
commanders, and
and specialspecialized craftsmen.
land and
and by
by receiving
comparatively
ized
craftsmen. By
By acquiring
acquiring land
receiving comparatively
generous rations,
rations, they
they actually
obtained aa portion
in the
the agricultural
agricultural
generous
actually obtained
portion in
produce
of the
the temple
temple or
of the
state economy.
economy. Occasionally,
rose
produce of
or of
the state
Occasionally, they
they rose
quite
high on
service ladder;
the people
supplied
quite high
on the
the service
ladder; these
these were
were the
people who
who supplied
the personnel
personnel for
for the
the administrative
administrative machinery.
machinery. Even
Even when
they did
did
the
when they
not possess
possess any
any state
state land
or have
any landed
property of
of their
own,
not
land or
have any
landed property
their own,
some
of them
actually managed
the state
state sector
sector economy.
economy. On
the
them actually
managed the
On the
some of
other
hand,
state
dependents
also
included
slaves,
especially
female
other hand, state dependents also included slaves, especially female
slaves, who
could be
be bought
sold.
slaves,
who could
bought and
and sold.
Thus,
society that
third millennium
B.C. in
Thus, the
the society
that emerged
emerged in
in the
the third
millennium B.C.
in the
the
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valley
Valley was
was divided
divided into
into several
several social
social estates.
estates. The
The
Lower
upper estate
the members
the communities
communities who
particiupper
estate comprised
comprised the
members of
of the
who participated in
in the
the communal
communal ownership
ownership of
of property
property in
in land,
land, who
had the
the
pated
who had
right to
take part
part in
who, initially,
right
to take
in communal
communal self-government,
self-government, and
and who,
initially,
also had
had the
right to
to elect
elect the
chief. A
lower estate
estate included
included temple
or
also
the right
the chief.
A lower
temple or
state economy
economy personnel
personnel who
who owned
owned no
no land
land outright
outright but
but either
either posstate
possessed land
land only
only in
return for
for their
their services
services or
or possessed
possessed no
no land
land and
and
in return
sessed
were allocated
allocated rations.
rations. In
In addition,
addition, there
there were
slaves, who
who were
were outoutwere
were slaves,
side the
the social
social estates
estates and,
and, in
in principle,
principle, could
could be
be treated
as cattle.
cattle. Acside
treated as
Actually the
the slaves
slaves also
also constituted
constituted an
an estate-one
estateone deprived
deprived of
of rights.
rights.
tually
This
was quite
This division
division of
of society
society was
quite evident
evident and
and fully
fully acknowledged
acknowledged
profound sosoby
by the
the ancients
ancients themselves.
themselves. But
But there
there was
was another,
another, more
more profound
cioeconomic
cioeconomic division
division in
in society.
society. The
The society
society was
was divided
divided into
into social
social
classes
classes occupying
occupying different
different positions
positions within
within the
the production
production process
process
and
their relationship
relationship to
to the
the property
property in
and differing
differing in
in their
in the
the means
means of
of
production and
production
and to
to exploitation.
exploitation. This
This division
division did
did not
not coincide
coincide with
with
the
estates.
the estates.
The
who did
The upper
upper class
class consisted
consisted of
of people
people who
did not
not engage
engage in
in producproductive
tive work
work and
and who
who exploited
exploited the
the labor
labor of
of others.
others. In
In our
our country
country this
this
class is
is usually
usually labeled
labeled slave
slave owners,
owners, although
although they
they exploited
exploited others
others
class
besides slaves,
slaves, in
in the
the strict
strict sense
sense of
of the
the term.
term. The
The members
members of
of this
this
besides
class owned
owned property
in the
the means
means of
of production
production (if
(if they
they were
memclass
property in
were members of
of aa community)
community) or
or they
they owned
owned property
property in
in return
for their
their serserbers
return for
vices. Actually,
Actually, they
they managed
managed the
the economy
economy of
of the
the state
state sector
sector in
in the
the
vices.
interest of
of the
the ruling
class as
as aa whole.
whole.
interest
ruling class
The
The middle
middle class
class comprised
comprised agriculturalists
agriculturalists and
and craftspeople
craftspeople who
who
engaged
as aa rule,
rule, did
exploit the
of
engaged in
in productive
productive labor
labor but,
but, as
did not
not exploit
the labor
labor of

40

I.
Diakonoff
/. M. Diakonoff

others or,
or, at
at most,
most, used
them only
only as
as auxiliary
auxiliary labor.
labor. To
To this
class may
others
used them
this class
may
be assigned,
assigned, first
first of
of all,
all, the
the less
less well-to-do
well-to-do landowning
landowning community
community
be
members, although
although it
it could
could also
also include
include the
conditional landowners
landowners
members,
the conditional
(i.e., state
state sector
sector personnel).
personnel). But
But these
these latter
latter were,
were, in
in most
most cases,
cases, subsub(i.e.,
ject to
ject
to exploitation,
exploitation, and
and for
for this
this reason,
reason, it
it is
is sometimes
sometimes very
very difficult
difficult to
to
draw the
the line
line between
between the
the middle
middle and
and lower
lower classes
classes in
in the
the state
state sector.
sector.
draw
The lower
lower class
class was
was made
up of
of slavelike
slavelike dependents
dependents who
who owned
owned no
no
The
made up
property
property within
within the
the economy
economy and
and who
who were
were also
also subject
subject to
to extraextraeconomic exploitation.
exploitation. Extraeconomic
Extraeconomic exploitation
exploitation is
is exploitation
exploitation by
economic
by
direct physical
or ideological
ideological coercion.
coercion. Economic
Economic exploitation,
on the
the
direct
physical or
exploitation, on
other hand,
hand, occurs
occurs when
when workers
workers within
within aa certain
certain historically
historically condicondiother
tioned socioeconomic
socioeconomic structure
structure cannot
cannot sustain
sustain themselves
themselves except
except by
tioned
by
entering into
into aa contractual
contractual agreement
agreement with
with aa proprietor
proprietor of
of the
the means
means
entering
of production
production to
to sell
sell their
their labor
labor power.
power. In
In antiquity,
antiquity, economic
economic exploiexploiof
tation was
was the
the exception,
exception, not
not the
the rule.
rule.
tation
Slaves
part of
they lack
lack
Slaves also
also formed
formed part
of the
the exploited
exploited class.
class. Not
Not only
only did
did they
property in
in the
the means
means of
of production,
production, but
but they
they themselves
themselves were
were their
their
property
exploiter'S
property, being,
being, as
exploiter's property,
as it
it were,
were, live
live tools.
tools. Since
Since slaves
slaves could
could be
be
most
most completely
completely exploited,
exploited, aa slave
slave labor
labor force
force was,
was, in
in principle,
principle, the
the
most desirable
desirable for
for the
the owners.
owners. However,
However, because
because this
this labor
labor force
force had
had
most
to be
be constantly
the agricultural
to
constantly supervised
supervised and
and the
agricultural implements
implements of
of that
that
epoch were
were quite
quite primitive,
primitive, the
the productivity
of slave
slave labor
labor did
did not
not
epoch
productivity of
differ substantially
substantially from
from the
the productivity
productivity of
of aa free
free agriculturalist.
agriculturalist. A
differ
A
slave, however,
however, was
was not
not supposed
supposed to
to have
have aa family,
family, unlike
unlike those
those memmemslave,
bers of
of the
the exploited
exploited class
class who
who were
not slaves
slaves and
and who
who had
had to
to feed
feed
bers
were not
their families
families on
on their
their rations
rations or
or from
from the
the crops
crops on
on their
their land
land allotallottheir
ment.
It was
convenient for
for the
the owner
owner not
not to
to have
have to
to supply
supply his
his slaves
slaves
ment. It
was convenient
with
food for
for their
their families.
families. A
A slave
slave could
could be
be given
given less
less food
food than
than
with food
other dependent
dependent workers
workers and
and the
the worst
worst clothes
clothes (or
(or none
none at
at all)
all) and
and
other
could be
be forced
forced to
to work
work more
more each
each day.
day. This
This was
was such
such aa profitable
profitable
could
arrangement for
for the
the slave
slave owners
owners that,
that, circumstances
circumstances permitting,
permitting,
arrangement
they
tried
to
convert
other
exploited
persons
into
actual
slaves.
This is
is
they tried to convert other exploited persons into actual slaves. This
why
such
an
economy
may
be
called
a
slave-owning
one
and
why
the
why such an economy may be called a slave-owning one and why the
slavelike dependent
dependent workers
workers are
are frequently
frequently designated
designated as
as aa slave
slave class
class
slavelike
in the
the broad
broad sense
sense of
of the
the term.
term.
in
This scenario
scenario of
of "classic"
This
"classic" slave
slave exploitation
exploitation usually
usually could
could not
not be
be rerewas
alized
alized in
in early
early antiquity
antiquity for
for aa number
number of
of reasons.
reasons. For
For example,
example, it
it was
not
possible to
to convert
convert individuals
not possible
individuals who
who were
were members
members of
of aa commucommunity into
into real
slaves, because
of their
their kinship
kinship relations
and religious
religious
relations and
nity
real slaves,
because of
ties
to other
other community
community members,
members, who
who would
come to
to their
their aid.
aid. DurDurties to
would come
ing the
third millennium,
millennium, community
members of
of the
the Lower
Lower EuphraEuphraing
the third
community members
tes Valley
Valley managed
managed periodically
to free
free their
their members
members who
who had
had been
been
tes
periodically to
enslaved for
for debt
debt or
or for
for other
other reasons.
reasons.
enslaved

General
General Outline
Outline

41

foreigner could
could be
be enslaved
enslaved only
only if
if taken
taken prisoner
in battle.
battle. How.A
A foreigner
prisoner in
However, it
it was
was costly
costly to
force aa male
to work
for his
enslaver if
ever,
to force
male prisoner
prisoner to
work for
his enslaver
if
the latter
create for
more or
or less
less reasonable
reasonable living
living condicondithe
latter did
did not
not create
for him
him more
tions. In
In the
the fourth
fourth to
to third
third millennia,
warrior had
had no
defensive
tions.
millennia, aa warrior
no defensive
arms except
except for
helmet and,
and, on
occasion, aa very
very rudimentary
rudimentary
arms
for aa copper
copper helmet
on occasion,
shield made
of leather
leather or
or reeds.
His offensive
offensive weapons
of aa
shield
made of
reeds. His
weapons consisted
consisted of
dagger, aa small
small copper
copper axe
axe hafted
hafted to
handle, or
or aa coppercopperdagger,
to aa wooden
wooden handle,
headed spear.
spear. If
If each
each captured
captured warrior
was given
given aa copper
copper pick,
pick,
headed
warrior was
spade, or
or hoe,
hoe, the
soldiers serving
serving as
as guards
guards would
would be
at aa disadvandisadvanspade,
the soldiers
be at
tageunless
each prisoner
prisoner was
was guarded
guarded by
by two
two or
or three
soldiers.
tage-unless each
three soldiers.
Therefore, many
many captured
captured warriors
on the
spot. AlterAlterTherefore,
warriors were
were killed
killed on
the spot.
natively,
warriors could
made dependent
workers on
on
natively, captured
captured warriors
could be
be made
dependent workers
state lands
and given
given aa ration
ration or
or aa land
allotment and
and allowed
allowed to
have
state
lands and
land allotment
to have
their
own shelters
shelters and
and families.
families. This
This relatively
relatively lenient
lenient treatment
their own
treatment was
was
intended
maintain order
order and
and ensure
ensure their
subordination.
intended to
to maintain
their subordination.
The
private economies
not afford
to
The private
economies of
of community
community members
members could
could not
afford to
grant their
captive slaves
slaves separate
separate households,
was the
commugrant
their captive
households, nor
nor was
the community in
in aa position
position to
keep them
the fields
under guard.
guard. ConConnity
to keep
them working
working the
fields under
sequently, under
under such
such conditions,
conditions, only
only patriarchal
slavery could
could exist.
exist.
sequently,
patriarchal slavery
This meant
meant that
that from
from the
the arrived
arrived troop
troop of
of prisoners,
number of
This
prisoners, aa number
of
girls would
would be
(where the
slave owners
owners
girls
be taken
taken into
into individual
individual homes
homes (where
the slave
would father
father their
children). Boys
were also
also taken,
they
would
their children).
Boys were
taken, provided
provided that
that they
were
an age
age when
when they
could accustom
accustom themselves
were at
at an
they could
themselves to
to their
their new
new
5
home and
and feel
of the
Slaves of
of both
sexes were
were
home
feel part
part of
the household.
household. 5 Slaves
both sexes
mainly assigned
heavy productive
productive labor
the house
(making pottery,
pottery,
mainly
assigned heavy
labor in
in the
house (making
tending the
cattle, spinning
spinning and
and weaving,
weaving, cooking,
cooking, and
and milling
milling grain
grain
tending
the cattle,
between two
stones, which
was an
an especially
especially heavy
heavy task).
task). In
In the
the fields,
between
two stones,
which was
fields,
the boy
slaves and
and women
women slaves
slaves were
were given
given auxiliary
auxiliary work
work along
along with
with
the
boy slaves
family members,
such as
as driving
oxen, weeding,
weeding, harvesting,
harvesting, and
and tying
tying
members, such
driving oxen,
family
sheaves of
of grain;
grain; they
not entrusted
entrusted with
with plowing
plowing and
and sowing.
sowing.
sheaves
they were
were not
The slaves'
slaves' labor
labor around
the house
was extremely
productive, not
not
The
around the
house was
extremely productive,
only because
because they
they were
under the
the constant
constant supervision
supervision of
of their
ownonly
were under
their owners
but also
also because
because they
they participated
participated in
one common
common production
proers but
in one
production process
with
the
masters.
No
less
important
was
often
the
actual
kinship
cess with the masters. No less important was often the actual kinship
of
many slaves
slaves with
with their
their owners,
owners, as
well as
as the
the insignificant
insignificant difference
difference
of many
as well
between
living conditions
conditions of
of the
the master
master and
and the
the slave.
slave. The
The nournourbetween the
the living
ishment of
of the
the masters
masters was
was equally
equally meager
and their
clothing exishment
meager and
their clothing
extremely unpretentious.
unpretentious. The
The same
same conditions
conditions also
also prevailed
prevailed for
for the
the
tremely
individuals who
in the
state sector.
sector.
individuals
who received
received land
land allotments
allotments in
the state
5.
In any
any event,
event, there
often more
male than
private househouse5. In
there were
were often
more male
than female
female slaves
slaves in
in aa private
hold.
the number
of both
probably most
households had
had no
slaves
hold. But
But the
number of
both was
was small,
small, and
and probably
most households
no slaves
at
at all.
all.

42
42

I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
I.

Although small
small households
households did
did not
not require
require many
many dependent
dependent workworkAlthough
the state
temple lands,
ers,
ers, the
the situation
situation in
in the
state sector
sector was
was different.
different. On
On temple
lands, for
for
example, many
many workers
were required,
required, yet
it was
was impossible
impossible to
to keep
keep
example,
workers were
yet it
large numbers
numbers of
of slaves
slaves working
working the
the fields,
fields, because
there were
were not
not
large
because there
enough overseers
overseers to
to guard
guard them.
them. Here
Here there
there were
were no
no free
free agriculagriculenough
turalists who
who would
would undertake
plowing and
and sowing.
sowing. For
For these
these reasons,
reasons,
turalists
undertake plowing
only women
women were
were kept
kept as
as slaves
slaves on
on temple
temple lands,
lands, and
and male
male prisoners,
prisoners,
only
both adults
adults and
and boys,
boys, worked
worked with
with the
the nonslave
nonslave personnel
of the
the large
large
both
personnel of
economies. This
This labor
labor force
force consisted
consisted of
of the
the younger
brothers from
from
younger brothers
economies.
impoverished households
and of
of refugees
refugees seeking
seeking the
the protection
impoverished
households and
protection of
of
the
temple or
or aa neighboring
neighboring chief
chief when,
when, for
for instance,
instance, their
their home
home
the temple
town
had been
been destroyed
destroyed by
or when
when their
land had
suffered
town had
by war
war or
their land
had suffered
from aa catastrophic
catastrophic drought
drought or
or aa flood.
flood. Nor
can we
we exclude
exclude the
from
Nor can
the possipossibility that
that aa community,
community, while
while allocating
allocating part
part of
of its
its land
land to
to the
the temple
temple
bility
chief, would,
would, at
at the
the same
same time,
time, commit
commit aa number
number of
of its
its memmemor the
the chief,
or
bers to
to working
working for
for the
the economies
economies in
in question.
question.
bers
Even though
though workers
workers in
in the
the state
state sector
sector received
received only
only aa land
land allotallotEven
ment or
or aa ration,
ration, they
they were
were not
not actually
actually enslaved,
enslaved, despite
despite being
being exexment
property in
ploited
ploited by
by extraeconomic
extraeconomic compulsion
compulsion and
and deprived
deprived of
of property
in the
the
means of
of production.
These workers
were not
not necessarily
necessarily recruited
recruited
means
production. These
workers were
from captives
and prisoners-of-war
but, perhaps
more frequently,
frequently, may
may
from
captives and
prisoners-of-war but,
perhaps more
have come
come from
from the
local population.
They were
were allowed
allowed personal
personal
have
the local
population. They
movable
property, often
often their
their own
own house,
and sometimes
sometimes even
even sheep
sheep
movable property,
house, and
and cattle.
cattle. All
All of
of this,
this, however,
they enjoyed
enjoyed not
as property,
property, but
as
and
however, they
not as
but as
conditional possessions.
possessions. (We
(We might
might use
use the
the Roman
term peculium.)
conditional
Roman term
peculium.)
Because
Because these
these workers
workers were
were bound
bound to
to the
the estate
estate that
that employed
employed
them
them (they
(they were
were not
not allowed
allowed to
to leave
leave it),
it), they
they have
have frequently
frequently been
been
classified
classified as
as serfs.
serfs. But
But since
since they
they had
had no
no part
part in
in the
the property
property in
in the
the
means
production, they
means of
of production,
they differed
differed from
from medieval
medieval dependent
dependent agriagriculturalists
culturalists in
in that
that they
they were,
were, in
in fact,
fact, subject
subject to
to slave-type
slave-type exploitation.
exploitation.
use the
the Greek
To
To avoid
avoid confusion,
confusion, let
let us
us from
from now
now on
on use
Greek term
term for
for state
state
slavelike
who maintained
slavelike dependents
dependents who
who were
were settled
settled on
on land
land and
and who
maintained
the
members of
of the
class with
labor but
but who
who still
still had
their
the members
the ruling
ruling class
with their
their labor
had their
own households:
households: helots.
helots. Within
state property,
the helots
helots are
are the
the
own
Within state
property, the
equivalent of
of private
equivalent
private patriarchal
patriarchal slaves.
slaves.66
6.
6. Note
Note aa phenomenon
phenomenon that
that has
has been
been underestimated
underestimated by
by scholars.
scholars. From
From aa very
very early
early
period,
probably not
not later
later than
than the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., aa considerable
considerable number
number of
of
period, probably
eunuchs were
were employed
employed in
in the
the temple
temple and
and state
state economies,
economies, especially
especially as
as functionaries
functionaries
eunuchs
and temple
temple singers
singers (these
(these probably
probably were
were always
always eunuchs
eunuchs in
in Mesopotamia)
Mesopotamia) but
but also
also as
as
and
manual workers.
workers. Probably
Probably it
it seemed
seemed natural
natural to
to castrate
castrate "bipeds"
"bipeds" for
for security's
security's sake,just
sake, just
manual
B.C. This
This phenomenon
phenomenon
as one
one castrated
castrated calves
calves at
at least
least as
as early
early as
as the
the sixth
sixth millennium
millennium B.C.
as
was obvious
obvious in
in the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century
century A.D.
A.D. to
first students
students of
of Mesopotamian
was
to the
the first
Mesopotamian culculture. Thus,
Thus, for
for example,
example, Layard,
Layard, aa British
British consul
consul in
in the
Turkish Empire,
Empire, had
had himself
himself
ture.
the Turkish
met many
many eunuchs
eunuchs and
and had
had no
no difficulty
difficulty in
in identifying
identifying them
in depictions
depictions of
of numerous
numerous
met
them in

General
General Outline
Outline

43
43

Relying on
on the
the personnel
personnel of
of the
the powerful
powerful state
state economies,
economies, the
the
Relying
rulers
rulers of
of individual
individual nomes,
nomes, or
or city-states,
city-states, could
could create
create large
large troops
troops
of warriors,
warriors, who
who were
were not
not dependent
dependent on
on the
council, the
of
the council,
the popular
popular asassembly,
sembly, or
or other
other community
community self-governing
self-governing institutions.
institutions. This
This enabled
enabled
these rulers,
rulers, supported
supported by
bureaucracy composed
composed of
of their
their personal
personal
these
by aa bureaucracy
followers, to
to rise
rise above
above the
the individual
individual nomes
nomes and
and establish
establish aa despotic
despotic
followers,
royal power-a
powera power
power not
not limited
limited by
by any
any other
other legal
legal bodies.
bodies. BecomBecomroyal
ing independent
independent of
of the
the nomes,
nomes, aa king
king could
could gradually
gradually consolidate
consolidate his
his
ing
power over
over the
the entire
entire irrigational
irrigational network
network of
of Lower
Mesopotamia,
power
Lower Mesopotamia,
the country
country between
between the
the Tigris
Tigris and
and Euphrates
Euphrates rivers.
rivers. The
The emergence
emergence
the
of this
this power
power made
made aa single
single unified
unified royal
royal and
and slave-owning
slave-owning economy
economy
of
within the
the state
state sector
sector possible.
possible. Yet,
Yet, in
in this
this "slave-owning"
"slave-owning" society,
society, pripriwithin
vate economies continued
continued to
to survive
survive in
in the
the community
community sector.
sector.
vateeconomies
Further
Further along
along in
in the
the course
course of
of history,
history, it
it became
became clear
clear that
that mainmaintaining the
the state
state through
through an
an economy
economy of
of its
its own,
own, with
with large
large numbers
numbers
taining
of slavelike,
slavelike, exploited
exploited laborers
laborers (helots),
(helots), was
was not
not profitable;
profitable; too
too many
many
of
nonproductive expenses
expenses connected
connected with
with supervision
supervision and
and managemanagenonproductive
ment were
were required.
required. The
The state
state began
began to
to shift
shift to
to aa system
system of
of direct
direct
ment
taxation of
of the
the entire
entire population
population and
and collection
collection of
of tribute.
tribute. The
The distaxation
distinction between
state and
and the
sector remained,
remained,
tinction
between the
the state
the private/communal
private/communal sector
although the
the same
same type
type of
of private
private slave-owning
slave-owning economies
economies now
now existed
existed
although
on both
both the
the state
state and
and the
the community
community lands.
lands. The
The difference
difference was
was in
in the
the
on
character of
of property
property and
and possession:
possession: the
the possession
possession of
of state
state land
land did
did
character
not imply
imply property
property rights
rights to
to it.
it.
not
In the
the field
of exchange,
exchange, the
the main
main role
role in
in early
early antiquity
antiquity was
was played
played
In
field of
by
Intermediaries were
by international
international trade.
trade. Intermediaries
were often
often necessary,
necessary, especially
especially
when great
great distances
distances were
were involved.
involved. This
This trade
trade was
was conducted
conducted at
at their
their
when
own risk
risk either
either by
by state
state agents
agents or
or by
by professional
professional household
household comcomown
munes whose
whose members
members were
were not
not in
in the
the state
state service.
service. Both,
Both, however,
however,
munes
were closely
closely linked
linked to
to the
the state,
state, but
but the
the state
state had
had under
under its
its control
control not
not
were
so much
much the
the international
international activities
activities of
of the
the traders
traders as
as revenues
revenues from
from
so
them. The
The produce
was redistributed
redistributed in
in the
the cities
cities and
and towns,
towns, where
where
them.
produce was
the industrial
industrial and
and exchange
exchange activities
activities of
of the
the society
society were
were concenconcenthe
trated, where
where the
state administration
administration was
was located,
located, and
and where
where most
most
trated,
the state
of the
the nonlaboring
nonlaboring population
population had
had their
their homes.
homes. Inside
Inside the.
the city
city comcomof
munity, in-kind
in-kind exchange
exchange was
was practiced
practiced on
on aa small
small scale
scale (often
(often based
based
munity,
on
nonequivalent
mutual
aid
relations),
along
with
centralized
state
on nonequivalent mutual aid relations), along with centralized state
distribution.
distribution.
Such
first way
soSuch was
was the
the first
way of
of development
development of
of the
the most
most ancient
ancient class
class sobeardless men with fat under their chins on Assyrian reliefs. However, modern As-

beardless men with fat under their chins on Assyrian reliefs. However, modern Assyriologists identify them, both on reliefs and in texts, and sometimes against common
syriologists identify them, both on reliefs and in texts, and sometimes against common
sense, as
as "young
"young men."
men." In
In the
the ancient
ancient languages
languages aa eunuch
eunuch was
was supposed
supposed to
to be
be identified
identified
sense,
by aa polite
polite term,
term, such
such as
as "following
"following (his
(his master)
at his
his foot"
foot" or
or "being
"being before
before (the
(the king)."
by
master) at
king)."

44
44

I.
Diakonoff
/ M. Diakonoff

ciety.
by the
ciety. It
It was
was characterized
characterized by
the coexistence
coexistence of
of two
two economic
economic sectors:
sectors:
state and
state
and private/communal,
private/communal, the
the former
former being
being dominant.
dominant. This
This way
way of
of
development was
was typical
typical of
of the
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valley
Valley and
and the
development
the Lower
the valvalleys of
of the
the Karun
Karun and
and Kerkheh
Kerkheh rivers
rivers (ancient
(ancient Elam).
leys
Elam).
The
Way of
The Second
Second Way
of Development
Development in
in Early
Early Antiquity
Antiquity

of early
early society
society to
that which
Another
variant of
Another variant
to be
be considered
considered is
is that
which dedeveloped
in the
the Nile
Valley in
in Egypt.
Egypt. Unfortunately,
early Egyptian
Egyptian
veloped in
Nile Valley
Unfortunately, early
economic and
and legal
legal documents
documents are
are extremely
extremely scarce,
scarce, and
and much
much of
of the
economic
the
information is
is not
not clear
clear to
information
to us.
us.
Sumer is
is traversed
traversed by
separate branches
of the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, making
Sumer
by separate
branches of
making it
it
possible
possible to
to construct
construct individual
individual master
master canals,
canals, around
around which
which formed
formed
many small
small nomes
nomes that
endured for
many
that endured
for long
long periods;
periods; unified
unified kingdoms
kingdoms
On the
the other
other hand,
Egypt stretched
stretched like
like aa
were short-lived.
short-lived. On
were
hand, Upper
Upper Egypt
narrow ribbon
along aa single
single main
main stream
stream of
of water-the
waterthe Nile.
Only in
narrow
ribbon along
Nile. Only
in
Lower Egypt
Egypt does
does the
the Nile
fan out
out into
into many
many branches
Delta.
Lower
Nile fan
branches of
of the
the Delta.
Since the
the Upper
Egyptian nomes
nomes constituted
constituted aa chain
chain of
of bordering
Since
Upper Egyptian
bordering terterritories, squeezed
squeezed between
the Nile
and the
the rocky
rocky precipices
precipices of
of the
ritories,
between the
Nile and
the
desert edge,
edge, it
it was
was obviously
obviously not
not possible
form multilateral
multilateral political
political
desert
possible to
to form
alliances by
taking advantage
advantage of
of struggles
struggles and
and competition
competition between
between
alliances
by taking
neighbors.
it was
was such
such competition
competition that
that actually
actually ensured
ensured
neighbors. Elsewhere
Elsewhere it
sufficient independence
independence for
for self-governing
self-governing nomes.
nomes.
sufficient
the nomes
nomes invariably
led to
unification
In Egypt,
Egypt, clashes
clashes between
In
between the
invariably led
to aa unification
"along the
the chain"
chain" under
under the
the power
of the
the strongest
strongest nome
nome or
or else
else to
"along
power of
to
the
complete annihilation
annihilation of
of aa quarrelsome
neighbor. Consequently,
Consequently,
the complete
quarrelsome neighbor.
autocratic kings
kings appeared
appeared in
in Upper
Egypt already
already during
during the
the earliest
earliest
Upper Egypt
autocratic
epoch. They
They acquired
acquired despotic
despotic power
over the
the individual
individual nomes
nomes and
epoch.
power over
and
later over
over the
entire country,
country, eventually
eventually conquering
conquering Lower
Lower Egypt
Egypt as
later
the entire
as
well. In
In early
early Egypt
Egypt aa state
state sector
sector (temple
(temple and
and royal
royal and,
and, possibly,
also
well.
possibly, also
"houses" of
of nobles)
nobles) must
must have
have originally
originally coexisted
coexisted with
with aa private/
private/
"houses"
communal
sector, but
the latter,
latter, apparently,
apparently, was
was gradually
gradually swallowed
swallowed
communal sector,
but the
up, without
leaving any
any trace,
trace, by
the state.
state. In
In any
any case,
case, Egyptologists
Egyptologists
up,
without leaving
by the
the existence
existence of
of communities
communities of
of free
free citizens,
citizens, fully
fully
cannot ascertain
ascertain the
cannot
invested
with
rights
and
administratively
independent
from
state
invested with rights and administratively independent from state
economies, on
on the
the basis
of any
any clear
clear evidence
evidence available
available from
from the
the year
year
economies,
basis of
2000 B.C.
B.C. on.
on. This
This does
does not
possibility that
that separate
separate selfself2000
not preclude
preclude the
the possibility
sufficient households
could have
arisen within
state itself.
itself.
sufficient
households could
have arisen
within the
the state
beAll
All this,
this, however,
however, does
does not
not constitute
constitute an
an essential
essential difference
difference between
the
societies
of
Egypt
and
Lower
Mesopotamia.
Here,
as
there,
tween the societies of Egypt and Lower Mesopotamia. Here, as there,
direct management
of huge
huge slave-owning
slave-owning econoeconodirect
management by
by the
the royal
royal power
power of
mies became,
in the
the end,
end, unprofitable,
unprofitable, with
with the
the difference
difference that
that in
mies
became, in
in
Egypt the
the private
slave-owning economies
economies developed
developed on
on what
what legally
legally
Egypt
private slave-owning
lands. These
These private
economies had
had their
labor force
force (helots)
(helots)
were state
state lands.
private economies
their labor
were

General
General Outline
Outline

45
45

allotted
to them
by the
the state,
addition, they
they may
may have
have owned
allotted to
them by
state, and
and in
in addition,
owned
slaves.
these laborers,
who were
were state
what we
we
slaves. Each
Each of
of these
laborers, who
state dependents
dependents (or
(or what
have
termed helots),
have termed
helots), were
were assigned
assigned aa specific
specific task,
task, such
such as
as tiller
tiller of
of the
the
soil, craftsman,
craftsman, or
or the
the like,
like, to
be fulfilled
fulfilled for
for the
economic entity
entity to
soil,
to be
the economic
to
which
they had
been
allotted.
Any
production
over
and
above
the aswhich they
had been allotted. Any production over and above the
assigned task
task could
could be
kept for
for their
their own
own benefit
and disposed
disposed of
of at
at
signed
be kept
benefit and
their
own
discretion.
However,
such
products
should
not
be
regarded
their own discretion. However, such products should not be regarded
as property
as conditional
conditional possession
(peculium).As
Aswe
wealalas
property but,
but, rather,
rather, as
possession (peculium).
ready
patriarchal dependents,
dependents, even
including classical
classical slaves,
ready know,
know, patriarchal
even including
slaves,
Classicalslaves,
slaves,however,
however, were
were
could
also dispose
could also
dispose of
of their
their peculium.
peculium. Classical
even allowed
allowed to
to amass
amass savings
savings for
for the
the purpose
purpose of
of redeeming
redeeming themthemeven
selves from
from their
their master,
master, aa right
right that
that the
the ancient
ancient Oriental
Oriental helots
helots lacked.
lacked.
selves

Other Ways
Ways of
of Development
Development in
in the
Societies of
of Early
Early Antiquity
Antiquity
Other
the Societies
In countries
countries that
that lacked
lacked the
the high
high crop
crop capacity
capacity of
of the
the fertile
fertile silt
silt of
of the
the
In
great
first way
great river
river valleys,
valleys, the
the same
same laws
laws that
that governed
governed the
the first
way of
of develdevelopment in
in river
river irrigation
irrigation societies
societies also
also applied.
applied. But
But in
in order
order to
to
opment
achieve aa sufficiently
sufficiently high
high technological
technological level
level for
for generating
generating agriculagriculachieve
tural surplus,
surplus, aa significantly
significantly longer
longer time
time period
was required
required in
in these
these
tural
period was
less fertile
fertile regions.
regions. In
In addition
to mastering
the techniques
techniques of
of grain
grain
addition to
mastering the
less
cultivation, such
such factors
factors as
as livestock
livestock raising,
raising, viticulture,
viticulture, olive
olive growing,
growing,
cultivation,
gardening, and
and the
the extraction
extraction of
of metals
metals usually
were equally
equally imporimporgardening,
usually were
tant, helping
helping the
the local
local society,
society, through
through the
the process
process of
of exchange,
exchange, to
to
tant,
partake of
of the
the surplus
surplus product
product from
from the
the leading
leading agricultural
agricultural areas.
areas.
partake
Furthermore, in
in these
these regions
regions there
there was
no need
need to
to create
create and
and mainmainFurthermore,
was no
tain vast,
vast, labor-intensive
labor-intensive irrigation
irrigation and
and land
land improvement
improvement systems,
systems, aa
tain
condition that
that resulted
resulted in
in temples
temples and
and priest-chiefs
playing aa much
much
condition
priest-chiefs playing
diminished role.
role. The
The private/communal
private/communal sector
sector sometimes
sometimes gained
gained
diminished
prominence over
over the
the state
state sector.
sector. However,
However, the
the fact
fact that
that these
these soprominence
societies took
took longer
longer to
to attain
attain the
the level
level of
of aa class
class society
society and
and of
of civilizacivilizacieties
tion gave
gave Egypt
Egypt and
and Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia the
the time
time to
to exert
exert aa powerful
powerful
tion
cultural influence
influence on
on these
these areas-an
areasan influence
influence aimed
aimed precisely
precisely at
at
cultural
strengthening the
the authority
authority of
of temples
temples and
and of
of the
the royal
royal power.
power. Thus,
Thus,
strengthening
the most
most ancient
ancient societies
societies belonging
belonging to
to this
this third
third evolutionary
evolutionary course
course
the
exhibit aa diversity
diversity of
of relationships
relationships between
between the
the state
state sector
sector and
and the
the
exhibit
private/communal
sector but
but tend
tend to
to monarchical
monarchical forms
forms of
of polity.
polity.
private/
communal sector
In
In some
some countries
countries and
and periods
periods the
the one
one economic
economic sector
sector was
was stronger
stronger
and, in
in some,
some, the
other.7 Moreover,
and,
the other.7
Moreover, since
since there
there were
were no
no vast
vast or
or nunu7.
7. Note
Note that
that the
the existence
existence of
of territorial
territorial communities
communities (rural
(rural and
and later
later also
also urban)
urban) and
and
the
these of
resulted from
dethe existence
existence within
within these
of extended-family
extended-family communes
communes resulted
from the
the level
level of
of development
of production
in antiquity
antiquity and
and was
was not
not connected
connected specifically
specifically with
with the
velopment of
production in
the necesnecessities of
of aa "hydraulic"
"hydraulic" society.
society. Usually
Usually the
private/communal sector
sector is
is weaker
weaker when
the
sities
the private/communal
when the
state economies
economies flourish,
as happens
happens in
in the
riverine irrigation
irrigation societies.
societies. It
It is
is stronger
stronger in
in
state
flourish, as
the riverine

46

I.
/. M.
M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

merous
merous irrigation
irrigation systems,
systems, which
which would
would have
have been
been profitable
profitable to
to unify,
unify,
these regions
regions did
did not
not generate
generate monolithic
monolithic and
and despotic
despotic kingdoms
kingdoms like
like
these
the kingdom
kingdom on
on the
the Nile
or the
the less
less stable
stable kingdoms
kingdoms of
of Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia.
the
Nile or
The local
local empires
empires (the
(the Achaean,
Achaean, the
the Hittite,
Hittite, the
the Mitannian,
Mitannian, the
the Middle
Middle
The
Assyrian, and
and the
the Egyptian
Egyptian empire
empire in
in Syria
Syria during
during the
the New
New Kingdom)
Kingdom)
Assyrian,
were more
like military
military alliances
alliances in
in which
which weaker
weaker nomes
nomes were
were obliged
obliged
more like
were
to
tribute and
and provide
military support
support to
to aa stronger
stronger state.
state. In
In the
the
to pay
pay tribute
provide military
third and
and especially
especially in
in the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., all
all the
the societies
societies of
of
third
Asia Minor
Minor and
and the
the Near
East (with
(with the
the exception
exception of
of Lower
Lower MesoAsia
Near East
Mesopotamia and
and the
the Kerkheh
Kerkheh and
and Karun
Karun plain),
plain), as
as well
well as
as the
the societies
societies
potamia
around the
the Aegean
Aegean Sea
Sea in
in the
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean,
Mediterranean, belonged
to the
the
around
belonged to
third way
way of
of development
development of
of early
early ancient
ancient class
class societies.
societies. It
It appears
appears
third
that in
in the
the first
millennium B.C.,
B.C., certain
certain societies
societies in
in the
the uplands
uplands of
of the
the
that
first millennium
Near East
East and
and Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, in
in Greece,
Greece, and
and probably
probably in
in Italy
Italy (Etruria?)
(Etruria?)
Near
still belonged
to this
this type
type of
of society.
society.
still
belonged to
From the
the point
point of
of view
view of
of universal
universal history,
history, the
the epoch
epoch when
when the
the soFrom
social
cial conditions
conditions typical
typical of
of early
early antiquity
antiquity existed
existed are
are mainly
mainly the
the third
third
and second
second millennia
millennia B.C.
B.C. We
We know
know too
too little
little about
about the
the societies
societies of
of InInand
dia
that period
to describe
sociodia and
and China
China during
during that
period to
describe confidently
confidently their
their socioeconomic development.
development. Therefore,
Therefore, at
at the
present level
level of
of knowledge,
knowledge,
economic
the present
we may
early antiquity
antiquity as
as aa period
when the
the first,
the second,
second,
we
may regard
regard early
period when
first, the
and the
the third
third ways
ways of
of development
development predominated.
predominated.
and
But societies
societies belonging
typologically to
to early
early antiquity
antiquity do
do not
not necesBut
belonging typologically
necessarily arise
arise onl
only in
in the
the chronological
chronological framework
framework of
of the
the classical
classical anansarily
cient Orient:
Orient: in
in certain
certain places
the same
same typology
can also
also be
traced
places the
typology can
be traced
cient
in the
the first
millennium B.C.
B.C. and-albeit
andalbeit for
for aa short
short time-in
timein the
the first
in
first millennium
first
as, for
for instance,
instance, in
in northern
and eastern
eastern Europe.
Europe. In
In
millennium A.D.,
millennium
A.D., as,
northern and
the tropics,
in mountainous
mountainous zones,
zones, and
and in
in piedmont
piedmont regions,
regions, the
the same
same
the
tropics, in
typology
and even
even reemerge
reemerge as
as late
late as
as the
the second
second half
of
typology may
may linger
linger and
half of
the second
second millennium
millennium A.D.
A.D.
the
The
The Further
Further Development
Development of
of the
the Class
Class Societies
Societies
Established in
in Early
Early Antiquity
Antiquity
Established

The
of societies
societies of
late antiquity
antiquity differs
differs strongly
strongly from
from that
that of
The typology
typology of
of late
of
early antiquity.
antiquity. In
In many
many respects,
respects, the
the later
later period
period presents
more variearly
presents more
variation of
of forms
forms than
and not
not all
all of
of the
emerging variations
variations
ation
than the
the earlier,
earlier, and
the emerging
are easily
easily explained
explained by
It seems
seems that
there were
were
are
by ecological
ecological conditions.
conditions. It
that there
at
least
four
ways
of
development.
In
the
field
of
production,
typical
at. least four ways of development. In the field of production, typical
of late
late antiquity
antiquity is
is the
the use
iron and
and primitive
steel, which
resulted,
of
use of
of iron
primitive steel,
which resulted,
the
the countries
countries of
of the
the third
third way
way of
of development,
development, especially
especially in
in the
the mountainous
mountainous regions
regions
of
of the
the periphery.
periphery. Often
Often it
it was
was the
the mountain
mountain people
people who
who controlled
controlled the
the passes
passes over
over
which
population of
which the
which the
the population
of the
the lowlands
lowlands traded
traded and
and which
the latter
latter needed
needed for
for military
military
purposes.
purposes.

General
General Outline
Outline

47
47

among
other things,
things, in
in the
exploitation of
natural regions
regions for
for civamong other
the exploitation
of new
new natural
civtime, in
ilization.
ilization. At
At the
the same
same time,
in agricultural
agricultural technology
technology there
there is
is little
little apappreciable
as compared
preciable development,
development, as
compared with
with development
development of
of industries,
industries,
especially the
production of
of arms
arms and
and military
military equipment.
equipment.
especially
the production
The
way of
The first
first way
of development
development in
in late
late antiquity,
antiquity, which
which is
is the
the most
most
thoroughly studied,
the Mediterranean
thoroughly
studied, is
is the
Mediterranean one.
one. It
It emerged
emerged from
from the
the
third
way of
of early
early antiquity
antiquity under
under certain
certain specific
specific conditions
conditions and
and was
third way
was
characterized by
the virtually
complete abolishment
abolishment of
of the
the state
state sector
sector
characterized
by the
virtually complete
during
the fall
the kingkingduring the
the stormy
stormy epoch
epoch of
of ethnic
ethnic migrations
migrations and
and the
fall of
of the
organidoms
The polis
doms that
that belonged
belonged typologically
typologically to
to early
early antiquity.
antiquity. The
polis organization now
now emerged.
emerged. These
These were
were city-state
city-state communities,
communities, which,
for
zation
which, for
all
practical purposes,
purposes, lacked
lacked aa state
state economic
economic sector;
sector; state
state power
all practical
power was
was
conferred on
on aa vestigial
monarchical or
or purely
republican administraadministraconferred
vestigial monarchical
purely republican
grewand
and flourished
flourished on
onthe
thebasis
basisof
of market-oriented
market-oriented
tion. The
The poleis
tion.
poleis grew
agricultural and
and industrial
industrial production
the private
private sector.
sector. Such
Such proagricultural
production in
in the
production became
became possible
because of
of the
the intensification
of international
international
intensification of
duction
possible because
trade, which
had now
now become
easier and
and more
accessible to
to the
the pritrade,
which had
become easier
more accessible
private
enterprise of
of the
the citizens
citizens of
of the
balance between
between the
the
vate enterprise
the poleis.
poleis. AAbalance
and the
(that
communal (that
which belonged
communal
(that which
belonged to
to the
the polls)
polis) and
the private
private (that
which pertained
pertained to
to the
the individual)
individual) arose.
arose. This
This contributed
contributed to
to the
which
the dedevelopment of
of rationality
rationality in
in the
the mental
mental life
life and
and to
the emergence
emergence of
of
velopment
to the
individuality in
in art,
art, literature,
literature, and
and philosophy;
at the
same time,
time, the
the
individuality
philosophy; at
the same
traditional community
community cults
cults were
were preserved.
For the
the first
time in
in histraditional
preserved. For
first time
history there
there was
notion of
of the
the freedom
freedom of
of the
the individual.
individual. The
The majority
majority
tory
was aa notion
of the
the citizens
citizens consisted
consisted of
of the
the same
same nonexploited
working population
population
of
non exploited working
of the
the primitive
primitive epoch,
epoch, but
but the
the more
more well-to-do
well-to-do citizens
citizens of
of the
the polis
exof
polis exploited
slave labor
labor not
not only
only in
in its
also in
ploited slave
its patriarchal
patriarchal form
form but
but also
in its
its classiclassical one;
one; namely,
as chattel
chattel slavery.
slavery.
cal
namely, as
After aa comparatively
comparatively short
period, aa crisis
crisis of
of the
the polis
polis arose
After
short period,
arose that
that
intoan
anempire;
empire;here
here
could only
only be
resolved by
by incorporating
incorporating all
all poleis
could
be resolved
poleis into
the
citizens could
could continue
continue to
enjoy their
their rights
but at
at
the citizens
to enjoy
rights and
and privileges,
privileges, but
the same
same time,
time, they
they could
could also
also reap
the advantages
advantages of
belonging to
to an
an
the
reap the
of belonging
empire. The
important advantage
advantage was
was that
the empires
empires united,
united,
empire.
The most
most important
that the
under one
one political
authority, both
regions of
of agricultural
agricultural production
production
under
political authority,
both regions
(which
were also
for industrial
industrial production)
production) and
regions of
of
(which were
also the
the market
market for
and regions
industrial and
Moreover, in
in unifying
unifying these
difindustrial
and livestock
livestock production.
production. Moreover,
these different economic
economic areas,
these later
empires did
did not
not upset
routes,
ferent
areas, these
later empires
upset trade
trade routes,
as was
the case
case in
early antiquity,
antiquity, but
actually secured
secured the
as
was the
in early
but actually
the routes
routes bebetween different
regions. The
The later
later empires
defend
tween
different regions.
empires were
were also
also able
able to
to defend
the cities.
cities. The
development was
was reached
in the
Roman
the
The zenith
zenith of
of this
this development
reached in
the Roman
Empire,
was aa very
very specific
specific formation
formation since
since it
it had
had no
state secEmpire, which
which was
no state
sector. (The
(The emperors'
their private
property.)
tor.
emperors' estates
estates were
were their
private property.)
The
new medieval
which formerly
The transition
transition to
to aa new
medieval society
society in
in which
formerly free
free arartisans and
and agriculturalists
agriculturalists constituted
constituted the
exploited class
along
tisans
the exploited
class (first
(first along

48

I.
Diakonoff
/. M. Diakonoff

with
with the
the slaves
slaves and
and later
later in
in place
place of
of them)
them) occurred
occurred within
within the
the Roman
Roman
Empire and
and along
along its
its frontiers.
frontiers. Some
Some members
members of
of the
ancient exEmpire
the ancient
exploiter
class, reappearing
now as
as the
class of
of landed
landed magmagploiter class,
reappearing now
the protofeudal
protofeudal class
nates,
vested with
with state
state power.
power.
nates, became
became vested
The
is represented
represented by
by the
the Near
Near Eastern
Eastern
The second
second way
way of
of development
development is
empires,
empires, from
from the
the Assyrian
Assyrian and
and Neo-Babylonian
Neo-Babylonian through
through the
the HellenHellenistic.
istic. As
As aa result
result of
of attempts
attempts to
to unify
unify the
the regions
regions of
of agriculture
agriculture with
with
those of
of livestock
livestock and
and industrial
industrial production,
production, and
and also
also of
of certain
certain strong
strong
those
internal
internal processes,
processes, conquests
conquests were
were made
made on
on aa grand
grand scale,
scale, and
and interinterregional empires
empires were
were created.
created. All
All conquered
conquered land
land became
became state
state land,
land,
regional
providing the
base for
the economy;
providing
the base
for the
the state
state sector
sector of
of the
economy; here
here the
the "king's
"king's
men" and
and other
other groups
groups of
of the
the helot
helot type
type were
were exploited.
exploited. However,
However,
men"
inside the
the empires
empires there
there also
also existed
existed self-governing
self-governing temple
temple cities
cities and
and
inside
thatsuperficially
superficially reproduced
reproduced
territories, and,
and, later,
later, Hellenistic
Hellenistic poleis
territories,
poleis that
the structure
structure of
of the
Greek poleis.
Personallyfree
freecitizens,
citizens,both
bothslave
slave
the
the Greek
poleis. Personally
owners and
and non-slave
non-slave owners,
owners, existed
existed within
within such
such structures;
structures; slave
slave laowners
labor was
was on
on aa metayage
metayage or
or quitrent
quitrent basis.
At the
the end
end of
of this
this way
way of
of debor
basis. At
development, as
as well
as of
of the
the others,
others, magnate
magnate landownership
landownership emerged,
emerged,
velopment,
well as
and state
state power
power passed
to the
the magnates;
magnates; the
the self-government
self-government of
of the
the
and
passed to
cities was
was abolished,
abolished, and
and the
the market-oriented
market-oriented economies
economies were
were dedecities
stroyed (mainly
(mainly because
because of
of the
the autarchic
autarchic character
character of
of the
the magnates'
magnates'
stroyed
economies).
economies).
A
A third
third way
way seems
seems to
to have
have developed
developed in
in India;
India; here
here the
the opposition
opposition
between the
king's men
was not
not as
between
the king's
men and
and the
the citizens
citizens was
as important
important as
as the
the
rigid
opposition of
of social
social estates,
estates, which
which evolved
evolved into
into the
the caste
caste system.
system.
rigid opposition
Finally,
way is
that of
the formal
soFinally, the
the fourth
fourth way
is that
of the
the Far
Far East,
East, where
where the
formal social opposition
opposition is
is between
between literates
literates (functionaries)
(functionaries) and
and illiterates
illiterates (non(noncial
functionaries);
functionaries); however,
however, the
the actual
actual class
class structure,
structure, on
on the
the whole,
whole, is
is the
the
same
politisame as
as attested
attested elsewhere.
elsewhere. Here
Here also
also the
the class
class of
of magnates
magnates with
with political power
evolves at
at the
the end
end of
of antiquity.
antiquity.
cal
power evolves
The
The attention
attention of
of the
the reader
reader should
should also
also be
be directed
directed to
to the
the following.
following.
The
classsocieties
societies
from
from
thethe
fourth
fourth
millennium
millennium
B.C.
B.C.
to to
thethe
The history
history of
of class
first millennium
millennium A.D.
A.D. is
is not
not the
the same
same as
as the
the history
history of
of the
the world
for the
the
first
world for
same period
of time;
time; the
ancient class
class societies
societies always
always existed
existed within
same
period of
the ancient
within aa
world that
was also
also populated
societies at
at various
levels of
world
that was
populated by
by primitive
primitive societies
various levels
of
development from
from simple
simple Neolithic
tribes to
to relatively
relatively sophisticated
sophisticated
development
Neolithic tribes
ones with
with complicated
complicated social
social structures.
structures. Moreover,
Moreover, the
ancient class
ones
the ancient
class
societies could
could not
not have
have existed
existed without
without aa preclass
preclass periphery
periphery where
where
societies
they could
could exploit
exploit seemingly
seemingly inexhaustible
inexhaustible resources
resources of
of raw
raw materials
materials
they
and, over
over time,
time, inexhaustible
inexhaustible supplies
supplies of
of labor.
labor. The
The presence
presence of
of the
the
and,
periphery
also always
always implied
implied the
the threat
threat of
of invasions
invasions and
and the
the disrupdisrupperiphery also
tion of
of cultural
cultural and
and historical
historical traditions.
traditions. The
The periphery,
paradoxically,
tion
periphery, paradoxically,
also
was
regarded
as
a
world
of
primitive
"freedom"
or
"innocence,"
also was regarded as a world of primitive "freedom" or "innocence,"
and
it
influenced
the
ideational
and
emotional
life
of
the
class
societies.
and it influenced the ideational and emotional life of the class societies.

General Outline
Outline

49
49

The first
first period
period of
of early
early antiquity
antiquity (Lectures
(Lectures 22-7)
the history
of
The
- 7) is
is the
history of
small
world of
primitive "barbarism";
small foci
foci of
of civilization
civilization in
in aa vast
vast world
of primitive
"barbarism"; concontinuous
period of
tinuous areas
areas of
of civilization
civilization only
only emerge
emerge in
in the
the second
second period
of early
early
antiquity
Near East,
antiquity (Lectures
(Lectures 8-20):
8-20): the
the Mediterranean,
Mediterranean, the
the Near
East, India,
India,
and China.
China. But
But they
they still
still continue
continue to
to be
surrounded by
the primitive
primitive
and
be surrounded
by the
periphery.
Even when
when the
the zone
of class-based
class-based civilization
civilization occupies
occupies an
an
periphery. Even
zone of
unbroken territory,
territory, it
remains encircled
encircled by
by this
this periphery.
periphery.
unbroken
it remains
Thus,
history of
humanity, from
Thus, the
the universal
universal history
of humanity,
from the
the fourth
fourth millenmillennium
nium B.C.
B.C. to
to the
the first
first millennium
millennium A.D.,
A.D., ought
ought not
not to
to be
be simply
simply aa history
history
of civilizations
civilizations but
history of
of civilizations
civilizations encircled
encircled by
by the
the primitive
primitive
of
but aa history
this work
work did
did not
not feel
feel themselves
themselves equal
equal to
to aa task
task
world. The
The authors
authors of
of this
world.
of this
this kind,
did they
even set
set for
for themselves
themselves this
this goal.
goal. The
The
of
kind, nor
nor did
they even
reader,
always remember
remember the
the other,
other, less
developed
reader, nevertheless,
nevertheless, must
must always
less developed
world, which
which always
surrounded the
the states
states we
are describing.
describing.
world,
always surrounded
we are
The Perception
Perception of
of the
World at
at the
from
The
the World
the Passing
Passing from
Primitive
to Ancient
Ancient Society
Primitive to
Society
It
difficult to
to comprehend
comprehend the
the events
events of
of the
the ancient
epoch without
without
It is
is difficult
ancient epoch
attempting to
to understand,
understand, at
approximately, how
ancients
attempting
at least
least approximately,
how the
the ancients
thought
and felt.
felt. What
did they
they think
about the
world and
and about
about
thought and
What did
think about
the world
themselves?
themselves?
Unfortunately, it
it is
is very
very difficult
difficult to
to penetrate
penetrate the
the spiritual
spiritual world
of
Unfortunately,
world of
ancient times-in
timesin fact,
fact, almost
almost impossible.
impossible. The
The unearthed
unearthed temples
are
ancient
temples are
mute, the
images uncertain;
only very
very slowly,
slowly, in
in small
small bits,
bits, do
do we
we bemute,
the images
uncertain; only
bethe relics
relics of
And, even
if ancome
with the
come acquainted
acquainted with
of ancient
ancient literature.
literature. And,
even if
ancient art
and literature
were completely
do they
they really
cient
art and
literature were
completely understood,
understood, do
really
reflect
the thoughts
and feelings
feelings of
of the
the people
people of
of those
those bygone
bygone
thoughts and
reflect all
all the
times? After
After all,
just mementos,
mementos, accidentimes?
all, artistic
artistic accomplishments
accomplishments are
are just
accidental relics
relics preserved
preserved for
for us
us by
chance of
of all
all that
that the
the artists
artists of
of that
that epoch
epoch
tal
by chance
had created.
created. There
There are,
are, of
of course,
course, also
also oral
oral myths,
myths, fairy
fairy tales,
songs,
had
tales, songs,
proverbs,
and aphorisms
aphorisms that
that are
are rooted
rooted in
in the
the thought
of the
ancient
thought of
the ancient
proverbs, and
world.
Yet changes
changes and
and additions
additions made
during the
course of
of time
world. Yet
made during
the course
time may
may
well distort
distort them
them before
before they
they reach
reach the
the present.
Present-day narrators
narrators
well
present. Present-day
of folktales
social anthropologists
anthropologists have
studied cannot
cannot themthemof
folktales whom
whom social
have studied
selves
the ancients
ancients originally
their stories.
stories. The
The
selves know
know what
what the
originally meant
meant by
by their
hypotheses
scholars have
formulated on
on these
are usually
usually rehypotheses scholars
have formulated
these subjects
subjects are
rejected
by those
those who
who still
still keep
keep the
the old
old myths
myths alive,
alive, such
such as
as the
the tribal
tribal
jected by
peoples of
of Africa,
Africa, Australia,
Australia, and
and Polynesia.
Polynesia.
peoples
that can
asPerhaps,
Perhaps, however,
however, there
there does
does exist
exist one
one objective
objective means
means that
can assist us
us in
penetrating the
mental processes
of people
people who
who lived
lived in
in
sist
in penetrating
the mental
processes of
primitive times
times and
and in
in early
early antiquity;
antiquity; namely,
namely, the
study of
of languages.
languages.
primitive
the study
Language expresses
expresses categories
categories of
of the
investigating
Language
the mental
mental process:
process: by
by investigating
the
the most
languages, the
exthe structures
structures of
of the
most archaic
archaic languages,
the modes
modes used
used to
to ex-

50

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

press
how humans
humans related
related to
to the
the world
world and
and its
its phenomena,
it is
is pospress how
phenomena, it
possible to
to recover
recover some
some of
of the
the mental
mental processes
of that
that time.
time.
processes of
sible
Based on
on aa comparative
comparative study
study of
of the
the most
most ancient
ancient strata
strata of
of the
the lanlanBased
guages that
guages
that have
have reached
reached us
us and
and on
on the
the structures
structures of
of the
the most
most ancient
ancient
myths, the
the following
following hypothesis
hypothesis about
about the
the mentality
mentality and
and world
worldview
of
myths,
view of
primitive people
primitive
people seems
seems to
to be
be the
the most
most plausible.
plausible.
The
great difficulty
The great
difficulty for
for primitive
primitive humans
humans was
was to
to comprehend
comprehend and
and
express
judgment is
possible without
express abstract
abstract concepts.
concepts. Since
Since no
no judgment
is possible
without
making certain
certain generalizations,
generalizations, one
one had
had to
to generalize
generalize without
without stating
stating
making
abstract concepts.
concepts. For
For this,
this, one
one had
had to
to create
create associations
associations based
based on
on imimabstract
ages perceived
by the
the senses
senses (e.g.,
(e.g., comparisons).
comparisons). For
For example,
example, in
in
ages
perceived by
order to
to express
express the
the idea
idea that
that the
sky is
is aa dome
dome or
or roof
roof supported
supported by
order
the sky
by
four points
on the
horizon and,
and, at
at the
the same
same time,
time, something
something that
that gives
four
points on
the horizon
gives
birth to
to the
the sun
sun every
every day
day and
and to
to the
the stars
stars and
and moon
moon at
at night,
night, as
as well
well
birth
as the
the place
place where
where the
the sun
sun travels
travels from
from one
one end
end to
to the
the other,
other, one
one
as
could illustrate
illustrate the
the concept
concept of
of "sky"
"sky" as
as aa cow
cow standing
standing on
on its
its four
four legs,
could
legs,
woman giving
giving birth
birth to
to the
the sun,
sun, and
and aa river
river along
along which
which the
the sun
sun
aa woman
travels. This
This quite
quite adequately
adequately illustrated
illustrated the
the idea
idea that
that had
had to
to be
be extravels.
expressed
anyone being
being disturbed
disturbed by
by the
the question
question of
of how
how the
the
pressed without
without anyone
sky could
could be
cow, aa woman,
and aa river
all at
at the
the same
same time.
time. EveryEverysky
be aa cow,
woman, and
river all
one dearly
clearly understood
understood that
that this
this was
was merely
merely an
an interpretation
interpretation and
and
one
that, in
in reality,
reality, the
the sky
sky was
was not
not aa cow,
cow, aa woman,
or aa river.
river. But
But because
because
that,
woman, or
abstract concepts
concepts had
had not
not yet
yet developed,
developed, such
such ideas
ideas as
as "comparison,"
"comparison,"
abstract
"metaphor," "interpretation,"
"interpretation," and
and all
all that
is necessary
express that
that
"metaphor,"
that is
necessary to
to express
the sky
sky is
is actually
actually not
not any
any of
of these
these objects
objects did
did not
not exist.
exist. The
The process
process of
of
the
comparing, interpreting,
interpreting, and
and naming
an object
object or
or aa phenomenon
comparing,
naming an
phenomenon was
was
perceived in
in material
material terms.
terms. For
For example,
example, aa name
name was
was perceived
as aa
perceived
perceived as
material part
part of
of the
the named
object. Therefore,
Therefore, we
should not
not be
be sursurnamed object.
we should
material
prised that
that even
even without
without identifying
identifying the
the sky
sky with
with aa real
real cow
cow or
or aa real
real
prised
woman, the
ancient people
could still
still offer
offer sacrifices
sacrifices to
to the
the sky
sky perperwoman,
the ancient
people could
sonified as
as aa divine
cow or
or aa goddess.
goddess.
sonified
divine cow
Any natural
Any
natural and
and purposeful
purposeful phenomena
phenomena that
that concerned
concerned people
people (or
(or
phenomena imagined
purpose) and
phenomena
imagined to
to have
have aa purpose)
and any
any phenomena
phenomena withwithout aa known
purpose but
but with
with aa definite
definite cause
cause were
were mentally
mentally and
and
out
known purpose
emotionally
perceived as
by an
will. This
This was
was the
the rereemotionally perceived
as caused
caused by
an intelligent
intelligent will.
sult of
of the
the fact
fact that
that people
could, in
in practical
life, observe
observe aa relationrelationsult
people could,
practical life,
ship between
between cause
cause and
and effect
effect essentially
essentially only
only within
within the
the context
context of
of
ship
their own
own activities,
activities, understanding
understanding aa cause
cause as
as aa willful
willful action.
action. For
For this
this
their
reason,
some intelligent
intelligent being
being was
was imagined
imagined to
to be
behind every
every phephebe behind
reason, some
nomenon that
that took
took place
in the
the world,
world, and
and for
for humanity'S
humanity's benefit,
benefit, this
this
nomenon
place in
being
had to
to be
propitiated. Such
Such aa being,
or deity,
deity, was
was not
not thought
thought of
of
being had
be propitiated.
being, or
as spiritual
spiritual (because
(because an
an immaterial
immaterial spirit
spirit is
is also
also an
an abstraction
abstraction and
and
as
could not
not be
be verbally
verbally expressed
expressed or
or imagined
imagined for
for lack
lack of
of the
the means
means to
to
could

General
General Outline
Outline

51

do so)
so) but
but as
as material.
material. It
It could
could differ
differ from
from humanity
humanity in
in its
its power,
power, in
in
do
its maliciousness-in
maliciousnessin anything
anything but
but its
its spirituality.
spirituality.
its
Neither was
was aa deity
deity distinct
distinct from
from humanity
in terms
terms of
of immortality,
immortality,
Neither
humanity in
because people
people had
no means
means to
to imagine
imagine or
or describe
describe verbally
verbally nonexisnonexisbecause
had no
tence and,
and, hence,
hence, could
could not
not conceive
conceive of
of being
being dead
dead as
as being
being nonexisnonexistence
tent. A
A deceased
deceased person
person was
was someone
someone who
who had
had passed
passed from
from life
life here
here
tent.
to another
another life
life somewhere
somewhere else,just
else, just as
as aa newborn
newborn was
was transferred
transferred from
from
to
life in
in some
some other
other place
place to
to life
life here.
here. Another
Another transition
transition from
from one
one
aa life
form of
of existence
existence to
to another
another was
was the
the passage
passage from
from childhood:
childhood: boys
boys to
to
form
girls to
to marriageable
maidens. Such
Such aa transition
transition was
was often
often
warriors and
and girls
marriageable maidens.
warriors
celebrated by
by an
an initiation
initiation ritual,
ritual, or
or aa consecration,
consecration, which
which included
included
celebrated
testing aa young
young man's
man's or
or woman's
woman's fortitude
fortitude in
in confronting
confronting fear
fear or
or exextesting
periencing physical
physical pain.
pain. (Circumcision
(Circumcision of
of the
the foreskin
foreskin and
and infliction
infliction
periencing
of wounds
wounds or
or burns
burns were
were typical.)
typical.) Initiation
Initiation could
could also
also include
include passing
passing
of
on to
to the
the new
new generation
generation the
the experience
experience of
of their
their forebears,
forebears, which
which
on
consisted not
not only
only of
of various
various practical
practical skills
skills and
and labor
labor techniques
techniques but
but
consisted
also of
of myths.
The latter
latter created
created aa sensorial
sensorial and
and figurative
figurative comprecomprealso
myths. The
hension of
of the
the causes
causes of
of phenomena
phenomena and
and their
their relationships.
relationships.
hension
A
A myth
myth cannot
cannot be
be interpreted
interpreted out
out of
of the
the context
context of
of aa ritual.
ritual. PrimiPrimitive people
people interpreted
interpreted their
their actions
actions in
in the
the same
same way
way they
they did
did natural
natural
tive
phenomenain aa sensorial
sensorial and
and associative
associative manner
manner rather
rather than
than in
in an
an
phenomena-in
abstract
abstract and
and logical
logical one.
one. Practical
Practical activities
activities (technical
(technical work
work methods,
methods,
for example)
example) were,
were, of
of course,
course, also
also interpreted
interpreted associatively
associatively but,
but, neverneverfor
theless, were
were understood
understood quite
quite correctly,
correctly, because
because such
such actions
actions are
are in
in
theless,
an obvious
obvious way
way directly
directly affected
affected by
by human
human will.
will. Ritualistic
Ritualistic actions
actions
an
were conditioned
conditioned by
by assumed
assumed causes
causes governing
governing universal
universal phenomena,
phenomena,
were
which were
were conditioned
conditioned by
by the
the will
will of
of deities.
deities. As
As we
we have
have already
already seen,
seen,
which
deities and
and their
their actions
actions were
were re-created
re-created in
in myths
myths by
by generating
generating assodeities
associations. These
These associations
associations lacked
lacked rigorous
rigorous logic;
logic; they
they were
were sensorial
sensorial
ciations.
and emotional.
emotional. Therefore,
Therefore, it
it is
is not
not surprising
surprising that
that the
the way
way to
to influinfluand
ence the
the causes
causes (the
(the divine
divine causes!)
causes!) of
of phenomena
phenomena also
also had
had to
to be
be assoence
assois aa material
material
ciative and
and emotional,
emotional, not
not logical.
logical. For
For example,
example, if
if aa name
ciative
name is
part
of aa deity,
deity, then
then would
would whoever
whoever uttered
uttered this
this name
name not
also possess
possess
part of
not also
this
deity
to
some
degree?
Would
not
the
act
of
coition
with
a
woman
this deity to some degree? Would not the act of coition with a woman
incarnating (as
(as an
an "actress")
"actress") the
the goddess
goddess promote
promote the
the fertility
fertility of
of the
the
incarnating
goddess
herself
and,
in
turn,
the
fertility
of
the
land
of
which
she
was
goddess herself and, in turn, the fertility of the land of which she was
not only
only in
in charge
charge but
but which
which she,
she, herself,
herself, was?
was? The
The ritual
ritual appeared
appeared to
to
not
be even
even more
more effective
effective because
the concept
concept of
of abstract,
abstract, physical
physical time
time
be
because the
was nonexistent
nonexistent for
for primitive
primitive humans.
humans. Today,
Today, of
of course,
course, we
we know
know that
that
was
physical
time unwinds
unwinds uniformly,
uniformly, always
moving in
the same
same direcdirecphysical time
always moving
in the
tion. Yet,
Yet, we
we do
do not
not perceive
our senses;
senses; we
perceive only
only
tion.
perceive time
time with
with our
we perceive
the events
events that
that fill
it, or
or those
those we
we expect
expect to
to fill
it. If
If many
events are
are
the
fill it,
fill it.
many events
taking place
or are
are expected,
it seems
seems to
to us
that aa long
long time
time has
has passed.
passed.
taking
place or
expected, it
us that

52

I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

If
If nothing
nothing happens,
happens, time
time seems
seems to
to have
have passed
passed quickly.
quickly. Primitive
Primitive
people experienced
that alalpeople
experienced time
time in
in the
the same
same way;
way; that
that is,
is, in
in terms
terms that
lowed
them to
to relate
relate it
it to
to events
events in
in their
their own
own lives.
lives.88 It
It was
was still
still more
more
lowed them
to define
define aa point
point in
in time
connected with
one's own
own life
life or
or
difficult to
difficult
time not
not connected
with one's
even
even with
with the
the lives
lives of
of remembered
remembered ancestors.
ancestors. And
And mythological
mythological events
events
such as,
as, let
us say,
say, aa goddess
goddess giving
giving birth
to the
the sun
sun or
or aa goddess
goddess givgivsuch
let us
birth to
ing birth
cereals are
are not
not connected
connected to
any point
point in
in time,
ing
birth to
to cereals
to any
time, because
because the
the
sun rises
rises every
every morning
morning and
and the
grain comes
comes up
up every
every year.
year. Thus,
Thus, aa
sun
the grain
ritual performed
today can
can certainly
certainly be
be thought
thought of
of as
as influencing
influencing
performed today
ritual
mythological
events that
that took
took place
at any
any other
other time
time and
and can
can affect
affect
place at
mythological events
their regular
regular repetition.
repetition.
their
.
We
attitude aa philosophy,
philosophy, nor
nor do
do we
we
We cannot
cannot call
call this
this mythological
mythological attitude
know
call it
religion. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, it
cerknow whether
whether to
to call
it aa religion.
it does
does contain
contain aa certain
from the
the plot
plot of
of aa myth,
myth, we
we can
can see
see what
what isis viewed
viewed as
as
tain proto-ethic;
proto-ethic; from
good or
or bad.
somewhat automatic
automatic
bad. This
This proto-ethic,
proto-ethic, however,
however, has
has aa somewhat
good
character, because
it is
is not
logical system.
system. In
In essence,
essence, it
it shows
shows that
that
not aa logical
character,
because it
is useful
to one's
one's own
own community,
community, comrades-in-arms,
comrades-in-arms, and
and chilchilwhat
what is
useful to
dren is
is good;
good; since
since all
all people
people beyond
the border
border of
of the
community
dren
beyond the
the community
are enemies,
enemies, it
it is
is certainly
certainly good
good to
to outwit
outwit or
or kill
kill them.
them. And
And whatever
whatever
are
is bad
is usually
usually under
under aa magic
magic spell
spell or
or taboo;
if you
do what
what is
is prois
bad is
taboo; if
you do
prohibited,
die, not
not necessarily
necessarily for
for fear
fear of
of being
killed but
for
being killed
but for
hibited, you
you will
will die,
fear
of the
itself. Here,
ethics are
are inseparable
inseparable from
primitive
fear of
the taboo
taboo itself.
Here, ethics
from primitive
magic.
Thus, shedding
shedding blood
(except in
in the
the case
case of
war) defiles
defiles aa perblood (except
of war)
permagic. Thus,
son because
magical properties,
of whether
son
because of
of blood's
blood's magical
properties, regardless
regardless of
whether murmurder is
is good
good or
or bad.
To have
eaten aa prohibited
food, participated
in aa
der
bad. To
have eaten
prohibited food,
participated in
prohibited ceremony,
ceremony, cohabited
cohabited with
of aa prohibited
kinship
prohibited kinship
prohibited
with aa woman
woman of
or pronounced
pronounced aa god's
god's dread
dread name
name in
in vain
vain may
may turn
turn out
out to
to be
be
degree, or
degree,
much graver
graver sin
sin than
than the
the sin
sin of
of murder
murder itself,
itself, which
which could,
could, in
in any
aa much
any
event, be
redeemed by
by aa ransom
ransom or
or aa purifying
purifying ritual.
ritual.
event,
be redeemed
Such was
was the
the burdensome
burdensome load
load of
of emotional
emotional and
and ideological
ideological heriheriSuch
tage that
that humanity
humanity carried
carried over
over the
the threshold
of civilization.
civilization. If
If we
threshold of
we
tage
add
add the
the additional
additional weight
weight of
of the
the insecurity
insecurity of
of crops,
crops, defenselessness
defenselessness
clothing,
against disease
and natural
natural disasters,
disasters, wretched
wretched dwellings,
dwellings, clothing,
against
disease and
and tools,
and lack
of any
any knowledge
about hygiene,
it becomes
clear
and
tools, and
lack of
knowledge about
hygiene, it
becomes clear
how
difficult life
in that
that world.
must not
not assume
assume that
some
world. We
We must
that some
how difficult
life was
was in
lone genius
genius would
would have
have been
been able
able to
to teach
teach the
lone
the people
people the
the falsehood
falsehood of
of
this
or that
that view
and win
followers. At
At aa time
development,
this or
view and
win followers.
time when
when development,
we are
are accustomed
accustomed to,
to, was
was extremely
extremely slow
slow and
compared with
with what
what we
compared
and
gradual, only
only the
the collective
collective experience
experience of
of the
the ancestors
ancestors carried
carried any
gradual,
any
weight. And
And just
that experience
experience was
embodied in
in myths
and rituals.
just that
was embodied
myths and
rituals.
weight.
8.
8. We
We must
must remember
remember also
also that
that at
at that
that time
time there
there was
was no
no fixed
fixed point
point from
from which
which to
to
count
count years,
years, nor
nor was
was there
there any
any definite
definite subdivision
subdivision of
of the
the day.
day. The
The day
day was
was simply
simply didivided
into morning,
morning, noon,
and evening,
evening, and
and the
night into
into several
several "watches"
"watches" or
or vigils,
vided into
noon, and
the night
vigils,
depending on
on the
the custom
custom of
the garrison.
garrison.
depending
of the

General
General Outline
Outline

53
53

The
The success
success of
of an
an individual
individual who
who did
did not
not adhere
adhere to
to the
the ancestral
ancestral
teachings would
would appear
appear fortuitous
fortuitous or
or controlled
controlled by
by some
some sort
sort of
of unacteachings
unaccounted-for, perhaps
perhaps ill-boding,
ill-boding, magic.
counted-for,
magic.
We should
should not,
not, however,
however, belittle
belittle the
the ancients
ancients and
and their
their myths.
myths. ToToWe
day, life
life is
is also
also filled
filled with
with many
many tenaciously
tenaciously held
held delusions
delusions and
and prejuprejuday,
dices that
that have
no logical
logical basis
basis whatsoever,
whatsoever, as
as in
in attitudes
attitudes toward
toward alien
alien
dices
have no
nations
too, qualify
nations or
or beliefs
beliefs in
in ominous
ominous signs,
signs, etc.
etc. These,
These, too,
qualify as
as true
true
myths. They
They do
do not
not develop
develop logically
logically but,
but, rather,
rather, are
are based
based on
on emomyths.
emotional
associations; many
many erroneous
erroneous scientific
scientific hypotheses
are also
also
tional associations;
hypotheses are
scarcely more
more than
myths. And
And despite
despite being
being limited
limited by
by mythological
mythological
than myths.
scarcely
reasoning, primitive
primitive people's
people's abilities-when
abilitieswhen the
collective experiexperireasoning,
the collective
ence was
was sufficient-to
sufficientto make
make reasonable
reasonable decisions,
decisions, to
associate ideas
ideas
ence
to associate
correctly, to
to find
find the
the real
real causes
causes of
of phenomena,
and to
to verify
verify concluconclucorrectly,
phenomena, and
sions were
were adequate
adequate for
for their
their needs.
needs.
sions
In examining
examining the
the outlines
outlines of
of the
early period
period of
of ancient
ancient history,
history, we
In
the early
we
have
on the
the particular
features of
of ancient
ancient mentality;
without
have focused
focused on
particular features
mentality; without
understanding these
these features,
features, we
we would
would have
difficulty explaining
explaining
understanding
have difficulty
why religion,
religion, the
the temple,
temple, rituals,
rituals, and
and the
the priesthood
priesthood played
played such
such an
an
why
enormous role
role during
during the
the early
early period
period of
human development.
development. Why
Why
enormous
of human
was it
it that
that the
the priesthood
priesthood received
received the
the lion's
lion's share
share of
of the
the first
first producproducwas
tion surpluses?
surpluses? Of
Of course,
course, the
the explanation
explanation of
of eighteenth-century
eighteenth-century ratioratiotion
nalists
that of
of many
many twentieth-century
twentieth-century antireligious
antireligious
nalists was
was naive,
naive, as
as was
was that
thinkers, who
who saw
saw the
the reason,
reason, primarily,
primarily, in
in the
the priests'
priests' conscious
conscious dethinkers,
deception of
of the
the public.
public. There
There is
is no
no doubt
doubt that
that the
the priests
priests never
never neception
neglected their
their own
own interests
interests and,
and, not
not uncommonly,
uncommonly, even
even placed
placed them
them
glected
above those
those of
of others.
others. But
But let
let us
us bear
bear in
in mind
mind that
that everyone,
everyone, without
without
above
any exception,
exception, was
was aa believer.
believer. So,
So, of
of course,
course, were
were the
the priests.
priests. The
The parparany
ticularly important
important social
social role
role played
played from
from the
the very
very beginning
beginning of
of civiticularly
civilization
by the
the professional
professional performers
performers of
of religious
religious rituals
rituals can
can be
be
lization by
explained by
by the
the fact
fact that
that the
the entire
entire population
population regarded
regarded the
the rituals
rituals
explained
themselves as
as the
the supreme
supreme means
means of
of ensuring
ensuring the
the welfare
welfare of
of the
the enenthemselves
tire community.
community. Initially,
Initially, the
the wealth
wealth of
of the
the temples
temples was
was the
the insurance
insurance
tire
fund of
of the
the entire
entire community.
community. For
For millennia,
millennia, the
the majority
of the
the
fund
majority of
farming population
population ate
ate meat
meat only
only during
during sacrifices
sacrifices to
to the
the gods.
farming
gods.
Let us
us also
also remember
remember the
the creation
creation of
of the
the "slave-owning"
"slave-owning" mode
mode of
of
Let
production was,
was, in
in those
those times,
times, aa progressive
progressive phenomenon
phenomenon that
that conconproduction
tributed to
to the
the highest
possible development
development of
of productive
productive forces,
forces, inintributed
highest possible
creasing
was
creasing the
the standard
standard of
of living
living for
for as
as large
large aa number
number of
of people
people as
as was
then possible.
possible. In
In the
the meantime,
meantime, primitive
primitive society
society was
was fading
fading into
into the
the
then
background, despite
despite its
its predominantly
predominantly egalitarian
egalitarian character.
character. (It
(It was
background,
was
it was
mostly
hungry egalitarianism.)
egalitarianism.) But
But it
was for
for the
the return
return of
of this
this primprimmostly aa hungry
itive past
past that
that the
the oppressed
oppressed people
people of
of antiquity
antiquity longed.
longed.
itive
For
collecFor the
the mass
mass of
of the
the people,
people, myths
myths and
and rituals
rituals were
were vital.
vital. The
The collective
tive experience
experience of
of the
the ancestors,
ancestors, expressed
expressed in
in these
these myths
myths and
and rituals,
rituals,

54
54

I. M.
Diakonoff
IM. Diakonoff

still
still determined,
determined, to
to aa large
large degree,
degree, the
the interpretation
interpretation of
of the
the world
world and
and
the
social psychology
of humans.
Such an
an attitude
attitude toward
toward the
the social
psychology of
humans. Such
the phephenomenal
had an
an authoritarian
authoritarian character
character independent
independent of
of the
the
nomenal world
world had
political
order of
of each
each individual
individual society.
society. This
This was
was because
because this
attipolitical order
this attitude was
was based
based on
on the
the absolute
absolute authority
authority of
of "those
"those who
ought to
to
tude
who ought
know," of
of those
those who
who were
were regarded
as inheriting
and the
the
regarded as
inheriting the
the power
power and
know,"
wisdom of
of the
the ancestors.
ancestors. It
It was
was only
only during
during aa later
later period
in antiqantiqperiod in
wisdom
uityin
Greece and
and in
in some
some of
of the
the advanced
advanced societies
societies of
of the
East
uity-in Greece
the Eastthat authoritarian
authoritarian thought
began to
to lose
lose its
its sway
sway over
over people:
people: no
no
that
thought began
longer would
would one
one accept
accept everything
everything on
on trust
and mere
mere faith;
faith; each
each
longer
trust and
proposition had
had to
be proved.
proved. But
But even
even when,
after 2,500
proposition
to be
when, after
2,500 years,
years, aa sciscientific outlook
outlook and
and philosophy
philosophy began
to emerge
emerge alongside
alongside the
the relibegan to
relientific
gious worldview,
the new
remained alien
alien to
to most
of the
the
new philosophy
philosophy remained
most of
gious
world view, the
population;
it was
was the
ideology of
of the
population; it
the ideology
the upper
upper class.
class.
However, it
only then
However,
it was
was only
then that
that aa nonmetaphoric
nonmetaphoric cognition
cognition of
of the
the
world
world emerged
emerged clearly
clearly enough
enough as
as aa separate
separate field
field of
of creative
creative activity
activity
and when
it first
first was
was divided
divided into
into science-cognition
sciencecognition of
of the
the world's
world's
and
when it
phenomena
as such-and
suchand into
into art-cognition
artcognition of
of our
our attitudes
attitudes toward
toward
phenomena as
the world.
world.
the

The Common
the Particular
the Historical
The
Common and
and the
Particular in
in the
Historical Process
Process
of Antiquity:
History of
History of
of
Antiquity: History
of Ideas
Ideas and
and History
of Emotions
Emotions
The
years' experience
world has
The last
last fifty
fifty years'
experience in
in the
the study
study of
of the
the ancient
ancient world
has
shown that
by studying
studying the
the socioeconomic
socioeconomic history
history of
of antiquity
antiquity with
with
that by
shown
the
of the
the methods
methods we
have at
at our
our disposal,
disposal, we
apparently
the help
help of
we have
we have
have apparently
been
been able
able to
to find
find certain
certain very
very general
general common
common laws
laws typical
typical of
of the
the
whole millennial
millennial epoch
epoch in
them in
in the
whole
in question.
question. We
We have
have examined
examined them
the
second through
fourth sections
sections of
of the
lecture. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile,
second
through fourth
the present
present lecture.
discussions
to which
discussions about
about the
the "formation"
"formation" to
which ancient
ancient societies
societies belonged
belonged
have become
become more
more and
and more
more concerned
concerned with
with the
the problem
of definidefiniproblem of
have
tions.
We already
already know
know in
in general
general outline
outline what
what the
the ancient
ancient societies
societies
tions. We
queswere
be elucidated;
were like,
like, although
although details
details still
still must
must be
elucidated; the
the rest
rest is
is aa question
of definition
definition and
and classification.
classification.
tion of
We
know that
two
We know
that the
the ancient
ancient epoch
epoch was
was subdivided
subdivided into,
into, at
at least,
least, two
consecutive
consecutive periods:
periods: early
early and
and late
late antiquity.
antiquity. Both
Both periods
periods are
are differdifferentiated from
from the
the primitive
primitive epoch
epoch by
the fact
fact that
that two
antagonistic
by the
two antagonistic
entiated
classes formed
formed and
and continued
continued to
to exist:
exist: one
one of
of them
property in
in
them having
having property
classes
the means
means of
of production
or, at
at least,
the possibility
possibility to
dispose of
of this
this
the
production or,
least, the
to dispose
property; the
the other
other being
the first
first and
and being
devoid of
of
property;
being exploited
exploited by
by the
being devoid
property
in the
the means
of production.
Some of
of the
belonging
property in
means of
production. Some
the people
people belonging
to the
the latter
latter class
class may
the property
of the
ruling
to
may themselves
themselves have
have been
been the
property of
the ruling
class
or
of
the
state;
others
could
have
had
certain
means
of
producclass or of the state; others could have had certain means of production in
their possession
property.
tion
in their
possession but
but not
not property.

General Outline

55
55

In
between agriculture
In the
the field
field of
of production,
production, aa division
division of
of labor
labor between
agriculture
(including
irrigation agriculture)
(including irrigation
agriculture) and
and industry
industry (including
(including highly
highly spespecialized crafts
crafts and
and mining,
mining, which
which used
used mostly
mostly bronze
bronze tools,
tools, although
although
cialized
wooden and
and stone
stone implements
implements had
had not
not totally
totally disappeared)
disappeared) was
was typitypiwooden
cal for
for early
early antiquity.
antiquity. Agriculture
Agriculture and
and industry
industry are
are also
also countercountercal
posed to
to livestock
livestock raising,
raising, which
which is
is not
not fully
fully divorced
divorced from
from subsidiary
subsidiary
posed
agriculture.
agriculture.
The
of people
people into
into communities
communities similar
similar to
to those
those of
of the
the
The association
association of
primitive epoch
epoch was
was also
also characteristic,
characteristic, although
although such
such communities
communities
primitive
came into
into existence
existence and
and were
were maintained
by conditions
conditions specific
specific to
to anancame
maintained by
cient society
society itself.
itself. These
These were
were the
the helplessness
helplessness of
of the
the individual
individual in
in the
the
cient
production
production process
process against
against natural
natural and
and social
social forces
forces and
and the
the necessity
necessity
and reciprocal
reciprocal aid.
aid. The
The emergence
emergence of
of the
the state
state
for close
close cooperation
cooperation and
for
by the
neeconomies,
economies, typical
typical of
of early
early antiquity,
antiquity, was
was also
also conditioned
conditioned by
the necessity
cessity of
of cooperation,
cooperation, which
which was
was required
required not
not only
only by
by free
free people,
people,
but
but also
also by
by the
the dependent
dependent and
and exploited
exploited people.
people.
In
In the
the field
field of
of production
production relationships,
relationships, this
this epoch
epoch was
was also
also characcharacterized
by the
the preservation,
preservation, from
from the
the times
times of
of primitive
primitive society,
society, of
of aa
terized by
of
considerable
considerable stratum
stratum of
of working
working men
men who
who did
did not
not exploit
exploit the
the labor
labor of
others
who themselves,
disothers but
but who
themselves, likewise,
likewise, were
were not
not exploited
exploited (if
(if one
one discounts
counts their
their utilization
utilization for
for socially
socially necessary
necessary work;
work; i.e.,
i.e., that
that which
which was
was
necessary for
necessary
for defense
defense and
and magic
magic [cultic]
[cultic] activities).
activities). Here,
Here, as
as the
the reader
reader
the field
of ideology
ideology or,
or, to
to be
more premay note,
note, we
we have
have passed
passed into
into the
may
field of
be more
precise, of
of social
social psychology.
psychology. The
The fact
that magical
magical aid
aid to
to fertility
fertility and
cise,
fact is
is that
and
social welfare
welfare was
was not
not perceived
perceived by
by ancient
ancient people
as belonging
to the
social
people as
belonging to
the
field of
of ideas.
ideas. On
On the
the contrary,
contrary, magic
magic activity
activity was
was perceived
perceived as
as part
part of
field
of
the process
process of
of production
production itself
itself and,
and, of
of course,
course, was
was not
not regarded
regarded as
the
as
some sort
sort of
of burden
burden imposed
imposed by
by aa class
class enemy.
enemy. Granted
Granted this
this fact,
fact, it
some
it
follows logically
logically that
in order
order to
discover how
ancient society
society actually
actually
follows
that in
to discover
how ancient
functioned, it
it is
is necessary
necessary to
to enlist
enlist the
services of
of social
social psychology;
psychology;
functioned,
the services
and this
this is
is something
something ancient
ancient historians
not attempted,
attempted, never
never
and
historians have
have not
knew how
to do,
do, and
and even
even were
were not
not aware
aware that
that it
it ought
ought to
to be
be done.
done.
knew
how to
Ideology
in early
early antiquity
antiquity is
is determined
determined by
by traditional
traditional features
features of
of
Ideology in
community religions.
religions. These
These are
are mainly
mainly inherited
inherited from
from primitive
primitive socommunity
society and
and do
do not
not so
so much
much consecrate
consecrate the
the existing
existing social
social structure
structure
ciety
(which requires
no such
such justification)
as the
the political
and, even,
even, the
the dydy(which
requires no
justification) as
political and,
nastic structure.
structure. The
The religion
religion of
of early
early antiquity
antiquity is
is predominantly
predominantly of
nastic
of
magicoritualistic type
type with
with very
very little
little ethicophilosophical
ethicophilosophical contribucontribuaa magicoritualistic
tion:
each incognizable
incognizable natural
natural phenomenon,
phenomenon, the
the mechanism
mechanism or
or funcfunction: each
of
which
is
obscure,
is
eo
ipso
regarded
as
possibly
having
tioning
tioning of which is obscure, is eo ipso regarded as possibly having anan
unpredictable ability
ability to
to influence
influence people;
people; and
and the
the more
more the
the phenomephenomeunpredictable
non
is
of
everyday
occurrence
and
nearer
to
one
self,
the
stronger
non is of everyday occurrence and nearer to one self, the stronger is
is
its supposed
supposed active
active influence.
influence. The
The one
one factor
factor in
in the
the world's
world's structure
structure
its
is the
the most
for society
society is
is the
the maintenance
maintenance of
of fertility
fertility
that is
that
most important
important for

56

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

for agricultural
agricultural production
production (hence,
(hence, in
in Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, the
the sacred
sacred marmarfor
riage
riage rite;
rite; in
in Egypt
Egypt the
the renascence
renascence of
of plants
plants in
in the
the cult
cult Osiris-rites
Osirisrites
promoting
promoting the
the activity
activity of
of the
the sun,
sun, the
the Nile,
Nile, etc.).
etc.). Caring
Caring for
for the
the dead
dead
to
to keep
keep them
them satisfied
satisfied can
can also
also be
be an
an important
important factor
factor in
in maintaining
maintaining
the
the world's
world's structure.
structure. Such
Such care
care aims
aims to
to prevent
prevent the
the unfavorable
unfavorable and
and
to
to promote
promote the
the favorable
favorable influence
influence of
of the
the dead
dead over
over the
the society
society of
of the
the
living.
living.
All
All this
this is
is comparatively
comparatively clear,
clear, but
but the
the ideological
ideological situation
situation becomes
becomes
less
to explanation
move from
less amenable
amenable to
explanation as
as we
we move
from early
early to
to late
late antiquity.
antiquity.
We understand
understand clearly
We
clearly enough
enough the
the socioeconomic
socioeconomic structure
structure of
of late
late
ancient society,
society, its
its division
division into
into classes.
classes. We
We can
can also
also note
note considerable
considerable
ancient
changes in
in the
ideological field:
field: the
of rational
forms of
changes
the ideological
the emergence
emergence of
rational forms
of
scientific thought
thought and
and philosophy;
flourishing of
of the
exact sciences;
sciences;
scientific
philosophy; aa flourishing
the exact
and, at
at the
same time,
remodeling of
of the
the religious
religious systems
systems in
in the
the
and,
the same
time, aa remodeling
direction of
of introducing
introducing elements
elements of
of ethics
ethics and
and developing
developing the
motif
direction
the motif
of the
the necessity
necessity of
of human
human salvation,
salvation, in
in both
the moral
moral and
and the
of
both the
the physiphysical sense.
sense.
cal
However, although
although we
we seem
seem to
to understand
understand the
the static
static structure
structure of
of
However,
ancient society
society satisfactorily
satisfactorily enough,
enough, both
in the
the field
of production
production
ancient
both in
field of
and in
in that
that of
of ideology,
ideology, and,
and, lately,
lately, we
we have
begun to
to understand
understand the
the
and
have begun
we are
are still
still far
far from
from underundermechanism of
of the
the structures
structures of
of production,
production, we
mechanism
standing the
the causes
causes inducing
inducing human
masses to
to actions.
actions. Such
Such actions
actions
standing
human masses
are those
those that
that bring
about major
major shifts
shifts in
in history:
history: changes
changes and
and develdevelare
bring about
opments that
that operate
operate in
in all
all areas
areas of
of human
human life.
life. That
That which
which is
is comcomopments
mon to
to the
the ancient
ancient world
world as
as aa whole
whole is,
is, in
in many
many respects,
respects, clear,
clear, but
but the
the
mon
causes of
of the
the differences
differences are
are often
often not
not apparent.
apparent. However,
However, such
such difdifcauses
ferencesamong various
various periods
periods and
and regions-are
regionsare often
often crucial.
crucial.
ferences-among
In
In contrast
contrast to
to other
other scientists,
scientists, the
the modern
modern historian
historian does
does not
not aim
aim at
at
the prediction
prediction of
of future
future phenomena.
Because we
we deal
deal with
with events
events that
that
the
phenomena. Because
have already
already happened,
happened, we
we utilize
utilize the
the materialist
materialist theory
theory only
only as
as aa
have
explain the
the causes
causes of
of the
the social
social changes
changes and
and other
other major
major
means to
to explain
means
events of
both on
on the
scale of
of millennial
epochs and
and great
great
events
of the
the past
past both
the scale
millennial epochs
continents
and
on
the
scale
of
comparatively
small
segments
of
space
continents and on the scale of comparatively small segments of space
and time.
time. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, aa sort
sort of
is still
still sometimes
sometimes possible:
and
of prediction
prediction is
possible:
now and
and again,
again, based
some known
known facts,
facts, we
we can
extrapolate
now
based upon
upon some
can extrapolate
back
to some
some fact
fact yet
yet unconfirmed,
unconfirmed, which
which later
later can
corroborated
back to
can be
be corroborated
when
new historical
historical sources
sources are
are discovered
discovered or
or when
when sources
sources already
already
when new
known
are studied
studied from
from aa novel
novel viewpoint.
viewpoint. Such
Such moments
moments in
in the
the lives
known are
lives
of historians
check of
of the
the correctness
correctness of
of their
their concepts
concepts and
and
of
historians provide
provide aa check
induce them
to continue
continue their
induce
them to
their labors.
labors.
We
have always
always proceeded
proceeded and
and are
are still
still proceeding
proceeding first
first from
from the
the
We have
universal concept
concept that
that any
any material
material process
process is
is governed
governed by
by certain
certain dedeuniversal
velopmental laws and
and that
that fact
fact must
must also
also be
true of
of the
the historical
historical proprovelopmentallaws
be true

General
General Outline
Outline

57

cess
cess (always
(always taking
taking into
into account,
account, of
of course,
course, various
various fluctuations,
fluctuations, some
some
of
And, second,
of which
which are
are important).
important). And,
second, we
we proceed
proceed from
from the
the concept
concept
of
of aa dialectic
dialectic connection
connection between
between productive
productive forces
forces and
and the
the relationrelationships
in production:
ships in
production: the
the productive
productive forces
forces tend
tend to
to develop
develop to
to aa limit;
limit;
and
by creatand when
when this
this limit
limit has
has been
been reached,
reached, it
it is
is sharply
sharply overcome
overcome by
creating
including the
ing new
new relationships
relationships in
in production,
production, including
the formation
formation of
of new
new
social classes
classes and
and the
the destruction
destruction and
and disappearance
disappearance of
of the
the old
old ones.
ones.
social
Studying
Studying the
the process
process of
of history,
history, the
the generation
generation of
of historians
historians born
born in
in
the 1900s
1900s to
to 1920s
1920s made
made certain
certain typical,
typical, systematic
systematic errors.
errors. Thus,
Thus, for
for
the
instance, despite
despite many
many warnings
warnings by
the greatest
greatest thinkers
thinkers that
that develdevelinstance,
by the
opment
much more
more dynamic
opment does
does not
not occur
occur linearly
linearly but
but according
according to
to much
dynamic
laws, we
we yielded
yielded in
in the
past to
to the
the positivist
positivist illusion
illusion that
that progress
is aa
laws,
the past
progress is
constant movement
constant
movement (admittedly,
(admittedly, not
not uniform,
uniform, but
but by
by fits
fits and
starts)
and starts)
toward perfection
perfection of
of the
the society;
society; actually,
actually, the
the development
development is
is not
not
toward
from bad
to better,
only from
from less
less complex
complex to
more complex.
complex. This
This
from
bad to
better, but
but only
to more
greater complexity,
complexity, of
of course,
course, may
may manifest
itself in
in aa new
"unheard
greater
manifest itself
new "unheard
of simplicity,"
simplicity," in
in the
the words
of the
the poet
poet Pasternak.
Pasternak. Moreover,
Moreover, each
each
of
words of
natural process
process (which
(which means
means aa process
induced by
by inherent
inherent contracontranatural
process induced
dictions) is
is an
an immanent
immanent process,
process, and
and it
it cannot
cannot be
be related
to ethical
ethical
dictions)
related to
categories, as,
as, for
for instance,
instance, the
the assertion
assertion that
that each
each new
new formation
formation of
of aa
categories,
mode
of production
more good
good to
to more
more people.
people.
mode of
production means
means more
Thus,
simThus, contrary
contrary to
to facts
facts in
in evidence,
evidence, but
but in
in accordance
accordance with
with aa simplified concept
concept of
of progress,
progress, we
we again
again and
and again
again stated
stated in
in lectures
lectures and
and
plified
textbooks that
that the
European Middle
not simply
simply represent
textbooks
the European
Middle Ages
Ages did
did not
represent aa
change and
and aa complication
complication of
of the
the social
social mechanism
mechanism but
but that
that it
it consticonstichange
tuted direct
direct progress
progress in
in the
the sense
sense of
of an
an improvement
improvement in
the living
living
tuted
in the
conditions and
and morals
morals of
of aa greater
greater percentage
percentage of
of people
inside the
the
conditions
people inside
99
socium.
socium.
The
progress from
The same
same mistake
mistake was
was made
made for
for ancient
ancient society:
society: the
the progress
from
primitive
to slave-owning
slave-owning society
society did
did not,
not, of
of course,
course, consist
consist in
in the
the
primitive to
betterment
but rather
betterment of
of living
living conditions
conditions for
for the
the majority,
majority, but
rather only
only for
for
the minority.
minority. Nor
was there
there improvement
improvement in
in the
the mechanisms
conthe
Nor was
mechanisms conimmanent development
ducive
ducive to
to the
the further
further immanent
development of
of productive
productive forces.
forces.
Moreover,
progress in
Moreover, we
we forgot
forgot to
to keep
keep in
in mind
mind that
that progress
in the
the positivist
positivist
sense
namely, the
sense would
would contradict
contradict natural
natural laws;
laws; namely,
the second
second law
law of
of therthermodynamics. Obviously,
Obviously, any
any progressing
progressing development
development presupposes
presupposes
modynamics.
losses, to
to which
which we
we did
did not
give the
the attention
attention they
they deserve.
deserve.
losses,
not give
It is
is evident
evident that
that the
the process
process of
of socioeconomic
socioeconomic development
development is
is not
not
It
fully uniform,
uniform, and
and within
within it
it we
we can
can trace
trace certain
certain specific
specific ways
ways of
of develdevelfully
opment. In
In antiquity,
antiquity, these,
these, to
to aa very
very considerable
considerable degree,
degree, were
were deterdeteropment.
9.
9. Any
Any sufficiently
sufficiently closed
closed social
social group-a
groupa family,
family, aa clan,
clan, aa professional
professional group,
group, aa
class, the
the entire
entire society
society inside
inside aa certain
certain state,
state, etc.-is
etc.is called
called aa socium.
socium.
class,

58

I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
/.

mined by
ecological conditions.
conditions. However,
However, the
diversity of
of the
the historical
historical
mined
by ecological
the diversity
process
is not
not limited
limited to
to these
these ways
ways of
of development.
development. This
This diversity
diversity
process is
should not,
not, on
on the
the other
other hand,
hand, be
be regarded
regarded as
as absolute,
absolute, and
and history
history
should
should not
be regarded
regarded (as
(as is
is often
often the
the case
case in
in the
as the
the inexinexnot be
the West)
West) as
should
plicable,
irregular, and
and erratic
erratic kaleidoscopic
kaleidoscopic vibration
vibration of
of phenomena.
phenomena.
plicable, irregular,
Behind the
the peculiarities,
the common
common features
features can
can always
always be
be traced;
traced;
Behind
peculiarities, the
namely, the
the dialectics
dialectics of
of productive
forces and
and relationships
in pronamely,
productive forces
relationships in
production. These
These common
common features
features determine
determine the
the general
generalflow
of the
the
flow of
duction.
historical process.
process.
historical
However, we
we would
would not
not have
fulfilled our
our duty
duty as
as historians
historians if
if we
have fulfilled
we
However,
did not
not also
also take
take into
into account
account peculiarities
thedevelopment
developmentofofparpardid
peculiarities ininthe
ticular
societies. It
It is
is our
our obvious
obvious duty
duty to
to be
be able
able to
to explain
explain and-in
andin
ticular societies.
the future-to
futureto predict
them. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, there
there are
are aa number
number of
of phethe
predict them.
phenomena
very essenti!ll
essential to
the understanding
understanding of
of history
that we
we still
still do
do
nomena very
to the
history that
not
know how
how to
to explain.
explain. The
The more
more complicated
complicated the
the society,
society, the
the more
more
not know
such phenomena
exist.
such
phenomena exist.
For instance,
we may
may notice
that events
For
instance, we
notice that
events that
that we
we usually
usually associate
associate
with the
the passage
from one
one socioeconomic
socioeconomic formation
formation to
to another
another not
not
passage from
with
uncommonly occur
uncommonly
occur either
either after
after or
or far
far before
before the
the full
full development
development of
of
the critical
critical situation
situation in
in the
forces and
and rethe
the relation
relation between
between productive
productive forces
relationships in
in production.
Thus, in
in English
history, the
critical situasituaproduction. Thus,
English history,
the critical
lationships
tion developed
developed in
in the
industrial revolution
of the
the late
late eighteenth
eighteenth and
and
tion
the industrial
revolution of
early nineteenth
centuries. However,
However, on
on the
the one
one hand,
the bourgeois
bourgeois
early
nineteenth centuries.
hand, the
revolution,
took aa religious
form, occurred
occurred in
in England
England more
more
revolution, which
which took
religious form,
than aa century
century earlier,
earlier, and,
and, on
on the
the other,
other, the
the capitalist
capitalist class
class gained
gained
than
power
(in quite
quite practical
practical forms)
forms) as
as late
late as
as the
middle of
of the
the nineteenth
nineteenth
the middle
power (in
century.
century.
Similar examples
examples could
could easily
easily be
cited from
from ancient
ancient history.
history. It
It is
is not
not
Similar
be cited
easy to
determine where
where the
the border
border between
between early
early and
and late
late antiquity
antiquity
easy
to determine
lies, and
and it
it is
is perhaps
still more
more difficult
difficult to
to discover
discover where
antiquity
perhaps still
where antiquity
lies,
ends and
and the
the Middle
Middle Ages
Ages begin.
It is
is even
even more
more difficult
difficult to
to synsynends
begin. It
chronize the
critical phenomena
phenomena in
in the
the socioeconomic
socioeconomic sphere
sphere with
with
chronize
the critical
those in
in the
the sphere
sphere of
of ideas
ideas and
and emotions.
emotions. For
For instance,
instance, we
we have
have not
not
those
satisfactorily explained
explained such
such phenomena
phenomena as
as the
the unexpected
leap in
in
satisfactorily
unexpected leap
the development
development of
of Greek
Greek culture
culture in
in the
the eighth
eighth to
to fifth
fifth centuries
centuries B.C.;
the
B.C.;
the failure
failure of
of some
some religious
religious movements,
such as
as the
religious reforms
reforms
the
movements, such
the religious
of Akhenaton
Akhenaton in
in the
the New
Kingdom of
of Egypt;
Egypt; and
and the
success of
of other
other
of
New Kingdom
the success
movements that
that have
substantially changed
changed not
only the
the appearance
appearance
movements
have substantially
not only
of some
some particular
societies but
but even
even the
the motion
of the
historical
of
particular societies
motion of
the historical
process
itself (e.g.,
(e.g., the
the conquest
conquest of
of the
East, North
North Africa,
and
the Near
Near East,
Africa, and
process itself
Central Asia
Asia by
by Islam
Islam in
in the
early Middle
Middle Ages;
the importance
importance of
of
Central
the early
Ages; the
Buddhism for
for the
early Indian
Indian Empire
Empire and
and of
of Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism for
for the
the
Buddhism
the early
early Iranian
Iranian Empire,
Empire, an
an importance
importance that
that had
disappeared by
the end
end
early
had disappeared
by the

General Outline

59
59

of
of the
the ancient
ancient or
or the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the medieval
medieval epoch;
epoch; or
or the
the correlacorrelation between
between the
the emergence
emergence of
of feudal
feudal socioeconomic
socioeconomic conditions
conditions in
in
tion
the late
late Roman
Roman Empire
Empire and
and the
the rise
rise of
of Christianity).
Christianity). Late
Late antiquity
antiquity is
the
is
particularly replete
particularly
replete with
with examples
examples of
of this
this sort
sort that
that the
the historian
historian must
must
confront and
attempt to
to understand.
understand.
confront
and attempt
As
As the
the societies
societies oflate
of late antiquity
antiquity developed,
developed, the
the traditional
traditional ideologies
ideologies
everywhere proved
proved to
to be
be no
no longer
longer adequate
adequate for
for fulfilling
fulfilling the
the needs
needs
everywhere
of the
the more
more complicated
complicated socia.
of
socia.These
Theseinherited
inheritedtraditional
traditionalideologies
ideologies
proved
be insufficient
proved to
to be
insufficient even
even for
for supplying
supplying the
the self-governing
self-governing cities
cities
with
ideological base
base for
for their
their special
with an
an ideological
special position
position within
within the
the empire.
empire.
Unavoidably,
Unavoidably, they
they were
were transformed.
transformed. Also
Also outside
outside the
the cities,
cities, an
an ideoideological
logical crisis
crisis was
was felt
felt everywhere,
everywhere, and
and everywhere
everywhere there
there arose
arose new
new ethiethicodogmatic
codogmatic doctrines.
doctrines. At
At first,
first, they
they did
did not
not repudiate
repudiate the
the earlier
earlier
religious traditions
traditions but
but were
superimposed on
on them.
them. Sometimes
Sometimes these
these
religious
were superimposed
with time
time they
they not
doctrines
doctrines did
did not
not even
even acquire
acquire aa religious
religious form.
form. But
But with
not
only developed
developed into
into dogmatic
dogmatic religions
religions but
but also
also began
began to
to fix
fix in
in writing
writing aa
only
canon
for all
all believers
(thus, Zoroastrianism,
Jainism, BudBudcanon obligatory
obligatory for
believers (thus,
Zoroastrianism, Jainism,
dhism, the
the different
different and
and constantly
constantly renewing
forms of
of BrahmanismBrahmanismdhism,
renewing forms
Hinduism, Confucianism,
Confucianism, Taoism,
Taoism, Manichaeism,
Manichaeism, and
and the
the doctrines
doctrines
Hinduism,
growing
out of
of JudaismChristianity
later, Islam,
Judaism-Christianity and,
and,later,
Islam, etc.).
etc.).
growing out
The
changes
The historian
historian finds
finds it
it more
more and
and more
more difficult
difficult to
to deduce
deduce the
the changes
in social
in
social structure
structure and
and the
the differences
differencesamong
amongsocieties
societiesdirectly
directlyand
andimimmediately
the forces
hence, from
mediately from
from changes
changes in
in the
forces of
of production
production and,
and, hence,
from
changes
relationships in
not infrequently
changes in
in relationships
in production.
production. Differences
Differences not
infrequently
appear
by an
appear among
among societies
societies that
that are
are characterized
characterized by
an approximately
approximately
similar
production (or
similar level
level of
of production
(or at
at aa similar
similar typological
typological stage
stage of
of develdevelopment) or,
or, in
words, among
opment)
in other
other words,
among societies
societies where
where one
one would
would expect
expect
but does
not, find
to, but
to,
does not,
find roughly
roughly similar
similar developments
developments with
with respect
respect to
to
their
their ideology.
ideology.
It
process of
It is
is evident
evident that
that between
between aa critical
critical situation
situation in
in the
the process
of the
the
development
productive forces
development of
of the
the productive
forces and
and their
their result
result in
in the
the form
form of
of
changes
there has
changes in
in social
social structure
structure there
has to
to occur
occur aa crisis
crisis in
in social
social psycholpsychology, in
in the
motivation of
of actions.
actions. What
What had
had once
once
ogy,
the mass
mass psychological
psychological motivation
been
have become
become both
both possible
been impossible
impossible must
must now
now have
possible and
and desirable,
desirable,
and what
what had
had been
been possible
possible must
must now
now be
be condemned
condemned by
by the
the society.
society. It
It
and
is only
only then
then that
that social
social masses
masses are
are brought
brought into
into action,
action, and
and society
society itis
itchanged.
self is
self
is changed.
An
An idea
idea becomes
becomes aa material
material force
force as
as soon
soon as
as it
it takes
takes possession
possession of
of
mass
However, there
in mass
mass conmass consciousness.
consciousness. However,
there is
is never
never aa vacuum
vacuum in
consciousness; and
and typically,
typically, this
this consciousness,
consciousness, filled
filled with
with traditional
traditional
sciousness;
concepts, does
does not
not induce
induce the
the masses
masses to
to actions
actions directed
directed toward
toward social
social
concepts,
If the
in the
in the
change. If
the masses
masses are
are to
to act
act in
the direction
direction of
of aa change
change in
the
change.
conditions of
of their
their existence,
existence, it
it is
is necessary
necessary that
that the
the dominant
dominant psychoconditions
psycho-

60
6o

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

logical tendency
preservation should
logical
tendency of
of preservation
shouldbebechanged
changedbybya apsychological
psychological
Also,the
thevery
verystrong
stronghuman
humantendency
tendency
tendency
toward development.
development. Also,
tendency toward
of imitation
imitation("I
("I do
doasaseveryone
everyoneelse
elsedoes")
does")must
mustbe
beovercome,
overcome,and
and aa
of
new suggested
suggested model
of behavior
should be
be accepted
accepted by
the human
human
new
model of
behavior should
by the
mass for
for imitation.
imitation.
mass
The science
of psychology
psychology has
has shown
that the
the need
to imitate
beThe
science of
shown that
need to
imitate bemainly in
First, imitation
comes
comes absolutely
absolutely dominant
dominant mainly
in two
two cases.
cases. First,
imitation is
is part
part
of
process of
mastering social
of the
the process
process of
of education
education (or
(or the
the process
of mastering
social skills
skills
and
habits) and
and habits)
and occurs
occurs in
in the
the form
form of
of direct
direct imitation
imitation of
of adult
adult actions
actions
or in
in the
the form
form of
of children's
children's play
play involving,
involving, especially,
especially, the
the emotional
emotional
or
and even
even artistic
artistic spheres.
spheres. Second,
Second, imitation
imitation will
will occur
occur in
in aa critical
critical
and
situation to
the individual
individual cannot
cannot confer
confer meaning
meaning by
by respondrespondsituation
to which
which the
ing independently
independently ("If
("If you
do not
do, do
as everyone
everyone
ing
you do
not know
know what
what to
to do,
do as
else does").
does"). However,
However, the
need to
imitate is
is not
only in
in these
these
the heed
to imitate
not present
present only
else
two cases;
cases; rather,
rather, it
it is
is always
always present,
sometimes to
degree.
two
present, sometimes
to aa high
high degree.
This need
need actually
actually remains
remains in
in the
the background
background no
no matter
matter what
motiThis
what motivates people
to act.
act. (However,
(However, it
it is
is important
important to
to distinguish
distinguish the
the situasituavates
people to
tions when
this background
background is,
is, as
as it
it were,
were, jammed
jammed or
or negated
negated by
by less
less
tions
when this
constant
more demanding
demanding needs.)
needs.)
but more
constant but
The considerable
considerable strength
the need
to imitate
been shown
The
strength of
of the
need to
imitate has
has been
shown in
in
the well-known
well-known experiment
with the
triangle. In
the
experiment with
the lozenge
lozenge and
and the
the triangle.
In the
the
experiment, forty-one
forty-one people
people (forty
(forty of
of whom
secret, one
one of
of
experiment,
whom know
know the
the secret,
whom does
does not)
not) are
are shown
shown diverse
diverse geometrical
geometrical figures
figures on
on aa display
display
whom
board.
time, everybody
everybody must
quickly name
the figure.
figure. All
All are
are
board. Each
Each time,
must quickly
name the
unanimous
the experimenter
experimenter shows
shows aa rhombus,
and the
warned
unanimous until
until the
rhombus, and
the warned
people
"Triangle." Only
the test
test subject
subject says,
says, "Lozenge."
"Lozenge." The
The expeople cry,
cry, "Triangle."
Only the
experiment
and after
after aa time,
time, aa lozenge
again appears
appears on
on the
the
periment continues,
continues, and
lozenge again
board,
and again
again everyone
everyone who
informed cries,
cries, "Triangle!"
"Triangle!"
board, and
who has
has been
been informed
Eventually the
the sole
sole dissenter,
dissenter, who
asserted that
seen aa lozenge,
lozenge,
who asserted
that he
he had
had seen
Eventually
gives up.
up. Of
Of dozens
dozens tested,
tested, only
only very
few continue
continue to
that
very few
to maintain
maintain that
gives
the
figure is
is aa lozenge
lozenge (if
(if the
the experiment
experiment goes
goes on
on long
long enough).
enough). Thus,
Thus,
the figure
for the
the majority
need for
for imitation
imitation is
is stronger
stronger than
the need
need for
for
for
majority the
the need
than the
cognition of
of new
new objects.
objects. This
This is
is only
only natural,
because the
the one
one who
who
cognition
natural, because
conducts the
the described
described case)
propagandist
the experiment
experiment (in
(in the
case) or
or the
the propagandist
conducts
(as
in
actual
history)
does
not
appeal
to
reason,
which
does
not enter
enter
(as in actual history) does not appeal to reason, which does not
into
play
at
all,
but
to
the
emotions.
This
is
why
new
ideas
created
in
into play at all, but to the emotions. This is why new ideas created in
the
rational
sphere
have
such
difficulty
in
gaining
recognitionas
the rational sphere have such difficulty in gaining recognition-as
long as
as they
remain purely
If traditional
traditional ideas
ideas continue
continue to
to
long
they remain
purely rational.
rational. If
dominate the
the emotions,
emotions, owing
owing to
to some
some objective
objective historical
conditions,
dominate
historical conditions,
new ideology
ideology will
will not
not be
be accepted,
accepted, even
even if
if it
it is
is adequate
adequate and
and approapproaa new
priate
changed conditions
in the
forces. If
If it
it succeeds,
succeeds, it
it
priate to
to changed
conditions in
the productive
productive forces.
is because
the new
ideology has
itself or
or evolved
evolved from
from aa
is
because the
new ideology
has transformed
transformed itself
system primarily
of conscious
conscious reasoning
one of
of emotional
emotional agitation.
reasoning to
to one
agitation.
system
primarily of
This is
is why
why Robespierre
was aa follower
follower of
of Rousseau,
Rousseau, not
of Voltaire;
This
Robespierre was
not of
Voltaire;

General Outline

61
61

all
all the
the skeptical
skeptical encyclopaedists
encyclopaedists appealed
appealed to
to reason,
reason, whereas
whereas RousRousseau appealed
appealed to
to emotion.
emotion.
seau
But
many times
But what
what is
is true
true of
of Robespierre
Robespierre is
is many
times truer
truer of
of those
those who
who
motivated and
and activated
activated the
the soda
of primitive
primitive and
and ancient
ancient societies.
societies.
socia of
motivated
The traditional
traditional ideologies
ideologies of
of early
early antiquity
antiquity were
were mythologies,
mythologies, so
so here
here
The
the historian
historian has
deal with
so-called mythological
mentality.
the
has to
to deal
with the
the so-called
mythological mentality.
The
The twentieth
twentieth century
century has
has witnessed
witnessed aa great
great and
and manifold
manifold interest
interest
in
mythological ways
but historians,
accusin myths
myths and
and mythological
ways of
of thought,
thought, but
historians, accustomed as
as they
they are
are to
to documented
documented facts,
facts, find
find it
it difficult
difficult to
to agree
agree with
with
tomed
has been
this topic.
L. Levy-Bruhl
most
most of
of what
what has
been said
said and
and written
written on
on this
topic. L.
Levy-Bruhl
treated
primitive mentality
prelogical, as
logitreated primitive
mentality as
as prelogical,
as opposed
opposed to
to modern
modern logical mentality;
mentality; but
but he
he was
was unable
unable to
to explain
explain why
why primitive
primitive people
people with
with
cal
their prelogical
prelogical mentality
mentality could
could achieve
achieve sensible
sensible results
results in
in their
their activitheir
activities.
ties. S.
S. Freud
Freud attempted
attempted to
to construct
construct aa system
system of
of emotional
emotional psycholpsychology,
psychology, but
was not
based on
ogy, also
also social
social psychology,
but his
his system
system was
not based
on the
the
physiology
physiology of
of the
the brain
brain and
and contained
contained much
much that
that was
was subjective
subjective and
and
one-sided.
one-sided. Instead
Instead of
of this,
this, C.
C. G.
G. Jung
Jung was
was aa proponent
proponent of
of aa mystical
mystical
system
the mechasystem that
that included
included collective
collective psychological
psychological archetypes,
archetypes, the
mechanism of
of which
which (i.e.,
(i.e., how
how it
it functioned)
functioned) cannot,
cannot, apparently,
apparently, be
be specified
specified
nism
in strictly
strictly logical
logical terms.
terms. C.
Levi-Strauss attempted
attempted to
to lay
lay bare
bare the
the gengenC. Levi-Strauss
in
erallaws
eral laws of
of the
the structure
structure of
of the
the mind,
mind, and
and his
his binary
binary oppositions
oppositions seem
seem
to actually
actually have
have aa physical
physical basis.
basis. However,
However, Levi-Strauss
Levi-Strauss and,
and, espeespeto
cially, his
his epigones
epigones operate
operate with
with "concepts"
"concepts" supposedly
supposedly existing
existing in
in the
the
cially,
mythological
such as
as the
the concept
concept of
of "above
"above and
and below"
below" or
or
mythological mentality,
mentality, such
of "the
"the universal
universal vertical."
vertical." In
this, they
they resort
resort to
to terms
terms of
of rational
rational
of
In this,
logic, which
which was
was certainly
certainly alien
alien to
to primitive
primitive humanity.
humanity. Where
Where there
there is
is
logic,
concept, there
there inevitably
inevitably must
must exist
exist aa word
word expressing
expressing the
the concept.
concept.
aa concept,
However, Levi-Strauss's
Levi-Strauss's concepts
concepts cannot
cannot be
be expressed
expressed in
in terms
terms of
of any
any
However,
language of
of early
early antiquity,
antiquity, which
which is
is sufficient
sufficient proof
that the
the ancients
ancients
proof that
language
we understand
understand them
them as
logical
actually did
did not
not have
have such
such concepts
concepts (if
(if we
as logical
actually
categories). At
At the
the level
level of
of mythological
mythological mentality,
mentality, generalizations
generalizations are
are
categories).
made not
not by
evolving abstract
abstract notions
notions and
and corresponding
corresponding terms
terms but
but
made
by evolving
through tropes,
tropes, mainly
mainly image-inducing
image-inducing metonymies.
metonymies. Such
Such aa genergenerthrough
alization is
is always
always emotional;
emotional; that
that is,
is, it
it induces
induces to
to action
action certain
certain brain
brain
alization
structures, but
but not
not those
those that
that govern
govern verbal
verbal formulations.
formulations. Therefore,
Therefore,
structures,
such generalizations,
generalizations, seen
seen from
from the
the logical
logical point
point of
of view,
view, are
are exexsuch
tremely
vague.
When
speaking
of
primitive
people
and
the
people
of
tremely vague. When speaking of primitive people and the people of
early
antiquity,
we
should
not
make
statements
in
terms
of
concepts
early antiquity, we should not make statements in terms of concepts
but in
in terms
terms of
of metonymic
metonymic chains
chains and
and bundles
bundles of
of images.
images.
but
Until early
human mentality
mentality could
could not
not operate
operate with
with forforUntil
early antiquity,
antiquity, human
mulated
logical concepts:
concepts: they
they cannot
cannot be
be found
found in
in the
the texts,
texts, and
and they
they
mulated logical
did
But even
did not
not exist
exist in
in the
the languages.
languages. But
even when
when they
they had
had been
been develdeveloped, Aristotle
Aristotle and
and the
the other
other great
great thinkers
thinkers of
of antiquity
antiquity labored
labored only
only
oped,
for
for aa minority,
minority, and
and it
it was
was not
not their
their ideas
ideas that
that were
were to
to move
move the
the souls
souls of
of

62

I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

the masses.
masses. In
In the
the last
last century,
century, scientists
scientists and
and scholars
scholars of
of many
many nations
nations
the
have written
written on
on the
the history
of ideas,
ideas, but
if we
we want
want to
to understand
the
history of
but if
understand the
have
mechanisms of
of history,
history, we
we need
need aa history
of emotions.
emotions.
mechanisms
history of
In order
order for
for aa new
new idea
idea to
gain acceptance
acceptance in
in society,
society, the
the one
one who
who
In
to gain
promotes it
must resort
resort to
propaganda. This
was first
promotes
it must
to propaganda.
This term
term was
first introduced
introduced
by
the Roman
Roman Catholic
the Counter-Reformation.
by the
Catholic church
church during
during the
Counter-Reformation. (In
(In
1622
1622 Pope
Pope Gregory
Gregory XV
XV established
established the
the Roman
Roman Congregation
Congregation of
of the
the
Propaganda
Propaganda of
of the
the Faith.)
Faith.) But
But we
we shall
shall now
now use
use this
this term
term in
in aa broad
broad
sense to
to mean
mean the
the spreading
spreading of
of controversial
controversial ideas.
ideas. Obviously,
Obviously, when
when
sense
no one
one disagrees,
disagrees, there
there is
is place
for ritual
ritual but
but not
not for
for propaganda.
propaganda.
no
place for
(Such was
the case
case of
of the
the traditional
traditional mentality
mentality in
in the
epoch
(Such
was the
the primitive
primitive epoch
and in
in early
early antiquity.)
antiquity.) Propaganda
Propaganda presupposes
presupposes aa struggleeither
and
struggle-either
against tradition
or against
against another
another propaganda.
Already in
in ancient
ancient
against
tradition or
propaganda. Already
times, propaganda
propaganda was
was not
not necessarily
necessarily religious:
religious: one
one could
could generate
generate
times,
propaganda about
about royalty,
royalty, aa dynasty,
dynasty, or
or an
an empire.
empire. But
But whether
whether or
or
propaganda
not the
the propaganda
was successful
successful (in
(in the
the historical
historical situations
situations of
of anannot
propaganda was
tiquity) depended
depended on
on the
the extent
extent to
to which
which it
it penetrated
and affected
affected
penetrated and
tiquity)
the sphere
sphere of
of social
social emotions.
emotions.
the
The
propaganda acts
The fact
fact that
that propaganda
acts mainly
mainly in
in the
the sphere
sphere of
of emotions
emotions can
can
be
seen from
from the
the simple
simple fact
fact that
that the
card of
of any
any propaganda
propaganda is
the trump
trump card
is
be seen
justice and
justice
and fairriess.
fairness. One
One of
of the
the most
most important
important statements
statements of
of an
an ananwas
cient
king when
cient Oriental
Oriental king
when propagandizing
propagandizing in
in favor
favor of
of his
his royalty
royalty was
the
justice, kittum
kittum uu miSarum.
misarum.Of
Of
the claim
claim that
that he
he advocated
advocated fairness
fairness and
and justice,
course, in
in different
different historical
epochs, there
there were
were different
different notions
notions of
of
course,
historical epochs,
what
just and
and fair:
fair: thus,
thus, what
what was
was meant
meant by
by justice
justice and
and fairness
fairness in
in
what was
was just
ancient
on incurred
incurred debts,
debts, the
safety
moratorium on
the safety
ancient Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia was
was aa moratorium
of family
landholdings, and
and so
so on.
on. In
In any
any event,
event, agitation
agitation for
for justice
of
family landholdings,
justicein this
this and
and all
all similar
similar cases-involved
casesinvolved an
an impact
impact upon
the emotional
emotional
in
upon the
sphere; modern
modern psychophysiologists
psychophysiologists know
need for
for justice
is insphere;
know that
that aa need
justice is
inherent
the physiology
emotions.
herent in
in the
physiology of
of human
human emotions.
It
be possible
possible to
to cite
soIt would
would be
cite many
many more
more examples
examples showing
showing how
how sothe historian
who tries
tries to
to explain
cial psychology
psychology may
may aid
cial
aid the
historian who
explain certain
certain
situations
why the
the pupils
pupils of
situations of
of social
social history;
history; for
for example,
example, why
of Socrates
Socrates
and Jesus
Jesus were
mostly unmarried
such examples
examples would
and
were mostly
unmarried men.
men. But
But such
would ococcupy too
too much
much space;
space; this
this book
is not
special monograph,
and here
here
book is
not aa special
monograph, and
cupy
we aim
pointing out
out some
possible new
new directions
directions of
we
aim only
only at
at pointing
some possible
of historical
historical
research.
research.
To sum
sum up,
up, aa modern
historian of
antiquity is
is confronted
confronted with
the
To
modern historian
of antiquity
with the
problem
social psychology.
It follows
follows from
from the
above that
explain
problem of
of social
psychology. It
the above
that to
to explain
social events
events and
and social
social changes
antiquity, one
one must
limit oneonesocial
changes in
in antiquity,
must not
not limit
self
to
studies
in
the
history
of
material
culture
and
the
history
of
soself to studies in the history of material culture and the history of social structures
structures and
and machinery,
machinery, but
one should
should also
apply historical
historical
cial
but one
also apply
social psychology.
psychology.
social
Of
has been
been obvious
long time.
However, here
here we
we
Of course,
course, this
this has
obvious for
for aa long
time. However,

General Outline
General
Outline

63

encounter aa serious
serious difficulty:
difficulty: up
up to
to the
the present,
present, social
psychology has
has
encounter
social psychology
been
an experimental
experimental science,
science, so
so that
methods were
inapplicable to
to
been an
that its
its methods
were inapplicable
history.
history.
It seems
seems to
to us
us that
that aa possible
way to
to surmount
surmount this
difficulty lies
in
It
possible way
this difficulty
lies in
an
psychology-and, first
all,
an orientation
orientation toward
toward such
such features
features of
of psychologyand,
first of
of all,
such
needs-that are
unavoidably present
present in
such emotional
emotional needsthat
are unavoidably
in humanity
humanity as
as aa
species: those
those that
are always
always present
present to
to aa greater
greater or
or lesser
lesser degree,
degree, in
in
species:
that are
one form
form or
or another,
another, independent
independent of
of the
the current
current social
social environment.
environment.
one
It is,
is, of
of course,
course, precisely
precisely the
social environment
environment that
that determines
determines the
the
It
the social
concrete form
form of
these psychological
studying ideolconcrete
of these
psychological features.
features. In
In studying
ideology, one
one should
should be
required to
to separate
separate the
the psychologically
psychologically universal
universal
ogy,
be required
(whether hyptertrophied
hyptertrophied or
or depressed)
depressed) from
from the
distinctive: those
those de(whether
the distinctive:
determined by
by social
social factors
factors limited
limited in
in space
space or
or in
in time
time or
or by
by ecological
ecological
termined
factors, and
and so
so on.
on. Thus,
Thus, for
for example,
example, it
it probably
probably will
be particularly
particularly
factors,
will be
important to
to sort
sort out
out the
the local
local and
and temporally
temporally limited
limited factors
factors relevant
relevant
important
for the
study of
of the
the ancient
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian religion;
religion; here
here one
one should
should estabfor
the study
establish what
is not
not universal
for humanity,
and, not
not restricting
oneself
lish
what is
universal for
humanity, and,
restricting oneself
just
stating what
what is
is distinctive,
distinctive, one
one should
should attempt
attempt to
to explain
explain it
it by
just to
to stating
by
the
certain impacts
impacts (I.
(I. P.
P. Pavlov
have
the presence
presence or
or absence
absence of
of certain
Pavlov would
would have
said "irritants").
"irritants").
said
In
we shall
shall have
have to
the factors
In general,
general, we
to treat
treat the
factors of
of ideology
ideology and
and culture
culture
not in
in themselves
by taking
taking account
account of
of what
what psychological
needs
not
themselves but
but by
psychological needsemotional,
by these
emotional, above
above all-were
allwere satisfied
satisfied by
these factors
factors or,
or, contrariwise,
contrariwise,
suppressed
by them.
them. Especially,
Especially, the
the impact
will have
have to
suppressed by
impact of
of propaganda
propaganda will
to
itself, but
but as
as aa response
response to
to the
input of
of traditional
traditional
be studied
studied not
in itself,
be
not in
the input
mentality, and
mentality,
and as
as something
something inimical
inimical to
to it.
it. We
We shall
shall have
to note
note the
the
have to
historical moment
moment when
when the
struggle between
between propaganda
propaganda and
and traditradihistorical
the struggle
tion ceases
ceases and
and is
replaced by
by the
the struggle
struggle of
of more
more or
or less
less particular
or
is replaced
particular or
tion
private
interests. Moreover,
Moreover, in
in studying
studying propaganda
propaganda we
we must,
without
private interests.
must, without
fail, keep
keep in
in mind
mind the
the feedback
the propaganda
propaganda and
and the
the proprofail,
feedback between
between the
pagandists
themselves. Because
Because they
they typically
typically are
are the
the most
most staunch
staunch bepagandists themselves.
believers of
of their
their own
own propaganda,
propaganda, they
they are
are able
able to
to influence
influence and
and carry
carry
lievers
away the
the emotions
emotions of
of the
the socium.
socium. Here
Here another
another very
very strong
strong sociosocioaway
psychological
is involved;
involved; viz.,
viz., the
the need
need to
led (and
(and also
also loved
loved
psychological factor
factor is
to be
be led
and esteemed),
esteemed), which
which is
is stronger
stronger and
and more
more common
common than
than the
the need
need to
to
and
be aa leader.
leader.
be
At
present, the
history of
information on
At present,
the history
of culture
culture isa
is a collection
collection of
of information
on
science, literature,
literature, art,
art, and,
and, sometimes,
sometimes, religion
religion and,
and, very
very seldom,
seldom,
science,
everyday life.
"culture" is
is all
that, being
by society,
society,
all that,
being created
created by
everyday
life. Actually
Actually "culture"
has an
an impact
impact upon
upon society
society and
and that
that induces
induces men
and women
to sohas
men and
women to
socially valid
valid actions.
actions. It
It seems
seems to
that the
the history
history of
of culture
culture should
should be
be
cially
to us
us that
history of
of factors
factors influencing
influencing social
social psychology.
psychology. In
In order
order to
to accomaccomaa history
plish this,
this, we
we shall
shall have
have to
to regard
regard psychology
not as
as aa whole
whole but
but take
take
plish
psychology not
into account
account the
the different
different psychological
psychological (even
(even psychophysiological)
psychophysiological)
into

64

I.
Diakonoff
/. M. Diakonoff

mechanisms that
are subject
subject to
to different
impacts.Some
Someattention
attentionshould
should
mechanisms
that are
different impacts.
be
devoted to
to biological
needs, such
such as
as the
need for
for satisfying
satisfying one's
one's
be devoted
biological needs,
the need
hunger and
and the
need for
for reproduction.
reproduction. More
More attention
attention should
should be
given
hunger
the need
be given
to
social needs,
such as
as the
the need
need to
to occupy
occupy an
an important
important place
place in
in the
the
to social
needs, such
socium;the
theneed
needtotoevade
evadethe
thefrustration
frustration induced
inducedby
byan
animpact
impactfrom
from
socium;
the socium
sociumthat
thatisisperceived
perceivedtotobe
beunjust;
unjust;the
theneed
needtotobe
beled,
led,protected,
protected,
the
and secure;
secure; and
and only
only then,
then, finally,
finally, the
the need
to lead.
lead. An
An important
important
and
need to
need is
is that
that of
of cognition
cognition of
of the
the environment,
environment, including
including new
new objects,
objects,
need
both of
of the
the surrounding
surrounding phenomenal
world (which
(which develops
develops into
into sciboth
phenomenal world
science) and
and of
of the
the world
world of
of one's
one's emotional
emotional perceptions
of the
the natural
natural
ence)
perceptions of
and social
social environment
environment (which
(which develops
develops into
into art).
art). The
The dual
dual character
character
and
of the
the object
object of
of cognition
cognition is
is reflected
reflected in
in the
the duality
duality of
of cognition
cognition itself:
itself:
of
scientific cognition
cognition strives
strives to
attain and
and define
define absolute
absolute truth,
truth, which
which is
is aa
scientific
to attain
movement leading
leading to
to infinity;
infinity; whereas
whereas emotional
emotional cognition
cognition is
is subject
subject to
to
movement
"Sherrington's funnel":
funnel": the
stream of
of emotional
emotional stimuli
stimuli is
is vastly
vastly greater
greater
"Sherrington's
the stream
than the
the ability
ability of
of efferent
efferent nervous
to react
react to
to each
each single
single
than
nervous tracks
tracks to
stimulus. Hence,
Hence, comprehension
comprehension of
of truth
truth in
in art
art is
is manifested
manifested only
only in
in
stimulus.
images intended
intended to
to induce
induce the
the pertinent
undefined associations.
associations.
images
pertinent but
but undefined
The fact
fact that
that we
we will
will have
have to
to be
be oriented
oriented not
to psychology
psychology as
as aa
The
not to
whole (as
(as the
of an
an individual
individual is
is aa whole)
whole) but
but to
to specific
specificneeds
needs
whole
the mentality
mentality of
groupsofofresponses
responses
seems
important
Otherand to
to characteristic
characteristic groups
and
seems
important
to to
us.us.
Otherwise
one might
might think
think that,
that, being
being oriented
oriented to
to what
is characteristic
characteristic of
of
wise one
what is
humans as
as aa species,
species, we
we would
socially nonnonhumans
would receive
receive only
only uniform,
uniform, socially
differentiated answers,
answers, insofar
insofar as
as Homo
sapienssapiens
sapiens
a species
differentiated
Homo sapiens
as as
a species
it- itself is
is uniform.
assumption obviously
obviously would
would be
incorrect. Just
Just as
self
uniform. This
This assumption
be incorrect.
as
the
individual finds
finds thousands
thousands of
of different
different responses
responses to
the impact
impact of
of
the individual
to the
socium.Inside
Insidethe
thesocium
sociuma psychola psycholthe
environment, so
so also
also does
does the
the socium.
the environment,
ogist will
will be
able to
to show
show statistically
statistically the
that are
are more
more develthe needs
needs that
develogist
be able
oped under
under what
and those that
that are
are variable
and depend
depend
oped
what conditions
conditions and.those
variable and
upon
character of
of the
the environment-the
environmentthe social
social environment
environment in
upon the
the character
in
our
the influencing
ideour case.
case. The
The study
study of
of the
influencing factors
factors of
of culture
culture and
and of
of ideology will,
the
ology
will, correspondingly,
correspondingly, allow
allow us
us to
to predict
predict which
which centers
centers in
in the
brain will
will be
subject to
to the
the greatest
greatest impact.
By the
the character
character of
of an
an imimbrain
be subject
impact. By
pact
individual, we
assess the
pact on
on an
an individual,
we will
will be
be able
able to
to assess
the probability
probability of
of his
his
response
(if
his
typological
psychophysiological
characteristics
are
response (if his typological psychophysiological characteristics are
known from
from
known).
confronting the
of the
the socium
known). Thus,
Thus, confronting
the response
response of
socium known
history
the influencing
influencing factors
factors that
are also
also known
known from
from history,
history,
history with
with the
that are
we will
will be
able to
to assess
assess the
the statistically
statistically probable
probable mechanism
mechanism of
of the
the
we
be able
motivation for
for social
social behavior.
behavior.
motivation
Our
Our suggestions,
suggestions, formulated
formulated in
in this
this way,
way, bear
bear an
an external
external similarity
similarity
with the
the definitions
definitions of
of early
early behaviorism.
behaviorism. Thus,
Thus, J. Watson
Watson stated
stated "that
"that
with
the
the goal
goal of
of psychological
psychological study
study is
is the
the ascertaining
ascertaining of
of such
such data
data and
and
laws that,
that, given
given the
the stimulus,
stimulus, psychology
can predict
predict what
what the
the relaws
psychology can
re-

General
General Outline
Outline

65

sponse
will be;
the other
specsponse will
be; or,
or, on
on the
other hand,
hand, given
given the
the response,
response, it
it can
can specify
original).10
10
of the
the effective
effective stimulus"
stimulus" (italicized
(italicized in
in original).
ify the
the nature
nature of
This
position of
justly criticized.
has
This position
of the
the behaviorists
behaviorists has
has been
been justly
criticized. It
It has
been
been observed
observed that
that the
the behaviorists
behaviorists simply
simply do
do not
not take
take into
into account
account all
all
the intermediary
as, for
the
intermediary factors,
factors, as,
for example,
example, all
all the
the extremely
extremely complicomplicated
that do
do not
cated functions
functions of
of the
the different
different mechanisms
mechanisms of
of the
the brain
brain that
not
allow for
for aa simple
simple stimulus-response
stimulus-response correlation.
correlation. However,
However, complex
complex
allow
problems of
problems
of psychophysiology
psychophysiology lie
lie outside
outside the
the realm
realm of
of the
the humanities.
humanities.
We shall
have to
take at
We
shall have
to take
at face
face value
value the
the data
data (including
(including statistical
statistical data)
data)
that
psychology, especially
that the
the science
science of
of psychology,
especially experimental
experimental social
social psycholpsychology,
these data
must draw
ogy, furnishes
furnishes us.
us. From
From these
data we
we must
draw sufficiently
sufficiently differdifferentiated
reciprocal influence
influence of
psyon the
the reciprocal
of different
different psyentiated information
information on
chological needs;
example, information
information on
on the
the relative
relative ability,
chological
needs; for
for example,
ability,
under given
given conditions,
conditions, of
under
of certain
certain needs
needs to
to stimulate
stimulate or
or to
to suppress
suppress
other
needs. But
responses doubtless
other needs.
But the
the social
social stimuli
stimuli and
and the
the social
social responses
doubtless
lie
and
lie within
within the
the sphere
sphere of
of competence
competence of
of the
the historian
historian of
of society
society and
culture.
culture.
If we
If
we were
were to
to regard
regard from
from this
this point
point of
of view
view the
the different
different ideologiideological and
and religious
religious movements
movements of
of antiquity
since religion
is always
cal
antiquity (and
(and since
religion is
always
probably be
be
emotional,
emotional, it
it is
is always
always universally
universally ascendant),
ascendant), we
we would
would probably
able
able to
to solve
solve aa number
number of
of problems.
problems. For
For instance,
instance, why
why is
is it
it that
that some
some
the historical
historical development
development of
of aa sodoctrines have
have greatly
greatly influenced
influenced the
doctrines
society,
whereas others
others have
have quickly
quickly dwindled
dwindled to
to nonexistence?
nonexistence? We
We shall
shall
ciety, whereas
try to
to adduce
adduce aa single
single example-a
examplea very
very crude
crude one,
one, perhaps-that
perhapsthat may
may
try
the general
pure monoillustrate
illustrate the
general direction
direction of
of our
our thought.
thought. Why
Why did
did pure
monotheism take
to spread,
why did
varitheism
take such
such aa long
long time
time to
spread, and
and why
did it,
it, in
in its
its mass
mass variant,
monotheism? Even
ant, mostly
mostly appear
appear as
as aa quasi
quasi monotheism?
Even medieval
medieval Christianity
Christianity
can
be regarded
regarded as
with great
can actually
actually be
as monotheistic
monotheistic only
only with
great reservations.
reservations.
to
Why was
was Akhenaton's
Akhenaton's monotheism
monotheism (or
monotheism) doomed
Why
(or quasi
quasi monotheism)
doomed to
quick
of
quick extinction,
extinction, whereas
whereas the
the quasi
quasi monotheism
monotheism of
of Zoroaster
Zoroaster or
or of
Paul
Paul received
received widespread
widespread and
and long-lived
long-lived support?
support? To
To answer
answer that
that the
the
for monotheism
monotheism
society under
under Akhenaton
was not
not yet
enough for
society
Akhenaton was
yet mature
mature enough
is
not to
to answer
answer at
at all.
What are
the criteria
criteria of
of maturity
for mOnOmonois not
all. What
are the
maturity for
theism? Akhenaton's
Akhenaton's doctrine
was not
viable because
because itit did
did not
notevoke
evoke
theism?
doctrine was
not viable
positive emotions
emotions in
in anyone.
anyone.
positive
At
present, we
we already
At present,
already have
have some
some knowledge
knowledge about
about the
the emotional
emotional
side
of human
human cerebral
cerebral activity.
activity. Apart
Apart from
from addressing
addressing sociopsychosociopsychoside of
logical
can, in
principle, address
problems of
logical problems,
problems, one
one can,
in principle,
address problems
of how
how aa
certain
personality emerges;
how certain
say,
certain social
social personality
emerges; how
certain correlations
correlations arise,
arise, say,
of cognition
between
between the
the need
need of
cognition and
and the
the need
need to
to return
return to
to aa stable
stable place
place
from the
theStandpoint
Standpointof
ofa
Behaviorist,1st
1sted.
ed.(New
(NewYork:
York:LipLip10. J. B. Watson, Psychology
Psychology from
a Behaviorist,
pincott, 1919), p. 10.

66

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

in the
the socium;
socium;the
theneed
needof
ofpreserving
preservingskills
skillsand
andhabits
habitsand
andthe
theneed
needof
of
in
acquiring new
skills; the
of self-preservation
self-preservation and
and the
of agagacquiring
new skills;
the need
need of
the need
need of
time in
the future
we are
to assess
gression. If
If at
at some
some time
in the
future we
are able
able to
assess correctly
correctly
gression.
the formative
formative sociopsychological
sociopsychological situation,
situation, we
shall, ideally,
ideally, be
able to
to
the
we shall,
be able
explain why
why this
this epoch
epoch and
and this
this nation
nation needed
needed the
the domination
domination of
of aa
explain
Chinghiz Khan,
Khan, another
another of
of aa prophet
Muhammad, while
while still
still another
another
Chinghiz
prophet Muhammad,
of an
an Ivan
Ivan the
the Terrible,
Terrible, an
an Akhenaton,
or aa Hammurapi.
Hammurapi.
of
Akhenaton, or
Meanwhile, we
our research
research in
in the
history of
Meanwhile,
we ought
ought to
to reorient
reorient our
the history
of
culture
to socioeconomic
toward the
culture (without
(without detriment
detriment to
socioeconomic research)
research) toward
the
understanding
of the
the sociopsychological
sociopsychological causes
causes and
and sociopsychologisociopsychologiunderstanding of
cal effects
effects of
of different
different cultural
cultural phenomenaabove
all, the
emotional
cal
phenomena-above all,
the emotional
effects. Furthermore,
Furthermore, there
there should
should be
be research
on the
the relations
effects.
research on
relations bebetween
and various
of propaganda.
should
tween tradition
tradition and
various types
types of
propaganda. Finally
Finally we
we should
attempt to
understand clearly
clearly the
connection between
cultural phepheattempt
to understand
the connection
between cultural
nomena
and their
substratum of
of social
social relations
relations in
in production.
production. This
This is
nomena and
their substratum
is
moving substratum
substratum that
that isis always
always receiving
receiving aa certain
certain interpretation
interpretation
aa moving
and remodeling
remodeling in
in people's
minds. In
In other
other words,
words, we
we ought
ought to
to underunderand
people's minds.
stand better
better the
the connection
of culture
culture with
with the
the dialectics
of the
stand
connection of
dialectics of
the proproductive forces
forces and
and social
social relationships
relationships in
in production.
production.
ductive
All
book we
All this
this is
is aa program
program for
for the
the future.
future. In
In this
this book
we attempt
attempt only
only
to
been done;
we
to put
put together
together what
what has
has already
already been
done; in
in this
this last
last section
section we
have just
outlined aa plan
plan of
of further
further work
work for
for the
the next
generation of
of
have
just outlined
next generation
historians.
historians.

2
2
The
The City-States
City-States of
of Sumer
Sumer
I. M. DIAKONOFF
DlAKONOFF

The Development
Development of
of Organized
Organized Irrigation
Irrigation
The
in the
the Lower
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valley
Valley
in
The
The Introduction
Introduction to
to this
this volume
volume described
described the
the emergence
emergence of
of the
the earearliest
particular ways
in
liest class
class societies
societies and
and the
the particular
ways in
in which
which they
they developed
developed in
the Lower
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valley
Valley and
and in
in the
the Nile
Valley; that
that is,
is, in
in ancient
ancient
the
Nile Valley;
Sumer and
and in
in ancient
ancient Egypt.
Now, let
let us
us analyze
analyze more
closely the
the
Sumer
Egypt. Now,
more closely
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valley
Valley (Lower
(Lower Mesopotamia)
Mesopotamia) in
in early
early antiquity.
antiquity.1I
Lower
We
We already
already know
know that
that this
this country
country is
is separated
separated from
from the
the rest
rest of
of the
the
Near East
East by
barely passable
passable deserts
deserts and
and that
that it
it was
was already
already inhabited
inhabited
Near
by barely
B.C. During
During the
the sixth
sixth to
to fourth
fourth millennia
millennia
during the
the sixth
sixth millennium
millennium B.C.
during
B.C. the
the tribes
tribes lived
lived here
here in
extreme poverty.
poverty. Barley,
Barley, which
which was
was sown
sown
B.C.
in extreme
on the
the narrow
narrow strip
strip of
of land
land between
between the
the marshes
marshes and
and the
the burned-out
burned-out
on
desert and
and irrigated
irrigated by
irregularly occurring
occurring floods
of varying
varying intenintendesert
by irregularly
floods of
sity, yielded
yielded sinall
small and
and fluctuating
fluctuating harvests.
harvests. Harvests
Harvests were
were greater
greater on
on
sity,
lands irrigated
irrigated by
by channels
channels dug
dug from
from the
the Diyala
Diyala River,
River, aa minor
minor tributribulands
tary
of the
the Tigris.
Tigris. It
It was
was only
only toward
middle of
of the
the fourth
fourth miltary of
toward the
the middle
millennium B.C.
B.C. that
that individual
individual community
community groups
groups managed
managed to
to create
create
lennium
drainage-irrigation systems
systems in
in the
the Euphrates
Euphrates basin.
basin.
drainage-irrigation
The Lower
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates basin
basin is
is aa wide,
wide, flat
flat plain,
plain, bordered
bordered to
to the
the
The
east
east by
by the
the Tigris,
Tigris, beyond
beyond which
which stretch
stretch the
the spurs
spurs of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian
mountains, and
and to
to the
west by
by the
the steep
steep edge
edge of
of the
Syro-Arabian
mountains,
the west
the Syro-Arabian
semidesert.
semidesert. Lacking
Lacking suitable
suitable irrigation
irrigation and
and land
land improvement,
improvement, this
this
plain
places and
plain was
was aa desert
desert in
in some
some places
and in
in others
others was
was covered
covered by
by bogs
bogs
and shallow
shallow lakes
lakes bordered
bordered by
by thickets
thickets of
of giant
giant reeds
reeds swarming
swarming with
with
and
noxious insects.
insects. Today,
Today, the
the desert
desert portion
portion is
is crossed
crossed by
by earthen
earthen banks
banks
noxious
of former
former canals.
When aa canal
canal is
operating, date
date palms
palms grow
grow along
along
of
canals. When
is operating,
the banks.
Here and
and there,
the flat
land is
is dotted
dotted by
by mounds
mounds of
of clay
the
banks. Here
there, the
flat land
clay
(tells) and
and by
bycinder
cinder mounds
mounds (ishans).
(ishans).These
Theseare
areruins
ruinsofofcities;
cities;actuactu(tells)
ally, they
they are
are the
of hundreds
of adobe
adobe houses
houses and
and temple
temple
the remains
remains of
hundreds of
ally,
towers,
and mud
that succeeded
succeeded one
antowers, reed
reed huts
huts and
mud wallsstructures
walls-structures that
one another at
the same
earliest antiquity,
antiquity, however,
were no
no
other
at the
same site.
site. In
In earliest
however, there
there were
1.
designate
1. The
The ancient
ancient Greeks
Greeks used
used the
the term
term Mesopotamia
Mesopotamiatoto
designatethetheland
landbetween
betweenthethe
Tigris
Tigris and
and the
the Euphrates
Euphrates rivers.
rivers. Today,
Today, the
the territory
territory of
of historic
historic Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is
is part
part of
of
Turkey,
Turkey, Syria,
Syria, and
and Iraq.
Iraq. Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is
is the
the southern
southern part
part of
of present-day
present-day Iraq.
Iraq.

68

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

mounds or
mounds
or banks.
banks. The
The swampy
swampy lagoons
lagoons covered
covered more
more surface
surface than
than
they do
do now,
now, stretching
stretching across
across what
what is
is now
now southern
southern Iraq;
Iraq; it
it was
only
they
was only
in the
in
the extreme
extreme south
south that
that low,
low, uninhabited
uninhabited islands
islands broke
broke up
up the
the vast
vast
lagoons. Gradually,
Gradually, the
the silt
silt from
from the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, the
the Tigris,
Tigris, and
and the
the
lagoons.
northeast-southwest flowing
flowing Elamite
barnortheastsouthwest
Elamite rivers
rivers22 formed
formed an
an alluvial
alluvial barrier,
extended the
of the
some 120
120 kilometers
kilometers
the territory
territory of
the plain
plain by
by some
rier, which
which extended
(almost
miles) to
(almost 75
75 miles)
to the
the south.
south. Where,
Where, at
at one
one time,
time, shallow
shallow coastal
coastal bays
bays
communicated directly
directly with
with the
the Persian
Persian Gulf,
Gulf, the
the Shatt-al-Arab
Shatt-al-Arab River
communicated
River
now
The Shatt-al-Arab
Shatt-al-Arab was
formed by
the confluence
confluence of
of the
the Tiwas formed
by the
Tinow flows.
flows. The
gris and
and Euphrates,
both of
of which
which once
once had
own mouths
mouths and
Euphrates, both
had their
their own
and
gris
lagoons.
lagoons.
The
MesoThe Euphrates
Euphrates divided
divided into
into several
several branches
branches within
within Lower
Lower Mesomillennium B.C.
potamia. The
potamia.
The most
most important
important one
one in
in the
the third
third millennium
B.C. was
was
Iturungal,
Iturungal, from
from which
which the
the canal
canal I-Nina-Gena
I-Nina-Gena extended
extended to
to aa lagoon
lagoon in
in
the southeast.
southeast. The
The Tigris
Tigris flowed
further east;
east; its
its shores
shores were
were bare
bare exthe
flowed further
except where
it received
the Diyala
In the
fourth millennium
millennium
cept
where it
received the
Diyala tributary.
tributary. In
the fourth
several smaller
canals stemmed
stemmed from
from each
of the
the main
main branches
branches of
of the
the
several
smaller canals
each of
Euphrates. With
the aid
aid of
of aa system
system of
of dams
dams and
and reservoirs,
reservoirs, it
it was
was
Euphrates.
With the
possible to
to accumulate
accumulate sufficient
sufficient water
water to
irrigate the
fields throughthroughpossible
to irrigate
the fields
the entire
entire growing
growing season.
season. This
This increased
increased the
the harvest
yields and
out the
out
harvest yields
and
made
it possible
accumulate aa surplus.
surplus. It
It was
development that
that
made it
possible to
to accumulate
was aa development
led to
to the
the second
second great
great division
division of
of labor;
labor; that
that is,
is, to
to the
the segregation
segregation of
led
of
specialized trades.
trades. It
It eventually
eventually allowed
allowed class
class stratification:
stratification: aa slavespecialized
slaveowning class
class formed
formed that
could exploit
exploit slavelike
slavelike dependents
dependents (patriar(patriarowning
that could
and helots).
chal slaves
slaves and
helots).
chal
It
be mentioned
mentioned that
the extremely
labor of
It should
should be
that the
extremely strenuous
strenuous labor
of buildbuilding,
and maintaining
maintaining the
the canals-or
canalsor of
of any
any other
other earthearthing, cleaning,
cleaning, and
moving construction
generally not
moving
construction workwas
work-was generally
not performed
performed by
by slaves
slaves
but, rather,
rather, by
by community
community members
members serving
serving their
their conscription
conscription duty.3
duty.3
but,
Every
Every free
free adult
adult spent
spent an
an average
average of
of one
one or
or two
two months
months doing
doing this
this
type of
of work.
work. This
This arrangement
arrangement existed
existed throughout
throughout the
the entire
entire history
history
type
of ancient
ancient Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia.
of
The
performed the
the main
main agriculagriculThe free
free community
community members
members also
also performed
tural
and sowing.
sowing. Those
Those individuals
individuals who
who were
were inintural work-plowing
workplowing and
vested
performed functions
vested with
with authority
authority and
and performed
functions that
that were
were considered
considered
socially
important were
were the
the only
only ones
ones who
who did
did not
not personally
personally participarticisocially important
not work
soil.
pate in
pate
in these
these duties
duties and
and did
did not
work the
the soil.
Extensive
archaeological surveys
the most
most ancient
traces of
settleExtensive archaeological
surveys of
of the
ancient traces
of settlements in
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia show
show that
that the
the accomplishment
accomplishment of
of local
local
ments
. 2.
the Euphrates,
2. Like
Like the
the Tigris
Tigris and
and the
Euphrates, the
the Elamite
Elamite rivers
rivers discharged
discharged into
into the
the Persian
Persian
Gulf,
Gulf, though
though perpendicular
perpendicular to
to the
the other
other two.
two.
the people's
people's very
3.
work was
3. Such
Such work
was necessary
necessary for
for the
very existence.
existence. Conscription
Conscription duty
duty was
was aa
form
form of
of taxation,
taxation, much
much like
like military
military duty
duty or
or the
the regulation
regulation of
of resources
resources for
for the
the maintemainteevery tax
tax is
is exploitative.
nance
nance of
of defense;
defense; however,
however, not
not every
exploitative.

The
The City-States
City-States of
of Sumer
Sumer

69
69

land improvement
improvement and
and irrigation
irrigation systems
systems was
attended by
an influx
influx
land
was attended
by an
of inhabitants
inhabitants from
from scattered
scattered tiny
tiny villages,
villages, probably
probably made
made up
of exexof
up of
tended-family groups,
groups, into
into the
the regional,
regional, or
or nome,
nome, centers,
centers, where
where the
the
tended-family
principal temples
temples and
rich granaries
and workshops
workshops were
were situsituprincipal
and their
their rich
granaries and
ated. The
The temple
temple functioned
functioned as
as the
the collection
collection center
center for
for the
the emergency
emergency
ated.
funds of
these centers
funds
of the
the nome.
nome. From
From these
centers trading
trading agents-tamkarsagentstamkars
traveled to
to distant
distant lands
lands to
to exchange
exchange the
the grain
grain and
and textiles
textiles of
of Lower
Lower
traveled
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia for
for the
the lumber,
lumber, metals,
metals, and
and slaves
slaves of
of other
other regions.
regions. In
In
the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the second
second quarter
quarter of
of the
the third
third millennium,
millennium, the
the
densely
populated perimeters
perimeters of
by
densely populated
of the
the main
main temples
temples were
were encircled
encircled by
City
city walls.
walls. Somewhat
Somewhat earlier,
earlier, around
around 3000-2900,
3000-2900, the
the temple
temple econoeconowas necessary
necessary to
keep acacmies
became so
mies became
so large
large and
and complex
complex that
that it
it was
to keep
was born.
born.
counts of
of their
their activities.
In the
face of
of this
this necessity,
necessity, writing
writing was
activities. In
the face
counts
Invention
Invention of
of Writing:
Writing: the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period
Period
At aa very
very early
iIi history,
history, people
people felt
to pass
pass on
At
early period
period in
felt the
the need
need to
on inforinformation
not only
only orally,
orally, from
from one
one person
another, but
but also
also across
across
person to
to another,
mation not
used special
reminding (mnemonic)
time
time and
and space.
space. For
For this,
this, they
they used
special reminding
(mnemonic)
that symbolized
signs
signs that
symbolized or
or depicted
depicted the
the objects
objects of
of significance
significance or
or signs
signs
that
We know
that called
called forth
forth corresponding
corresponding associations.
associations. We
know aa considerable
considerable
amount about
about such
such signs
signs used
used by
of the
the nineteenth
and twentwenamount
by tribes
tribes of
nineteenth and
tieth
primitive conditions,
tieth centuries
centuries A.D.
A.D. under
under primitive
conditions, but
but unfortunately,
unfortunately,
until recently
recently we
we knew
knew nothing
of those
those used
used by
Neolithic
by ancient
ancient Neolithic
until
nothing of
peoples. Some
Some years
ago, the
scholar Denise
Denise SchmandtSchmandtpeoples.
years ago,
the American
American scholar
the Neolithic
of the
Besserat discovered
that the
Neolithic population
population of
the Near
Near East
East
Besserat
discovered that
used for
for communication
communication not
not only
only objects
objects that
that primarily
primarily had
another
used
had another
purpose
(and possibly
possibly drawings
drawings in
in paint
paint or
or soot,
soot, which
which have
have long
long
purpose44 (and
since disappeared)
disappeared) but
but also
also three-dimensional
three-dimensional representations
representations of
of obsince
objects,
which have
have sometimes
sometimes been
found enclosed
enclosed in
in special
special clay
clay conconbeen found
jects, which
tainers. The
The shapes
shapes of
of these
these clay
clay three-dimensional
three-dimensional mnemonic
mnemonic signs
signs
tainers.
used for
for communicating
communicating information
information is
is very
very similar
similar to
to some
some of
of the
the
used
first Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian pictorial
pictorial signs
signs that
that already
already constitute
constitute aa closed
closed sysfirst
system
(i.e., aa script).
tem (i.e.,
script).
By the
By
the end
end of
of the
the fourth
fourth and
and beginning
beginning of
of the
the third
third millennium,
millennium,
information
passed on
information was
was passed
on through
through drawings.
drawings. They
They were
were made
made on
on
soft
corner of
edge of
soft clay
clay tablets
tablets with
with the
the corner
of the
the edge
of aa reed
reed stick's
stick's cutoff
cutoff
stump.
stump. Each
Each drawn
drawn sign
sign represented
represented either
either the
the depicted
depicted object
object itself
itself
or
or concepts
concepts associated
associated with
with the
the object.
object. For
For example,
example, aa drawing
drawing of
of
the sky
sky made
made with
with aa hatched,
hatched, arched
arched line
line meant
meant "night,"
"night," as
as well
well as
as
the
"black,"
"black," "dark,"
"dark," "darkness,"
"darkness," "ill,"
"ill," and
and so
so on.
on. Similarly,
Similarly, the
the sign
sign of
of aa
4.
For example,
might signify
we
4. For
example, aa bunch
bunch of
of arrows
arrows might
signify aa declaration
declaration of
of war.
war. Of
Of course,
course, we
are unable
unable to
to identify
identify objects
objects so
so used
used by
by preliterate
preliterate peoples.
peoples.
are

70

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

foot
verbs as
foot signified
signified such
such verbs
as "to
"to go,"
go," "walk,"
"walk," "stand,"
"stand," and
and "bring."
"bring." The
The
grammatical forms
forms of
of words
words were
were not
not expressed;
expressed; it
it was
grammatical
was not
not really
really necnecessary, since
since the
the earliest
earliest documents
only numbers
numbers and
and the
the
documents recorded
recorded only
essary,
signs of
of the
the objects.
objects. It
It was
was more
more difficult
difficult to
to express
express the
the names
names of
of the
the
signs
individuals receiving
receiving or
or delivering
delivering the
the objects.
objects. Initially,
Initially, it
it was
was suffisuffiindividuals
cient to
to identify
identify them
them simply
simply by
by their
their trade:
trade: aa furnace
furnace signified
signified aa
cient
coppersmith; aa mountain
mountain (which
(which was
was the
the symbol
symbol for
for aa foreign
foreign land)
land)
coppersmith;
indicated aa slave;
slave; aa terrace(?)
terrace(?) (perhaps
(perhaps aa kind
of rostrum)
rostrum) meant
meant aa
indicated
kind of
chief priest;
priest; and
and so
so on.
on. Very
Very soon,
soon, however,
rebuses came
came into
into use:
use: if
chief
however, rebuses
if
na meant
meant "stone"
"stone" or
or "weight,"
"weight," then
sign denoting
denoting aa weight
and
na
then the
the sign
weight and
placed
that of
of aa foot
foot suggested
suggested the
the word
word gena,
gena, "walking";
"walking";and
and
placed next
next to
to that
the sign
sign for
for "heap,"
"heap," ba,
ba, placed
next to
to the
same sign
sign suggested
suggested the
the
the
placed next
the same
word guba,
"standing." At
At times,
times, the
the rebus
rebus method
method was
was used
used to
to write
write
word
guba, "standing."
entire words
words when
when their
their meaning
meaning was
was difficult
difficult to
to represent
represent pictorially.
pictorially.
entire
Thus, gi,
gi, "return,
"return, turn
turn in,"
in," was
was represented
by the
the sign
sign for
for "reed,"
"reed," gi.
gi.
Thus,
represented by
The earliest
earliest pictorial
pictorial mnemonic
mnemonic signs
signs are
are attested
attested from
from about
about 3000
3000
The
B.C., but
but it
it took
took at
at least
least 600
600 years
for this
this purely
mnemonic or
or sugsugB.C.,
years for
purely mnemonic
gestive system
system of
of sign
sign making
develop into
into an
an orderly
orderly system
system that
that
making to
to develop
gestive
could convey
convey spoken
spoken information
information over
over space
space and
and time.
time. This
This process
process
could
was
completed around
around 2400
2400 B.C.
B.C.
was completed
By
had developed
developed into
combinations of
By this
this time,
time, the
the signs
signs had
into combinations
of short,
short,
straight lines,
lines, because
it was
not possible
draw curved
curved lines
lines on
was not
possible to
to draw
on clay
clay
straight
because it
with the
the necessary
necessary speed
speed and
and without
without causing
causing accidental
accidental ridges
ridges and
and
with
other marks.
marks. This
This form
form of
of writing
made it
it difficult
difficult to
to recognize
recognize the
the
other
writing made
original drawings.
drawings. Each
Each short,
short, straight
straight line
line in
in this
system resembles
resembles aa
original
this system
wedge because
of the
angle at
at which
which the
the corner
corner of
of the
the rectangular
rectangular
the angle
wedge
because of
stick was
was pressed
pressed into
into the
the malleable
clay. Hence,
Hence, the
the term
term cuneiform
malleable clay.
cuneiform
stick
(wedge-shaped) script.
script. Each
Each cuneiform
cuneiform sign
sign could
could stand
stand for
for several
several
(wedge-shaped)
semantically related
words and,
and, for
for this
could also
also have
have sevsevthis reason,
reason, could
semantically
related words
eral phonetic
phonetic (rebus)
(rebus) values.
(The signs
signs are
are commonly
commonly referred
to as
as
referred to
eral
values. (The
syllabic. Strictly
Strictly speaking,
speaking, this
this is
is not
not correct;
correct; the
the phonetic
phonetic value
value may
may
syllabic.
babcan
canbe
be
also correspond
correspond to
to half
half aa syllable.
syllable. For
For example,
example, the
the syllable
syllable bab
also
written with
with two
two "syllabic"
"syllabic" signs:
signs: ba-ab.
ba-ab.The
Thevalue
valueisisthe
thesame
sameasasfor
for
written
the sign
sign bab,
bab, the
the difference
difference being
beinginin the
theconvenience
convenience of
of memorizing
memorizing
the
and saving
saving space,
space, not
not in
in the
the reading.)
reading.) Certain
Certain signs
signs could
could be
used as
and
be used
as
"determinatives";
that
is,
signs
that
were
not
pronounced
but
that
"determinatives"; that is, signs that were not pronounced but that
indicated the
the conceptual
conceptual category
category to
to which
which the
the neighboring
neighboring word
word beindicated
belonged
(such
as
wooden
or
metallic
objects,
fish,
birds,
or
occupalonged (such as wooden or metallic objects, fish, birds, or occupations). Determinative
Determinative signs
signs helped
helped the
the reader
reader to
to select
select the
correct
the correct
tions).
meaning
from
among
several
possible
options.
meaning from among several possible options.
Despite
the written
Despite the
the communicative
communicative imprecision
imprecision of
of the
written language
language
during this
this period
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian history,
history, it
it is
is now
now possible
possible
during
period of
to
to read
read at
at least
least some
some of
of the
the very
very ancient
ancient administrative
administrative documents.
documents.

The
The City-States
City-States of
of Sumer
Sumer

71

The
The information
information from
from these
these documents
documents and
and investigations
investigations of
of the
the
drawings used
for writing,
in conjunction
conjunction with
with archaeological
archaeological data,
data, aldrawings
used for
writing, in
allow us
us to
to partially
re-create the
ancient social
social history
of this
this country,
country,
low
partially re-create
the ancient
history of
even though
many events
events that
that occurred
occurred during
during this
even
though many
this long
long period
period of
of
history
remain unknown.
unknown.
history remain
Questions
the first
Questions inevitably
inevitably arise.
arise. What
What people
people created
created the
first civilization
civilization
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia?
Mesopotamia? What
What language
language did
did they
they speak?
speak? Linguistic
Linguistic
in
studies of
of later
later cuneiform
cuneiform inscriptions
(from about
2500 B.C.)
B.C.) and
and
studies
inscriptions (from
about 2500
proper names
mentioned in
in the
the inscriptions
inscriptions (from
(from about
about 2700
2700 B.C.)
proper
names mentioned
B.C.)
show
that Lower
by people
show that
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia was
was then
then inhabited
inhabited by
people who
who
spoke two
completely different
languages: Sumerian
Sumerian and
Eastern Sespoke
two completely
different languages:
and Eastern
Semitic.
mitic. The
The Sumerian
Sumerian language,
language, with
with its
its idiosyncratic
idiosyncratic grammar,
grammar, is
is not
not
known
known to
to be
be related
related to
to any
any language
language that
that survives
survives today.
today. However,
However, the
the
Eastern
BabyloEastern Semitic
Semitic language,
language, which
which was
was later
later called
called Akkadian
Akkadian or
or Babylonian-Assyrian, belongs
belongs to
to the
the Semitic
Semitic family
family of
of the
the Afrasian
Afrasian linguistic
linguistic
nian-Assyrian,
phylum.
phylum. The
The following
following present-day
present-day languages
languages belong
belong to
to the
the same
same
Arabic; the
family: several
family:
several languages
languages spoken
spoken in
in Ethiopia;
Ethiopia; Arabic;
the language
language of
of
the
Hebrew; and
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean island
island of
of Malta;
Malta; Hebrew;
and the
the Neo-Aramaic
Neo-Aramaic
dialects, spoken
spoken by
by aa small
small group
group of
of people
call themselves
themselves Asdialects,
people who
who call
Assyrians and
and who
who are
are dispersed
dispersed throughout
throughout many
many countries,
countries, including
including
syrians
the USSR.
USSR. The
The Akkadian,
Akkadian, or
or Babylonian-Assyrian,
language died
died out
out
the
Babylonian-Assyrian, language
before our
our era,
era, as
as did
did aa number
number of
of other
other Semitic
Semitic languages.
languages. The
The ananbefore
cient Egyptian
Egyptian language
language also
also belongs
belongs to
to the
the Afrasian
Afrasian phylum,
phylum, which
which
cient
includes aa number
number of
of languages
languages spoken
spoken today
today in
in northern
northern Africa,
Africa,
includes
Tanzania, Nigeria,
and in
in countries
countries all
all the
the way
way to
to the
the Atlantic
Atlantic coast.
coast.
Tanzania,
Nigeria, and
There
There is
is reason
reason to
to believe
believe that
that in
in the
the fourth
fourth millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. and,
and,
perhaps, even
even later,
later, there
there were
were still
still people
in the
Tigris and
and EuphraEuphraperhaps,
people in
the Tigris
tes valleys
valleys who
who spoke
spoke languages
languages that
that became
became extinct
extinct in
in early
early AntiqAntiqtes
uity. It
It is
is possible
that the
the speakers
speakers of
of one
one of
of these
these languages
languages were
were the
the
uity.
possible that
first to
to have
have created
created systematic
systematic irrigation
works in
in the
the Diyala
Diyala Valley,
Valley,
first
irrigation works
and they
they may
taken part
also in
in the
the development
development of
of the
the lands
lands in
in
and
may have
have taken
part also
Lower Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. Although
Although in
in the
the latter
latter region
the main
main role
Lower
region the
role was
was
probably played
by Sumerians,
Sumerians, Eastern
Eastern Semitic-speaking
Semitic-speaking peoples
peoples also
also
probably
played by
participated, particularly
particularly on
on the
the northern
northern borders
borders of
of Lower
Lower Mesoparticipated,
Mesopotamia. The
The earliest
earliest Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian texts
texts (ca.
(ca. 2900-2500
29002500 B.C.)
B.C.) were
were
potamia.
written, without
doubt, exclusively
exclusively in
in Sumerian;
Sumerian; the
the character
character of
of the
the
written,
without doubt,
rebus-like
use
of
signs
proves
this.
It
is
obvious
that
if
the
word
"reed"
rebus-like use of signs proves this. It is obvious that if the word "reed"
coincides with
with the
the word
word "return"-gi-then
"return"githen we
we must
must be
be dealing
dealing with
with
coincides
aa language
language that
that had
had just
just such
such aa phonetic
phonetic coincidence:
coincidence: Sumerian.
Sumerian. This
This
does not
mean that
that at
at that
that time
time and
and even
even earlier,
earlier, Eastern
Eastern Semites
Semites and,
and,
does
not mean
perhaps, people
people who
who spoke
spoke another
another language,
language, now
did
perhaps,
now unknown,
unknown, did
not inhabit
inhabit Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia together
together with
with the
the Sumerians
Sumerians or
or benot
before them.
them.
fore

72

I.
Diakonoff
/. M. Diakonqff

We
We have
have no
no indications,
indications, archaeological
archaeological or
or linguistic,
linguistic, to
to prove
prove that
that
the
jointly parthe Eastern
Eastern Semites
Semites were
were nomads
nomads and
and that
that they
they could
could not
not jointly
participate with
with the
the Sumerians
Sumerians in
in the
the great
great task
task of
of developing
developing the
the EuEuticipate
phrates region.
phrates
region. Nor
Nor do
do we
we have
have reason
reason to
to believe
believe that
that Eastern
Eastern Semites
Semites
invaded Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia around
around 2750
2750 B.C.,
B.C., as
as many
many scholars
scholars once
once supsupinvaded
posed.
posed. On
On the
the contrary,
contrary, linguistic
linguistic data
data show
show that
that already
already during
during the
the
Neolithic, the
the Eastern
Eastern Semites
Semites must
must have
have settled
settled between
between the
the EuphraEuphraNeolithic,
tes and
and the
the Tigris.
Tigris. Apparently,
Apparently, however,
however, the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the southsouthtes
ern part
part of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia spoke
spoke primarily
primarily Sumerian
Sumerian until
until at
at
ern
least 2350
2350 B.C.,
B.C., whereas
whereas the
the Eastern
Eastern Semitic
Semitic language
language was
was spoken
spoken side
side
least
by side
side with
with Sumerian
Sumerian in
in the
the central
central and
and northern
northern parts
parts of
of Lower
Lower
by
Mesopotamia and
and was
was predominant
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. Judging
Judging
Mesopotamia
predominant in
from the
the available
available information,
information, there
there was
was no
no ethnic
ethnic enmity
enmity between
between
from
the people
who spoke
spoke these
these completely
completely different
different languages.
languages. Evithe
people who
Evidently, people
of that
that time
time did
did not
not think
think in
in broad
broad categories
categories of
of linlindently,
people of
guistic and
and ethnic
ethnic groups;
groups; they
they both
both made
made friends
friends and
and made
made war
war only
only
guistic
at the
the level
level of
of the
the smaller
smaller units-the
unitsthe tribes,
tribes, nomes,
nomes, and
and territorial
territorial
at
communities. At
At the
the same
same time,
time, there
there could
could have
have been
been aa sense
sense of
of idenidencommunities.
tity on
on aa broader
broader level.
level. For
For example,
example, all
all the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Lower
Lower
tity
Mesopotamia, regardless
regardless of
of which
which language
language they
they spoke,
spoke, called
called themthemMesopotamia,
selves "black-headed
"black-headed people"
(sang-ngigaininSumerian
Sumerian and
and tsalmattsalmatselves
people" (sang-ngiga
qaqqadiininAkkadian).
Akkadian).
qaqqadi
historic events
us,
Since
Since the
the historic
events of
of such
such remote
remote times
times are
are unknown
unknown to
to us,
historians use
use archaeological
archaeological periods
periods to
to classify
classify the
the earliest
earliest ancient
ancient
historians
history
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. They
They distinguish
distinguish aa Protoliterate
Protoliterate Pehistory of
Period (2900-2750
(2900-2750 B.C.,
B.C., with
with two
two subperiods)
subperiods) from
from an
an Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic
riod
We have
have three
three ararPeriod (2750-2310
(2750-2310 B.C.,
B.C., with
with three
three subperiods).5
subperiods).5 We
Period
chives from
from the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period,
Period, not
not counting
counting occasional
occasional isolated
isolated
chives
documents. Two
Two of
of the
the archives,
archives, one
one of
of which
which is
is somewhat
somewhat older
older than
than
documents.
the other,
other, were
were found
found in
in the
the city
city of
of Uruk
Uruk (present-day
(present-day Warka)
Warka) in
in
the
southern Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, and
and one
one is
is from
from the
the archaeological
archaeological site
site
southern
of Jemdet-Nasr
Jemdet-Nasr in
in the
north. (The
(The ancient
ancient name
name of
of the
the city
city is
is not
not
of
the north.
known.) The
The latter
latter archive
archive is
is contemporaneous
contemporaneous with
with the
the second,
second, more
more
known.)
recent Uruk
Uruk archive.
archive. Two
Two Soviet
Soviet scholars,
scholars, A.
A. I.
I. Tyumenev
Tyumenev and
and A.
A. A.
recent
A.
Vaiman, attempted
attempted aa study
study into
into the
the social
social order
order of
of the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate
Vaiman,
Period. Whereas
Whereas Tyumenev's
Tyumenev's research
research was
was based
based exclusively
exclusively on
on the
the
Period.
interpretation of
of the
the pictographs
pictographs themselves,
themselves, Vaiman's
Vaiman's was
was based
based on
on
interpretation
the actual
actual readings
readings of
of some
some of
of the
the documents.
documents.
the
Note that
Note
that the
the system
system of
of writing
writing during
during the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period,
Period, dedespite its
its unwieldiness,
unwieldiness, was
was identical
identical in
in both
both the
the southern
southern and
and the
the
spite
northern parts
parts of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. This
This suggests
suggests that
that it
it origioriginorthern
5. According
According to
to the
the latest
latest findings,
findings, these
these dates
dates should
should perhaps
perhaps be
be corrected
corrected to
to some5.
somewhat earlier
earlier ones.
ones.
what

The
The City-States
City-States of
of Sumer
Sumer

73
73

nated
in aa single
single center
center that
have enjoyed
enjoyed considerable
considerable auaunated in
that must
must have
thority, since
since the
the invention
was adopted
adopted by
by different
different nomes
nomes regardless
regardless
thority,
invention was
of
no economic
political unity
of the
the fact
fact that
that no
economic or
or political
unity existed
existed among
among them
them and
and
that
of
that their
their main
main canals
canals were
were separated
separated from
from each
each other
other by
by zones
zones of
desert. This
This center
center was,
was, apparently,
apparently, the
the city
city of
of Nippur,
situated bedesert.
Nippur, situated
between the
the southern
southern and
and northern
of the
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valtween
northern parts
parts of
the Lower
Valley. Here
Here the
temple of
of the
the god
Enlil was
worshiped
ley.
the temple
god Enlil
was situated.
situated. Enlil
Enlil was
was worshiped
by all
all "black-headed
"black-headed people,"
although each
each nome
nome also
also had
had its
its own
own
by
people," although
mythology
and pantheon
(system of
of deities).
deities). At
At some
some period
during
pantheon (system
period during
mythology and
the pre-urban
pre-urban epoch,
epoch, Nippur
was probably
the ritual
ritual center
center of
of aa SuSuthe
Nippur was
probably the
merian
tribal union.
union. Although
Nippur was
was never
never aa political
political center,
center,
merian tribal
Although Nippur
it remained
remained an
important cultural
cultural center
for aa long
long time.
an important
center for
time.
it
Some
the Protoliterate
Some of
of the
the documents
documents of
of the
Protoliterate Period
Period come
come from
from the
the
economic
the Eanna
economic administrative
administrative archive
archive of
of the
Eanna temple,
temple, which
which was
was dedidedicated to
to the
the goddess
Inanna and
and around
around which
the city
city of
of Uruk
cated
goddess Inanna
which the
Uruk was
was
consolidated.
consolidated. The
The rest
rest of
of the
the documents
documents come
come from
from an
an analogous
analogous
at Jemdet-Nasr.
Jemdet-Nasr. The
documents show
temple
temple archive
archive found
found at
The documents
show that
that the
the
temple's
was composed
temple's household
household was
composed of
of numerous
numerous specialized
specialized craftsmen
craftsmen
and
both sexes.
male slaves
and quite
quite aa few
few captured
captured slaves
slaves of
of both
sexes. The
The male
slaves probaprobathe general
mass of
temple's dependents.
bly
bly were
were absorbed
absorbed into
into the
general mass
of the
the temple's
dependents.
In
was certainly
In any
any case,
case, such
such was
certainly the
the case
case two
two centuries
centuries later.
later. It
It also
also apappears that
the community
community allotted
pears
that the
allotted large
large parcels
parcels of
of land
land to
to its
its principal
principal
functionaries,
judge, the
sefunctionaries, such
such as
as the
the soothsayer-priest,
soothsayer-priest, the
the chief
chief judge,
the senior priestess,
the trade
But the
the lion's
nior
priestess, and
and the
the chief
chief of
of the
trade agents.
agents. But
lion's share
share
was
given to
to the
the priest
priest holding
the title
was given
holding the
title en.
en.
An en
en was
was the
the supreme
supreme priest
priest in
in those
those communities
communities that
that worshiped
worshiped
An
aa goddess
goddess as
as their
their supreme
supreme deity.
deity. He
He represented
represented the
the community
community to
to
the outside
outside world
world and
and presided
over the
the community
community council.
council. He
He also
also
the
presided over
partook in
in the
the "sacred
"sacred marriage"
marriage" rite
rite with
with the
chief goddess.
goddess. (In
(In
partook
the chief
Uruk,
Uruk, it
it was
was Inanna.)
Inanna.) This
This was
was aa ceremony
ceremony that
that evidently
evidently was
was considconsidered
the general
well-being and
ered necessary
necessary in
in order
order to
to ensure
ensure the
general well-being
and fertility
fertility
of
In communities
where the
the supreme
supreme deity
was
of the
the land
land of
of Uruk.
Uruk. In
communities where
deity was
male,
was aa priestess,
male, there
there was
priestess, also
also called
called en
en (sometimes
(sometimes she
she was
was known
known
by other
titles), who
participated in
in the
the sacred
marriage rite
by
other titles),
who also
also participated
sacred marriage
rite with
with
the
chief
local
deity.
The
land
assigned
to
the
en
(called
ashag-en
the chief local deity. The land assigned to the en (called ashag-enoror
nig-en) gradually
gradually became
became temple
land. Its
Its crop
crop became
the commucommunig-en)
temple land.
became the
nity's
emergency reserve
stock and
and was
was also
also 'used
used for
for exchange
exchange with
with
nity's emergency
reserve stock
other communities
communities and
and countries,
countries, for
for sacrifices
sacrifices to
gods, and
and for
for
other
to the
the gods,
the
rations of
of the
temple personnelits
craftsmen, tillers
tillers of
of the
the rations
the temple
personnel-its craftsmen,
the soil,
soil,
fishermen, and
and others
others (sometimes
(sometimes rations
given to
to personnel
personnel in
in
fishermen,
rations were
were given
addition to
to land).
land). The
The priests
priests usually
usually also
also had
personal land
land allotallotaddition
had personal
ments
within the
community. It
is still
still not
not quite
quite clear
who worked
worked the
the
ments within
the community.
It is
clear who
nig-en land
land during
during the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period,
Period, though
we know
that it
nig-en
though we
know that
it
was
later cultivated
by different
This appears
appears from
from
was later
cultivated by
different kinds
kinds of
of helots.
helots. This

74
74

I.
1- M.
M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

the
Uruk's neighboring
Ur, as
as
the data
data of
of an
an archive
archive from
from Uruk's
neighboring city,
city, archaic
archaic Ur,
belong to
next, or
well
well as
as from
from certain
certain other
other archives;
archives; they
they all
all belong
to the
the next,
or
Early Dynastic,
Dynastic, period.
period.
Early

The
The Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic Period
Period
The
The establishment
establishment of
of an
an Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic Period
Period as
as distinct
distinct from
from the
the
Protoliterate
based on
various archaeological
Protoliterate is
is based
on various
archaeological reasons
reasons that
that would
would be
be
but the
difficult
difficult to
to discuss
discuss here;
here; but
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic Period
Period also
also stands
stands out
out
quite
purely historical
historical point
view.
quite clearly
clearly from
from aa purely
point of
of view.
In
In the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., the
the Sumerians
Sumerians composed
composed aa sort
sort of
of
primitive account
history: the
the "King
"King List."
List." It
It recorded
recorded all
all the
the kings,
kings,
primitive
account of
of history:
who supposedly
supposedly ruled
ruled in
in aa consecutive
consecutive order,
order, succeeding
succeeding one
one another
another
who
The
in the
the various
various cities
cities of
of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia from
from the
the beginning
of time.
in
beginning of
time. The
kings ruling
ruling one
one after
after another
another in
in the
the same
same city
city were
were conventionally
conventionally
kings
regarded as
as one
one "dynasty."
"dynasty." Actually,
Actually, mythological
mythological as
as well
as historical
historical
regarded
well as
characters were
were included
included in
in this
list, and
and the
the dynasties
dynasties of
of the
the individindividcharacters
this list,
ual cities
cities often
often ruled
ruled contemporaneously
contemporaneously rather
rather than
than sequentially.
sequentially.
ual
Moreover, most
most of
of the
the enumerated
enumerated rulers
rulers were
were not
not kings:
some bore
bore
kings: some
Moreover,
the title
title en-priest;
^n-priest; some
some were
were "Big
"Big Men"
(Sumerian lu-gal,
lu-gal,lugal)-that
lugal)that
the
Men" (Sumerian
is, chiefs
chiefs who
who were
were military
military commanders;
commanders; and
and some
some were
were ensi,
ensi, which
which
is,
possibly
"priest-founder (of
(of buildings?)."
adopting
meant "priest-founder
buildings?)." The
The ruler's
ruler's adopting
possibly meant
one or
or the
other title
title depended
depended on
on circumstances
and on
on the
traone
the other
circumstances and
the local
local traditions of
city. The
of years
in the
to the
the duduof the
the city.
The number
number of
years assigned
assigned in
the list
list to
ditions
ration of
individual reigns
is rarely
cases, it
ration
of the
the individual
reigns is
rarely reliable;
reliable; in
in most
most cases,
it
resulted
arbitrary manipulations
manipulations of
of the
the figures.
figures. The
King
from later
later arbitrary
The King
resulted from
List
is essentially
essentially based
on aa count
of generations
based on
count of
generations according
according to
to two
two
List is
major
originally independent
lists; one
one is
is connected
connected with
the
major lines,
lines, originally
independent lists;
with the
cities
of Uruk
and Ur
in southern
southern Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, and
and the
other
cities of
Uruk and
Ur in
the other
6
If we
entirely disregard
disregard the
the imagiwith
city of
of Kish
in the
with the
the city
Kish in
the north.
north. 6 If
we entirely
imaginary
dynasties
that,
according
to
the
King
List,
ruled
"before
the
nary dynasties that, according to the King List, ruled "before the
Flood,"
then
the
beginning
of
the
First
Dynasty
of
Kish
(the
first
Flood," then the beginning of the First Dynasty of Kish (the first
"after the
approximately coincide
coincide with
"after
the Flood")
Flood") will
will approximately
with the
the beginning
beginning of
of
the
Early
Dynastic
Period;
according
to
the
archaeological
periodizathe Early Dynastic Period; according to the archaeological periodization,
of the
Dynastic Period
is referred
"ED I."
I."
part of
the Early
Early Dynastic
Period is
referred to
to as
as "ED
tion, this
this part
This
is the
the time
of the
mentioned archaic
Ur,
This is
time of
the previously
previously mentioned
archaic archive
archive from
from Ur,
Uruk's
Uruk's neighboring
neighboring city.
city.
En-Menbaragesi, the
of the
of Kish,
Kish,
the penultimate
penultimate ruler
ruler of
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
En-Menbaragesi,
is
the first
first Sumerian
Sumerian statesman
not only
the King
King List
is the
statesman not
only included
included in
in the
List but
but
also known
from his
his own
own inscriptions;
inscriptions; so
so there
are no
doubts about
about
also
known from
there are
no doubts
6.
6. Only
Only in
in the
the latter
latter part
part of
of the
the Uruk-Ur
Uruk-Ur list
list are
are the
the durations
durations of
of reigns
reigns based
based on
on
lists
lists of
of "date
"date formulae"
formulae" (lists
(lists of
of designations
designations of
of years
years according
according to
to events
events occurring
occurring in
in
them).
them). Such
Such assessments
assessments of
of the
the duration
duration of
of reigns
reigns may
may be
be regarded
regarded as
as more
more or
or less
less
reliable.
reliable.

The
City-States of
The City-States
of Sumer
Sumer

75
75

his historical
authenticity. He
waged war
against Sumer's
Sumer's neighboring
neighboring
his
historical authenticity.
He waged
war against
cities
in Elam,
in the
the valley
valley of
rivers, where
cities in
Elam, in
of the
the Karun
Karun and
and Kerkheh
Kerkheh rivers,
where
the
that of
the historical
historical development
development was
was similar
similar to
to that
of Sumer.
Sumer. Thus,
Thus, there
there
should not
be too
much doubt
doubt also
also about
about the
authenticity of
of Aka,
the
should
not be
too much
the authenticity
Aka, the
son of
of Menbaragesi,
Menbaragesi, also
also mentioned
mentioned in
in the
King List.
The only
other
son
the King
List. The
only other
mention
of him
is in
an epic
epic that
reached us
copy written
written
mention of
him is
in an
that has
has reached
us in
in aa copy
down about
about aa thousand
thousand years
years later.
later. According
to this
tried
down
According to
this epic,
epic, Aka
Aka tried
to
Uruk in
to place
place Uruk
in the
the south
south under
under the
the control
control of
of his
his native
native Kish,
Kish, and
and
the
council of
was about
about to
accept it
until the
the council
of Uruk's
Uruk's elders
elders was
to accept
it until
the popular
popular
assembly
of the
city proclaimed
the chief
priest (en),
Gilgamesh, as
as
assembly of
the city
proclaimed the
chief priest
(en), Gilgamesh,
their
chief military
resist Aka.
Aka. Aka
Aka bebetheir chief
military leader
leader (lugal)
(lugal) and
and decided
decided to
to resist
sieged
Uruk but
but did
did not
not succeed,
consequently, it
it was
was Kish
Kish that
that
sieged Uruk
succeed, and
and consequently,
had
to Uruk
Gilgamesh. According
had to
to submit
submit to
Uruk under
under the
the leadership
leadership of
of Gilgamesh.
According
to the
the King
Gilgamesh belonged
to the
the First
Uruk.
to
King List,
List, Gilgamesh
belonged to
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Uruk.
Eventually,
hero of
of many
Eventually, Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh became
became the
the hero
many Sumerian
Sumerian epic
epic
songs
of the
Akkadian lansongs and:later,
and, later, of
the great
great epic
epic poem
poem written
written in
in the
the Akkadian
language (Eastern
Semitic). These
These literary
compositions will
will be
be discussed
discussed
guage
(Eastern Semitic).
literary compositions
in
the lectures
dealing with
the Sumerian
Sumerian and
Let
in the
lectures dealing
with the
and Babylonian
Babylonian culture.
culture. Let
us
mention here
here that
that the
the identification
identification of
of an
an epic
epic hero
hero with
with aa hisus just
just mention
hisperson is
is aa very
very common
common feature
toric
toric person
feature of
of ancient
ancient literature.
literature. However,
However,
the
myths that
used for
for the
the myths
that were
were used
the plots
plots in
in the
the songs
songs about
about Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh
are
older than
historical figure.
himself seems
are much
much older
than that
that historical
figure. Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh himself
seems
to
been aa remarkable
remarkable enough
remain in
in the
to have
have been
enough personality
personality to
to remain
the memmemories
generations. (Soon
after his
he was
ories of
of much
much later
later generations.
(Soon after
his death,
death, he
was deified,
deified,
and his
was known
known in
Near East
as late
late as
and
his name
name was
in the
the Near
East even
even as
as the
the eleventh
eleventh
century
glorify his
his major
The epics
epics glorify
major accomplishments:
accomplishments: the
the buildbuildcentury A.D.). The
ing of
of Uruk's
Uruk's city
city wall
wall and
to the
the mountains
mountains77 to
ing
and an
an expedition
expedition to
to obtain
obtain
cedar.
whether such
cedar. (It
(It is
is not
not known
known whether
such an
an expedition
expedition actually
actually took
took
place.)
place.)
Gilgamesh begins
begins the
the second
second stage
stage of
of the
the Early
Period (ED
(ED
Early Dynastic
Dynastic Period
Gilgamesh
II).
Our knowledge
knowledge of
of the
socioeconomic conditions
conditions of
of that
that time
time
II). Our
the socioeconomic
stems from
from yet
which was
was discovered
discovered in
the ancient
ancient
stems
yet another
another archive,
archive, which
in the
town of
of Shuruppak.
Shuruppak. It
contains economic
economic and
and legal
legal documents,
documents, as
It contains
as
town
well as
as educational
educational texts
texts of
of the
the twenty-sixth
twenty-sixth century
century B.C.
B.C.88 One
One part
of
well
part of
this
belongs to
to the
the temple
temple economy,
economy, while
while other
other documents
documents
this archive
archive belongs
come from
from individual
come
individual houses.
houses.
learned from
that the
the territorial
We
have learned
We have
from these
these documents
documents that
territorial commucommunity (nome)
Shuruppak was
union of
nity
(nome) of
of Shuruppak
was part
part of
of aa military
military union
of communities
communities
headed by
headed
by Uruk.
Uruk. Apparently,
Apparently, the
the direct
direct descendants
descendants of
of Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh (the
(the
First
Dynasty of
at the
Uruk's warriors
First Dynasty
of Uruk)
Uruk) ruled
ruled at
the time.
time. Some
Some of
of Uruk's
warriors
7.
version of
7. The
The later
later version
of the
the epic,
epic, in
in Akkadian,
Akkadian, speaks
speaks of
of the
the Lebanon,
Lebanon, but
but originally
originally
some less
less distant
mountains to
east probably
meant.
some
distant mountains
to the
the east
probably were
were meant.
8. Such
Such texts,
texts, as
as well
well as
as the
the earliest
copies of
of literary
literary compositions
compositions so
far discovered,
discovered,
8.
earliest copies
so far
were
found at
present-day Abu-Salabikh.
were found
at another
another site
site dating
dating from
from that
that time,
time, present-day
Abu-Salabikh.

76

I.
/. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

were
were stationed
stationed in
in the
the different
different cities
cities of
of the
the union,
union, but
but the
the lugals
lugals of
of
Uruk did
not, in
the local
community's affairs.
Uruk
did not,
in general,
general, interfere
interfere in
in the
local community's
affairs. At
At
this time
time the
temple economy
economy was
already separate
separate from
from the
territowas already
the territothis
the temple
rial
community and
and from
from the
the economies
economies of
of the
extended-family comcomrial community
the extended-family
munes
established on
on its
its land.
land. Nevertheless,
connection between
between
munes established
Nevertheless, the
the connection
the
temple and
and the
the community
community remained
conspicuous. When
When necesthe temple
remained conspicuous.
necessary, the
community loaned
loaned draft
animals to
the temple
temple
sary,
the territorial
territorial community
draft animals
to the
economies (donkeys
(donkeys were
were most
most often
often used
for this
this purpose)
and, posused for
purpose) and,
poseconomies
sibly, even
even donated
donated the
the labor
labor of
of its
its members;
in turn,
the temple
temple supsupmembers; in
turn, the
sibly,
plied
food for
for the
traditional feast
feast that
that took
took place
during the
general
the traditional
place during
the general
plied food
assembly of
of the
the community.
community. The
The ruler
ruler of
of the
Shuruppak nome
nome was
was an
an
assembly
the Shuruppak
ensi,
quite unimportant
unimportant figure.
figure. He
He received
received aarelatively
relatively small
small allotallotensf, aa quite
ment;
it seems
seems that
council of
of elders
elders and
and some
some of
of the
were
that the
the council
the priests
priests were
ment; it
more important
important than
than he
he was.
The years
were not
not counted
counted by
the
more
was. The
years were
by the
reigning
of the
ensi but
annual periods
during which
which
reigning years
years of
the ensf
but by
by the
the annual
periods during
duty, apparently
apparently ritual,
ritual, was
performed alternately
alternately by
the
some sort
sort of
of duty,
was performed
by the
some
representatives
of the
different temples
temples and
and by
those of
of the
the various
various
representatives of
the different
by those
minor
communities making
making up
the Shuruppak
Shuruppak nome.
nome.
minor territorial
territorial communities
up the
Craftsmen, cowherds,
cowherds, shepherds,
shepherds, and
and agriculturalists
agriculturalists of
of the
most
the most
Craftsmen,
diverse
worked in
the temple
economy. It
diverse social
social categories
categories worked
in the
temple economy.
It seems
seems that
that
they usually
rations for
for their
their labor,
labor, although
although some
some of
of them
them
they
usually received
received rations
may have
have obtained
obtained service-conditioned
service-conditioned land
land allotments
allotments (not
as propmay
(not as
property, of
of course).
course). They
They were
all deprived
deprived of
of property
in the
the means
means
were all
property in
erty,
of production
and were
were extraeconomically
extraeconomically exploited.
exploited. Some
Some of
of them
them
of
production and
were
fugitives from
from other
other communities;
some were
descendants of
were fugitives
communities; some
were descendants
of
prisoners-of-war;
many of
of the
workers were
local people.
prisoners-of-war; but
but many
the workers
were probably
probably local
people.
Female workers
workers were
were automatically
automatically labeled
labeled slaves.
Female
slaves.
the temple,
temple, the
the extended-family
households sometimes
Outside
Outside the
extended-family households
sometimes
their land.
resold
sold their
land. The
The patriarch
patriarch of
of the
the extended-family
extended-family commune
commune received
the payment
payment for
this land;
happened to
to be
be dead,
dead, payment
ceived the
for this
land; if
if he
he happened
payment
went
"brothers"that is,
is, the
descendants in
in the
next generagenerathe "brothers"-that
the descendants
the next
went to
to the
tion. Other
tion.
Other adult
adult community
community members
members received
received gifts
gifts or
or symbolic
symbolic
treats
for agreeing
agreeing to
transaction. The
for the
(in
to the
the transaction.
The payment
payment for
the land
land (in
treats for
kind
or in
in copper)
copper) was
was extremely
extremely low,
and it
it is
is entirely
entirely possible
that
kind or
low, and
possible that
after
the "purchaser"
the parcel
after aa certain
certain time,
time, the
"purchaser" actually
actually had
had to
to return
return the
parcel
of land to
commune of
of the
original owners.
ofland
to the
the household
household commune
the original
owners.99
Toward
middle of
B.C., in
to the
Toward the
the middle
of the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.,
in addition
addition to
the
{lugal,en,
en,and
andens)
ensi)who
whowere
wereunder
underthe
thepopomilitary and
military
and cultic
cultic leaders
leaders (lugal,
litical
control of
of the
councils of
of elders,
elders, aa new
new figure
figure emerged:
emerged: the
the
the councils
litical control
9.
Another explanation
conditioned by
by aa catastrophically
9. Another
explanation is
is that
that the
the sales
sales were
were conditioned
catastrophically poor
poor
crop;
crop; aa "sale"
"sale" would
would then
then be
be regarded
regarded as
as an
an input
input in
in the
the reciprocal
reciprocal aid
aid fund,
fund, and
and either
either
the
could be
retrieved later
some other
services could
could be
from
the property
property could
be retrieved
later or
or some
other services
be requested
requested from
the "purchaser"
the hypothesis
the text
text tallies
tallies with
with
the
"purchaser" at
at aa later
later date.
date. However,
However, the
hypothesis as
as stated
stated in
in the
later Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian customs.
customs.
later

The
The City-States
City-States of
of Sumer
Sumer

77
77

hegemonic
hegemonic lugal.
lugal. This
This lugal
lugalrelied
reliedon
onthe
thesupport
supportofofhis
hispersonal
personalfolfollowers and
and his
his own
own military
military troop,
whom he
he could
could keep
keep without
without the
the
troop, whom
lowers
council's
council's approval
approval or
or consent.
consent. With
With the
the help
help of
of this
this military
military detachdetachment, he
he was
was able
able to
to conquer
conquer other
other nomes
nomes and
and place
place himself
himself above
above
ment,
the individual
individual nome
nome councils,
councils, which
which continued
continued to
to act
act only
only on
on the
the
the
nome level.
level. In
In the
the northern
northern part
part of
of the
the country,
country, the
the hegemonic
hegemonic lugal
nome
lugal
usually adopted
adopted the
title of
of "lugal
"lugal of
of Kish"
Kish" (this
(this was
was aa play
play on
on words,
words,
usually
the title
and in
in the
the southern
southern part,
part,
meaning also"
also "lugal
of the
the multitudes"),10
multitudes"),10 and
meaning
lugal of
the title
title of"
of "lugal
of the
the Country."
Country." To
To earn
earn the
the latter
latter title,
title, itit was
was necesnecesthe
lugal of
sary to
to be
be recognized
recognized in
in the
the temple
temple of
of the
the city
city of
of Nippur.
Nippur.
sary
In order
order for
for the
the lugals
lugals to
to be.
be independent
independent of
of the
the nome
nome bodies
bodies
In
of
independent resources-primarily
of self-government,
self-government, they
they needed
needed independent
resourcesprimarily
land,
land, which
which they
they could
could allot
allot to
to their
their followers
followers without
without bothering
bothering about
about
their
their daily
daily sustenance.
sustenance. Allowing
Allowing his
his followers
followers to
to sustain
sustain themselves
themselves
was
was much
much more
more convenient
convenient for
for the
the lugal,
lugal, because
because he
hedid
did not
not need
need toto
rations. Since
the temples
provide them
provide
them with
with grain
grain and
and other
other rations.
Since the
temples actually
actually
had
the lugals
had both
both the
the resources
resources and
and the
the land,
land, the
lugalstried
triedtotogain
gaincontrol
controlof
of
the
the temples,
temples, either
either by
by marrying
marrying the
the chief
chief priestess
priestess or
or by
by forcing
forcing the
the
council to
to elect
elect them
them as
as both
military leader
leader and
and chief
chief priest;
priest; it
it would
would
council
both military
then be
possible to
to entrust
entrust the
the administration
administration of
of the
the temple
temple to
men
then
be possible
to men
lugalinstead
instead of
of to
to the
the community
community elders.
elders.
personally
dependent on
on the
the lugal
personally dependent
The
lugals were
were those
those of
of the
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur,
Ur, which
which
The wealthiest
wealthiest lugals
replaced the
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of nearby
nearby Uruk:
these were
were Mesanepada
Mesanepada
Uruk: these
replaced
and
and his
his successors.
successors. (The
(The last
last lugals
lugals of
of the
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
Ur moved
moved
from Ur
back to
and founded
founded the
Second Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Uruk.)
Uruk.)
from
Ur back
to Uruk
Uruk and
the Second
Their
was based
Their wealth
wealth was
based not
not only
only on
on the
the seizure
seizure of
of temple
temple land
land (we
(we can
can
indirect reference)11
assume this
but also
also on
on trade.
trade.
assume
this from
from an
an indirect
reference)11 but
During
asDuring the
the excavations
excavations at
at Ur,
Ur, archaeologists
archaeologists discovered
discovered an
an astonishing
A sloping
tonishing burial.
burial. A
sloping passage
passage led
led to
to aa subterranean
subterranean chamber.
chamber.
There
There were
were carts
carts with
with harnessed
harnessed oxen
oxen in
in the
the passage.
passage. The
The entrance
entrance
was
was guarded
guarded by
by warriors
warriors in
in helmets,
helmets, holding
holding spears;
spears; both
both the
the oxen
oxen
and
and the
the warriors
warriors had
had been
been killed
killed during
during the
the preparations
preparations for
for burial.
burial.
The
The funeral
funeral chamber
chamber itself
itself was
was aa rather
rather large
large dug-out
dug-out space;
space; dozens
dozens
of
had originally
originally
of women
women were
were seated
seated along
along its
its walls.
walls. (Actually
(Actually they
they had
been seated;
seated; archaeologists
archaeologists found
found the
the skeletons
skeletons lying
lying on
on the
the floor.)
floor.)
been
Some held
held musical
musical instruments.
instruments. Their
Their hair
hair had
had once
once been
been gathered
gathered in
in
Some
the back
and fastened
above their
their foreheads
foreheads by
by silver
silver bands.
bands. One
One of
of
the
back and
fastened above
the women
women apparently
apparently died
died before
before she
she had
had time
time to
to don
don her
her silver
silver
the
10.
10. This
This title
title is
is frequently
frequently translated
translated as
as "King
"King of
of the
the Universe."
Universe." This
This translation,
translation,
however,
however, is
is probably
probably incorrect.
incorrect.
11.
11. Thus,
Thus, Mesanepada
Mesanepada assumed
assumed the
the title
title "husband
"husband of
of the
the (heavenly?)
(heavenly?) harlot,"
harlot," meanmeaning
harlot, goddess
harlot-priestess of
ing either
either "the
"the heavenly
heavenly harlot,
goddess Inanna
Inanna of
of Uruk"
Uruk" or
or "the
"the harlot-priestess
of
goddess Inanna."
Inanna." In
In either
either case,
case, it
it means
means that
that he
he daimed
claimed authority
authority over
over Inanna's
Inanna's
goddess
temple.
temple.

78

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

band,
band, and
and it
it rested
rested in
in the
the folds
folds of
of her
her dress;
dress; the
the metal
metal was
was imprinted
imprinted
with
with the
the remains
remains of
of aa valuable
valuable fabric.
fabric.
In aa corner
corner of
of aa neighboring
neighboring funeral
funeral chamber
chamber there
there was
small
In
was aa small
of bricks
bricks with
with aa sort
bed inside.
This was
vaulted cell
cell made
vaulted
made of
sort of
of bed
inside. This
was clearly
clearly
no
burial; on
the bed,
bed, the
woman lay
lay
no common
common Sumerian
Sumerian burial;
on the
the skeleton
skeleton of
of aa woman
supine.
The woman
woman was
was dressed
of imsupine. The
dressed in
in aa mantle
mantle of
of blue
blue beads
beads of
imported
lapis lazuli;
lazuli; she
she wore
rich bead
necklaces of
of carnelian
carnelian and
and
ported lapis
wore rich
bead necklaces
gold, large
large golden
golden earrings,
earrings, and
and aa peculiar
headdress made
made of
of golden
golden
gold,
peculiar headdress
flowers. Judging
Judging from
from the
inscription on
on her
seal, her
name was
flowers.
the inscription
her seal,
her name
was
Also found
found were
number of
of gold
gold and
and silver
silver objects
objects that
that had
had
Puabi.
Puabi.12
12 Also
were aa number
belonged
Puabi, including
including two
harps of
of exquisite
exquisite workmanship
workmanship
belonged to
to Puabi,
two harps
with images
images (on
(on the
one, of
of aa bull;
on the
other, of
of aa cow)
cow) sculpted
sculpted in
in
bull; on
the other,
with
the one,
gold and
and lapis
lapis lazuli
lazuli on
on the
the resonance
resonance box.
Archaeologists found
found
box. Archaeologists
gold
some similar
similar burials
nearby, although
although they
they were
were not
not as
as completely
completely
some
burials nearby,
intact. The
The remains
remains of
of the
the central
central figure
figure were
in any
any
were not
not preserved
preserved in
intact.
of them.
them.
of
Puabi's
burial stimulated
Puabi's burial
stimulated debates
debates among
among scholars
scholars that
that continue
continue to
to
unlike any
this
this day;
day; in
in its
its lavishness
lavishness it
it is
is unlike
any other
other of
of that
that epoch,
epoch, including
including
aa shaft
shaft burial,
burial, also
also uncovered
uncovered in
in Ur,
Ur, of
of aa king
king whose
whose remains
remains were
were
found
female coiffure
coiffure with
with aa
found wearing
wearing aa golden
golden helmet
helmet in
in the
the form
form of
of aa female
sacrirolled-up
rolled-up braid
braid of
of exceptionally
exceptionally fine
fine craftsmanship.
craftsmanship. None
None of
of the
the sacrificial
ficial victims
victims of
of Puabi's
Puabi's funeral
funeral showed
showed any
any traces
traces of
of violence;
violence; they
they
put to
poison. It
were
probably put
were probably
to sleep
sleep by
by poison.
It is
is quite
quite probable
probable that
that they
they
submitted voluntarily
voluntarily to
to their
their fate
fate in
in order
order to
to continue
continue their
their customcustomsubmitted
ary service
service to
to their
their mistress
mistress in
in the
the other
other world.
world. In
In any
any case,
case, the
the warwarary
riors in
in Puabi's
Puabi's guard
guard and
and her
her maids
maids of
of honor
honor in
in their
their rich
rich attire
attire most
most
riors
likely were
were not
not simply
simply slaves.
slaves. Because
Because of
of the
the vegetation
vegetation symbols
symbols on
on
likely
Puabi's headdress,
headdress, because
because she
she lay
lay on
on what
can be
described as
as aa bridal
bridal
Puabi's
what can
be described
bed,
and because
because her
her golden
golden harps
harps were
were decorated
decorated with
with representarepresentabed, and
tions
of aa wild,
the personification
personification of
of Ur's
tutelary god,
god,
wild, bearded
bearded bull,
bull, the
U r's tutelary
tions of
Nanna,
the god
god of
of the
the Moon,
Moon, and
and of
wild cow,
Nanna's
of aa wild
cow, personifying
personifying Nanna's
Nanna, the
spouse, the
goddess Ningal,
some scholars
scholars believe
Puabi was
not
spouse,
the goddess
Ningal, some
believe that
that Puabi
was not
just
the
wife
of
a
lugal
of
Uruk
but
that
she
may
have
been
an
just the wife of a lugal of Uruk but that she may have been an enenpriestess
who had
had participated
in the
sacred marriage
marriage rite
the
priestess who
participated in
the sacred
rite with
with the
13
Moon god.
god.13
Moon
Whatever
Whatever the
the case
case may
may be,
be, Puabi's
Puabi's burial
burial and
and other
other similar
similar exexamples from
from the
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
(about the
the twenty-fifth
twenty-fifth century
century
Ur (about
amples
B.C.) testify
testify to
to the
the exceptional
exceptional wealth
of the
the ruling
ruling elite
elite of
of the
the Ur
kingB.C.)
wealth of
Ur king12.
the name,
with early
in12. The
The reading
reading of
of the
name, as
as is
is frequently
frequently the
the case
case with
early Mesopotami,l.ll
Mesopotamian inscriptions, is
is not
certain. It
It has
also been
been read
read as
as "Shub-ad";
"Shub-ad"; this
this is
is the
form used
used in
scriptions,
not certain.
has also
the form
in
most popular
most
popular and
and even
even in
in some
some specialized
specialized works,
works, but
but it
it is
is almost
almost certainly
certainly wrong.
wrong.
13.
13. Such
Such burials
burials were,
were, however,
however, not
not part
part of
of an
an annual
annual rite;
rite; the
the funeral
funeral gifts
gifts were
were too
too
expensive, even
even for
for aa royal
spouse.
expensive,
royal spouse.

The
The City-States
City-States of
of Sumer
Sumer

79
79

dom,
which apparently
union of
Mesodom, which
apparently headed
headed the
the southern
southern union
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamian Sumerian
no doubt
the source
potamian
Sumerian nomes.
nomes. There
There is
is no
doubt about
about the
source of
of this
this
wealth: the
wealth:
the gold
gold and
and the
the carnelian
carnelian beads
beads came
came from
from India,
India, and
and the
the
lapis
lazuli, although
mines of
lapis lazuli,
although from
from the
the mines
of Badakhshan
Badakhshan in
in northern
northern
Afghanistan,
reached Ur
Ur from
via the
the sea.
It is
to
Afghanistan, probably
probably also
also reached
from India
India via
sea. It
is to
lugals of
of Kish
Kish were
were much
much less
less lavish:
lavish:
be
noted that
that the
the burials
burials of
of the
the lugals
be noted
Ur was
the seaport
seaport for
for trade
trade with
with India.
India. The
The high-prowed
high-prowed Sumerian
Sumerian
Ur
was the
ships, built
built of
of long
long giant
giant reed
reed beams
beams tied
tied together
together and
and coated
coated with
with
ships,
natural bitumen,
with sails
sails made
made of
of reed
reed mats
mats and
and attached
attached to
to thick
thick
natural
bitumen, with
reed masts,
masts, sailed
sailed along
along the
shores of
of the
the Persian
Gulf to
to the
the island
of
reed
the shores
Persian Gulf
island of
Dilmun
(present-day Bahrain)
Bahrain) and
and then
then to
to the
the Indian
Ocean, possibly
possibly
Dilmun (present-day
Indian Ocean,
even reaching
reaching the
the ports
ports of
of Melakha-a
Melakhaa country
country of
of the
the ancient
ancient Indus
Indus
even
14
civilization, not
far from
from the
the mouth
mouth of
of the
the Indus
Indus River.
River.14
civilization,
not far
The
The First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
Ur begins
begins the
the last
last stage
stage of
of the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic
Period (ED
(ED III).
III). In
In addition
addition to
the city
city ofUr,
of Ur, there
there existed
existed other
other indeindePeriod
to the
pendent nome
nome communities
communities in
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, some
some of
of which
which
pendent
were headed
were
headed by
by lugals
lugalswho,
who,like
likethe
the lugals
lugalsininUr,
Ur,strove
strovefor
forhegemony.
hegemony.
The
with each
The communities
communities constantly
constantly dashed
clashed with
each other;
other; this
this condition
condition of
of
unremitting
was characteristic
unremitting warfare
warfare was
characteristic of
of the
the period.
period. They
They fought
fought
for
the fertile
riches.
for the
fertile strips
strips of
of land,
land, for
for canals,
canals, and
and for
for accumulated
accumulated riches.
Among
the most
was
Among the
the rival
rival states
states claiming
claiming hegemony,
hegemony, the
most important
important was
the nome
nome of
in the
the northern
northern part
Lower Mesopotamia
the
of Kish
Kish in
part of
of Lower
Mesopotamia and
and the
the
nome of
Lagash in
south. Lagash
Lagash was
was situated
situated on
on aa branch
nome
of Lagash
in the
the south.
branch of
of the
the
Euphrates,
I-Nina-Gena, that
that reached
Euphrates, the
the I-Nina-Gena,
reached the
the Tigris
Tigris lagoon.
lagoon. Girsu
Girsu
(or,
Ngirsu) was
was the
the capital
(or, actually,
actually, Ngirsu)
capital city
city of
of Lagash.
Lagash.
We
more documents
We have
have many
many more
documents and
and inscriptions
inscriptions from
from Lagash
Lagash than
than
from
from any
any other
other Lower
Lower Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian nome
nome of
of that
that time.
time. Most
Most imporimportant is
the economic
temple dedicated
tant
is the
economic archive
archive of
of the
the temple
dedicated to
to the
the goddess
goddess
Baba (or
Bau). This
archive indicates
indicates that
land was
was divided
divided into
into
Baba
(or Bau).
This archive
that the
the land
three categories:
categories: (1)
(1) The
The actual
temple land,
land, the
the nig-en,
nig-en, which
which was
three
actual temple
was
worked by
by the
dependent laborers.
laborers. In
part, its
its income
income went
went
worked
the temple's
temple's dependent
In part,
to the
the maintenance
the economy's
to
maintenance of
of the
economy's personnel.
personnel. But
But the
the greater
greater part
part
of the
the income
income went
went into
into the
the sacrificial,
sacrificial, reserve,
reserve, and
and exchange
exchange funds.
funds.
of
parcels to
the temple
personnel: to
(2)
(2) Land
Land allotted
allotted in
in parcels
to some
some of
of the
temple personnel:
to minor
minor
administrators, craftsmen,
craftsmen, and
and men
responsible for
for the
the agricultural
agricultural
administrators,
men responsible
work.
This group
supplied the
the soldiers
the temple'S
temple's military
military
work. This
group also
also supplied
soldiers for
for the
detachment. Frequently,
such an
allotment was
given to
entire
detachment.
Frequently, such
an allotment
was given
to an
an entire
chief. Legally,
Legally,
group
of workers
workers who
were considered
considered "men"
"men" of
of their
their chief.
group of
who were
the
allotments did
did not
constitute the
property of
of the
the holders;
holders; they
they
the allotments
not constitute
the property
were just
form of
of personnel
maintenance. If,
If, for
for some
some reason,
it
were
just aa form
personnel maintenance.
reason, it
14.
In the
14. In
the specialized
specialized literature,
literature, it is
is also
also called
called Meluhha.
Meluhha. Both
Both readings
readings are
are
acceptable.
acceptable.

80
8o

I.
/. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

suited
suited the
the administration,
administration, the
the allotment
allotment could
could be
be withdrawn,
withdrawn, or
or not
not be
be
awarded
place, and
awarded in
in the
the first
first place,
and the
the man
man given
given aa ration
ration instead.
instead.15IS The
The
female workers
were employed
employed in
in spinning,
spinning, weaving,
weaving, tending
tending
female
workers who
who were
cattle,
and so
so on
only, as
as did
did their
children
cattle, and
on received
received rations
rations only,
their non-adult
non-adult children
and all
all male
male unskilled
laborers. Men
Men and
and women
of this
group could
could
and
unskilled laborers.
women of
this group
be
and for
for all
all practical
practical purposes,
purposes, they
shared the
the status
status of
of
be purchased,
purchased, and
they shared
slaves, although
although the
the children
children of
of the
the female
female slaves
slaves could
could be
eventuslaves,
be eventually transferred
another category
of workers.
(3) Land
Land apparently
apparently
ally
transferred to
to another
category of
workers. (3)
rented
out by
the temple
temple to
to anyone
anyone who
who wanted
wanted and
and was
able to
work
rented out
by the
was able
to work
it, on
on relatively
favorable conditions.
conditions. The
The holder's
holder's main
main obligation
obligation was
relatively favorable
was
it,
to
cede aa portion
temple.
to cede
portion of
of the
the crop
crop to
to the
the temple.
As before,
before, there
there still
lands outside
the temple
temple that
As
still existed
existed lands
outside the
that belonged
belonged
to
households. It
not seem
to extended-family
extended-family households.
It does
does not
seem probable
probable that
that they
they
employed slave
slave labor
labor as
as aa rule.
rule.
employed
The
the nome,
nome, including
the chief
The higher
higher functionaries
functionaries of
of the
including the
chief priest
priest
and
ruler himself,
himself, received
received very
very substantial
substantial allotments
allotments for
for their
their
and the
the ruler
service.
their own
them, who
service. They
They had
had their
own "men"
"men" working
working for
for them,
who carried
carried the
the
same status
status as
as those
land. It
It is
is not
not entirely
clear
same
those working
working the
the temple
temple land.
entirely clear
whether
the lands
lands allotted
allotted to
important persons
of the
the
whether the
to these
these important
persons were
were part
part of
state fund
fund or
or whether
whether they
they were
to these
these functionaries
functionaries as
as propstate
were given
given to
property.
not have
even to
to the
erty. Actually,
Actually, this
this may
may not
have been
been clear
clear even
the people
people of
of
Lagash themselves.
themselves. The
The fact
fact is
is that
as opposed
opposed to
to mere
mere posLagash
that property,
property, as
possession, is
is characterized
characterized by
the right
right of
of the
the proprietor
to dispose
dispose of
of it
it
by the
proprietor to
session,
at his
his own
own discretion,
discretion, as,
as, for
for example,
example, by
by selling
selling it,
it, by
by bestowing
bestowing it
it as
as aa
at
gift, or
or by
leaving it
it as
as an
an inheritance.
inheritance. But
But the
idea of
complete
gift,
by leaving
the idea
of the
the complete
alienation of
of land
land contradicted
contradicted the
the deep-rooted
deep-rooted principles
the
alienation
principles that
that the
Mesopotamians had
inherited from
from primitive
times. Moreover,
the
Mesopotamians
had inherited
primitive times.
Moreover, the
rich
noble actually
actually had
alienate land.
land. It
It was
was the
the poor
poor
rich and
and the
the noble
had no
no need
need to
to alienate
of
the
community
who
sometimes
were
forced
by
circumstance
to
of the community who sometimes were forced by circumstance to rerelinquish
their land
land in
in order
order to
to pay
off debts,
debts, but
such deals
deals may
may not
not
linquish their
payoff
but such
have been
been considered
considered fully
fully irreversible.
irreversible. There
There were
were also
also occasional
occasional ininhave
stances when
would force
force someone
someone to
give up
his land
to him.
him.
stances
when aa ruler
ruler would
to give
up his
land to
But the
the property
relationships of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in
in the
the third
third
But
property relationships
millennium were
were apparently
apparently not
not yet
yet clearly
clearly geared
geared to
to the
the needs
of
millennium
needs of
class
society. However,
However, it
it is
is important
important to
to realize
that the
society was
class society.
realize that
the society
was
already stratified
stratified into
into aa wealthy
wealthy class
class that
that had
opportunity to
to exhad the
the opportunity
exalready
others, aa class
class that
was not
not yet
yet exploited
exploited and
and did
did not
not
ploit
the labor
labor of
of others,
ploit the
that was
exploit other
other people's
labor, and
and aa class
class of
of people
who were
were disexploit
people's labor,
people who
dispossessed
of production
and who
who were
subject to
extrapossessed of
of means
means of
production and
were subject
to extraeconomic exploitation.
exploitation. This
This last
last class
class included
included patriarchal
patriarchal slaves
slaves and
and
economic
helots, workers
were bound
to the
the large
large economies.
economies.
helots,
workers who
who were
bound to
15.
15. Actually,
Actually, the
the holders
holders of
of allotments
allotments also
also received
received rations-not
rationsnot monthly
monthly but
but once
once
in
in aa season.
season.

The
The City-States
City-States of
of Sumer
Sumer

81
81

It is
is true
information almost
almost exclusively
exclusively comes
comes from
from Lagash
Lagash
It
true that
that this
this information
(twenty-fifth to
centuries B.C.),
B.C.), but
but there
there is
is some
some evi(twenty-fifth
to twenty-fourth
twenty-fourth centuries
evidence that
that an
an analogous
analogous situation
situation prevailed
prevailed in
in all
all the
other Lower
Lower
dence
the other
Mesopotamian nomes,
nomes, regardless
regardless of
of whether
whether their
their inhabitants
inhabitants spoke
spoke
Mesopotamian
Sumerian or
or Eastern
Semitic. However,
in many
ways, the
Lagash
Sumerian
Eastern Semitic.
However, in
many ways,
the Lagash
nome was
example, Lagash
Lagash was
was second
second in
in
nome
was in
in aa unique
unique position.
position. For
For example,
wealth
only to
to Ur-Uruk.
Ur-Uruk. The
The Lagash
Lagash port
port of
of Guaba
Guaba competed
competed with
with Ur
Ur
wealth only
in overseas
overseas trade
trade with
with neighboring
and with
India. The
The trade
trade
in
neighboring Elam
Elam and
with India.
agents (tamkars)
(tamkars) were
were part
part ofofthe
thetemple
templeeconomies'
economies'personnel,
personnel,alalagents
though
they also
also accepted
accepted private
orders for
the purchase
of overseas
overseas
though they
private orders
for the
purchase of
products,
including slaves.
products, including
slaves.
The
rulers of
their counterparts
nomes,
The rulers
of Lagash,
Lagash, like
like their
counterparts in
in the
the other
other nomes,
dreamed of
of achieving
achieving hegemony
hegemony in
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, but
access to
to
dreamed
but access
the center
was blocked
neighboring city
the
center of
of the
the land
land was
blocked by
by the
the neighboring
city of
of Umma,
Umma,
which was
located near
near the
the point
point where
where the
the I-Nina-Gena
separated
which
was located
I-Nina-Gena separated
from the
the Iturungal.
For many
many generations
generations Lagash
was engaged
from
Iturungal. For
Lagash was
engaged in
in aa
bloody
with Umma
over the
the fertile
fertile region
at the
border between
between
feud with
Umma over
region at
the border
bloody feud
the
two cities.
cities. The
The rulers
rulers of
of Lagash
the title
title of
of ensf
ensi and
and were
were
the two
Lagash held
held the
granted
the title
title of
of lugal
lugal (by
(by the
council or the
the popular
popular assembly?)
assembly?)
granted the
the councilor
only temporarily,
apparently in
conjunction with
the transfer
transfer of
of spespeonly
temporarily, apparently
in conjunction
with the
cial powers,
such as
as for
for the
duration of
of aa military
military expedition
expedition or
or when
when
cial
powers, such
the duration
carrying out
out some
some especially
especially important
important measures.
measures.
carrying
The
of aa Sumerian
ruler at
at that
that time
consisted of
of relaThe army
army of
Sumerian nome
nome ruler
time consisted
relatively
detachments of
of heavily
heavily armed
armed warriors.
The soldiers
soldiers were
were
tively small
small detachments
warriors. The
protected
by cone-shaped
helmets and
by heavy
protected by
cone-shaped copper
copper helmets
and by
heavy felt
felt cloaks
cloaks
with
with large
large copper
copper plates,
plates, or
or by
by enormous
enormous copper-covered
copper-covered shields;
shields;
they
they fought
fought in
in close
close order,
order, the
the long
long spears
spears of
of the
the rear
rear rows
rows protrudprotruding between
the protective
the first
first row
like bristles.
bristles. There
ing
between the
protective shields
shields of
of the
row like
There
were also
also primitive
primitive chariots
on solid
solid wheels
wheels with
with quivers
were
chariots on
quivers containing
containing
missile
or javelins
javelins attached
their fronts.
missile darts
darts or
attached to
to their
fronts. The
The chariots
chariots were
were
pulled
pulled by
by onagers
onagers (large
(large semiwild
semiwild donkeys).16
donkeys).16
The
The losses
losses suffered
suffered in
in the
the confrontations
confrontations between
between such
such detachments
detachments
were
the dead
were relatively
relatively small;
small; the
dead were
were only
only counted
counted in
in dozens.
dozens. The
The warwarriors
of these
these detachments
detachments were
were allotted
allotted parcels
parcels on
on temple
temple land
land or
or on
on
riors of
the land
land of
of the
the ruler,
ruler, if
committed to
him. A
lugal
the
if they
they were
were directly
directly committed
to him.
A lugal
could
popular militia
the temple's
temple's dependepencould also
also raise
raise aa popular
militia from
from among
among the
dents, as
as well
well as
as from
from the
the free
free community
community members.
members. These
These milidents,
militiamen formed
formed aa light
light infantry
infantry armed
armed with
with short
short spears.
spears.
tiamen
Soon after
after 2400
2400 B.C.,
the ruler
ruler of
of Lagash,
Lagash, Eanatum,
Eanatum, was
was temporartemporarSoon
B.C., the
ily
lugal;he
heled
ledthe
theheavily
heavilyarmed
armeddetachments
detachmentsand
and the
themilitia
militia
ily elected
elected lugal;
16. The
The horse
horse was
was known
known but,
but, most
been domesticated
in Meso16.
most likely,
likely, had
had not
not yet
yet been
domesticated in
Mesopotamia. Earlier
Earlier evidence
evidence for
for the
the utilization
utilization of
of the
the horse
horse has
has been
been found
found in
in archaeologiarchaeologipotamia.
cal
particularly, the
note (PLK).
(PLK).
cal sites
sites in
in Turkey,
Turkey, Transcaucasia,
Transcaucasia, and,
and, particularly,
the Ukraine.
Ukraine. Editor's
Editor's note

82

I.
/. M.
M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

against
Umma, inflicting
by the
against Umma,
inflicting enormous
enormous casualties
casualties (at
(at least,
least, by
the stanstandards of
that time)
on the
the enemy.
enemy. Although
Although in
in his
his native
native Lagash
Lagash
dards
of that
time) on
Eanatum
acensi, he
he eventually
eventually acEanatum had
had to
to be
be content
content with
with the
the title
title of
of ensf,
quired the
the title
title of
of lugal
quired
lugal of
of Kish
Kish after
after successes
successes in
in his
his wars
wars against
against UUr
r
and Kish,
Kish, as
as well
well as
as against
against other
other nomes.
nomes. His
His successors,
successors, however,
however,
and
were
unable to
to maintain
maintain hegemony
hegemony over
over these
these nomes.
nomes.
were unable
After
time, the
the rule
passed to
to Enentarzi,
the son
After some
some time,
rule of
of Lagash
Lagash passed
Enentarzi, the
son of
of
the chief
chief priest
of the
local god,
god, Ningirsu.
Ningirsu. After
After his
father, Enentarzi
Enentarzi
the
priest of
the local
his father,
also became
became chief
chief priest
priest of
of Ningirsu.
Ningirsu. When
When he
he became
the ensf
ensi of
also
became the
of
Lagash, he
he merged
merged the
the state
state lands
lands with
with the
the lands
lands of
of Ningirsu's
Ningirsu's temple
temple
Lagash,
and of
of the
the temples
temples belonging
belonging to
to the
the goddess
goddess Baba
Baba (Ningirsu's
(Ningirsu's wife)
wife)
and
and their
their children.
children. In
In this
this way,
way, more
more than
than half
half of
of all
all the
the land
land in
in
and
Lagash came
came into
into the
the possession
possession of
of the
and his
his family.
family. Many
Many
Lagash
the ruler
ruler and
priests
were removed,
removed, and
and the
the administration
administration of
of the
the temple
temple lands
lands
priests were
passed
into the
the hands
hands of
of the
the dependents
dependents of
of the
the ruler.
ruler. The
The ruler's
ruler's
passed into
people began
began exacting
exacting various
various levies
levies from
from the
the lower
lower priests
priests and
and men
men
people
in the
the temple
temple service.
service. We
We must
must assume
assume that
that the
the situation
situation of
of the
the comcomin
munity members
members also
also deteriorated.
deteriorated. There
There are
are documents
documents showing
showing
munity
that impoverished
impoverished parents
parents had
had to
to sell
sell their
their children,
children, which
which gives
gives us
us
that
some vague
information about
about the
indebtedness of
of the
the community
community
some
vague information
the indebtedness
members. The
The causes
causes of
of this
impoverishment are
are not
not known
exactly;
members.
this impoverishment
known exactly;
increased taxation
taxation owing
owing to
to the
the growth
growth of
of government
government personnel
personnel
increased
combined with
with unequal
unequal distribution
distribution of
of land
land and
and of
of other
other resources
resources
combined
caused by
by social
social and
and economic
economic stratification
stratification may
may have
have played
played aa part.
part.
caused
In such
such circumstances
circumstances it
it was
was necessary
necessary to
to get
get means
means on
on credit
credit in
in order
order
In
to obtain
obtain grain
grain for
for sowing
sowing and
and tools.
But the
the amount
amount of
of metals
metals in
in circirto
tools. But
culation (silver
(silver and
and copper)
copper) was
extremely small.
small.
culation
was extremely
All this
this caused
caused discontent
discontent among
among different
different groups
groups of
of the
the populapopulaAll
altion
tion of
of Lagash.
Lagash. Lugalanda,
Lugalanda, Enentarzi's
Enentarzi's successor,
successor, was
was overthrown,
overthrown, although it
it is
is possible
possible he
he continued
continued living
living in
in Lagash
Lagash as
as aa private
private citizen.
citizen.
though
Uruinimgina
Uruinimgina (ca.
(ca. 2318-2310
2318-2310 B.C.)17
B.C.)17 was
was elected
elected in
in his
his place,
place, probably
probably
by
the popular
popular assembly,
assembly, and
and during
during the
the second
second year
year of
of his
rule, was
was
by the
his rule,
lugal.As
Aslugal,
lugal,Uruinimgina
Uruinimginacarried
carriedout
outanan
conferred the
authority of
of lugal.
conferred
the authority
important
reform that
was recorded
and described
described in
in inscriptions
inscriptions
important reform
that was
recorded and
made on
on his
his orders.
orders. Apparently,
Apparently, he
he was
was not
the first
first to
to accomplish
accomplish
made
not the
such
reforms
in
Sumer;
we
know
that
they
had
been,
perhaps
periodisuch reforms in Sumer; we know that they had been, perhaps periodically,
enacted
in
the
past,
though
we
do
not
have
such
detailed
cally, enacted in the past, though we do not have such detailed evievidence of
of these
these previous
previous measures
measures as
as we
we have
have from
from Uruinimgina's
Uruinimgina's
dence
inscriptions. Nominally,
put an
an end
end to
family's
reform put
to the
the ruling
ruling family's
inscriptions.
Nominally, this
this reform
ownership of
of the
the lands
lands of
of Ningirsu,
Baba, and
and the
the other
other gods
gods and
and
ownership
Ningirsu, Baba,
goddesses; it
it abolished
abolished requisitions
requisitions that
that contradicted
contradicted the
the prevailing
prevailing
goddesses;
customs; it
it stopped
stopped some
some arbitrary
arbitrary actions
actions of
of the
the ruler's
ruler's men;
men; it
it imimcustoms;
17.
name was
17. Earlier,
Earlier, his
his name
was incorrectly
incorrectly read
read "Urukagina."
"Urukagina."

The City-States of Sumer

83

proved the
the conditions
conditions of
of the
the junior
priesthood and
and of
of the
the more
more wellproved
junior priesthood
wellto-do
to-do temple
temple dependents;
dependents; it
it eliminated
eliminated debt
debt contracts;
contracts; etc.
etc. However,
However,
despite
despite the
the revolutionary
revolutionary appearance
appearance of
of the
the reforms,
reforms, the
the situation
situation
changed
changed very
very little.
little. The
The removal
removal of
of the
the temple
temple economies
economies from
from the
the
ruler's possession
possession was
was purely
purely nominal-indeed,
nominalindeed, the
the entire
entire administraadministraruler's
tion installed
installed by
by the
the former
former ruler
ruler remained
remained in
in place.
place. Whatever
Whatever were
were
tion
the causes
causes for
for the
the impoverishment
impoverishment and
and indebtedness
indebtedness of
of community
community
the
members, they
they were
were not
not eliminated.
eliminated. Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, Uruinimgina
Uruinimgina got
got
members,
himself involved
involved in
in aa war
war against
against neighboring
neighboring Umma.
Umma. This
This war
war had
had
himself
disastrous consequences
consequences for
for Lagash.
Lagash.
disastrous
At that
that time,
time, Umma
Umma was
was ruled
ruled by
by Lugalzagesi,
Lugalzagesi, who
who had
had inherited
inherited
At
from
from the
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
Ur (Second
(Second Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Uruk)
Uruk) the
the power
power
over
over all
all of
of southern
southern Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, except
except for
for Lagash.
Lagash. His
His war
war
against
ruinimgina lasted
against U
Uruinimgina
lasted several
several years
years and
and ended
ended with
with the
the conquest
conquest
of
ruinimgina's territory
reof aa good
good half
half of
of U
Uruinimgina's
territory and
and the
the decline
decline of
of the
the remainder
mainder of
of his
his state.
state. Having
Having defeated
defeated Lagash
Lagash in
in 2312
2312 B.C.,18
B.C.,18 LugalzaLugalzagesithen
gesi then defeated
defeated Kish
Kish and
and succeeded
succeeded in
in obtaining
obtaining free
free passage
passage
for
rulers. These
for his
his traders
traders through
through the
the territories
territories of
of the
the northern
northern rulers.
These
traders
India via
Gulf, and
and now
now
traders already
already enjoyed
enjoyed access
access to
to India
via the
the Persian
Persian Gulf,
they
they could
could travel
travel to
to the
the north,
north, toward
toward the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean Sea,
Sea, to
to Syria
Syria
and Asia
Minor, from
from whence
whence they
they brought
brought valuable
valuable lumber,
lumber, copper,
copper,
and
Asia Minor,
and silver.
silver. But
But soon
soon Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi himself
suffered aa crushing
crushing defeat.
defeat.
and
himself suffered
This
3.
This defeat
defeat is
is the
the subject
subject of
of Lecture
Lecture 3.
18.
18. All
All dates
dates cited
cited in
in this
this lecture
lecture may
may be
be affected
affected by
by an
an error
error of
of about
about one
one hundred
hundred
years
to each
not diverge
by
years in
in either
either direction;
direction; but
but any
any two
two dates,
dates, in
in relation
relation to
each other,
other, do
do not
diverge by
more than
than one
one generation.
generation. For
For example,
example, the
the date
of the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate
more
date of
B.C. in
in this
this lecture)
lecture) can
can oscillate
oscillate between
between 3000
3000 and
and 2800,
2800, and
and the
the date
date of
of
Period
(2900 B.C.
Period (2900
B.C. in
in this
this lecture),
lecture), from
from 2500
2500 to
to 2300.
2300. But
But the
the
the beginning
beginning of
of Eanatum's
Eanatum's rule
rule (2400
(2400 B.C.
the
time from
from the
the start
start of
of Eanatum's
Eanatum's rule
rule to
to the
the end
end of
of Uruinimgina's
Uruinimgina's rule
rule (ninety
(ninety years,
years, or
or
time
three generations,
generations, according
according to
to the
the chronological
chronological calculation
calculation used
used in
in this
this lecture)
lecture) cancanthree
not be
be less
less than
than two
two or
or more
more than
than four
four generations
generations in
in duration.
duration.
not

3
Early
Despotisms in
in Mesopotamia
Early Despotisms
Mesopotamia
I.
I. M.
M. DIAKONOFF
DIAKONOFF

The Kingdom
Kingdom of
of the
the Sargonids
Sargonids
The
After
having subjugated
the entire
part of
After having
subjugated almost
almost the
entire southern
southern part
of Lower
Lower
Mesopotamia
(Sumer), Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi did
did not
attempt to
to consolidate
consolidate it
it
not attempt
Mesopotamia (Sumer),
into aa unified
unified state;
state; having
having his
social base
base in
in the
the elite
elite of
of the
the temples
temples
into
his social
and communities
communities of
of the
Sumerian nomes,
nomes, he
he limited
limited himself
himself to
apand
the Sumerian
to appropriating
local priestly
priestly or
or princely
conferred by
by the
the nome
nome
propriating the
the local
princely titles
titles conferred
elders. Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi did
did nothing
to bring
the struggle
struggle against
against his
his opelders.
nothing to
bring the
opponents
to aa permanent
end. Although
Although he
he defeated
defeated Kish,
Kish, he
he did
did
ponents to
permanent end.
not destroy
destroy the
the Kish
Kish lugals,
lugah, and
and having
having defeated
defeated Lagash,
Lagash, he
he was
was not
not
not
able
to
remove
Uruinimgina
from
power.
During
Lugalzagesi's
rule,
able to remove Uruinimgina from power. During Lugalzagesi's rule,
Sumer resembled
military confederations
confederations of
of nomes
nomes in
in the
the times
times of
Sumer
resembled the
the military
of
Gilgamesh
and
Aka.
Gilgamesh and Aka.
had to
Eventually,
Eventually, Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi had
to confront
confront aa new,
new, formidable,
formidable, and
and ununexpected adversary:
adversary: Sargon
Sargon the
Ancient. (This
(This is
is the
the conventional
conventional
expected
the Ancient.
name
that historians
name that
historians give
give Lugalzagesi's
Lugalzagesi's foe.)
foe.) Sargon
Sargon descended
descended from
from
the
people
who
inhabited
the
northern
part
of
Lower
Mesopotamia
the people who inhabited the northern part of Lower Mesopotamia
and
who spoke
spoke the
the Eastern
Eastern Semitic
Semitic language.
language. In
In this
language he
he
and who
this language
Sharrum-ken,which
whichmeans
means"the
"theking
kingisisthe
thetrue
trueone."
one."
called himself
himself Sharrum-ken,
called
Historians assume
assume that
that this
this was
was not
his original
original name
name and
and that
that he
he apapnot his
Historians
propriated
after he
he declared
declared himself
himself king.
king.
propriated it
it only
only after
Legends of
of much
much later
later times
describe Sargon
Sargon the
the Ancient
Ancient as
man
Legends
times describe
as aa man
of
humble origin,
reason to
of very
very humble
origin, and
and there
there is
is no
no reason
to doubt
doubt the
the credibility
credibility
of
was said
he was
the adopted
of this
this tradition.
tradition. It
It was
said that
that he
was aa gardener,
gardener, the
adopted son
son of
of
aa waterbearer,
waterbearer, and
and that
that he
he became
became aa cupbearer
cupbearer of
of the
the lugal
lugal of
of Kish.
Kish.
When
Lugalzagesi defeated
defeated this
Sargon carved
carved out
out of
of it
it his
When Lugalzagesi
this nome,
nome, Sargon
his
own
own kingdom.
kingdom.
Sargon did
did not
not tie
tie his
his fortunes
fortunes to
to age-old
age-old community
community or
or nome
nome tratraSargon
ditions. In
In his
his own
own right,
elevated aa small
small obscure
obscure town
town called
called Akright, he
he elevated
Akditions.
kade. (This
(This town
town was
was probably
located somewhere
somewhere on
on the
the irrigated
irrigated
kade.
probably located
lands that
that once
once belonged
belonged to
to Kish.)
Kish.) When
When Sargon's
Sargon's dynasty
dynasty fell,
fell, the
the city
city
lands
of Akkade
Akkade was
was completely
completely destroyed,
destroyed, leaving
leaving no
no trace.
trace. Archaeologists
Archaeologists
of
its ruins.
ruins.1l In
In its
its own
own time,
time, however,
however, this
this
have not
not yet
yet found
found the
the site
site of
of its
have
1. The
city of
Akkade is
is mentioned
mentioned in
in post-Akkadian
so apparently
apparently some
some remrem1.
The city
of Akkade
post-Akkadian texts,
texts, so
nant of
of it
it survived.
survived. Editor's
Editor's note
nant
note (PLK).
(PLK).

Early
Early Despotisms
Despotisms in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

85
85

city played
played an
an important
role; and
and after
after Sargon
Sargon the
the Ancient
Ancient (ca.
city
important role;
(ca.
2316-2261 B.C.),
B.C.), the
the entire
entire northern
northern part
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
2316-2261
part of
(between the
the Tigris
Tigris and
and Euphrates
including the
the lower
lower part
(between
Euphrates and
and including
part of
of
the Diyala
Diyala Valley)
Valley) began
began to
to be
be called
called Akkad.
Akkad. For
For the
the next
two thouthouthe
next two
sand years
years the
the Eastern
Eastern Semitic
Semitic language
language was
was known
known as
as Akkadian.
Akkadian.
sand
The
had no
roots in
The fact
fact that
that Sargon
Sargon had
no roots
in the
the traditional
traditional nomes
nomes and
and did
did
not
not depend
depend on
on the
the nobility
nobility allowed
allowed him
him to
to draw
draw his
his support
support from
from the
the
common people,
forming aa militia
militia that
that might
might have
have been
more or
or less
common
people, forming
been more
less
voluntary.
voluntary. Sargon
Sargon and
and his
his successors
successors changed
changed the
the traditional
traditional battle
battle
tactics by
by replacing
replacing the
the small,
small, heavily
heavily armed
armed detachments,
detachments, which
which
tactics
fought
fought in
in closed
closed ranks,
ranks, with
with large
large masses
masses of
of lightly
lightly armed,
armed, mobile
mobile
warriors, who
who either
either fought
in chain
chain formations
formations or
or dispersed.
dispersed. TradiTradiwarriors,
fought in
tionally, the
the lugals
lugals did
did not
not use
bows and
and arrows
arrows in
in combat,
combat, since
since
tionally,
use bows
Sumer lacked
lacked the
the flexible
and resilient
resilient varieties
varieties of
of wood
wood that
were
Sumer
flexible and
that were
suitable for
for bows.
But Sargon
Sargon and
and the
the Sargonids
Sargonids attached
attached great
great imimbows. But
suitable
portance
to archers.
archers. They
They had
the advantage
advantage of
of being
being able
able to
to shower
shower
portance to
had the
with aa cloud
cloud of
of arrows
arrows the
clumsy detachments
detachments of
of warriors
warriors bearing
bearing
with
the clumsy
heavy shields
shields and
and spears,
spears, thus
thus breaking
up their
their ranks
ranks and
and evading
evading
heavy
breaking up
hand-to-hand combat
combat by
by remaining
remaining at
at aa considerable
considerable distance.
It is
hand-to-hand
distance. It
is
entirely possible
possible that
Sargon had
had access
access to
to yew
yew tree
tree (or
(or hazel
hazel tree)
tree)
entirely
that Sargon
groves in
the foothills
foothills of
of Iran
Iran and
and Asia
Asia Minor
Minor or
or that
that aa composite
composite bow,
groves
in the
bow,
glued together
together from
from horn,
horn, wood,
wood, and
and sinews,
sinews, had
had already
already been
been ininglued
vented at
at that
that time.
time. A
A good
is aa powerful
weapon that
that can
can hit
hit aa
vented
good bow
bow is
powerful weapon
target at
at 200
200 yards
yards and
and even
even farther;
farther; at
at close
close range
range an
an arrow
arrow can
can
target
pierce aa heavy
heavy board.
Five to
six shots
shots can
can be
be released
released in
in one
one minute,
minute,
pierce
board. Five
to six
and aa single
single quiver
quiver can
can store
store thirty
thirty to
to fifty
fifty arrows.
arrows.
and
In Lagash,
Lagash, the
the events
events that
that led
led to
to the
the coup
coup of
of Uruinimgina
Uruinimgina attest
attest to
to
In
the accumulation
accumulation of
of many
grievances against
against the
the prevailing
prevailing order.
order.
the
many grievances
Sargon could
could encounter
encounter support
support everywhere.
everywhere. The
The poorest
commuSargon
poorest community
may have
have been
interested in
in curbing
curbing the
the inordinate
inordinate
nity members
members may
been interested
growth of
of the
the nome
nome aristocracy's
aristocracy's power;
power; service
service in
in Sargon's
Sargon's army
army
growth
offered them
them hope
hope for
social and
and material
the past
past the
the
offered
for social
material betterment.
betterment. In
In the
means for
for such
such personal
personal advancement
advancement had
had been
been inaccessible
inaccessible to
to these
these
means
people.
But even
even within
within the
the temple
temple and
and the
the state
state economies,
economies, the
the perperpeople. But
sonnel were
were stratified
stratified to
to such
such aa degree
degree that
that it
it was
always easy
easy to
to find
find
sonnel
was always
here people
who were
were willing
willing to
to help
help destroy
destroy the
the nome
nome order.
order. It
It was
here
people who
was
actually from
from such
such people
people that
Sargon himself
himself had
originated. The
The
actually
that Sargon
had originated.
unification
of the
the country
country into
into one
one state
state could
could appear
appear to
to be
beneficial
unification of
be beneficial
for
the
development
of
productive
forces.
It
could
stop
the
for the development of productive forces. It could stop the endless,
endless,
bloody
squabbles over
over canals
canals and
and the
the interruptions
interruptions of
of irrigation
irrigation netnetbloody squabbles
works. It
would also
also mean
mean more
efficient trade.
trade.
works.
It would
more efficient
Apparently, Sargon
Sargon started
started by
by expanding
expanding his
his authority
authority over
over Upper
Upper
Apparently,
Mesopotamia, possibly
reaching all
all the
the way
to the
the Mediterranean.
Mediterranean. He
He
Mesopotamia,
possibly reaching
way to
then offered
offered Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi aa family
family alliance.
alliance. When
When Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi refused,
refused,
then

86

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

Sargon resorted
resorted to
to military
military action
action and
and quickly
quickly defeated
defeated his
his adveradverSargon
sary. Lugalzagesi
Lugalzagesi was
captured and
and triumphantly
triumphantly paraded
paraded in
in copper
copper
was captured
sary.
shackles through
through the
the "Gates
"Gates of
of Enlil"
Enlil" in
in Nippur;
Nippur; he
he was
was probably
shackles
probably exeexecuted soon
soon after.
after. Over
Over aa short
short period
period of
of time,
time, Sargon
Sargon conquered
conquered all
all
cuted
the most
most important
important cities
cities of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, including
including Lagash,
Lagash,
the
which was
was now
now taken
taken in
in its
its entirety.
entirety. Having
Having reached
reached the
the MediterraMediterrawhich
nean, Sargon's
Sargon's soldiers
soldiers next
next washed
washed their
their weapons
weapons in
in the
the Persian
Persian
nean,
Gulf. Later,
Later, his
his troops
troops carried
carried on
on other
other campaigns
campaigns into
into Asia
Asia Minor
Minor
Gulf.
(the "Silver
"Silver Mountains")
Mountains") and
and Elam.
Elam.
(the
The
The nomes
nomes under
under Sargon
Sargon retained
retained their
their own
own internal
internal structure,
structure, but
but
the
ensisnow
nowbecame
becameofficials
officials responsible
responsibletotothe
theking.
king.They
They
the individual
individual ensis
took
over the
management of
of the
economies, which
also
took over
the management
the temple
temple economies,
which were
were also
subjected to
to the
the king.
king. Sargon
Sargon and
and his
his successors
successors kept
kept at
at their
their court
court the
the
subjected
representatives of
of the
aristocratic nome
nome family
family lineages,
lineages, esthe remaining
remaining aristocratic
esrepresentatives
pecially
ones; their
status was
was part
part dignitary,
dignitary, part
hostage.
the ruling
ruling ones;
their status
part hostage.
pecially the
Having
his own
own personal
personal standing
standing army
army (according
(according to
to tradition,
tradition, the
the
Having his
soldiers were
were settled
settled around
around the
the city
city of
of Akkade)
Akkade) and
and the
the support
support of
of aa
soldiers
countrywide militia,
militia, Sargon
Sargon had
had no
no need
need for
for detachments
detachments of
of soldiers
soldiers
countrywide
who
allotted land
land by
temple economies;
economies; being
being useless
useless now,
by the
the temple
now,
who were
were allotted
they were
were disbanded.
disbanded. The
The Sargonids
Sargonids generally
generally preferred
preferred to
to maintain
maintain
they
their workers
rations and
and to
to decrease
decrease the
the number
number of
of allotments
allotments
their
workers with
with rations
awarded to
to the
the state
state economy
economy personnel.
personnel. The
result was
was aa higher
higher rate
rate
The result
awarded
of exploitation.
exploitation.
of
Sargon's introduction
introduction of
of uniform
uniform measuring
measuring units
units for
for area,
area, weight,
weight,
Sargon's
and so
so on
on throughout
the country
country and
and his
his maintenance
maintenance of
of overland
overland
and
throughout the
and
his rule,
rule, ships
and sea
sea trade
trade routes
routes were
were also
also important.
important. During
During his
ships from
from
Melakha (in
(in India)
India) are
are said
said to
to have
have navigated
navigated up
up the
the river,
river, bringing
bringing
Melakha
exotic goods,
goods, such
such as
as elephants
elephants and
and monkeys,
monkeys, to
to the
the quay
quay of
of Akkade.
Akkade.
exotic
This trade,
trade, however,
however, did
did not
not flourish
flourish for
for long.
long.
This
Sargon made
made much
much of
of his
his reverence
reverence to
to the
the gods,
gods, especially
especially to
to the
the
Sargon
patron deity
deity of
of Akkade,
Akkade, Aba
Aba (or
(or Amba),
Amba), and
and to
to Nippur's
Enlil, and
and
patron
Nippur's Enlil,
gave rich
gifts to
to the
temples in
in order
order to
sway the
the priesthood
his
gave
rich gifts
the temples
to sway
priesthood to
to his
side. He
He had
had his
his daughter
daughter consecrated
consecrated as
as en-priestess
^n-priestess (entu
(entu in
in AkkaAkkaside.
dian) of
of the
the Moon
Moon god
god Nanna
Nanna of
of Dr.
Ur. From
From that
that time
time on,
on, it
it became
became
dian)
traditional
for the
the eldest
eldest daughter
daughter of
of the
king to
to become
entu of
the king
become entu
of
traditional for
Nanna. But
But despite
despite Sargon's
Sargon's patronage,
patronage, the
the relationship
relationship between
between the
the
Nanna.
priesthood and
and the
the kings,
kings, especially
especially under
under Sargon's
Sargon's successors,
successors, rerepriesthood
mained cool.
cool. The
The Sargonids
Sargonids broke
broke with
with the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic traditions
traditions
mained
in all
all respects-in
respectsin the
the use
use of
of titles,
titles, in
in their
their customs,
customs, and
and in
in artistic
artistic
in
tastes.
In
art,
the
superhuman,
impersonal
image
of
a
god
or
a
priest
tastes. In art, the superhuman, impersonal image of a god or a priest
was
replaced
by
images
exhibiting
a
powerful
individuality.
These
imwas replaced by images exhibiting a powerful individuality. These images were
were actually
actually Sargon
Sargon himself
himself and
and his
his closest
closest associates
associates who
who had
had
ages
achieved power
power on
on their
their own
own merits.
merits. Heroic
Heroic epic
epic images
images began
began to
to
achieved
dominate
the
oral
literature.
However,
very
few
individuals
managed
dominate the oral literature. However, very few individuals managed

Early
Early Despotisms
Despotisms in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

87

to
rise from
to positions
those who
to rise
from the
the lower
lower ranks
ranks to
positions of
of power,
power, and
and those
who did
did
seem
mainly to
have succeeded
only in
in the
beginning of
of Sargon's
Sargon's rule.
rule.
seem mainly
to have
succeeded only
the beginning
Eventually,
there arose
arose aa new
new aristocracy
aristocracy of
of royal
servants, and
and its
Eventually, there
royal servants,
its
ranks
restricted. Although
Although the
the soldiers
soldiers of
of Sargon's
Sargon's army
army are
are said
said
ranks were
were restricted.
in the
the legend
legend to
have assembled
assembled at
at meetings,
assemblies
in
to have
meetings, the
the popular
popular assemblies
and councils
councils of
of elders
elders no
longer had
had any
any significance,
significance, being
being always
always no
no
and
no longer
more
than nome
nome bodies.
bodies. The
The king
exercised aa despotic
despotic power
power
more than
king now
now exercised
over the
the entire
entire state;
state; that
that is,
is, his
power did
did not
derive from
from any
any outoutover
his power
not derive
side authority,
authority, whether
it be
be aa councilor
council or aa popular
popular assembly.
assembly. Nor
side
whether it
Nor was
was
there any
any auxiliary
auxiliary authority
authority parallel
parallel to
to the
the king's
king's and
and legally
legally checking
checking
there
his
Thus, the
had supported
supported Sargon,
Sargon,
his power.
power. Thus,
the popular
popular masses,
masses, who
who had
gained
from his
victory and
and eventually
eventually lost
lost considerably,
considerably, because
because
gained little
little from
his victory
despotic and
and bureaucratic
bureaucratic form
form of
of government
government became
became firmly
estabaa despotic
firmly established in
in Mesopotamia
and lasted
lasted for
for millennia.
millennia.
Mesopotamia and
lished
The people
people sensed
sensed and
and understood
understood their
their situation
situation very
quickly. AcThe
very quickly.
According
to aa late
late legend,
legend, some
elders organized
organized uprisings
even
cording to
some city
city elders
uprisings even
during Sargon's
Sargon's time.
Once, in
in his
old age,
age, Sargon
Sargon is
said to
to have
have
during
time. Once,
his old
is said
been forced
forced to
to flee
and hide
hide in
in aa ditch;
ditch; nevertheless,
nevertheless, he
he was
was eventually
eventually
been
flee and
able to
to subdue
subdue the
the insurgents.
insurgents. But
But Sargon's
Sargon's sons,
sons, Rimush
Rimush and
and Maable
Manishtushu,
ruled in
in succession
succession after
after their
their father,
confronted aa
father, confronted
nishtushu, who
who ruled
unanimous and
stubborn resistance
resistance throughout
throughout all
of Lower
unanimous
and stubborn
all of
Lower MesoMesoensis and
and noblemen
noblemen rose
rose in
in revolt,
revolt, and
and they
they were
were
potamia.
The city
city ensis
potamia. The
supported by
by aa multitude
of people
from all
all social
social ranks.
ranks. In
the prosupported
multitude of
people from
In the
process of
of subduing
subduing the
Rimush slaughtered
slaughtered the
the entirepopulaentire populacess
the rebellion,
rebellion, Rimush
tions
of some
some of
of his
country's cities
cities and
executed countless
countless thousands
thousands
tions of
his country's
and executed
of
prisoners.
of prisoners.
Let us
us note
that in
in this
case, as
as in
in the
Early Dynastic
Period, there
there
Let
note that
this case,
the Early
Dynastic Period,
was no
ethnic enmity.
enmity. The
Akkade dynasty
dynasty is
is frequently
frequently called
called Sewas
no ethnic
The Akkade
Semitic, as
as opposed
opposed to
to earlier
earlier and
and later,
later, supposedly
supposedly Sumerian
Sumerian dynasties.
dynasties.
mitic,
It is
true that
Sargon and
and his
his successors
successors belonged
belonged to
to that
that part
part of
It
is true
that Sargon
of
Lower
Mesopotamia where
where Eastern
Eastern Semitic
Semitic (Akkadian)
(Akkadian) was
was spoken
spoken
Lower Mesopotamia
and that
that Sargon
Sargon promoted
of all
all his
his own
own countrymen,
countrymen, many
and
promoted first
first of
many of
of
whom,
perhaps
even
the
majority,
spoke
Akkadian.
However,
some
whom, perhaps even the majority, spoke Akkadian. However, some
of the
the much
much earlier
earlier dynasties
dynasties also
also spoke
spoke Semitic.
Semitic. The
The Eastern
Eastern Semitic
Semitic
of
language
was
commonly
spoken
not
only
in
Kish
but
also
as
far
south
language was commonly spoken not only in Kish but also as far south
as
Ur,
at
least
since
the
Early
Dynastic
Period,
if
not
even
earlier.
It
as Ur, at least since the Early Dynastic Period, if not even earlier. It
seems
that
Lagash
alone
remained
almost
entirely
Sumerian
speakseems that Lagash alone remained almost entirely Sumerian speaking. But
But in
in Sargon's
Sargon's time,
and during
during the
the time
time of
of his
his successors,
successors, SumeSumeing.
time, and
rian
remained
the
official
language,
while
Akkadian
was
used
only
as
rian remained the official language, while Akkadian was used only as
secondary language.
language.
aa secondary
Legend
tells us
us that
Rimush was
was killed
killed by
his dignitaries,
who pelted
Legend tells
that Rimush
by his
dignitaries, who
pelted
him
stone seals;
seals; evidently,
evidently, it
it was
not proper
to carry
carry weaphim with
with heavy
heavy stone
was not
proper to
weapons in
in the
the presence
presence of
of aa king.
king. Yet,
his brother,
conons
Yet, his
brother, Manishtushu,
Manishtushu, continued the
the same
same policies.
policies. He
He also
also had
cruelly suppress
suppress uprisings
uprisings
tinued
had to
to cruelly

88

/.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

in his
his own
own country.
country. Taking
Taking advantage
advantage of
of the
the difficult
difficult situation
situation of
of
in
the cities
cities that
that had
had been
been devastated
devastated by
by the
the slaughter
slaughter inflicted
inflicted by
by his
his
the
brother, Rimush,
Rimush, and
and by
by himself,
himself, Manishtushu
Manishtushu expanded
expanded the
the state
state
brother,
economy sector
sector by
by forcing
forcing the
the citizens
citizens to
to sell
sell him
him their
their lands
lands at
at nominomieconomy
nal prices.
prices. However,
However, he
he did
did not
not consider
consider it
it feasible
feasible to
to simply
simply conconnal
fiscate the
the land
land but
but proceeded
proceeded with
with all
all the
the formalities
formalities required
required in
in
fiscate
private land
land purchases.
purchases. The
The deals
deals were
were consummated
consummated in
in the
the presence
presence
private
of witnesses-his
witnesseshis own
own and
and those
those of
of the
the unwilling
unwilling sellers.
sellers. In
In cases
cases of
of
of
very large
large tracts
tracts of
of land,
land, he
sought approval
approval from
from the
the local
local popular
popular
very
he sought
assemblies. This
This proves
proves that
that the
the ancient
ancient kings
kings did
did not
not own
own all
all the
the land
land
assemblies.
in their
their country
country as
as property,
property, regardless
regardless of
of the
the despotic
despotic character
character of
of
in
their power,
power, and
and had
had to
to follow
follow the
the universally
universally established
established rules
rules when
when
their
acquiring real
real estate.
estate. They
They were
were able
able to
to exercise
exercise their
their power
power only
only in
in
acquiring
setting extremely
extremely low,
almost token,
token, purchase
setting
low, almost
purchase prices.
prices.
Manishtushu ordered
Manishtushu
ordered his
his land
land transactions
transactions to
to be
be recorded
recorded in
in writwriting on
on aa huge
huge stone
stone obelisk,
obelisk, which
which has
has been
preserved to
to our
our day.
day.
ing
been preserved
Since these
these sales
sales involved
involved large
large numbers
numbers of
of people,
people, the
the text
text inscribed
inscribed
Since
on Manishtushu's
obelisk allows
allows us
us to
to determine
determine for
for Lower
Lower Mesoon
Manishtushu's obelisk
Mesopotamia in
in the
the twenty-third
twenty-third century
century B.C.
B.C. the
the structure
structure of
of society
society outoutpotamia
side the
the state
state economy
economy sector.
sector.
side
It appears
appears that
that the
the community
community members
members at
at that
that time
time lived
lived in
in exexIt
tended-family
tended-family household
household communes
communes ("houses")
("houses") comprised
comprised of
of one
one to
to
three generations
generations that
that were
were headed
headed by
patriarch. This
domestic
three
by aa patriarch.
This domestic
structure is
is similar
similar to
to the
the one
one that
that existed
existed during
during the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic
structure
Period. Each
Each household
household commune
commune owned
owned its
its own
own land,
land, from
from which
which
Period.
individual family
family cells
cells received
received their
their shares.
shares. Such
Such aa share,
share, in
in its
its enenindividual
tirety or
or in
in part,
part, could
could be
be sold
sold only
only with
with the
the approval
approval of
of the
the whole
whole
tirety
extended-family commune.
commune. The
The seller
seller received
received aa "price,"
"price," and
and his
his relarelaextended-family
tives
received
all
sorts
of
additional
payments
("gifts");
these
paytives received all sorts of additional payments ("gifts"); these payments became
their personal
personal property.
property. Such
Such land
land as
as belonged
to the
the
belonged to
ments
became their
entire
family
group
could
be
sold,
all
or
in
part,
only
with
the
permisentire family group could be sold, all or in part, only with the permission of
of all
all the
the related
related extended
extended families
families whose
whose patriarchs
patriarchs descended
descended
sion
from aa common
common paternal
paternal ancestor.
ancestor. In
In such
such cases,
cases, the
the payment
payment was
was rerefrom
ceived by
the patriarch
patriarch of
of the
the selling
selling community,
community, and
and the
the additional
additional
ceived
by the
payments and
and gifts
gifts were
were given
given to
to the
the other
other interested
interested parties;
parties; that
that is,
is,
payments
the relatives
relatives belonging
to the
the kindred
kindred "houses."
"houses." Finally,
Finally, when
when lands
lands
the
belonging to
that belonged
belonged to
several "houses"
"houses" were
were sold
sold simultaneously,
simultaneously, especially
especially
that
to several
in cases
cases where
where their
their men
men belonged
belonged to
more than
than one
one lineage,
the apapto more
lineage, the
in
proval of
of the
the territorial
territorial community's
community's popular
popular assembly
assembly or
or of
of the
the asasproval
sembly of
of the
the entire
entire nome
nome was
required. The
The feast
feast for
for the
the popular
popular
was required.
sembly
assembly was
given by
the purchaser;
purchaser; viz.,
viz., the
the king.
king.
assembly
was given
by the
The military
military campaigns,
campaigns, already
already begun
begun by
by Sargon,
Sargon, into
into neighborneighborThe
ing countries
countries (Syria,
(Syria, Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, and
and Elam)
Elam) were
were continued
continued by
his
ing
by his

Early
Early Despotisms
Despotisms in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

89
89

sons.
sons. Apparently,
Apparently, the
the kings
kings regarded
regarded occasional
occasional looting
looting of
of nearby
nearby
countries
more profitable
profitable than
and earnings
countries more
than duties
duties and
earnings that
that could
could be
be exexacted from
from trade.
Manishtushu organized
organized military
expeditions far
far to
to
acted
trade. Manishtushu
military expeditions
the
East, by
by sea
sea as
as well
as by
land, and
and got
got as
as far
far as
as the
the Elamite
Elamite city
city
the East,
well as
by land,
of Anshan,
located deep
deep within
within Iran,
close to
city of
of
of
Anshan, located
Iran, close
to the
the present-day
present-day city
Shiraz.
Shiraz.
In
very similar
In Elam
Elam at
at that
that time
time there
there flourished
flourished aa civilization
civilization very
similar to
to
the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Period. The
the Sumerian-Akkadian
Sumerian-Akkadian one
one of
of the
Dynastic Period.
The ElamElamite
language was
was related
related to
languages of
of today's
southite language
to the
the Dravidian
Dravidian languages
today's southern India.
India. The
The Elamite
hieroglyphic writing
writing developed
developed for
for this
this
ern
Elamite hieroglyphic
language in
in the
the first
first quarter
quarter of
of the
the third
third millennium
B.C. was
was to
to aa
language
millennium B.C.
certain degree
degree influenced
influenced by
the Sumerian
Sumerian writing
writing system.
system. It
It was
certain
by the
was
apparently used
used for
accounts (as
was the
case also
also in
in Sumer)
Sumer) in
in the
the
apparently
for accounts
(as was
the case
economies of
of the
the temples.
temples. This
This writing
has not
not yet
been deciphered.
deciphered.
economies
writing has
yet been
Generally speaking,
speaking, Elam
Elam followed
followed the
the same
same developmental
developmental path
path as
Generally
as
Lower Mesopotamia.
of the
the Elamite
Elamite civilization
civilization
the region
region of
Lower
Mesopotamia. However,
However, the
comprised not
alluvial plain
Karun and
and Kerkheh
rivers
comprised
not only
only the
the alluvial
plain of
of the
the Karun
Kerkheh rivers
but also
also the
the mountainous
mountainous regions
all the
the way
to the
of today's
today's
but
regions all
way to
the borders
borders of
Afghanistan
and Pakistan.
Pakistan. One
One of
of the
the routes
routes to
to the
the land
land of
of the
ancient
the ancient
Afghanistan and
Indus civilization
civilization led
led through
through Elam.
Elam.
Indus
Despite aa series
series of
of military
of Akkade
Akkade were
Despite
military campaigns,
campaigns, the
the kings
kings of
were
apparently unable
unable to
completely subdue
subdue Elam,
and Manishtushu's
Manishtushu's
apparently
to completely
Elam, and
nephew,
King Naram-Su'en,
finally signed
signed aa written
written agreement
agreement with
with
nephew, King
Naram-Su'en, finally
the
Elam pledged
to coordinate
coordinate its
its foreign
foreign and
and milithe Elamites
Elamites whereby
whereby Elam
pledged to
military policy
policy with
the Akkadian
tary
with the
Akkadian kingdom,
kingdom, while
while preserving
preserving its
its own
own ininternal independence.
independence. This
This was
was the
the first
first known
known international
treaty
ternal
international treaty
in world
world history.
history. It
It is
Elamite using
using Akkadian
cuneiform
in
is written
written in
in Elamite
Akkadian cuneiform
script, which,
since that
began to
spread throughout
Elam.
script,
which, since
that time,
time, began
to spread
throughout Elam.
Naram-Su'en
(ca. 2236-2200
B.C.) was
the mightiest
Sargon's deNaram-Su'en (ca.
2236-2200 B.C.)
was the
mightiest of
of Sargon's
descendants.
Yet, his
his reign
reign also
scendants. Yet,
also began
began with
The citizens
citizens of
with aa rebellion.
rebellion. The
of
ancient
Kish elected
their own
ancient Kish
elected one
one of
of their
own as
as king,
king, and
and numerous
numerous cities
cities of
of
different parts
parts of
of the
vast country
country joined
joined the
insurrection. Young
different
the vast
the insurrection.
Young
Naram-Su'en's
quick and
and resolute
resolute action
rebellion.
Naram-Su'en's quick
action crushed
crushed the
the rebellion.
We
know relatively
little about
about other
other military
military events
events during
the
We know
relatively little
during the
reign
Naram-Su'en. He
in Syria,
Mesoreign of
of Naram-Su'en.
He apparently
apparently fought
fought in
Syria, Upper
Upper Mesopotamia,
and in
the Iranian
Syria, he
the
in the
Iranian foothills.
foothills. In
In Syria,
he destroyed
destroyed the
potamia, and
powerful
Western Semites,
Semites, and
gained
powerful nome
nome of
of Ebla,
Ebla, inhabited
inhabited by
by Western
and gained
hegemony in
that region.
region.
hegemony
in that
The
changes
in
the
the state,
which Sargon
had alalThe changes in the organization
organization of
of the
state, which
Sargon had
ready
his grandson.
Naran-Su'en fiready initiated,
initiated, were
were completed
completed under
under his
grandson. Naran-Su'en
finally discarded
discarded all
old traditional
called himself
himself "King
"King
nally
all the
the old
traditional titles
titles and
and called
of the
Quarters of
World." In
no former
former period
had
of
the Four
Four Quarters
of the
the World."
In fact,
fact, no
period had
known
such aa vast
state as
as his
he preserved
the
known such
vast state
his had
had become.
become. Although
Although he
preserved the

go

/. M.
M. Diakonoff
I.
Diakonoff

role
role of
of the
the ensis
ensisininthe
theadministration,
administration,asaswell
wellasasthe
thestate
stateeconomies
economiesof
of
the nomes,
nomes, he
he appointed
appointed as
as ensfs
ensiseither
either his
hissons
sonsor
or his
hisfunctionaries.
functionaries.
the
As
As aa result,
result, the
the rank
rank of
of ensf
ensiin
in Lagash
Lagash was
wasborne
borne by
by aacommon
common scribe.
scribe.
Serious consequences
consequences resulted
resulted from
from Naram-Su'en's
Naram-Su'en's quarrel
quarrel with
with the
the
Serious
priests of
of Nippur.
Nippur. Among
Among other
other factors,
factors, the
the problem
problem of
of the
the titles
titles may
may
priests
have brought
this about.
about. Having
Having discarded
discarded all
all previous
previous titles,
titles, NaramNaramhave
brought this
Su'en
eo ipso
ipsothe
thepriestly
priestlyratification
ratificationofofthese
thesetitles.
titles.And,
And,asas
Su'en rejected
rejected eo
if that
were not
not enough,
enough, he
first ruler
ruler who
let himself
be
if
that were
he was
was the
the first
who let
himself be
proclaimed aa god
god and
and demanded
demanded worship.
An ensi
ensi was
was now
now obliged
obliged
proclaimed
worship. An
to
on his
his official
official seal
seal the
the following
following address
address to
to his
his ruler:
ruler: "God
"God
bear on
to bear
Naram-Su'en,
King of
the Four
Four Quarters
Quarters of
of the
God of
of AkAkNaram-Su'en, King
of the
the World,
World, God
kade, II so-and-so,
so-and-so, ensf
ensiof
of the
the city
city so-and-so,
so-and-so, am
am your
your slave."
slave."
kade,
Social support
support for
for the
Akkadian dynasty
dynasty shrunk
shrunk to
to aa minimum
minimum tothe Akkadian
toSocial
ward the
the end
end of
of Naram-Su'en's
Naram-Su'en's rule.
rule. The
The community
community members
members were
were
ward
ruined by
by wars,
wars, by
by punitive
expeditions against
against the
the cities
cities of
of the
the king's
king's
ruined
punitive expeditions
own country,
country, and
and by
by compulsory
compulsory land
land purchases.
The old
old nobility
nobility
purchases. The
own
was, for
for the
the most
most part,
liquidated. A
A substantial
substantial part
of the
the
was,
part, physically
physically liquidated.
part of
middle stratum
stratum of
of royal
royal servants
servants was
was dispossessed
dispossessed of
of their
their land
land almiddle
allotments and
and transferred
transferred to
to helot
helot rations.
rations. And
And the
the priesthood
priesthood was
was
lotments
discontented, probably
probably for
for ideological
ideological reasons.
reasons. It
It was
was in
in these
these circumcircumdiscontented,
stances that
that the
the invasion
invasion of
of the
the Quti
Quti (Gutium)
(Gutium) tribes
tribes from
from the
the Iranian
Iranian
stances
highlands
(These tribes
tribes may
may have
have been
related linguistically
linguistically to
to
highlands began.
began. (These
been related
peoples
of present-day
Daghestan east
east of
of the
the Caspian
Caspian Sea.)
Sea.)
present-day Daghestan
peoples of
Gudea
Gudea

From
time on,
the Akkadian
From this
this time
on, the
Akkadian dynasty
dynasty gradually
gradually declined.
declined. Initially,
Initially,
the
struggle against
against the
mountain people
people proceeded
proceeded with
with varying
varying sucthe struggle
the mountain
success. But,
But, eventually,
eventually, Naram-Su'en's
son was
forced to
yield his
his title
title
was forced
to yield
cess.
Naram-Su'en's son
"King of
of the
the Four
Four Quarters
of the
the World"
to the
the king
of Elam
Elam (whose
(whose
"King
Quarters of
World" to
king of
kingdom
at that
time was
was unified),
in exchange
exchange for
for his
help
that time
unified), probably
probably in
his help
kingdom at
against the
the Quti.
Soon after,
after, however,
all power
power in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
against
Quti. Soon
however, all
passed into
into the
the hands
of Qutian
Qutian chieftains,
chieftains, who
who although
although they
they also
also
hands of
passed
called themselves
kings, actually
actually seemed
seemed to
elected in
in tribal
tribal
been elected
called
themselves kings,
to have
have been
assemblies of
of warriors
for aa limited
limited term
term (from
(from two
two to
to seven
seven years).
assemblies
warriors for
years).
The Quti
Quti ravaged
ravaged almost
almost the
the entire
entire country
country with
with the
the exception
exception of
of
The
Lagash, which
which was
was somewhat
somewhat removed
removed from
from the
the main
main thrust
thrust of
of the
the
Lagash,
invasion, and,
and, perhaps,
also Uruk
Uruk and
and Ur,
Ur, which
which were
were protected
protected by
invasion,
perhaps, also
by aa
stretch
of
marshland.
stretch of marshland.
The
The Quti
Quti did
did not
not create
create their
their own
own central
central government
government in
in Lower
Lower
Mesopotamia. Once
Once they
they stopped
stopped their
their armed
armed looting,
looting, they
they continued
continued
Mesopotamia.
to plunder
the country
country by
by exacting
exacting tributes,
tributes, which
which were
were collected
collected for
for
plunder the
to
them
by
local
Akkadian
and
Sumerian
rulers.
them by local Akkadian and Sumerian rulers.
Gudea, who
who lived
lived in
in the
the second
second half
half of
of the
twenty-second century
century in
in
Gudea,
the twenty-second

Early
Despotisms in
Early Despotisms
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

91
91

Lagash, is
is thought
thought to
to have
have been
the son
son of
of aa priestess
Lagash,
been the
priestess who
who represented
represented
aa goddess
goddess in
in the
the "sacred
"sacred marriage"
marriage" rite
rite with
with aa priest.
priest. Although
Although Gudea
Gudea
officially had
had no
no human
human parents,
parents, such
such aa birth
probably was
was considered
considered
officially
birth probably
to be
rather distinguished.
distinguished. Gudea's
Gudea's wife
wife by
his first
first marriage
marriage was
was the
the
to
be rather
by his
daughter
ensi of
of Lagash,
Lagash, whose
whose title
title he
he later
later inherited.
inherited. The
The dididaughter of
of the
the ensi
vinity of
of his
his birth
along with
his acquired
acquired title
granted him
him entry
entry into
into
vinity
birth along
with his
title granted
the priesthood
priesthood of
of the
the nome.
nome.
the
ensis of
Gudea's
Gudea's policy
policy combined
combined the
the traditional
traditional program
program of
of the
the ensis
of aa
nome with
nome
with the
the principles
principles developed
developed during
during the
the Akkadian
Akkadian dynasty.
dynasty. He
He
rejected
rejected the
the right
right of
of the
the state
state ruler
ruler to
to own
own temple
temple lands,
lands, following
following
in
ruinimgina's policies,
by
in this
this respect
respect U
Uruinimgina's
policies, instead
instead of
of those
those adopted
adopted by
Sargon
Sargon and
and Naram-Su'en.
Naram-Su'en. However,
However, he
he did
did not
not return
return to
to the
the system
system
of multiple
multiple temple
temple economies
economies belonging
belonging to
to many
many gods
gods but
but merged
merged
of
them into
into one
one statewide
statewide temple
temple economy
economy of
of the
the nome
nome god
god Ningirsu.
Ningirsu.
them
He
He kept
kept the
the workers
workers of
of this
this economy,
economy, as
as helots,
helots, on
on rations,
rations, as
as was
was the
the
custom under
under the
the Sargonids.
Sargonids. Gudea
Gudea spared
spared no
no resources
resources for
for the
the erecereccustom
tion of
of aa new,
new, magnificent
magnificent temple
temple to
to Ningirsu.
Ningirsu. Thus,
Thus, he
he imposed
imposed new
new
tion
taxes and
and obligatory
obligatory labor
labor conscriptions
conscriptions on
on the
the entire
entire population
population in
in
taxes
the support
support of
of this
this project;
project; even
even women
women were
were enrolled
enrolled in
in the
the working
working
the
teams. Based
Based on
on certain
certain indirect
indirect information,
information, we
we can
can conclude
conclude that
that
teams.
the council
council of
of elders
elders of
of Lagash
Lagash was
was active
active during
during Gudea's
Gudea's time
time and
and
the
that it
it had
had the
the theoretical
theoretical right
to choose
choose and
and depose
depose aa ruler.
ruler. Gudea
Gudea
that
right to
payed aa high
ransom to
to the
the Quti,
Quti, but
but Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, not
not just
just
payed
high ransom
the
Lagash nome,
nome, was
was almost
almost entirely
entirely at
at his
disposal. He
was now
now able
able
the Lagash
his disposal.
He was
to wage
wage war
war against
against Elam
and to
to trade
trade with
with other
other Near
counto
Elam and
Near Eastern
Eastern countries and
and even
Melakha (India).
(India). But
But it
it seems
seems that
that he
he imported
imported
tries
even with
with Melakha
only materials
materials required
required for
for the
the construction
construction and
rich ornamentation
ornamentation
only
and rich
of the
the Ningirsu
Ningirsu temple.
temple. Many
Many statues
statues and
and inscriptions
inscriptions have
have come
come
of
down to
to us
us from
from Gudea's
Gudea's reign.
reign. His
His son
son and
and grandson,
grandson, however
however
down
were unable
unable to
to maintain
maintain his
his political
political status,
status, and
and the
the might
might of
of Lagash
Lagash
were
diminished.
diminished.
The
The Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
Ur
Soon
(according to
to legend,
Soon after
after Gudea,
Gudea, Utuhengal
Utuhengal (according
legend, he
he was
was the
the son
son of
of
aa fish
fish curer)
curer) fomented
fomented aa general
general uprising
uprising against
against the
the Quti,
Quti, whose
whose exextortionate
hated by
tortionate rule
rule had,
had, for
for aa long
long time,
time, been
been hated
by the
the MesopotaMesopotamians. The
The Quti
Quti were
successfully and
and permanently
expelled, but
the
mians.
were successfully
permanently expelled,
but the
brilliant
Acbrilliant beginnings
beginnings of
of Utuhengal's
Utuhengal's rule
rule suddenly
suddenly came
came to
to an
an end.
end. According to
to tradition,
tradition, while
while inspecting
inspecting the
the construction
construction site
site of
of aa new
new
cording
under Utuhengal's
Utuhengal's feet,
irrigation
irrigation canal,
canal, aa piece
piece of
of ground
ground caved
caved in
in under
feet,
and he
he drowned.
The kingdom
passed on
on to
to Ur-Nammu,
Ur-Nammu, who
who made
made
and
drowned. The
kingdom passed
the
city of
of Ur
Ur his
his capital.
capital. Lagash
fell into
into disfavor,
disfavor, and
and the
the Indian
Indian
the city
Lagash fell
trade again
again returned
returned to
to U
Ur.
trade
r.

9922

I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

The
was officially
The new
new state
state was
officially called
called the
the "Kingdom
"Kingdom of
of Sumer
Sumer and
and AkAkkad." Although
kad."
Although all
all inscriptions
inscriptions and
and administrative
administrative texts
texts were
were written
written
in Sumerian,
Sumerian, spoken
spoken Sumerian
Sumerian at
at that
that time
time was
was dying
dying out
out and
and being
being
in
displaced
Akkadian. The
redisplaced by
by Akkadian.
The dynasty
dynasty founded
founded by
by Ur-Nammu
Ur-Nammu is
is referred to
to by
by historians
historians as
as the
the Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
(or Ur
ferred
Ur (or
Ur III).
III).22
Ur-Nammu
Ur-Nammu (ca.
(ca. 2111-2094
2111-2094 B.C.)
B.C.) and,
and, especially,
especially, his
his son,
son, Shulgi
Shulgi (ca.
(ca.
2093-2064
B.C.) created
created the
classic and
and typical
form of
of the
ancient
2093-2064 B.C.)
the classic
typical form
the ancient
Oriental
Oriental despotic
despotic and
and bureaucratic
state. Hundreds
Hundreds of
of thousands
thousands of
of
bureaucratic state.
accounting
accounting documents
documents from
from the
the economies
economies of
of the
the kings
kings of
of the
the Ur
Ur III
III
dynasty can
can be
be found
found in
in museums
museums all
all over
over the
the world.
world. They
They probably
probably
dynasty
represent at
at least
least one
one half
half of
of all
all the
the preserved
cuneiform tablets.
tablets.
represent
preserved cuneiform
During
Ur III
was
During the
the initial
initial stage
stage of
of the
the Ur
III dynasty,
dynasty, much
much attention
attention was
reconstruction of
which had
given to
the reconstruction
of the
the irrigation
irrigation network,
network, which
had fallen
fallen
given
to the
into considerable
considerable disrepair
disrepair under
under the
the sway
sway of
of the
Quti and
and their
their
the Quti
into
henchmen.
kings' political
henchmen. But
But this
this was
was not
not the
the essence
essence of
of the
the Ur
Ur III
III kings'
political
activities.
activities.
Their
Their most
most important
important accomplishment
accomplishment was
was the
the unification
unification of
of the
the
state
state economy.
economy. All
All temple
temple and
and state
state economies
economies within
within the
the borders
borders of
of
the Kingdom
the
Kingdom of
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad,
Akkad, which
which soon
soon included
included not
not only
only
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia but
also aa significant
significant portion
of Upper
but also
portion of
Upper MesoMesoLower
potamia,
as well
well as
as some
some of
of the
the lands
lands beyond
the Tigris
and in
in Elam,
Elam,
beyond the
Tigris and
potamia, as
were welded
welded into
into aa single
single economy.
economy. All
All its
its male
male workers
workers (helots)
(helots) were
were
were
"lads,"and
and the
the female
female workers
workerswere
werecalled
called ngeme,
ngeme,"slave
"slave
called gurush,
called
gurush, "lads,"
girl."
Altogether, they
they probably
numbered between
between five
five hundred
hundred
girl."33 Altogether,
probably numbered
thousand and
and one
one million.
The workers-farmers,
workersfarmers, porters,
shepherds,
thousand
million. The
porters, shepherds,
and
fishermenwere organized
organized into
into teams.
teams. (The
(The craftsmen
were
and fishermen-were
craftsmen were
organized into
into workshops,
sometimes of
of aa considerable
size.) They
They
organized
workshops, sometimes
considerable size.)
worked
from sunrise
sunrise to
to sundown
sundown without
any days
days off.
off. (Only
(Only the
feworked from
without any
the female slaves
slaves were
were given
given time
time off
off during
during their
their ritually
ritually "impure"
"impure" days,
days,
male
when they
they were
were probably
probably locked
locked up.)
up.) Each
Each received
received aa standard
standard ration:
ration:
when
1.5
liters
(about
2.5
pints)
of
barley
daily
for
every
man
and
half
this
l.5 liters (about 2.5 pints) of barley daily for every man and half this
amount for
for every
every woman.
woman. They
They also
also received
received aa small
small amount
amount of
of vegeamount
vegetable oil
oil and
and aa little
little wool.
wool. Any
team, or
part of
of one,
one, could
arbiAny team,
or part
could be
be arbitable
trarily
other work
and even
even to
another city.
city. Weavers
Weavers
transferred to
to other
work and
to another
trarily transferred
could be
be sent
sent to
coppersmiths to
to unload
ships, and
and so
so on.
on.
to tow
tow barges,
barges, coppersmiths
unload ships,
could
Boys were
were also
also put
put to
to work.
in fact,
fact, was
was aa form
form of
of slavery,
slavery, alBoys
work. This,
This, in
although this
this word
word was
not used
used to
to describe
describe male
male workers.
workers. No
records
though
was not
No records
indicate that
that little
little children
children received
received any
any rations;
rations; it
it seems
seems that
that women
women
indicate
2.
2. Nothing
Nothing is
is positively
positively known
known about
about the
the ephemeral
ephemeral Second
Second Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur,
Ur, which
which is
is
included
included in
in the
the King
King List,
List, except
except that
that it
it belonged
belonged to
to the
the ED
ED III
III Period.
Period.
3.
Note, however,
3. Note,
however, that
that in
in ancient
ancient Near
Near Eastern
Eastern languages
languages aa "slave"
"slave" was
was not
not necesnecessarily a person
person who
was another
another person's
private property
property but
was anyone
anyone subject
subject to
the
sarilya
who was
person's private
but was
to the
authority of
of another
another person,
person, vaguely
vaguely called
called his
his or
or her
"lord."
authority
her "lord."

Early
Early Despotisms
Despotisms in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

93
93

had to
their own
rations. This
had
to support
support their
their children
children on
on their
own rations.
This increased
increased the
the
gurush and
and the
the ngeme
ngemehad
had
already high
high mortality
Evidently, the
the gurush
already
mortality rate.
rate. Evidently,
no families,
families, so
so the
the labor
labor force
force had
had to
to be
be replenished
replenished mainly
mainly through
through
no
persons captured
captured during
during military
military campaigns
campaigns and
and collected
collected at
at Dr,
Ur,
persons
from where
where they
they were
were distributed
distributed among
among the
the local
local state
state economies.
economies.
from
The captives,
captives, especially
especially women
women and
and children,
children, were
frequently kept
kept in
in
The
were frequently
camps for
for considerable
considerable periods,
and many
many would
would perish
perish there.
there.
camps
periods, and
Skilled
were also
Skilled craftsmen,
craftsmen, administrative
administrative employees,
employees, and
and soldiers
soldiers were
also
primarily
maintained on
on rations.
rations. These
These rations,
rations, however,
however, were
were more
more
primarily maintained
generous
gurush. The
generous than
than those
those issued
issued to
to the
the ordinary
ordinary gurush.
The administraadministration
tion of
of the
the state
state economies
economies was
was very
very reluctant
reluctant to
to grant
grant land
land allotments
allotments
for
for service.
service.
Such
Such labor
labor organization
organization required
required enormous
enormous efforts
efforts of
of supervision
supervision
and
was
and accounting.
accounting. Accountability
Accountability was
was extremely
extremely strict.
strict. Everything
Everything was
put
put into
into writing.
writing. Each
Each document,
document, even
even aa simple
simple issue
issue of
of two
two pigeons
pigeons
to
to aa kitchen,
kitchen, had
had to
to be
be documented,
documented, with
with seals
seals affixed
affixed by
by the
the person
person
responsible
responsible for
for the
the operation
operation and
and by
by the
the controller.
controller. Moreover,
Moreover, the
the
accounting of
of the
the labor
labor force
force was
was separate
separate from
from the
the accounting
accounting of
of
accounting
the
the work
work norms
norms fulfilled
fulfilled by
by the
the laborers.
laborers. A
A field
field could
could be
be divided
divided
into strips,
strips, lengthwise
lengthwise and
and widthwise,
widthwise, and
and the
the work
work in
in each
each direction
direction
into
could be
be controlled
controlled by
by aa different
different person.
person. This
This ensured
ensured aa mutual,
mutual,
could
overlapping control.
control. Documents
Documents accounting
accounting for
for single
single operations
operations
overlapping
were summed
summed up
up in
in annual
annual reports,
reports, according
according to
to each
each team,
team, each
each
were
economy, etc.
economy,
etc.
The
harvest and
The products
products of
of the
the harvest
and the
the workshop
workshop were
were used
used to
to supsupport the
the court
court and
and the
the army,
army, to
to offer
offer sacrifices
sacrifices in
in the
the temples,
temples, to
to feed
feed
port
the
personnel, and
the personnel,
and to
to carry
carry out
out the
the international
international exchange
exchange conducted
conducted
by
tamkars.Trade,
Trade,however,
however,did
did not
notflourish,
flourish,
by state
state trade
trade agents,
agents, the
the tamkars.
because the
the tamkars
because
tamkarshad
hadtotoreturn
returnan
anexcessive
excessiveportion
portionof
ofthe
theprofit
profittoto
the
the administration.
administration.
Livestock
as well
as state
state agriculture,
agriculture, was
was centralized.
centralized. Herds
Herds
Livestock raising,
raising, as
well as
were
in part,
were kept
kept mainly
mainly for
for sacrifices
sacrifices to
to the
the gods
gods and,
and, in
part, for
for leather
leather
and cheese
cheese production.
production. The
The temple's
continual supply
supply of
of sacrifices
sacrifices
and
temple's continual
was guaranteed
guaranteed by
by each
each district
district taking
in providing
providing the
temple
was
taking turns
turns in
the temple
with
cattle during
specific period
period of
of time.
time. Thousands
of heads
with cattle
during aa specific
Thousands of
heads of
of
cattle, from
all corners
corners of
of the
the country,
country, were
herded into
center
cattle,
from all
were herded
into the
the center
of the
the state
state for
the Enlil
temple in
in Nippur.
Nippur. This
This was
of
for the
Enlil temple
was clearly
clearly aa form
form of
of
taxation.
taxation.
The
was divided
divided into
districts, which
did not
necesThe entire
entire country
country was
into districts,
which did
not necessarily coincide
coincide with
earlier territories
of the
the nomes.
sarily
with the
the earlier
territories of
nomes. Each
Each was
was
headed by
headed
by an
an ensi.
ensi. The
The ensis
ensiswere
werenow
nowmere
merefunctionaries
functionarieswho
whowere
were
arbitrarily
from district
district by
the royal
royal administraadministraarbitrarily transferred
transferred from
district to
to district
by the
traditional authorities
only in
in aa few
few border
border regions.
regions.
tion. The
tion.
The traditional
authorities survived
survived only

94
94

I. M. Diakonoff
IDiakonoff

The position of
of the ensf
erm was, nevertheless, quite profitable. They were
allowed
allowed to own
own many
many slaves,
slaves, even
even though
though these slaves
slaves had to
to help the
the
state
harvest or
urgent irrigation
tasks.
state economy
economy during
during harvest
or in
in urgent
irrigation tasks.
The community
community membersthose
members-those not
not yet
yet swallowed
swallowed up
by the
the state
The
up by
state
economy-were
probably also
economywere probably
also subjected
subjected to
to the
the bureaucratic
bureaucratic authority
authority
of
of the
the ensis,
ensis.All
Allwe
weknow
knowisisthat
thatsuch
suchcommunity
communitymembers
membersdid,
did,ininfact,
fact,
exist
that the
them as
reapers durexist and
and that
the state
state economy
economy hired
hired some
some of
of them
as reapers
during
poor. Unfortunately,
ing the
the harvest.
harvest. Clearly,
Clearly, they
they must
must have
have been
been poor.
Unfortunately, the
the
important
that we
important data
data sources
sources about
about community
community life
life that
we have
have from
from the
the
Early Dynastic
Dynastic and
and Akkadian
Akkadian periods
periods in
in the
form of
of land
land sale
sale conconEarly
the form
tracts are
are not
not available
available for
for Ur
Ur III.
III. The
The reason
for this
apparently
tracts
reason for
this apparently
lies in
in the
the fact
fact that
that purchase
purchase of
of land
land was
was prohibited,
as generally
generally was
lies
prohibited, as
was
4
any private
private profit.
And, although
although there
community court-a
courta
any
profit. 4 And,
there was
was aa community
remnant
of the
the council
council of
of elders-no
eldersno popular
popular assemblies
assemblies within
the
remnant of
within the
nomes
active.
nomes were
were active.
What social
provided the
As
What
social stratum
stratum provided
the support
support for
for this
this despotic
despotic state?
state? As
we mentioned
mentioned earlier,
that managing
managing aa unified
unified royal
royal econwe
earlier, the
the fact
fact is
is that
economy that
that embraced
embraced the
the entire
entire country
country required
an enormous
enormous numnumomy
required an
ber of
personnel-scribes, team
team overseers,
ber
of administrative
administrative personnelscribes,
overseers, workshop
workshop
chiefs, and
to large
chiefs,
and managers-in
managersin addition
addition to
large numbers
numbers of
of skilled
skilled craftscraftsmen. The
community members,
members, ruined
ruined during
during the
the Akkadian
and
men.
The community
Akkadian and
Qutian periods,
periods, must
eager to
fill these
thereby
Qutian
must have
have been
been eager
to fill
these positions,
positions, thereby
ensuring for
for themselves
themselves aa stable
stable and
and secure
secure subsistence,
subsistence, independent
independent
ensuring
of luck,
luck, harvest,
or credit.
credit. Available
Available information
information about
about court
court cases
cases
of
harvest, or
that
were tried
tried during
during the
Third Dynasty
of Ur
indicates that
that the
the
that were
the Third
Dynasty of
Ur indicates
number
of private
slaves sharply
sharply increased
increased in
econonumber of
private patriarchal
patriarchal slaves
in the
the economies
of even
even the
lower level
participamies of
the lower
level personnel.
personnel. This
This tells
tells us
us that
that the
the participation
of administrative
administrative personnel
in the
acquisition of
of the
surplus
tion of
personnel in
the acquisition
the surplus
and the
the ngeme)
ngeme)re-reproduct, which
generated by
by helots
helots (the
(the gurush
product,
which was
was generated
gurush and
sulted in
in aa good
good income
income for
for them
them and
and increased
increased their
their personal
sulted
personal wellwellbeing.
supervisors, functionaries,
functionaries, and
and skilled
skilled craftsmen
craftsmen who
who
being. Minor
Minor supervisors,
thus
became
part
of
the
ruling
slave-owning
class,
together
with
the
thus became part of the ruling slave-owning class, together with the
army,
the
priesthood,
and
the
administration,
constituted
the
political
army, the priesthood, and the administration, constituted the political
support of
of the
the dynasty.
dynasty.
support
It
must be
be pointed
pointed out
that patriarchal
patriarchal slaves,
who belonged
belonged to
to the
It must
out that
slaves, who
the
slave owner's
owner's family,
family, even
even if
if not
not enjoying
enjoying full
full rights,
rights, enjoyed
enjoyed better
better
slave
living
living conditions
conditions than
than the
the helots.
helots. They
They still
still had
had some
some rights
rights left.
left. For
For
example, they
they were
were allowed
allowed to
to sue
sue even
even their
owners in
in court.
court. Quite
Quite aa
example,
their owners
few documents
documents of
of court
cases record
attempts on
on the
slaves
court cases
record attempts
the part
part of
of the
the slaves
few
to argue
argue against
against their
their slave
slave status.
status. In
In all
all the
the known
cases, however,
however,
to
known cases,
4. Some
Some land
land purchases
purchases in
in Ur
III times
times have
have been
been documented
documented recently.
Editor's
4.
Dr III
recently. Editor's
note (PLK).
note(PLK).

Early
Early Despotisms
Despotisms in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

95
95

they were
were exploited
less merthey
were not
not successful.
successful. Patriarchal
Patriarchal slaves
slaves were
exploited less
merthan the
were flogged.
cilessly
cilessly than
the helots,
helots, although
although they
they also
also were
flogged.
The rule
of the
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
Ur lasted
lasted about
about one
one hundred
hundred
The
rule of
the Third
years, and
that no
years,
and it
it seemed
seemed that
no government
government could
could be
be more
more solid
solid and
and
durable.
Even the
the gods
durable. Even
the cults
cults of
of the
gods were
were subject
subject to
to regulation.
regulation. The
The
diverse
were rerediverse and
and mutually
mutually contradictory
contradictory systems
systems of
of nome
nome deities
deities were
duced to
to aa single
single general
general system
system headed
by the
king-god Enlil
of Nipduced
headed by
the king-god
Enlil of
Nippur-the
patron of
position was
by
purthe patron
of the
the state.
state. The
The second
second position
was occupied
occupied by
the
the god
god of
of the
the Moon,
Moon, Nanna
Nanna of
of Ur,
Ur, also
also called
called Zuen
Zuen (Su'en
(Su'en in
in AkkaAkkadian). A
A doctrine
doctrine was
createdor, in
in any
any case,
case, systematized-that
systematizedthat
dian).
was created-or,
was
constantly instilled
in the
the consciousness
consciousness of
of the
the people:
people: humans
humans
was constantly
instilled in
were created
created by
to nourish
nourish the
gods with
with sacrifices
sacrifices and
and to
to
were
by the
the gods
gods to
the gods
free
them from
from work.
work. Starting
Shulgi, all
all the
the kings
of U
Urr III
III
free them
Starting with
with Shulgi,
kings of
were
deified, so
so they
they ranked
ranked with
the other
other gods
gods in
in regard
regard to
to the
the
were deified,
with the
people's
duties. It
It was
this time
that the
the King
King List,
mentioned
people's duties.
was during
during this
time that
List, mentioned
earlier, was
was created,
created, as
as was
was the
doctrine of
of the
the divine
divine origin
origin of
of royalty,
royalty,
earlier,
the doctrine
which supposedly
supposedly descended
descended from
in the
of time,
from heaven
heaven in
the beginning
beginning of
time,
which
henceforth remaining
remaining on
on earth
earth in
in an
an unchanging
unchanging succession
succession that
that
henceforth
passed from
from city
city to
city and
and from
from dynasty
dynasty to
it reached
reached
passed
to city
to dynasty
dynasty until
until it
the Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur.
Ur.
the

The
The Fall
Fall of
of Ur
Ur and
and the
the Rise
Rise of
of Issin
Issin
The
was unexpected
unexpected to
pastoral tribes
tribes of
The end
end was
to all.
all. The
The pastoral
of Western
Western SemSemites-the
Amorites-were harassed
harassed by
droughts in
itesthe so-called
so-called Amoriteswere
by droughts
in the
the
sheep-trampled Syrian
Syrian steppe
steppe and
and began
began to
to cross
cross the
Euphrates,
sheep-trampled
the Euphrates,
threatening
the settled
settled population
Mesopotamia. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the
threatening the
population of
of Mesopotamia.
kings of
of Ur
Ur built
to protect
protect Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
from the
the
kings
built aa wall
wall to
Mesopotamia from
north,
along the
the edge
edge of
"Gypsum Desert,"
Desert," which
stretched from
from
north, along
of the
the "Gypsum
which stretched
the
Euphrates to
the Tigris.
Tigris. But
But the
Amorite pastoralists
did not
not atatthe Euphrates
to the
the Amorite
pastoralists did
tempt
to cross
the scorching
scorching desert
to the
the south
to penetrate
the
tempt to
cross the
desert to
south and
and to
penetrate the
wall
constructed by
by the
the royal
royal laborers.
laborers. Instead,
Instead, the
(around
wall constructed
the Amorites
Amorites (around
traversed Upper
Mesopotamia from
from west
crossed
2025 B.C.)
2025
B.C.) traversed
Upper Mesopotamia
west to
to east,
east, crossed
the
Tigris and
and then
then the
the Diyala
Diyala River,
and began
began to
invade the
of
the Tigris
River, and
to invade
the fields
fields of
Lower Mesopotamia
in an
east-to-west direction.
direction.
Lower
Mesopotamia in
an east-to-west
The king
of Ur,
Ur, Ibbi-Su'en
Ibbi-Su'en (2027-2003
(2027-2003 B.C.),
B.C.), was
was at
at that
time apThe
king of
that time
apparently
in Elam,
cities of
of which
which occasionally
submitted to
the auauparently in
Elam, the
the cities
occasionally submitted
to the
thority of
of the
kings, then
again fell
fell away,
away, and
and later
later entered
entered into
into
thority
the Ur
Ur kings,
then again
agreements
with them
based on
diplomatic marriages;
marriages; often,
often, they
they
agreements with
them based
on diplomatic
waged war
against the
of Ur.
carried away
away by
waged
war against
the kingdom
kingdom of
Ur. Ibbi-Su'en,
Ibbi-Su'en, carried
by
his
own military
successes, seemingly
seemingly underestimated
the impending
impending
his own
military successes,
underestimated the
threat.
The Amorites
continued to
to drive
drive their
their livestock
livestock into
into the
the SumeSumethreat. The
Amorites continued
rian grainfields,
grainfields, surrounding
surrounding the
the cities
and blocking
leading
rian
cities and
blocking the
the roads
roads leading

9966

I.
/. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

to
the kingdom.
Ur, the
to the
the center
center of
of the
kingdom. Without
Without help
help from
from Ur,
the local
local ensis
ensis
began
to fall
fall away
away from
from the
central authority.
authority. The
gurush teams
teams scatscatbegan to
the central
The gurush
tered,
looting (together
(together with
with the
the Amorites)
state property
in order
order to
to
tered, looting
Amorites) state
property in
feed themselves.
themselves.
feed
Upon
Ibbi-Su'en was
faced with
an incipient
incipient famfamUpon returning
returning to
to Ur,
Ur, Ibbi-Su'en
was faced
with an
people in
ine.
ine. Most
Most of
of the
the people
in the
the vastly
vastly expanded
expanded state
state sector
sector economy
economy
had been
deprived of
of any
any land
land of
of their
their own
own and
and lived
lived on
on rations
rations supsuphad
been deprived
plied
these supplies
had ceased
plied by
by the
the harvests
harvests of
of the
the state
state fields.
fields. But
But these
supplies had
ceased
The king
king acted
acted quickly
quickly
to arrive
arrive from
from aa good
good one
one half
half of
of the
the districts.
districts.55 The
to
by dispatching
dispatching his
his official,
official, Ishbi-Erra,
Ishbi-Erra, to
to the
the still-intact
still-intact western
western
by
regions of
of the
the country
country in
in order
order to
to purchase
purchase grain
grain from
from the
the local
local
regions
communities. Ishbi-Erra
Ishbi-Erra accomplished
accomplished this
this task
task and
and collected
collected the
the purpurcommunities.
chased grain
grain in
in the
the small
small town
town of
of Issin,
Issin, situated
situated on
on aa branch
branch of
of the
the
chased
Euphrates not
not far
far from
from ancient
ancient Nippur.
Nippur. From
From there
there he
he sent
sent IbbiIbbiEuphrates
Su'en aa request
request for
for boats
boats to
to ship
ship the
grain. But
But the
the king
king had
had none.
none.
Su'en
the grain.
Ishbi-Erra, sensing
sensing his
his position
position of
of strength,
strength, seceded
seceded from
from Ur
Ur and
and proproIshbi-Erra,
claimed himself
himself king.
king. At
At first,
first, he
he was
was cautious
cautious and
and took
took only
only the
the title
title
claimed
of "King
"King of
of His
His Own
Own Country,"
Country," but
later he
he proclaimed
himself "King
"King
of
but later
proclaimed himself
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad."
Akkad." The
The surviving
surviving ensis
ensis who
who still
still reported
reported toto UUr
of
r
now recognized
recognized Ishbi-Erra
Ishbi-Erra as
as their
their king.
king. Ibbi-Su'en
Ibbi-Su'en held
held on
on for
for sevsevnow
eral years
in the
the cruelly
cruelly starving
starving Ur,
but in
in 2003
2003 B.C.
B.C. the
the Elamite
Elamite king
king
eral
years in
Ur, but
decided to
to take
take advantage
advantage of
of Sumer's
Sumer's troubles;
the Amorites
Amorites let
let his
his
decided
troubles; the
troops pass
through the
the occupied
occupied lands,
lands, and
and the
the Elamites
Elamites captured
captured
troops
pass through
Ur. The
The Elamites
Elamites kept
kept aa garrison
garrison in
in the
the empty
empty and
and devastated
devastated city
city for
for
Ur.
many years
years before
finally abandoning
abandoning it.
it. Ishbi-Erra
Ishbi-Erra was
was now
now the
sole
many
before finally
the sole
king in
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. In
In addition,
addition, several
several minor
minor kingdoms
kingdoms
king
emerged in
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia along
along the
the Tigris,
Tigris, on
on the
the lower
lower part
part
emerged
of the
Diyala, and
and along
along the
the road
road to
to Elam.
Elam.
of
the Diyala,
The
The new
new kingdom
kingdom of
of the
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Issin
Issin attempted
attempted to
to mimic
mimic
the
rethe Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
Ur in
in all
all its
its aspects.
aspects. The
The state
state language
language remained Sumerian,
Sumerian, although
although fewer
fewer and
and fewer
fewer people
still spoke
spoke this
this
mained
people still
language. The
The kings
kings were
were deified
deified in
in Nippur.
Nippur. And
And the
the workshops
workshops
language.
where the
the gurush
gurush labored
labored remained
remained the
the same.
same. But
But there
there were
were many
many
where
things
had to
it
things that
that had
to change
change and
and that
that indeed
indeed changed.
changed. For
For example,
example, it
was no
no longer
longer possible
maintain the
enormous royal
field econoeconowas
possible to
to maintain
the enormous
royal field
mies based
based on
on helot
helot labor.
labor. The
The remaining
remaining fields
fields were
were distributed
distributed
mies
among individuals
individuals who
who conducted
conducted the
the work
work as
as if
if on
on their
their own
own estates,
estates,
among
ignoring the
fact that
that the
the land
land in
in question
question was
the property
property of
of the
the
ignoring
the fact
was the
state. Occasionally,
Occasionally, this
this "royal"
"royal" land
land was
was even
even sold.
sold. The
The private
private econoeconostate.
5.
The following
following is
based mainly
mainly on
purported to
to have
been
5. The
is based
on aa collection
collection of
of letters
letters purported
have been
written
by Ibbi-Su'en
Ibbi-Su'en and
Ishbi-Erra that
that became
became part
written by
and Ishbi-Erra
part of
of the
the school
school curriculum
curriculum of
of fufuture
the letters
ture scribes
scribes during
during the
the Issin
Issin dynasty.
dynasty. The
The authenticity
authenticity of
of the
letters is
is not
not beyond
beyond
doubt, but
overall picture
picture that
they draw
draw seems
seems realistic.
but the
the overall
that they
realistic.
doubt,

Early
Early Despotisms
Despotisms in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

97
97

mies
mies on
on community
community lands
lands recovered,
recovered, whereas
whereas the
the life
life of
of the
the state
state
economies did
did not
not become
become normalized
normalized for
for aa long
long time.
time. Economic
Economic selfselfeconomies
government returned
returned to
to the
the temples.
temples. Since
Since the
the centralized
centralized distridistrigovernment
bution of
of products
products became
became impossible,
impossible, exchange
exchange and
and trade
trade began
began to
to
bution
develop. The
The Amorites
Amorites who
who had
had captured
captured the
the fields
did not
not maintain
maintain
develop.
fields did
the irrigation
irrigation systems,
systems, and
and as
as aa Tesultof
result of this
this neglect,
neglect, the
the arable
arable land
land
the
dried up.
up. It
It soon
soon became
became unsuitable
unsuitable even
even to
to graze
graze sheep.
sheep. In
In order
order to
to
dried
subsist, the
the Amorites
Amorites started
started to
to hire
hire themselves
themselves out
out as
as soldiers
soldiers into
into the
the
subsist,
armies of
of the
the kings
kings of
of Issin
Issin and
and others
others and
and to
to enter
enter the
the service
service of
of the
the
armies
city rulers.
rulers.
City
Toward
Toward the
the middle
middle of
of the
the twentieth
twentieth century
century B.C.
B.C. it
it became
became clear
clear
that
resthat further
further historic
historic changes
changes were
were in
in the
the making.
making. The
The attempts
attempts to
to resurrect
the order
the Third
urrect the
order of
of the
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Urcame
Ur came to
to naught
naught and
and were
were
abandoned.
abandoned.

4
The
of
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period of
Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian History
History
N.
V.
N. V.

KOZYREVA
KOZYREVA

Political
History
Political History
The
the fall
U r to
of
The time
time from
from the
fall of
of the
the Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
to the
the conquest
conquest of
Mesopotamia
by the
the Kassites
(2000-1600 B.C.)
B.C.) is
is conventionally
conventionally
Mesopotamia by
Kassites (2000-1600
called
the Old
Babylonian Period.
was during
time that
called the
Old Babylonian
Period. It
It was
during this
this time
that Babylon
Babylon
rose
above all
all the
the Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian cities
cities and
and became
capital of
of aa
rose above
became the
the capital
state that
that finally
finally unified
unified all
all of
of Lower
Mesopotamia and
and part
part of
of Upper
Upper
state
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia. Although
kingdom survived
survived in
in its
its full
full
Mesopotamia.
Although this
this particular
particular kingdom
extent for
for only
only one
one generation,
generation, it
it persisted
in the
memories
extent
persisted in
the people's
people's memories
for many
many centuries
centuries to
come. As
As long
long as
as the
Akkadian language
language and
and
for
to come.
the Akkadian
the
cuneiform culture
culture flourished,
flourished, Babylon
Babylon remained
traditional
the cuneiform
remained the
the traditional
center of
the country.
country.
center
of the
The
urban and
rural settlements
together with
with their
The urban
and rural
settlements together
their entire
entire culticultivated
occupied aa comparatively
comparatively narrow
area of
of the
vated territories
territories occupied
narrow area
the MesoMesopotamian
alluvial plain
and were
were surrounded
surrounded by
desert or
by grazing
grazing
potamian alluvial
plain and
by desert
or by
lands occupied
occupied by
by Western
Western Semitic
Semitic pastoralists.
The latter
latter were
lands
pastoralists. The
were subsubdivided into
into aa multitude
multitude of
of kindred,
but independent,
independent, often
often mutually
mutually
divided
kindred, but
inimical tribes.
tribes. Seasonally
Seasonally each
each year
intrude
inimical
year the
the pastoralists
pastoralists would
would intrude
into the
settled zones
zones or
or on
on their
their borders.
borders. Depending
Depending upon
upon where
where
into
the settled
they grazed
grazed their
their sheep
sheep during
during the
the other
other season
season of
of the
the year,
year, they
they apapthey
peared
either in
in the
summer, when
when the
the grass
grass and
and sources
sources of
of water
in
peared either
the summer,
water in
the steppe
steppe had
dried up,
or during
during the
the winter,
the pastures
the
had dried
up, or
winter, when
when the
pastures in
in
the
mountains yielded
yielded little
little food
food for
for the
the sheep
sheep and
and when
when it
it was
was diffidiffithe mountains
cult
to
protect
them
from
the
cold
winds.
As
a
matter
of
principle,
cult to protect them from the cold winds. As a matter of principle,
each tribe
tribe had
had its
own autonomous
autonomous territory,
its frontiers
frontiers were
were
each
its own
territory, but
but its
vague.
The
settled
population
regarded
the
pastoralists
as
barbarvague. The settled population regarded the pastoralists as barbarians, while
in turn,
despised the
settled life;
life;
ians,
while the
the pastoralists,
pastoralists, in
turn, despised
the peaceful
peaceful settled
however,
of life
life were
for each
each other
other and
and were
were
however, both
both ways
ways of
were necessary
necessary for
connected by
economic, social,
social, and
and political
political factors.
factors. The
The exexconnected
by various
various economic,
change of
of pastoral
for agricultural
agricultural products
products played
played an
an important
important role
role
change
pastoral for
in the
the economy;
economy; it
it is
is also
also probable
some foreign
foreign merchandise
merchandise
in
probable that
that some
reached Mesopotamia
the pastoral
reached
Mesopotamia through
through the
pastoral tribes.
tribes.
The pastoralists
pastoralists also
also importantly
importantly influenced
influenced social
social developments
developments in
The
in
Mesopotamia. One
One constant
constant factor
factor was
the gradual
gradual sedentarization
sedentarization of
was the
of
Mesopotamia.

The
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

99
99

certain
certain members
members of
of the
the pastoral
pastoral tribes.
tribes. The
The richer
richer ones
ones preferred
preferred
settled
settled life
life when
when the
the size
size of
of their
their herds
herds began
began to
to exceed
exceed the
the possibilpossibilities
ities of
of the
the pasturage
pasturage zone;
zone; then,
then, they
they became
became landowners,
landowners, military
military
commanders,
urban elite.
poorer ones
commanders, etc.,
etc., replenishing
replenishing the
the urban
elite. The
The poorer
ones
settled when
when the
the herd
herd was
was down
down to
to less
less than
than the
the minimum
minimum required
required
settled
for sustaining
sustaining their
their families,
families, and
and they
they then
then entered
entered the
the state
state or
or temple
temple
for
service, receiving
receiving land
land allotments
allotments or
or rations
rations in
in kind
kind for
for their
their work.
work.
service,
Thus, they
they replenished
replenished the
the number
number of
of the
the poorest
poorest and
and most
most dependepenThus,
dent persons.
All this
helped sustain
sustain the
the stratification
stratification of
of MesopotaMesopotadent
persons. All
this helped
mia's population.
population.
mia's
Still
Still more
more important
important was
was the
the influence
influence of
of the
the pastoral
pastoral tribes
tribes on
on the
the
political life
During all
of Mesopotamian
political
life of
of Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. During
all of
Mesopotamian history,
history,
the
pastoralists could
the annual
annual peaceful
peaceful migrations
migrations of
of the
the pastoralists
could be
be transtransformed
the centralized
formed into
into aggressive
aggressive campaigns
campaigns if
if the
the power
power of
of the
centralized state
state
was
was weak.
weak. Such
Such a,
a process
process was
was occurring
occurring during
during the
the time
time we
we are
are
describing.!
describing.1
With
With the
the downfall
downfall of
of the
the Third
Third DynastyofUr,
Dynasty of Ur, the
the huge
huge centralized
centralized
state,
state, which
which had
had unified
unified nearly
nearly all
all of
of the
the "Land
"Land of
of the
the Two
Two Rivers,"
Rivers,"
collapsed,
collapsed, and
and its
its administrative
administrative institutions
institutions fell
fell into
into aa state
state of
of decay.
decay.
The city
city of
of Ur
Ur was
was now
now no
no longer
longer the
the country's
country's center;
center; several
several other
other
The
cities laid
laid claim
claim to
role. The
The weakening
and fragmentation
fragmentation of
of
cities
to this
this role.
weakening and
state power
power was
was accompanied
accompanied by
by the
the strengthening
strengthening in
in power
power of
of the
the
state
tribes and
and tribal
tribal chiefs.
chiefs. Pastoralists
Pastoralists occupied
occupied extended
extended zones
zones that
that inintribes
cluded certain
certain cities
cities that
that became
became political'
political centers
centers of
of tribes
tribes and
and tribal
tribal
cluded
confederations. Thus,
Thus, toward
toward the
the middle
middle of
of this
this period,
period, the
the city
city of
confederations.
of
Terqa became
became the
the center
center of
of the
the H~mean
Hanean tribe;
tribe; the
the city
city of
of Larsa,
Larsa, that
that of
Terqa
of
the
tribe; and
and Babylon,
that of
of the
the Amnanu
Amnanu tribe.
tribe.
the Yamutbala
Yamutbala tribe;
Babylon, that
Considerable
Considerable territories,
territories, including
including ancient
ancient cities,
cities, belonged
belonged to
to the
the
zones
the chiefs
ruling the
the strongest
richesttribes;
zones of
of influence
influence of
of the
chiefs ruling
strongest and
and richest
tribes;
such chiefs
chiefs attempted
attempted to
gain still
still more
They expelled
expelled the
the
such
to gain
more power.
power. They
local
local dynasties
dynasties and
and formed
formed their
their own,
own, turning
turning the
the autonomous
autonomous tribal
tribal
territories
independent states
themselves into
into kings,
instead
territories into
into independent
states and
and themselves
kings; instead
of tribal
tribal chiefs.
chiefs. Further
political development
development could
could proceed
differof
Further political
proceed in
in different directions:
directions: either
either the
the tribe
tribe retained
retained its
its importance,
importance, and
and the
the king,
king,
ent
besides
ruling the
state, continued
continued also
also to
regarded asthe
as the chief
chief of
of
besides ruling
the state,
to be
be regarded
the tribe
tribe (e.g.,
(e.g., as
as in
in Mari
on the
the Middle
Euphrates) or
or the
the strengthenstrengthenthe
Mari on
Middle Euphrates)
ing of
of royal
royal power
power led
led to
weakening of
of the
tribe. In
In the
the latter
latter case,
ing
to the
the weakening
the tribe.
case,
everything returned
the initial
initial situation:
situation: aa centralized
centralized state
state arose
arose
everything
returned to
to the
that
was based
based both
on the
the settled
settled population
population and
and on
on the
the tribes,
tribes, which
which
that was
both on
l.
1. The
The Amorites
Amorites had
had no
no horses
horses or
or camels,
camels, and
and their
their transhumant
transhumant movements
movements were
were
limited;
limited; they
they cannot
cannot be
be called
called nomads.
nomads. Th'ey
They exercised
exercised little
little influence
influence on
on the
the cultural
cultural
life of
of the
the urban
urban population.
population. The
The percentage
percentage of
of Amorites
Amorites in
in the
the cities
cities did
did not
not exceed
exceed
life
1-3 percent
percent of
of the
the population,
population, and
and they
they had
had no
no influence
influence on
on the
the Akkadian
Akkadian language.
language.
1-3
(By that
that time
time Sumerian
Sumerian was
was only
only the
the language
language ofthe
of the schools.)
schools.)
(By

100
ioo

N. V.
V. Kozyreva

were
were self-governing
self-governing parts
parts of
of the
the state
state (e.g.,
(e.g., as
as in
in Larsa
Larsa and
and later
later in
in
Babylon),
Babylon).
During
During the
the years
years 1900-1850
19001850 B.C.,
B.C., aa number
number of
of kingdoms
kingdoms headed
headed
by Amorite
by
Amorite rulers
rulers arose
arose in
in Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. Their
Their political
political ideal
ideal reremained
Third Dynasty
kings attempted
mained that
that of
of the
the Third
Dynasty of
of Ur,
Ur, and
and the
the kings
attempted to
to
present themselves
legitimate heirs
heirs to
power, using
using the
the titles
titles of
present
themselves as
as legitimate
to its
its power,
of
the
rulers of
was
the Ur
Ur kings.
kings. Actually,
Actually, the
the power
power of
of most
most rulers
of this
this kind
kind was
ephemeral, and
and they
they retained
retained their
their independence
independence only
only so
so long
long as
as one
one
ephemeral,
of their
neighbors with
with aa base
base of
richer tribes
tribes did
of
their neighbors
of stronger
stronger and
and richer
did not
not
conquer them.
them. Innumerable
Innumerable agreements
agreements were
were made;
made; two
two allied
allied rulers
rulers
conquer
would
through common
common efforts
efforts topple
topple aa third
third one,
one, only
only to
to start
start fightfightwould through
ing between
In these
these struggles,
struggles, the
the rulers
fought less
less
ing
between themselves.
themselves. In
rulers who
who fought
usually preserved
more power;
power; the
the rulers
rulers retained
retained more
more control
control in
in
usually
preserved more
cities that
that were
were situated
situated on
on the
the outskirts
outskirts of
of the
the territories
territories involved
involved in
in
cities
the wars
wars or
or that
that were
located right
right in
in the
middle of
of especially
especially strong
strong
the
were located
the middle
tribal formations.
formations. In
In the
the course
course of
of these
interminable wars,
wars, some
some
tribal
these interminable
Amorite dynasties
dynasties de.cayed,
decayed, their
their kings
kings "descending"
"descending" to
to be
be solely
solely tribal
tribal
Amorite
chiefs, who
who then
then depended
depended on
on their
their former
former allies.
allies. Others
Others flourished,
flourished,
chiefs,
uniting
most of
Mesopotamia under
and turning
from
uniting most
of Mesopotamia
under their
their power
power and
turning from
tribal chiefs
chiefs into
into kings
kings of
of independent
independent states.
states.
tribal
created in
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia by
by the
the
One of
of the
the strongest
strongest states
states was
One
was created
Amoritechief
This state
Amorite chief Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad 1.
I. This
state comprised
comprised aa territory
territory that
that
was quite
quite extensive
extensive for
for the
the times:
was
times: from
from the
the edge
edge of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau
to central
Syria, and
and for
for aa time
time it
it also
also included
included Mari
Mari on
on the
the Euphrates.
Euphrates.
to
central Syria,
One of
of the
most important
important centers
centers of
of Shamshi-Adad's
Shamshi-Adad's kingdom
kingdom was
One
the most
was
the trading
trading city
city of
of Asshur
Asshur on
on the
the Middle
Middle Tigris.
Tigris. Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad (ca.
the
(ca.
1813-1781 B.C.)
B.C.) organized
organized an
an effective,
effective, well-functioning
well-functioning military
military and
and
1813-1781
administrative system,
system, effectively
effectively eliminating
eliminating the
the rights
of the
the selfselfadministrative
rights of
governing communities.
communities. However,
However, after
death, the
the kingdom
to
governing
after his
his death,
kingdom fell
fell to
pieces.
pIeces.
The
beThe number
number of
of competing
competing powers
powers diminished
diminished with
with time.
time. At
At the
the beginning
of the
the eighteenth
three that
B.C., there
there remained
remained only
only three
that
ginning of
eighteenth century
century B.C.,
counted: Mari
Mari in
in the
the northwest,
northwest, Larsa
Larsa in
in the
the south,
south, and
and Babylon
Babylon in
in
counted:
the
center. Toward
Toward the
end of
of his
reign, the
the Babylonian
Babylonian king
Hamthe center.
the ehd
his reign,
king Hammurapi (1792
-1750 B.C.)
the task
task of
unifying the
the country.
murapi
(1792-1750
B.C.) completed
completed the
of unifying
country.
His state
state included
included finally
finally all
all Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and
and the
the greater
greater part
part
His
of Upper
its capital
capital was
was the
the city
city of
of Babylon.
Babylon.
of
Upper Mesopotamia;
Mesopotamia; its
Decades of
wars were
were disastrous
the country's
Decades
of incessant
incessant wars
disastrous to
to the
country's economic
economic
life. The
The mainstay
mainstay of
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian civilization,
civilization, the
the irrigation
irrigation system,
system,
life.
which required
required vigilant
vigilant attention
attention and
and constant
constant repair
in an
an
which
repair work,
work, was
was in
advanced state
state of
of decay.
advanced
decay. Land
Land that
that used
used to
to provide
provide bountiful
bountiful harvests
harvests
was now
by salinization
salinization and
and was
for sowing.
sowing. All
All this
had
was
now ruined
ruined by
was useless
useless for
this had
very negative
negative impact
impact both
both on
on the
the state
state and
and on
on the
the private
private economies,
economies,
aa very
but the
the latter,
latter, being
being the
the more
more primitive,
primitive, were
were the
the first
first to
to revive.
revive. As
As for
for
but

The
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

101
101

the
the intricate,
intricate, unwieldy
unwieldy administration
administration of
of the
the state
state economy,
economy, which
which fell
fell
apart with
with the
the collapse
collapse of
of the
the Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur,
Ur, the
the new
new rulers
rulers
apart
were
were neither
neither able
able nor
nor inclined
inclined to
to restore
restore it.
it. It
It was
was easier
easier to
to apportion
apportion
out the
the conquered
conquered state
state lands,
lands, workshops,
workshops, trading
trading institutions,
institutions, etc.,
etc., to
to
out
private
private persons
persons who
who organized
organized their
their economic
economic enterprises
enterprises on
on aa virtuvirtually private
private basis,
basis, although
although they
they themselves
themselves may
may not
not have
have been
been proproally
prietors of
of the
the land.
land. Considerable
Considerable control
control of
of trade
trade and
and industrial
industrial
prietors
establishments passed
passed into
into the
the hands
hands of
of private
private persons,
persons, and
and even
even the
the
establishments
distribution of
of priestly
priestly prebends,
prebends, paid
paid in
in kind
kind or
or in
in silver,
silver, ceased
ceased to
to be
be
distribution
the function
function of
of the
the state
state power
power and
and became
became an
an object
object of
of trade,
trade, private
private
the
agreements, and
and testamentary
testamentary bequests.
Some of
of the
the taxes
taxes were,
were, no
no
agreements,
bequests. Some
doubt, also
also farmed
farmed out
out to
to private
private persons.
persons.
doubt,
All this
this had
had various
various important
important results.
results. On
On the
the one
one hand,
hand, numbers
numbers
All
of people
people were
were wandering
around Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in
in search
search of
of secusecuof
wandering around
rity
and willing,
willing, in
the face
face of
of hunger,
hunger, to
out for
for work
work
in the
to hire
hire themselves
themselves out
rity and
or
or to
to go
go into
into slavery.
slavery. On
On the
the other
other hand,
hand, rich
rich and
and enterprising
enterprising men
men
gained opportunities
opportunities for
for independent
business activities
activities that
that they
they
gained
independent business
never
never formerly
formerly had.
had. Yielding
Yielding to
to the
the state
state aa certain
certain portion
portion of
of the
the inindustrial produce,
of the
the agricultural
agricultural products,
products, or
or of
of the
the profits
profits dededustrial
produce, of
rived
rived from
from trade,
trade, these
these individuals
individuals could
could keep
keep the
the rest
rest for
for their
their own
own
enrichment or
or for
for increasing
increasing their
their own
own prosperity.
prosperity. Even
Even international
international
enrichment
trade, in
in spite
spite of
of the
the nearly
nearly constant
constant unrest
unrest in
in the
the country,
country, developed
developed
trade,
to aa greater
greater extent
extent during
during this
this period,
period, because
because aa private
private trader
trader could
could
to
more easily
easily pay
pay bribes
bribes to
to aa local
local petty
petty king
king or
or even
even bypass
him. ForFormore
bypass him.
merly, during
during the
the Ur
Ur III
III Period,
Period, all
all trade
trade in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia was
was strictly
strictly
merly,
controlled
and regulated,
regulated, leaving
leaving little
little room
room for
for private
enrichment.
controlled and
private enrichment.
The maritime
maritime trade
trade route
route through
through the
the Persian
Persian Gulf
Gulf (for
(for pearls,
The
pearls,
copper, etc.)
etc.) was
was restored.
restored. This
This extremely
extremely lucrative
lucrative trade
trade was
in the
the
copper,
was in
hands of
of private
private seafarers
seafarers and
and workshop
workshop owners.
owners. However,
However, the
the ships
ships
hands
no longer
longer sailed
sailed directly
directly to
to India
India but
but only
only went
went as
as far
far as
as Dilmun
Dilmun Isno
Island (present-day
(present-day Bahrain);
Bahrain); here
here there
there seems
seems to
to have
have existed
existed aa center
center
land
for
for aa transit
transit trade
trade in
in commodities
commodities from
from India,
India, Iran,
Iran, and
and Arabia.
Arabia. The
The
seafarers brought
brought rich
rich (and,
(and, no
no doubt,
doubt, obligatory)
obligatory) presents
presents to
to the
the
seafarers
temples or
or to
to the
the king,
king, but
but the
the bulk
bulk of
of the
the profits
profits went
went to
to private
private
temples
entrepreneurs.
entrepreneurs.
The possibilities
possibilities for
for developing
developing commodity
commodity production
were still
still
The
production were
little silver
agminimal,
minimal, and
and there
there was
was little
silver in
in circulation;
circulation; the
the income
income from
from agriculture, the
the main
main source
source of
of food
food for
for the
the majority
majority of
of the
the population,
population,
riculture,
was seasonal.
seasonal. Under
Under such
such conditions,
conditions, the
the growth
growth of
of the
the private
private ecoecowas
nomic sector
sector meant
meant that
that small
small households
households simultaneously
simultaneously became
became dedenomic
pendent on
on credit.
credit. Usury
Usury proliferated;
proliferated; loans
loans on
on credit
credit became
became one
one of
pendent
of
the most
most profitable
profitable ways
ways to
to invest
invest capital,
capital, interest
interest on
on the
the capital
capital being
being
the
one-fifth or
or even
even one-third.
one-third. Usurious
Usurious forms
forms of
of credit
credit led
led to
to the
the ruinruinone-fifth
ation of
of small
small households.
Sale and
and purchase
purchase first
first of
of the
the date
date plantaplantaation
households. Sale

102

102

N.
V. Kozyreva
Kozyreva
N.V.

tions
tions and
and later
later of
of fields
fields began
began to
to occur
occur everywhere.
everywhere. (However,
(However, the
the
kings of
the kings
kings of
Ur before
the sale
of
kings
of Larsa,
Larsa, like
like the
of Ur
before them,
them, prohibited
prohibited the
sale of
fields.) A
A sale
sale of
of land
land was
was tantamount
to the
the loss
loss of
of civil
civil rights
rights in
in the
the
fields.)
tantamount to
community by
the seller,
seller, so
so such
such aa deal
deal was
only to
as aa
community
by the
was only
to be
be undertaken
undertaken as
last resort.
resort. Incase
In case of
of need,
need, one
one could
could sell
sell aa family
family member
into temtemlast
member into
porary
slavery or
or one
one could
could pledge
family member
member to
to the
the creditor
creditor as
porary slavery
pledge aa family
as
guarantee for
for the
the payment
payment of
of one's
one's debt.
debt. This
This is
is the
the period
period when
when
aa guarantee
hired
agricultural workers
workers first
appear in
in Mesopotamia
in considerconsiderhired agricultural
first appear
Mesopotamia in
able numbers
(although the
state economy
economy hired
as early
early as
able
numbers (although
the state
hired workers
workers as
as
the
the Akkade
Akkade dynasty).
dynasty).
A strong
strong centralized
centralized state
state power
power was
was not
not in
in favor
favor of
of excessive
excessive
A
growth of
of private
private individuals'
individuals' independence.
independence. Moreover,
Moreover, any
any loss
loss of
of
growth
land and
and means
means of
of sustenance
sustenance by
an important
important part
part of
of the
populaland
by an
the population
deprived the
state of
of income
income in
in taxes
and weakened
its military
military
tion deprived
the state
taxes and
weakened its
power.
Therefore, as
as soon
soon as
as the
the tendency
tendency toward
toward unification
and
unification and
power. Therefore,
creation of
of aa stable
stable state
state was
was nearing
its goal,
goal, the
state began
devise
creation
nearing its
the state
began to
to devise
limitations to
to private
private activities.
activities. The
The kings
kings issued
issued special
special decrees
decrees aimaimlimitations
ing at
at putting
on land
land sales
sales and
and enslavement
enslavement of
of the
the poorer
poorer
ing
putting aa brake
brake on
strata of
of the
Such decrees,
decrees, called
called "Decrees
"Decrees of
of Fairness"
Fairness"
strata
the population.
population. Such
(or
"Righteousness") or
or simply
simply "royal
"royal decrees,"
decrees," were
were issued
issued regularly,
regularly,
(or "Righteousness")
once every
every five
seven years,
years, and
and announced
announced the
the annulment
annulment of
of
once
five to
to seven
agreements involving
involving slavery
slavery for
for debt,
liberation of
of temporary
temporary
agreements
debt, the
the liberation
slaves, the
the return
return of
of immovables
immovables to
to the
the original
original owner,
owner, and
and the
the like.
slaves,
like.
However, the
creditors sought
sought ways,
successfully, to
the
However,
the creditors
ways, often
often successfully,
to evade
evade the
fulfillment of
of such
such decrees,
decrees, since
since the
the debtors
debtors seldom
seldom had
had the
the means
means to
to
fulfillment
sue in
in court.
court.
sue
Such
policy of
Such aa policy
of limiting
limiting the
the private
private sector's
sector's activities
activities is
is attested
attested in
in
Larsa. This
This city
city became
center of
of aa strong
strong kingdom
kingdom embracing
embracing all
Larsa.
became the
the center
all
of
southern Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in
in the
late nineteenth
century after
after the
the
of southern
the late
nineteenth century
Elamite-Amorite
He did
not give
give himself
Elamite-Amorite chief
chief Kudurmabuk
Kudurmabuk seized
seized it.
it. He
did not
himself
royal title
title but
but ceded
ceded the
the throne
throne of
of Larsa
Larsa first
first to
to one
one and
and then
then to
to ananaa royal
other of
of his
his sons.
sons. His
His second
second son,
son, Rim-Sin,
Rim-Sin, attained
attained great
great power
power and
and
other
inachieved victories
over all
all his
his more
important rivals.
achieved
victories over
more important
rivals. After
After that,
that, he
he introduced
certain reforms,
limiting the
development of
entertroduced certain
reforms, limiting
the development
of private
private enterprise
and commodity-money
Private trade
trade and
and usurious
usurious
prise and
commodity-money relations.
relations. Private
activities in
in Larsa
fell off
off sharply.
sharply.
activities
Larsa fell
The tendency
tendency to
strengthen royal
over aa country's
economy
The
to strengthen
royal control
control over
country's economy
and
to limit
limit private
private economic
was still
more apparent
apparent in
in the
and to
economic activities
activities was
still more
the
reforms
Hammurapi, king
of Babylon.
Babylon. Hammurapi,
Hammurapi, after
after destroydestroyreforms of
of Hammurapi,
king of
ing
his last
last rivals,
Larsa, unified
in the
the 1760s
1760s to
1750s all
all of
ing his
rivals, Mari
Mari and
and Larsa,
unified in
to 1750s
of
Lower and
and aa considerable
considerable part
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, creating
creating aa
Lower
part of
kingdom
inferior to
to Ur
III in
in its
its size
size and
and power.
power. Hammurapi's
Hammurapi's
kingdom not
not inferior
Ur III
policies
clearly show
show aa conscious
conscious tendency
in
policies clearly
tendency toward
toward the
the restoration
restoration in

The Old Babylonian Period

103

Mesopotamia of
of aa royal
royal power
power universal
universal in
in its
its authority
authority and
and despotic
despotic
Mesopotamia
in its
its character.
character.
in
The
The state's
state's administrative
administrative system
system was
was improved
improved and
and strictly
strictly cencentralized.
tralized. In
In the
the final
final analysis,
analysis, the
the reins
reins of
of managemeIit
management of
of all
all aspects
aspects
of economic
economic life
life were
were gathered
gathered in
in the
the hands
hands of
of the
the king.
king. He
was perperof
He was
sonally involved
in all
all affairs
affairs and
and problems.
problems. Hammurapi
Hammurapi laid
laid great
great
sonally
involved in
weight upon
upon the
personal involvement
involvement in
in the
the management
management of
weight
the king's
king's personal
of
affairs, and
and he
he corresponded
corresponded extensively
extensively with
with his
his local
local officials;
officials; it
it was
affairs,
was
not unusual
unusual for
for private
private persons
persons to
to appeal
appeal directly
directly to
to the
the king
king with
with
not
their complaints.
complaints. An
important reform
reform was
was carried
carried out
out involving
the
their
An important
involving the
courts
the role
courts of
of law;
law; here
here also
also the
role of
of the
the king
king was
was strengthened.
strengthened. Royal
Royal
judges
were introduced
into all
all major
cities, where
where formerly
only
judges were
introduced into
major cities,
formerly only
Royal judges
judges were
were chosen
chosen
temple and
and community
community courts
courts had
acted.22 Royal
temple
had acted.
from among
among royal
officials responsible
responsible directly
directly to
to the
the king;
king; they
they did
did
from
royal officials
not,
however, completely
completely supplant
supplant the
the community
community courts.
courts.
not, however,
The
with their
The temples
temples with
their vast
vast economies,
economies, occupying
occupying aa considerable
considerable
part of
territory and
having become
become virtually
part
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian territory
and having
virtually indepenindependent after
after the
fall of
of the
the Third
Third Dynasty
Ur, were
were now
now again
again comcomdent
the fall
Dynasty of
of Dr,
pletely subjected
subjected to
to the
the royal
authority, both
administratively and
and
pletely
royal authority,
both administratively
economically. Private
Private international
international trade
trade was
was prohibited,
prohibited, and
and the
the
economically.
traders were
reminded that
that they
they were
were royal
royal officials.
officials. In
In most
most districts
districts
traders
were reminded
of the
the kingdom,
kingdom, sale
sale of
of land
land was
was prohibited,
prohibited, except
except for
for city
city plots.
plots. All
of
All
these
these measures,
measures, as
as well
well as
as the
the above-mentioned
above-mentioned "Decrees
"Decrees of
of Fairness,"
Fairness,"
were
stop the
the ruination
of the
the people
people and
and the
of
were designed
designed to
to stop
ruination of
the loss
loss of
their land.
land.
their
Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Society
Society
There
was aa considerable
considerable difference
difference between
There was
between southern
southern MesopotaMesopotamian society
and that
mian
society of
of the
the early
early second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. and
that of
of aa
millennium earlier.
Now Mesopotamia
millennium
earlier. Now
Mesopotamia was
was no
no longer
longer divided
divided into
into
separate
nomes; aa tendency
tendency toward
toward unification
was clearly
separate nomes;
unification was
clearly present.
present.
The
main social
was, as
The main
social aim
aim was,
as before,
before, economic
economic self-reproduction
self-reproduction and
and
self-sustenance, which
also presupposed
sustenance of
of the
the state
state unity.
unity.
self-sustenance,
which also
presupposed sustenance
In
order to
achieve this
goal all
all social
social forces
forces were
brought into
In order
to achieve
this goal
were brought
into acactionsocial, religious,
religious, and
and economic.
economic.
tion-social,
It seems
longer be
It
seems to
to us
us that
that the
the Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian economy
economy can
can no
no longer
be
usefully
usefully subdivided
subdivided into
into aa state
state sector
sector and
and aa private/communal
private/communal sector;
sector;
now
now we
we ought
ought to
to distinguish
distinguish aa state
state sector
sector in
in the
the direct
direct sense
sense of
of the
the
word and
word
and aa state-and-community
state-and-community sector:
sector: both
both actually
actually were
were under
under
state
distinct types
state control.
control. Two
Two distinct
types of
of economy
economy seem
seem to
to have
have existed
existed
2.
2. Conflicts
Conflicts and
and litigations
litigations within
within the
the state
state economies
economies were
were settled
settled by
by royal
royal officials
officials
administratively
administratively rather
rather than
than judicially.
judicially.

104
10
4

N. V.
V. Kozyreva

within
sectors: aa large
large type
and aa small
small type.
type. State
State and
and temple
temple
within both
both sectors:
type and
the private
king, the
economies,
economies, as
as well
well as
as the
private economies
economies of
of the
the king,
the dignidignitaries, and
taries,
and the
the major
major officials,
officials, belonged
belonged to
to the
the first
first group;
group; the
the econoeconomies of
the community
members, the
the rank-and-file
rank-and-file servants
servants of
of the
the
mies
of the
community members,
state economies,
economies, and
and the
the men
men who
state land
for aa share
share in
in
state
who tilled
tilled state
land for
the
crop had
small economies
second group.
Production in
in the
the
the crop
had small
economies of
of the
the second
group. Production
small economies
economies was
of the
in-kind type.
and exchange
exchange
small
was of
the in-kind
type. Their
Their reserve
reserve and
funds
composed of
of the
small surplus
surplus of
of products
accufunds were
were composed
the small
products that
that had
had accumulated during
during climatically
climatically favorable
favorable years
years after
after all
all taxes
taxes and
and requisimulated
requisitions
More surplus,
surplus, which
could serve
serve as
as commodities
commodities
tions had
had been
been paid.
paid. More
which could
for sale,
sale, accumulated
accumulated in
the big
economies, but
it was
the
in the
big economies,
but primarily
primarily it
was the
for
state itself
itself that
had such
such surplus
surplus at
at its
its disposal.
disposal.
state
that had
The character
in the
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period was
not
The
character of
of production
production in
the Old
was not
essentially different
different from
Dynasty of
of Ur,
the
essentially
from that
that under
under the
the Third
Third Dynasty
Ur, but
but the
economic milieu
milieu had
changed due
due to
aforementioned reasons.
economic
had changed
to the
the aforementioned
reasons.
The increase
increase in
in the
size of
of the
the state
state led
led to
abundant growth
growth in
in adminadminThe
the size
to abundant
istrative personnel
personnel and
and the
the state
state economic
economic sector.
sector. Commodity-money
Commodity-money
istrative
relations, which
which might
have served
served as
as aa regulating
regulating factor
factor for
for the
entire
might have
the entire
relations,
economy, involved
involved mostly
international trade;
trade; the
big economies
economies of
economy,
mostly international
the big
of
the
state and
and the
autarchic. The
The small
small economies
economies were,
the state
the temples
temples were
were autarchic.
were,
if possible,
still more
so. Thus,
society had
develop other
other means
means or
or
if
possible, still
more so.
Thus, society
had to
to develop
methods
regulating the
economy and,
and, specifically,
specifically, the
exchange of
methods for
for regulating
the economy
the exchange
of
commodities. The
The means
means had
had to
to be
able to
to operate
operate within
within the
the frameframecommodities.
be able
work of
of the
main social
social goal:
goal: to
to maintain
maintain aa stable,
stable, unchanged
unchanged society
society
work
the main
under changed
changed economic
economic conditions.
conditions.
under
the Sumerians;
Some
Some of
of these
these methods
methods were
were inherited
inherited from
from the
Sumerians; others
others
inwere
were developed
developed during
during the
the Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period itself.
itself. These
These included
the following:
fixed interest
credit; aa system
cluded the
following: aa fixed
interest on
on credit;
system of
of state
state credit
credit
for private
(through the
for
private persons
persons (through
the tamkars,
tamkars,who
whowere
werefirst
firstand
andforemost
foremost
tax
but who
tax collectors,
collectors, but
who were
were also
also responsible
responsible for
for trade
trade and
and other
other state
state
incomes); aa periodic
periodic restoration
restoration of
of certain
certain sold
sold immovables
immovables to
to their
their
incomes);
original owners
owners and
and aa liberation
liberation of
of people
who had
had become
become slaves
slaves for
for
original
people who
debt; compulsory
compulsory prices
prices fixed
fixed by
by the
the state.
state.
debt;
It is
is well
known that
Mesopotamia, being
poor in
in natural
resources,
It
well known
that Mesopotamia,
being poor
natural resources,
always had
had to
to import
import certain
certain vital
vital materials;
materials; metals,
metals, particularly,
particularly, were
were
always
needed for
for agricultural
agricultural tools
tools and
and for
for weapons.
weapons. From
time immeimmeneeded
From time
morial, international
international exchange
exchange was
was aa necessity
necessity for
for Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. Such
Such
morial,
exchange was
was aa very
very important
important element
element of
of the
the country's
country's economic
economic
exchange
structure; it
it was
was basic
basic to
to the
the reproduction
reproduction of
of society
society and
and its
its activities.
activities.
structure;
Fulfilling its
its function
function of
of maintaining
maintaining social
social stability,
stability, the
the state
state also
also
Fulfilling
controlled this
element of
economic structure.
structure. International"
International
controlled
this element
of the
the economic
exchange formed
formed one
one of
of the
most important
important activities
activities of
of state
state officialofficialexchange
the most
dom.
The
state
used
any
surplus
that
was
at
its
disposal
for
interdom. The state used any surplus that was at its disposal for inter-

The
The Old Babylonian Period

105

national
trade. Different
Different imported
imported commodities
commodities were
were brought
brought into
national trade.
into
the
state treasury;
they were
were expended
expended for
the needs
of the
state and
and
the state
treasury; they
for the
needs of
the state
also
also were
were distributed
distributed to
to administration
administration and
and state
state economy
economy personnel.
personnel.
The tamkars
The
tamkarsand
andother
otherofficials
officials seem
seemtotohave
havegradually
graduallyinvested
investedsome
some
private means
means of
of their
their own
own and
and tried
tried to
to conduct
conduct their
their own
own businesses
businesses
private
while
while they
they fulfilled
fulfilled their
their official
official duties.
duties.
The international
international exchange
exchange of
of commodities
commodities (both
(both state
state and
and private)
private)
The
was nonequivalent;
nonequivalent; the
the prices
were determined
determined spontaneously
spontaneously and
and
. was
prices were
bore little
little relation
relation to
to production
production expenditures.
expenditures. Caravans
Caravans of
of donkeys
donkeys
bore
loaded with
with the
the same
same commodities
commodities were
were always
always moving
moving along
along the
the
loaded
same routes,
routes, returning
returning with
with other
other needed
needed commodities.
commodities. Private
Private interintersame
national
could develop
develop only
only under
under the
the shelter
shelter of
of the
the state
state trade,
trade,
national trade
trade could
applying its
its methods
methods and
and making
making use
use of
of its
its possibilities.
possibilities.33
applying
An
internal exchange
exchange of
of commodities
commodities on
on aa very
limited scale
scale also
An internal
very limited
also
developed
developed alongside
alongside private
private international
international trade.
trade. It
It seems
seems that
that in
in years
years
of natural
natural calamities
calamities and
and poor
commodity-money exof
poor harvests
harvests the
the commodity-money
exchange
but with
change tendencies
tendencies could
could become
become stronger,
stronger, but
with the
the normalization
normalization
of
its point
of aa critical
critical situation,
situation, everything
everything returned
returned to
to its
point of
of departure.
departure.
All the
private trade
Mesopotamia amounted
All
the private
trade in
in southern
southern Mesopotamia
amounted to
to rather
rather
rare cases
cases of
of sale
sale and
of the
objects of
of primary
for
rare
and purchase
purchase of
the objects
primary necessity
necessity for
the small
contrariwise, of
of luxury.
the
small economies
economies or,
or, contrariwise,
of objects
objects of
luxury. This
This trade
trade
was not
not based
on special
commodity production,
and the
did
was
based on
special commodity
production, and
the profits
profits did
not
as aa rule
return to
to the
the production
process.
not as
rule return
production process.
Although
the country
country was
was no
longer divided
divided into
separate nomes,
nomes,
Although the
no longer
into separate
Mesopotamia could
could still
still be
be deemed
worthy of
of its
its name
name "Country
"Country of
Mesopotamia
deemed worthy
of
Many Cities."
These cities
cities were
along the
of the
TiMany
Cities." These
were dispersed
dispersed along
the banks
banks of
the Tigris and
and Euphrates
and at
at the
confluences of
of the
the large
canals. Cities
Cities
gris
Euphrates and
the confluences
large canals.
such as
as Nippur,
Nippur, Kish,
Kish, Sippar,
Sippar, Ur,
Ur, and
and Uruk
already had
history of
such
Uruk already
had aa history
of
several hundreds
of years
behind them.
them. There
were also
also newer
newer cities,
several
hundreds of
years behind
There were
cities,
like
Issin and
and Larsa,
Larsa, as
as well
as cities,
cities, like
Babylon, whose
whose history
in
like Issin
well as
like Babylon,
history lay
lay in
the future.
future. The
The buildings
buildings of
of these
these cities
cities covered
covered some
some two
two to
to four
four
the
square kilometers
kilometers (about
(about aa square
square mile
mile or
or aa mile
and aa half)
half) and
and were
were
square
mile and
inhabited by
several tens
tens of
of thousands
thousands of
of people.
people. The
The center
center of
of aa city
city
inhabited
by several
usually
consisted of
of aa temple,
temple, including
including aa ziggurat
ziggurat (stepped
(stepped mudmudusually consisted
brick tower)
tower) and
and temples
temples dedicated
dedicated to
to the
the city's
city's patron
patron god
god or
or goddess
goddess
brick
and
to
other
of
the
more
important
deities.
The
temple
area
usually
and to other of the more important deities. The temple area usually
was
surrounded
by
a
wall.
Inside
it,
the
palace
of
the
king
or
of the
the
was surrounded by a wall. Inside it, the palace of the king or of
local
ruler
and
the
main
utility
buildings
of
the
state
economy
were
local ruler and the main utility buildings of the state economy were
also situated.
situated. The
The rest
rest of
of the
the city
city was
was occupied
occupied by
houses and
and
by private
private houses
also
other
buildings.
Dispersed
among
them
stood
small
temples,
or
chapother buildings. Dispersed among them stood small temples, or chap3.
International commodity
commodity exchange
of Lower
Mesopotamia developed
3. International
exchange outside
outside of
Lower Mesopotamia
developed
along
somewhat different
different lines.
along somewhat
lines.

106

N. V.
V. Kozyreva

els,
belonging to
to lesser
houses were
built close
to one
els, belonging
lesser deities.
deities. The
The houses
were built
close to
one ananother
A
other and
and formed
formed narrow,
narrow, tortuous
tortuous streets,
streets, 1.5-3
1.5-3 meters
meters wide.
wide. A
harbor
with moorings
moorings for
for merchant
merchant boats
boats and
barges was
was located
located on
harbor with
and barges
on
the
of the
or canal
canal where
the city
city had
had developed.
developed. Near
the
the bank
bank of
the river
river or
where the
Near the
harbor there
been aa square
harbor
there may
may have
have been
square which
which also
also functioned
functioned as
as aa
marketplace.
marketplace. The
The life
life of
of the
the townspeople
townspeople was
was concentrated
concentrated around
around
the numerous
numerous temples
temples and
palace, where
where many
many of
of them
them worked
worked as
as
the
and the
the palace,
clerks, soldiers,
soldiers, priests,
craftsmen, and
and merchants.
merchants. The
The living
living stanstanclerks,
priests, craftsmen,
dard of
of the
urban dwellers
dwellers did
did not
differ very
much.
dard
the urban
not differ
very much.
An urban
urban residence
An
residence usually
usually consisted
consisted of
of aa house
house and
and aa lot
lot of
of open
open
land, the
the size
the individual
ranging from
to 70
land,
size of
of the
individual houses
houses ranging
from 35
35 to
70 square
square
meters. Many
Many houses
had two
stories (utility
(utility rooms
rooms on
on the
ground
meters.
houses had
two stories
the ground
floor, living
living rooms
on the
level). Neighbors
floor,
rooms on
the upper
upper level).
Neighbors were
were mutually
mutually reresponsible for
for the
upkeep of
of the
common walls
that bounded
their
sponsible
the upkeep
the common
walls that
bounded their
properties.
Some city
properties. Some
city dwellers
dwellers also
also owned
owned date
date plantations,
plantations, which
which
plantawere
either located
next to
city or
or in
in nearby
nearby villages.
were either
located next
to the
the city
villages. These
These plantations were
were usually
not larger
larger than
than 11 hectare
(2.5 acres).
acres). The
The townstions
usually not
hectare (2.5
townspeople,
whose main
main occupation
occupation was
was in
in the
the administrative
administrative service
service or
or
people, whose
in some
some craft,
craft, often
often did
did not
not engage
engage in
in garden
garden work
work themselves
themselves and
and
in
rented out
out their
A month
month or
or two
two before
date harvest,
the
rented
their parcels.
parcels. A
before the
the date
harvest, the
owners inspected
inspected their
palm trees
in order
order to
to estimate
estimate the
the expected
expected
owners
their palm
trees in
yield. A
A written
written agreement
agreement was
was drawn
drawn up
up on
on the
the basis
of this
this estimate,
estimate,
yield.
basis of
according to
to which
which the
the gardener
gardener was
was obliged
obliged to
to supply
supply the
the owner
owner with
with
according
certain quantity
quantity of
of dates;
dates.
aa certain
Bread
flat cake)
was the
as
Bread (actually
(actually flat
cake) was
the staple
staple food
food of
of the
the city
city dwellers,
dwellers, as
well as
Mesopotamian letter
well
as of
of the
the villagers.
villagers. According
According to
to aa southern
southern Mesopotamian
letter
writer
fields were
were "the
writer of
of that
that time,
time, the
the fields
"the soul
soul of
of the
the country."
country." The
The proprovision
of the
grain and,
and, in
in the
account, the
well-being
vision of
the cities
cities with
with grain
the final
final account,
the well-being
of all
all their
inhabitants depended
depended on
on the
crop yields
of the
of
their inhabitants
the crop
yields of
the fields.
fields.
City life
life largely
largely depended
depended on
on the
the agrarian
agrarian work
work cycle.
cycle. Those
Those urban
urban
City
dwellers who
who were
were servants
servants of
of the
the state
state economy
economy received
received land
land allotallotdwellers
ments for
for their
services. Except
Except for
for aa few
few persons
who held
held tens
ments
their services.
persons who
tens of
of
hectares
of land,
land, most
individuals received
allotments amounting
amounting to
to
hectares of
most individuals
received allotments
some 2-4
24 hectares
hectares (5-10
(510 acres).
acres). In
In addition
addition to
to the
the land
land allotted
allotted for
for
some
service, some
some townspeople
townspeople also
also had
had land
land in
in the
the village
village communities
communities
service,
by
of their
membership in
in them.
In addition
addition to
to these
two types
types
by virtue
virtue of
their membership
them. In
these two
of fields-state
fieldsstate allotments
allotments and
and community
community land-some
landsome city
city dwellers
dwellers
of
owned large
large estates
estates (amirtum),
(amirtum),about
aboutthe
theorigin
originof
ofwhich
whichwe
wehave
haveno
no
owned
accurate
information.
It
is
probable
that
these
lands
were
awarded
by
accurate information. It is probable that these lands were awarded by
the king
to high
The
the
king personally
personally to
high officials
officials or
or persons
persons close
close to
to himself.
himself. The
fields,
like
the
orchards,
were
rarely
worked
by
the
townspeople.
fields, like the orchards, were rarely worked by the townspeople.
They usually
out to
farmers who
in rural
rural settlesettleThey
usually rented
rented them
them out
to farmers
who lived
lived in
ments
where
the
land
allotments
were
located
together
with
commuments where the land allotments were located together with commu-

The
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

107

nity land.
land. The
The land
land parcels
were either
either rented
rented out
out for
for aa fixed
fixed price
price or
or
parcels were
nity
for
for aa crop
crop share,
share, which
which usually
usually amounted
amounted to
to one
one third.
third.
Most townspeople
townspeople kept
kept no
no cattle
cattle (only
(only aa few
few sheep)
sheep) and
and owned
owned few
few
Most
who were
slaves.
slaves. The
The majority
majority of
of the
the slaves
slaves were
were foreigners
foreigners who
were either
either
captured by
by the
the local
local army
army or
or brought
brought in
in from
from other
other cities
cities by
mercaptured
by merchants, where
they most
most likely
likely had
had also
also been
been prisoners
prisoners of
of war.
war. A
A male
male
chants,
where they
slave
be bought
slave could
could be
for 150-175
150-175 grams
grams of
of silver
silver (1
(1 gram
0.035
bought for
gram = 0.035
slaves
U.S.
U.S. ounce),
ounce), and
and aa female
female for
for somewhat
somewhat less.
less. In
In most
most instances,
instances, slaves
worked
with other
worked on
on an
an equal
equal footing
footing with
other family
family members
members (including
(including
production
tasks), and
was similar
that of
production tasks),
and their
their legal
legal status
status was
similar to
to that
of minors
minors
under
the patriarchal
authority of
of the
head of
of the
the house.
house.
under the
patriarchal authority
the head
Thus,
property supporting
and his
his family
Thus, the
the property
supporting aa city
city dweller
dweller and
family comcomprised aa simple
simple house
house with
with the
the most
essential furnishings
furnishings and
houseprised
most essential
and household implements,
small farming
farming parcel
parcel that
that he
owned by
by virtue
virtue of
of
hold
implements, aa small
he owned
membership in
in some
some village
village community
community or
or that
that was
by the
the
membership
was allotted
allotted by
temple or
state for
service, and
sometimes aa small
small date
palm grove.
grove.
temple
or state
for his
his service,
and sometimes
date palm
Another source
Another
source of
of income
income for
for the
the townspeople
townspeople were
were payments
payments in
in
kind: the
the temple
temple and
the palace
palace supplied
supplied some
some of
of their
their employees
employees
kind:
and the
with
products in
in place
place of
land. The
payments were
in grain,
wool,
with products
of land.
The payments
were in
grain, wool,
vegetable
silver. In
In addition,
addition, spespevegetable oil,
oil, and
and sometimes
sometimes small
small amounts
amounts of
of silver.
cial gifts
gifts were
were occasionally
occasionally issued
issued during
during temple
temple feasts.
feasts.
cial
All
had temples.
A
All Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian cities
cities and
and most
most of
of the
the villages
villages had
temples. A
temple in
in ancient
ancient Mesopotamia,
as well
well as
as in
in other
other ancient
ancient societies,
temple
Mesopotamia, as
societies,
was not
not only
only aa place
of worship
worship but
also one
one of
of the
important
was
place of
but also
the most
most important
components of
of the
the state's
state's socioeconomic
socioeconomic structure.
structure. The
The poor
poor who
who
components
lived within
within the
the temple's
temple's sphere
sphere of
of influence
influence could
could depend
depend on
on the
the
lived
temple to
to help
them escape
escape ruin
ruin or
or even
even starvation,
starvation, and
and the
the rich
rich
temple
help them
found the
the temple
temple aa good
good place
in which
which to
to invest
invest or
or to
to save
save their
their
found
place in
surplus.
surplus.
From the
the most
most ancient
ancient times,
times, one
one of
of the
the important
important social
social functions
functions
From
of the
the temple
temple was
was to
to be
be aa sort
sort of
of charity
charity institution
institution for
for people
that
of
people that
were rejected
rejected by
by the
the highly
highly regularized
regularized ancient
ancient society
society as
as physically
physically
were
or socially
socially defective;
defective; for
for example,
example, unmarried
unmarried and
and parentless
parentless women,
women,
or
abandoned or
or orphaned
orphaned children,
children, physically
physically handicapped
handicapped people,
people,
abandoned
and the
the elderly.
elderly. In
In economically
economically critical
critical periods,
periods, such
such as
as at
at times
times of
of
and
war or
or bad
bad harvests,
harvests, the
the poor
would consecrate
consecrate to
to the
the temple
temple the
the
war
poor would
elderly and
and sick
sick members
of their
their families
families or
or leave
leave to
to it
it such
such children
children
elderly
members of
as they
they were
were unable
unable to
to sustain.
sustain. The
The main
for such
such consecraconsecraas
main reason
reason for
tions was
was aa wish
wish to
to get
get rid
rid of
of the
the surplus
surplus mouths
mouths to
to feed
feed (i.e.,
(i.e., of
family
tions
offamily
members unable
unable to
to work
work at
full strength),
strength), although
although the
the form
form the
the conconmembers
at full
secration took
took was
was aa gift
to the
the deity
from his
his or
or her
worshiper. When
When
secration
gift to
deity from
her worshiper.
the economy
stable or
or on
on the
the rise,
rise, the
the number
number of
of people
the
economy was
was stable
people conseconsecrated
by the
the richer
families would
would increase.
increase. Many
Many of
of the
the rich
would
crated by
richer families
rich would

108

N.
V. Kozyreva
Kozyreva
N.V.

give
their daughters
temple. Here,
religious and
give their
daughters to
to aa temple.
Here, religious
and economic
economic motimotivations
vations were
were combined.
combined. Entering
Entering the
the temple
temple cloister,
cloister, aa girl
girl would
would take
take
her
with her;
even increased
by investing
it, even
increased it
it by
investing
her dowry
dowry with
her; she
she made
made use
use of
of it,
in
kinds of
businesses, but
her death
to her
in different
different kinds
of businesses,
but after
after her
death it
it returned
returned to
her
family.
by her
brothers during
family. Sometimes
Sometimes it
it was
was managed
managed by
her brothers
during her
her life.
life.
The role
of the
the temple
as aa social
social center
center also
also manifested
manifested itself
itself in
in its
its
The
role of
temple as
duty
duty to
to ransom
ransom community
community members
members captured
captured by
by the
the enemy
enemy during
during
royal campaigns
campaigns if
if the
the family
family itself
itself did
did not
not possess
possess the
the necessary
necessary
royal
means for
for paying
the ransom.
ransom.
means
paying the
The
temple as
place where
where different
kinds of
The role
role of
of the
the temple
as aa place
different kinds
of controcontroversies
versies and
and litigations
litigations could
could be
be settled
settled was
was also
also very
very important.
important. Here,
Here,
witnesses and
and the
the parties
concerned produced
produced their
evidence on
on oath;
oath;
witnesses
parties concerned
their evidence
here,
the divine
winning party
party was
was confirmed
here, before
before the
divine symbols,
symbols, the
the winning
confirmed in
in
its rights.
rights.
its
In
there were
were also
In addition
addition to
to large
large and
and small
small cities,
cities, there
also many
many small
small
rural
period. These
rural settlements
settlements in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia during
during this
this period.
These villages
villages
were
banks of
were located
located on
on the
the banks
of rivers
rivers and
and canals
canals that
that connected
connected the
the
cities.
The houses
villagers could
cities. The
houses of
of the
the villagers
could spread
spread over
over an
an area
area of
of aa few
few
hectares. They
hectares.
They were
were constructed
constructed of
of mud
mud brick
brick or,
or, often,
often, wattled
wattled reeds
reeds
coated with
with clay.
clay. The
The villages
villages were
were inhabited
inhabited by
by fifty
fifty to
to several
several hunhuncoated
dred people
people whose
main occupation
occupation was
was agriculture.
agriculture. These
These people
people
dred
whose main
were members
members of
of territorial
territorial communities
communities consisting
consisting of
of one
one or
or several
several
were
villages
their corresponding
corresponding land.
land. Barley
Barley was
was the
the principal
principal crop,
crop,
villages with
with their
and the
was at
at that
on the
the average
average about
about 12.5
12.5 centners
centners per
per
and
the yield
yield was
that time
time on
hectare (1
(1 U.S.S.R.
U.S.S.R. centner
centner = 220.46
220.46 pounds).
pounds). Wheat
was planted
planted
hectare
Wheat was
only rarely
rarely because
because it
it could
could not
not survive
survive the
the increasing
increasing salinity
salinity of
of the
the
only
soil. Other
Other crops
crops were
dates, onions,
onions, and
and leguminous
leguminous vegetables.
soil.
were dates,
vegetables.
From the
the point
point of
of view
view of
of agricultural
agricultural production,
production, two
two main
main types
types
From
of
of economies
economies can
can be
be distinguished:
distinguished: state
state economies
economies in
in the
the proper
proper
sense and
and the
state-cum-community controlled
controlled economies.
economies. The
The forforsense
the state-cum-community
mer
by the
by the
mer were
were not
not only
only controlled
controlled by
the state
state but
but also
also organized
organized by
the
state by
by administrative
administrative means;
means; the
the workers
workers on
on such
such estates
estates were
were
state
mainly dependent
dependent persons.
However, they
were not
grouped into
into
mainly
persons. However,
they were
not grouped
gurushof
of Ur
Ur III
III times,
times,did
did not
not receive
receive rations
rationsin
in
teams and,
and, unlike
unlike the
the g;urush
teams
kind; instead,
instead, they
they received
received group
group allotments
allotments in
in land.
land. They
They were
were
kind;
called nashi
nashi biltim,
biltim,oror"bringers
"bringersofofincome,"
income,"and
andwere
werenot
notregarded
regardedasas
called
slaves.
slaves. About
About one
one third
third of
of the
the total
total cultivated
cultivated land
land in
in Old
Old BabylonBabylonian Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia can
can be
be estimated
estimated to
to have
have been
been fields
fields of
of the
the state
state
ian
economies.
economIes.
The
The second
second type,
type, the
the state-cum-community
state-cum-community controlled
controlled economies,
economies,
were territorially
territorially organized
organized by
by the
the state
state and
and managed
managed on
on the
the spot
spot
were
along territorial
territorial and
and extended-family
extended-family lines.
lines. The
The majority
majority of
of workers
workers
along
were free,
free, although
although the
the labor
labor of
of slaves
slaves and
and other
other dependents
dependents could
could
were
also be
be employed.
employed.
also

The
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

109
109

A process of pauperization and loss of

of land by a part of the free
free
A
population was probably under way during the Old Babylonian Period. Several factors contributed to this. Among them were popuof land, and
lation growth, the
the splitting up of inherited parcels of
salinization. At the same time, however, new arable land was being
created. The royal administration was undertaking large-scale projects to
to clear
clear the
the old
old canals
canals and
and dig
dig new
new ones.
ones. The
The labor
labor force
force conconects
of community
community members
members and
and dependent
dependent persons.
On the
the banks
banks
sisted of
persons. On
of the new canals, new state economies and territorial communities
of
arose.
Life in the communities was governed by a council of
of elders, chosen
of the most respected and wealthy
by the inhabitants from the ranks of
families. The council was presided over by a village headman, usually
appointed by the king. Some communities paid their taxes to the state
of their irrigated land to
in kind; others turned over a certain portion of
of this land to
the state economy. The king, in turn, could allot some of
his officials
officials and functionaries
functionaries as remuneration for service. He could
also settle
settle these
these lands
lands with
from among
who sought
sought
also
with workers
workers from
among the
the poor
poor who
his protection
protection and
and who
subsequently ceded
ceded to
to the
the king
significant
his
who subsequently
king aa significant
portion
of their harvest.
portion of
The main goal of
of most small economies was self-provision. Their
marketable output was very small. But now and again they had to acquire necessary tools and implements that they could not themselves
produce. Silver was used not only as a standard to establish prices but
also not uncommonly as the means of
of payment, partly supplanting in
this role the grain that had been used in earlier times. Everything was
evaluated in silver: personal property as well as real estate, the income
from priestly services (prebends), payments to a hired hand, and expenses connected with certain obligatory labor tasks. Yet, most townspeople, not to speak of people in small villages, owned no silver. Silver
in bullion was basically available only to people engaged in commerce.
Some decorative silver was owned by the more prosperous families.
The silver jewelry included bracelets and anklets, earrings, and finger
rings, often
often having a standard weight so that they could easily be used
of need. But the bulk of
of silver bullion
to settle money accounts in case of
(i.e., in the palace and the
was accumulated in the state treasury (Le.,
of this stock was distributed among the high palace and
temples). Part of
temple officials
officials as
as payments
for service
service and
and gifts.
gifts.
temple
payments for
of the economies, the sale
Under conditions of
of low market output of
of
of agricultural products for silver was not everywhere or always feasible. This is especially true of
of the land beyond the bounds of
of large
cities and far from the central offices and trading companies. In the
of minted coins, silver bullion required weighing and calculaabsence of
tions; that is, a certain degree of
of expertise, unavailable to the greater

110
no

N.
V. Kozyreva
Kozyreva
N.V.

part
part of
of the
the population.
population. This
This circumstance
circumstance complicated
complicated the
the circulation
circulation
silver, especially
especially in
in rural
areas. Such
Such problems
did not
arise in
in large
large
of silver,
of
rural areas.
problems did
not arise
cities, where
there were
were money-changer
money-changer shops
shops and
in conconcities,
where there
and merchants
merchants in
siderable numbers.
numbers. Silver
Silver could
could circulate
circulate here
here more
more freely,
freely, and
and it
it
siderable
seems that
that it
it could
could easily
easily be
be exchanged
exchanged for
for products,
products, because
because the
the need
need
seems
for such
such exchange
exchange continued
continued to
as the
the economy
economy developed.
developed.
for
to rise
rise as
The natural
natural consequence
consequence of
of the
the low
low output
output of
of marketable
marketable goods
goods
The
was
the increased
need for
readily availavailwas the
increased need
for credit.
credit. Since
Since silver
silver was
was not
not readily
able, one
one could
could not
not lend
lend it
it and
and hope
hope for
for aa payment
payment of
of the
the debt
debt with
with
able,
interest unless
unless the
debtor had
had trade
trade capital
capital or
or belonged
belonged to
to the
the elite
elite of
of
interest
the debtor
the state
state personnel;
that is,
is, unless
unless he
he occupied
occupied aa place
in the
the small
small
the
personnel; that
place in
group of
of persons
persons connected
connected with
trade or
or in
in whose
whose hands
hands the
the income
income
group
with trade
from taxation
taxation and
and trade
trade accumulated.
accumulated. The
The overwhelming
overwhelming majority
majority of
of
from
families did
did not
not belong
group. They
They could
could not
not count
count on
on loans
loans
families
belong to
to this
this group.
unless they
they could
could offer
offer the
the creditor
creditor aa sufficiently
sufficiently secure
secure guarantee.
guarantee.
unless
Such aa guarantee
guarantee was
was the
the debtor's
debtor's person
or his
his estate.
estate. In
In these
these ininperson or
Such
stances, the
the debtor
debtor could
could pledge
pledge or
or sell
sell into
into slavery
slavery members
members of
of his
his
stances,
own family
family or
or even
even himself;
or (if
(if he
he did
did not
the state
state perperhimself; or
not belong
belong to
to the
own
real estate.
estate. Sales
Sales of
of land
land and
and
sonnel) he
could mortgage
mortgage (or
(or sell)4
sell)4 his
sonnel)
he could
his real
persons
that were
the result
result of
of aa previous
credit transaction
transaction were
were of
of aa
persons that
were the
previous credit
temporary character
character and,
and, after
after aa certain
certain period
of time
time or
or after
after cercertemporary
period of
tain previous
conditions had
been met,
met, had
had to
to be
canceled.
had been
be canceled.
tain
previous conditions
Besides private
credit, ancient
ancient Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian society
society had
also dedehad also
Besides
private credit,
veloped other
other important
important economic
economic levers
levers for
for promoting
commodity
promoting commodity
veloped
circulation under
under conditions
conditions of
of the
the low
low level
level of
of development
development of
of comcomcirculation
modity-money relations.
relations. One
One of
of these
the system
system of
of state
state credit.
credit.
these was
was the
modity-money
This system
system was
was represented
represented by
the tamkars,
tamkars, tavern
tavern keepers
keepers (often
(often
This
by the
bakers. Their
rural and
part of
women),
women), and
and bakers.
Their activities
activities supplied
supplied the
the rural
and part
of
the urban
urban population
with their
their chief,
the
population with
chief, sometimes
sometimes only,
only, source
source for
for
commodity
commodity exchange.
exchange.
The difference
difference in
in the
the living
living and
and property
standards among
among the
the
The
property standards
various
strata of
of Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian society
society was
comparatively moderate,
moderate,
various strata
was comparatively
and
The living
and the
the different
different levels
levels that
that existed
existed were
were relatively
relatively stable.
stable. The
living
standard allowed
allowed one
one to
to sustain
sustain oneself
oneself and
and one's
one's family
family within
the
standard
within the
expected norm
norm for
for that
that particular
particular level
level of
of society.
society.
expected
the mass
mass of
people, there
was aa small
wealthy famiAbove
Above the
of people,
there was
small group
group of
of wealthy
families whose
whose members
members occupied
occupied prominent
prominent positions
positions in
in the
the state
state or
or
lies
temple economies
the communities)
who were
were memtemple
economies (and
(and also
also in
in the
communities) or
or who
mem4.
4. Leaseholders
Leaseholders were
were not
not necessarily
necessarily men
men who
who had
had lost
lost their
their land.
land. Not
Not uncommonly,
uncommonly,
land
of
land was
was taken
taken on
on lease
lease by
by well-to-do
well-to-do persons
persons in
in addition
addition to
to their
their main
main allotment
allotment of
property. Such
Such persons
persons had
means to
to pay
pay for
for the
additional expenditures
expenditures incurred
incurred
property.
had the
the means
the additional
by
leased land.
land. Leased
Leased land
land was
was either
either worked
worked by
the family
family of
of the
the leaseholder
leaseholder and
and his
his
by leased
by the
slaves or,
or, perhaps,
could be
subleased.
slaves
perhaps, could
be subleased.

The
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

111

III

bers
king's family
his close
bers of
of the
the king's
family or
or his
close associates.
associates. These
These families
families owned
owned
many
plantations and
many city
city buildings,
buildings, dozens
dozens of
of hectares
hectares of
of date
date plantations
and ororchards, large
large estates
estates providing
providing income
income measured
in the
tens of
of thouthouchards,
measured in
the tens
by the
time, large
large herds
sands
and, by
the standards
standards ofthat
of that time,
herds
sands ofliters
of liters of
of grain,5
grain,5 and,
of sheep.
sheep. All
work on
was conducted
conducted with
of
All work
on these
these estates
estates was
with the
the aid
aid of
of
leaseholders (in
(in grain
and orchards),
orchards), hired
hands (in
(in herding
herding
leaseholders
grain fields
fields and
hired hands
livestock), and
and slaves,
slaves, whose
labor was
was used
in all
all branches
of the
the
livestock),
whose labor
used in
branches of
larger economies.
economies.
larger
The
level was
poor from
vilThe lower
lower social
social level
was made
made up
up of
of the
the poor
from among
among villagers and
and townspeople,
townspeople, consisting
consisting of
of people
natural disaspeople ruined
ruined by
by natural
disaslagers
ters
or social
social misfortunes
and those
arrived from
elsewhere.
ters or
misfortunes and
those newly
newly arrived
from elsewhere.
The latter
latter owned
owned nothing
and survived
only by
by rations
issued from
from
The
nothing and
survived only
rations issued
the
palace or
or temple
temple whose
whose protection
sought. The
The numbers
of
the palace
protection they
they sought.
numbers of
the
and the
the rich
rich were
were small
small in
in times
of peace
peace relative
the bulk
bulk
the poor
poor and
times of
relative to
to the
of the
their existence
existence greatly
greatly affected
affected the
social life
life
of
the population,
population, but
but their
the social
and the
the social
social development
development of
of the
country.
and
the country.
The modest
status and
and income
of the
the majority
majority of
of the
the
The
modest property
property status
income of
population
their likewise-modest
consumption. Norms
Norms
population determined
determined their
likewise-modest consumption.
denning the
the consumption
consumption requirement
requirement necessary
necessary to
to sustain
person
defining
sustain aa person
were in
during the
the Old
Old Babylonian
Period in
in the
the private
as well
were
in use
use during
Babylonian Period
private as
well as
as
in the
the state
state economies
economies and
and are
are known
us. It
It was
was held
an adult
adult
in
known to
to us.
held that
that an
working
for his
his sustenance
sustenance 1.5
1.5 liters
liters of
of barley
barley per
day
working male
male required
required for
per day
(or 550
550 liters
annually). Yearly,
Yearly, an
an adult
adult male
used 2.5-3
liters ofvegof veg(or
liters annually).
male used
2.5-3 liters
etable oil,
oil, chiefly
for anointment,
anointment, and
out one
one set
set of
etable
chiefly for
and he
he would
would wear
wear out
of
clothing,
requiring 1.5
1.5 kilograms
of wool.
raclothing, requiring
kilograms of
wool. A
A woman's
woman's maintenance
maintenance ration
amounted to
to one
one half
half of
of aa male's
male's barley
ration and
and the
the same
same
tion amounted
barley ration
amount of
of oil
oil and
and wool.
wool. Most
did not
consume meat
except
amount
Most people
people did
not consume
meat except
when
in sacrificial
sacrificial meals
meals during
during temple
festivals.
when they
they participated
participated in
temple festivals.
. The
period was
three esesThe Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian society
society of
of this
this period
was divided
divided into
into three
tates: free
full rights
tates:
free citizens
citizens with
with full
rights (awilum),
(awilum), who
whoowned
owned real
realestate
estateby
by
virtue
belonging to
to some
some community
community (either
urban or
rural) or
virtue of
of belonging
(either urban
or rural)
or who
who
had an
palace or
temple; persons
persons with
with limited
had
an official
official status
status in
in the
the palace
or temple;
limited
legal
political rights
(mushkenum),who
whousually
usuallyhad
hadno
noreal
realestate
estate
legal and
and political
rights (mushkenum),
as
but were
as property
property but
were allotted
allotted land
land by
by the
the state
state on
ori the
the basis
basis of
of condiconditional
tional ownership
ownership for
for services
services but
but mostly
mostly for
for manual
manual work;
work; and,
and, finally,
finally,
slaves
slaves (wardum),
(wardum), who
who were
were owned
owned asas property
property by
by their
their masters.
masters. The
The
top
aristocracy belonged
belonged to
awilum. The
The right
right
top palace
palace and
and temple
temple aristocracy
to the
the awilum.
to own
own land
land did
did not
not depend
depend upon
estate, and
and the
to
upon estate,
the mushkenum
mushkenumcould
could
also purchase
purchase land
land parcels,
parcels, mainly
mainly houses,
houses, date
date plantations,
and, very
very
also
plantations, and,
rarely and
and not
not in
in all
all parts
parts of
of the
the country,
country, fields.
rarely
fields.
5.
times, grain
measured in
vol5. In
In ancient
ancient times,
grain and
and other
other similar
similar products
products were
were measured
in units
units of
of volume
ume instead
instead of
of weight
weight (1
(1 liter
liter == 0.264
0.264 U.S.
U.S. gallon).
gallon).

112
112

N.
N.V.V. Kozyreva

The
The Laws
Laws

The
The main
main achievement
achievement in
in the
the reign
reign of
of Hammurapi,
Hammurapi, king
king of
of Babylon,
Babylon,
was
laws.66 Legislative
Legislative activities
activities are
are known
known
was the
the compilation
compilation of
of aa code
code of
of laws.
in
Period from
of
in the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic III
III Period
from the
the so-called
so-called Oval
Oval Plaque
Plaque of
Enmetena
Uruinimgina (see
2).
Enmetena and
and from
from the
the inscriptions
inscriptions of
of Uruinimgina
(see Lecture
Lecture 2).
However,
these texts
texts only
recount legislative
not rereHowever, these
only recount
legislative acts
acts and
and do
do not
produce their
their exact
produce
exact wording.
wording.
The
known to
us.
The Laws
Laws of
of Shulgi
Shulgi compose
compose the
the first
first legislative
legislative text
text known
to us.
(Formerly, these
these were
were known
as the
the Laws
Laws of
of Ur-Nammu,
but aa short
short
(Formerly,
known as
Ur-Nammu, but
while ago
ago it
it was
established that
that they
they were
were promulgated
promulgated by
by UrUrwhile
was established
Nammu's
ProNammu's son
son and
and heir.)
heir.) This
This text,
text, badly
badly damaged,
damaged, consists
consists of
of aa Prologue, followed
followed by
the legal
legal regulations.
regulations. We
We do
do not
not know
know whether
whether or
or
logue,
by the
not an
an Epilogue
Epilogue also
also existed.
existed. The
The Prologue
Prologue declares
declares that
that the
the aim
aim of
not
of
the laws
laws is
is the
the protection
of the
of the
the
protection of
the widow
widow and
and the
the orphan,
orphan, of
the weak
weak
against the
and of
the poor
against the
the rich.
Such aa declaradeclaraagainst
the powerful,
powerful, and
of the
poor against
rich. Such
tion
also exists
exists in
in the
of Uruinimgina.
It would
an error
error to
to distion also
the text
text of
U ruinimgina. It
would be
be an
dismiss it
it as
as social
social demagogy.
demagogy. The
The king
king in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia long
long retained
retained
miss
the features
features of
of aa tribal
tribal chief
chief whose
duties included
included the
protection of
of
the
whose duties
the protection
the poor
poor and
and the
the wretched.
wretched. Consequently,
Consequently, this
this feature
feature was
was rooted
rooted
the
in the
the social
social psychology
psychology of
of the
the population,
and thus
thus did
did the
the king
himin
population, and
king himself
visualize
his
duty.
Of
course,
political
necessity
was
also
operative;
self visualize his duty. Of course, political necessity was also operative;
no society
society can
can exist
exist without
minimum of
of social
social equity.
equity.
no
without aa minimum
Less
three dozen
regulations remain,
remain, partly
Less than
than three
dozen of
of Shulgi's
Shulgi's legal
legal regulations
partly
damaged.
regulations, the
prescribe punishment
damaged. Among
Among other
other regulations,
the laws
laws prescribe
punishment
for
rules of
divorce (68),
(6-8), punishment
punishment for
false dedefor adultery
adultery (4),
(4), rules
of divorce
for false
nunciation
perjury (26-27),
rules concernnunciation (1O-1l)
(10-11) and
and for
for perjury
(26-27), and
and rules
concerning
bodily damage
ing marriage
marriage (12-13)
(12-13) and
and bodily
damage (15-19).
(15-19). Especially
Especially
interesting
the laws
laws referring
referring to
to slaves;
the obligation
interesting are
are the
slaves; for
for example,
example, the
obligation
(14)
14) and
and the
the regulations
regulations concerning
concerning the
the slave
slave
to
return fugitive
fugitive slaves
slaves (
to return
herself equal
her mistress"
mistress" (22-23).
girl
girl "who
"who deems
deems herself
equal to
to her
(2223). It
It should
should be
be
noted that
that such
such aa slave
slave girl
girl could
could be
only by
due process
of
noted
be punished
punished only
by due
process of
will. In
In other
other words,
words, during
during
law and
and not
not by
by her
her master
master and
and mistress
at will.
law
mistress at
that period,
the slaves
slaves were
were still
still regarded
regarded as
as persons,
not as
as objects.
objects.
that
period, the
persons, not
From the
the legal
legal documents
documents of
of this
this epoch,
epoch, one
one can
can see
see that
that slaves
slaves could
could
From
even dispute
dispute their
their slave
slave status
status against
against their
their master
master in
in court.
court. (However,
(However,
even
-29 are
to the
the protection
protection of
of
they usually
lost the
the suit.)
suit.) 27
27-29
are devoted
devoted to
they
usually lost
the landowner
against illegal
illegal actions
actions of
of other
as well
well as
as
the
landowner against
other persons,
persons, as
against unconscientious
leaseholders. The
The main
punishment in
in the
the
main punishment
against
unconscientious leaseholders.
7
Laws of
of Shulgi
Shulgi is
is compensation
compensation paid
by the
the culprit
culprit to
Laws
paid by
to the
the victim.
victim. 7
The
known to
by Lipit-Ishtar,
The next
next legislative
legislative text
text known
to us
us was
was issued
issued by
Lipit-Ishtar,
6.
by V.
6. This
This section
section was
was written
written by
V. A.
A.Jakobson.
Jakobson.
7. Note
numeration of
of paragraphs
paragraphs in
in these
and other
other Mesopotamian
7.
Note that
that the
the numeration
these and
Mesopotamian laws
laws
has
been introduced
by modern
modern scholars
not exist
the originals.
originals.
has been
introduced by
scholars and
and does
does not
exist in
in the

The
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

113

king
text, considerably
is in
king of
of Issin
Issin (see
(see Lecture
Lecture 3).
3). The
The text,
considerably damaged,
damaged, is
in
Sumerian
former existence
of an
an Akkadian
is
Sumerian (although
(although the
the former
existence of
Akkadian version
version is
not impossible).
forty-three legal
legal paranot
impossible). It
It consists
consists of
of aa .Prologue,
Prologue, forty-three
paragraphs,
graphs, and
and an
an Epilogue.
Epilogue. In
In the
the short
short Prologue
Prologue Lipit-Ishtar
Lipit-Ishtar states
states that
that
he
has established
established aa "liberation"
"liberation" of
of the
the "sons
"sons and
and daughters"
daughters" of
of Niphe has
Nippur, Dr,
Ur, and
and Issin
and also
also of
of (all?)
(all?) the
the "sons
"sons and
daughters" of
of
pur,
Issin and
and daughters"
Sumer and
This liberation
liberation refers
refers to
to obligatory
obligatory labor
labor and
perSumer
and Akkad.
Akkad. This
and perhaps
also to
The subsequent
subsequent text
suggests that
that the
liberation
haps also
to debts.
debts. The
text suggests
the liberation
reduction in
the duration
duration of
of obligaobligawas only
only partial
and consisted
consisted of
of aa reduction
was
partial and
in the
tory work.
work.
tory
The
property relations
relations (
1-3, heavily
(13,
heavily
The laws
laws themselves
themselves refer
refer to
to property
damaged);
and driver
damaged); the
the payment
payment for
for hire
hire of
of aa cart
cart and
and ox
ox and
driver (4);
(4); punpunishment
die; 7:
ishment for
for burglary
burglary (6:
(6: who
who breaks
breaks open
open aa door
door shall
shall die;
7: who
who
breaks
breaks through
through aa mud-brick
mud-brick wall
wall shall
shall die
die and
and be
be buried
buried under
under the
the
break);
break); and
and rules
rules for
for hiring
hiring ships
ships (8-9)
(89) and
and leasing
leasing plantations
plantations
(
11-13); and
punishment for
for trespassing
(11-13);
and punishment
trespassing on
on another's
another's plantation
plantation
(
(14:
14: 10
lO shekels;
shekels; i.e.,
i.e., 85
85 grams
grams ofsilver
of silver to
to be
be paid)
paid) and
and for
for felling
felling aa
tree (15:
0.5 mina;
mina; i.e.,
250 grams
silver to
to be
to
tree
( 15: 0.5
i.e., 250
grams of
of silver
be paid).
paid). According
According to
16,
16, aa neighbor
neighbor can
can be
be held
held responsible
responsible for
for thieves'
thieves' breaking
breaking into
into ananother's house
house through
through his
his plot;
plot; if,
if, although
although warned
warned of
of the
the danger,
danger, he
he
other's
did
precautions to
burglary, he
did not
not take
take precautions
to stop
stop the
the burglary,
he must
must make
make restiturestitution
goods.
tion for
for the
the price
price of
of the
the stolen
stolen goods.
A number
A
number of
of laws
laws refer
refer to
to slaves
slaves and
and dependent
dependent persons.
persons. Thus,
Thus,
harboring aa fugitive
fugitive slave
slave is
is punished
punished by
by the
the delivery
delivery of
of another
another slave
slave
harboring
17) or
by the
payment to
by the
by
the culprit
culprit to
to the
the owner
owner (
(17)
or by
the payment
to him
him of
of 15
15
shekels
18). If
shekels of
of silver
silver (
(18).
If aa slave
slave girl
girl has
has borne
borne children
children by
by her
her owner
owner
and
both herself
herself and
and he
he has
has manumitted
manumitted both
and her
her children,
children, they
they still
still are
are
not co-heirs
of the
the estate
estate (20).
(20). However,
However, if
if he
married the
the slave
slave girl
girl
not
co-heirs of
he married
after
after the
the death
death of
of his
his former
former wife,
wife, the
the children
children are
are co-heirs
co-heirs with
with the
the
children of
of the
the first
first wife.
wife. 19,
which is
very poorly
poorly preserved,
preserved, seems
seems
children
19, which
is very
to have
have referred
referred to
to certain
certain conditions
conditions pertaining
pertaining to
to emancipation.
emancipation.
to
Scholars seriously
seriously differ
differ among
among themselves
themselves as
as to
to the
the meaning
meaning of
of the
the
Scholars
term
migtum in
in 20-21.
2021. In
In I.I. M.
M. Diakonoff's
Diakonoff's opinion,
opinion, this
this isisaa catecateterm migtum
gory
of dependent
dependent persons
working in
economy. If
If aa migtum
migtum
gory of
persons working
in aa private
private economy.
has
has come
come by
by his
his own
own free
free will,
will, he
he is
is free
free to
to leave
leave by
by his
his own
own will;
will; but
but if
if
he
is aa present
of the
the king,
king, "he
"he cannot
cannot be
taken away."
away." In
In 23,
23, it
it is
he is
present of
be taken
is
established that
who has
has taken
taken over
over another
another person's
person's untilled
untilled
established
that aa person
person who
plot of
of land
land and
and has
has tilled
tilled it
for three
years, paying
the "income"
"income"
plot
it for
three years,
paying the
(biltum, Sumerian
Sumerian gu-un)
gu-un)due
due from
from this
thisland,
land, can
can keep
keep the
the plot.
plot. ItIt isis
(biltum,
most probable
that service
service land
land is
is meant,
meant, but
but it
is not
not certain
certain that
that the
the
most
probable that
it is
law does
does not
refer to
to community
community land.
land.
law
not refer
25-38
the compensation
25-38 are
are devoted
devoted to
to family
family law;
law; 38-43
38-43 fix
fix the
compensation
for
person's draft
interesting to
to note
note that
for damage
damage to
to another
another person's
draft ox.
ox. It
It is
is interesting
that
in
is established
established that
involves aa punishment
in 22
22 it
it is
that aa false
false accusation
accusation involves
punishment

114

114

N.
V Kozyreva
Kozyreva
N.V.

for
the accuser
that which
which would
been meted
to the
for the
accuser equal
equal to
to that
would have
have been
meted out
out to
the
defendant were
were the
the accusation
accusation true.
true. This
This is
is the
the first
first time
time we
we meet
meet
defendant
with the
so-called lex
lex talionis;
that is,
is, retribution
retribution on
on the
the principle
principle
with
the so-called
talionis; that
of an
an "eye
"eye for
for an
an eye,"
eye," etc.,
etc., aa principle
principle widely
widely used
used in
in the
the Laws
Laws of
of
of
Hammurapi.
Hammurapi.
And
Laws
And last,
last, the
the direct
direct predecessor
predecessor of
of Hammurapi's
Hammurapi's laws
laws are
are the
the Laws
of
the Kingdom
the valley
the Diyala
of the
Kingdom of
of Eshnunna
Eshnunna in
in the
valley of
of the
Diyala River
River (about
(about
1800 B.C.).
B.C.). They
They have
been preserved
preserved in
in two
two damaged
damaged copies
copies written
written
have been
1800
in
the readings
readings that
in Akkadian;
Akkadian; the
that differ
differ in
in the
the two
two copies
copies are
are unimporunimportant. The
The text
text consists
consists of
of aa (nearly
(nearly completely
completely destroyed)
destroyed) Prologue
Prologue
tant.
is not
not clear
clear whether
or not
not an
Epilogue
and sixty
sixty paragraphs
of law. It
It is
and
paragraphs oflaw.
whether or
an Epilogue
existed. The
The Laws
Laws of
of the
the Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Eshnunna
Eshnunna open
open with
sort of
of
existed.
with aa sort
"tariff," or,
or, better,
list or
or index
index of
of equivalency
equivalency relations
between the
the
"tariff,"
better, list
relations between
main commodities
commodities and
and silver
silver (1)
(1) and
and barley
barley (2).
(2). The
The prices
prices listed
listed
main
correspond to
the actual
actual average
average prices
prices of
of the
the period;
the index
index
correspond
to the
period; the
probably was
used for
for accounting
accounting purposes
purposes in
in the
state economies.
economies.
probably
was used
the state
3-4
fix the
price for
hire of
fix the
3-4 fix
the price
for hire
of aa cart
cart and
and aa boat;
boat; 3-11
3-11 fix
the
amount
payments for
hire of
workers and
the punishments
amount of
of payments
for the
the hire
of workers
and also
also the
punishments
to be
inflicted for
for diverse
diverse infringements
infringements of
of the
the law
law in
in connection
connection with
with
be inflicted
to
the hire
hire of
of objects
objects and
and men.
men. Theft
Theft of
of movable
movable property
to
the
property belonging
belonging to
the
mushkenum,from
fromhis
hishouse
houseororfields,
fields,isispunished
punishedby
bythe
thepayment
payment
the mushkenum,
of aa compensation
compensation of
of 10
10 shekels
shekels of
of silver;
silver; but
but aa similar
similar theft
theft made
made at
at
of
night is
is punished
by death
death (
(12-13).
According to
to 15,
male and
and fefenight
punished by
12-13). According
15, male
male slaves
slaves are
are not
entitled to
to make
any sales,
sales, and
and according
according to
to 16,
not entitled
make any
16, aa
male
minor "son
"son of
of aa man"
man" or
or of
of aa slave
slave cannot
cannot borrow
borrow (cf.
(cf. the
the comments
comments
minor
on 7
7 in
in the
the Laws
Laws of
of Hammurapi
Hammurapi below).
on
below).
1718a and
and 25-35
25-35 are
are devoted
devoted to
to family
family law.
law. On
On the
the whole,
whole, they
they

17 -18a
coincide with
corresponding paragraphs
paragraphs in
in the
Laws of
of HamHamcoincide
with the
the corresponding
the Laws
murapi (see
(see below).
below). 33-35,
33-35, which
which deal
deal with
with an
an attempt
attempt of
of aa private
murapi
private
or palace
female slave
slave to
to give
give away
away her
her child
child to
to aa free
free person
person as
as aa
or
palace female
foster-child (presumably
(presumably to
to set
set it
it free),
free), are
are especially
especially noteworthy.
noteworthy. The
The
foster-child
law is
is that
that such
such aa child
child should
should be
be returned
returned to
to slavery
slavery and
and that
that the
the illaw
illegal foster-parent
foster-parent should
should pay
pay two
two slaves,
slaves, which
which is
is the
the same
same penalty
penalty as
as
legal
that for
for the
the theft
theft of
of aa slave
slave (49).
that
(49).
The
The laws
laws concerning
concerning debts
debts (19-24)
(19-24) are
are also
also practically
practically the
the same
same
as
as in
in Hammurapi's
Hammurapi's code,
code, but
but not
not so
so detailed.
detailed. We
We may
may note
note 20,
20, which
which
prohibits the
the requirement
requirement of
of aa payment
payment in
in silver
silver for
for aa loan
loan in
in grain,
grain,
prohibits
and 24,
24, which
which aims
aims at
at protecting
protecting the
the mushkenum
and
mushkenum from
from a adishonest
dishonest
creditor. The
The legislator
also attempts
attempts to
to prevent
the economic
economic ruin
ruin of
of
legislator also
prevent the
creditor.
community members.
members. Thus,
Thus, it
it is
is established
established that
that aa brother
brother has
has the
the
community
first option
option in
in buying
if the
the latter
latter has
has to
to sell
sell it
first
buying his
his brother's
brother's property
property if
it
(38). An
An analogous
analogous priority
priority is
is given
given to
the former
former proprietor
of aa
to the
proprietor of
(38).
house,
if the
the new
new proprietor
proprietor is
is selling
selling it
it (39);
(39); the
the law
law mentions
mentions specifspecifhouse, if

The
Babylonian Period
Period
The Old
Old Babylonian

115

ically that
that the
the house
has been
been sold
sold because
of an
an "enfeeblement,"
"enfeeblement," or
or
ically
house has
because of
destitutions, of
of the
the proprietor.
proprietor.
destitutions,
For bodily
bodily damage
damage of
of various
various kinds,
compensation in
money is
For
kinds, aa compensation
in money
is
provided
Eshprovided (42-48
(42-48 and
and 54-57).
54-57). The
The Laws
Laws of
of the
the Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Eshnunna
benunna mention
mention only
only one
one case
case of
of manslaughter
manslaughter (a
(a wall
wall collapsing
collapsing because of
of the
the negligence
negligence of
of the
58. The
The verdict
verdict in
in this
this
the proprietor),
proprietor), in
in 58.
cause
case is
is to
to be
pronounced by
by the
the king,
king, according
according to
to the
the general
general rule
rule
case
be pronounced
life" (48).
(48). Finally,
Finally, we
we should
should note
note that
that according
according
concerning "cases
"cases of
concerning
oflife"
to 59,
59, aa man
man who
who divorces
divorces aa wife
wife who
who has
has borne
borne children
children to
to him
him loses
loses
to
all his
his property
property in
in favor
favor of
of the
the wife
wife (ifshe
(if she is
is not
not to
to blame
blame for
for the
the
all
divorce).
divorce).
The
The previously
previously mentioned
mentioned texts
texts can
can be
be regarded
regarded as
as consecutive
consecutive
stages within
within aa single
single tradition
tradition of
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian law.
law. This
This does
does not
not
stages
imply
imply that
that there
there did
did not
not exist
exist local
local differences
differences (though
(though these
these were
were
not essential).
essential). One
One can
can observe
observe how
methods for
for systematizing
systematizing legal
legal
not
how methods
norms
norms gradually
gradually evolved.
evolved. The
The ancient
ancient Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian law
law books
books cercertainly were
were not
not codes
codes of
of law
law in
in the
the modern
tainly
modern sense.
sense.What
Whatwe
weencounter
encounter
here
the pretheoretical
stage of
of legal
this stage,
stage,
here is
is the
pretheoretical stage
legal development.
development. At
At this
some of
of the
the main
main legal
principles and
concepts have
have not
forsome
legal principles
and concepts
not yet
yet been
been fornullum crimen
crimen
mulated;
example, the
the most
most important
of nullum
mulated; for
for example,
important principle
principle of
sine
lege(there
(thereisisno
nocrime
crimeexcept
exceptthat
thatwhich
whichisisstated
statedininlaw).
law).ThereTheresine lege
fore, the
Mesopotamian "lawyers"
"lawyers" did
did not
not strive
strive for
for completeness
completeness
fore,
the Mesopotamian
when compiling
compiling their
their "law
"law books."
(Or, more
more exactly,
exactly, they
they did
did not
not see
see
when
books." (Or,
the necessity
for completeness.)
the same
same time,
conthe
necessity for
completeness.) At
At the
time, they
they were
were convinced that
that justice
is eternal
eternal and
and unchangeable,
unchangeable, that
that justice
is the
the
justice is
justice is
vinced
order
of things
things established
established from
from the
the beginning
beginning of
of time
deorder of
time and
and cannot
cannot depend
on the
the actual
actual issues
of the
day. For
For this
pend on
issues of
the day.
this reason,
reason, they
they thought
thought it
it
possible to
to include
include in
in the
the laws
even tariffs
tariffs on
on prices
prices and
and payments
for
possible
laws even
payments for
hire,
despite the
the fact
fact that
that we
we know
know from
from the
the documents
documents that
that such
such
hire, despite
prices
and
such
payments
fluctuated
considerably
under
the
impact
of
prices and such payments fluctuated considerably under the impact of
the
actual
economic
situation.
the actual economic situation.
The most
most ancient
ancient laws
laws in
in the
the history
history of
of humanity
humanity attest
attest to
to the
the
The
first
first and-most
andmost importantly-most
importantlymost difficult
difficult steps
steps of
of jurisprudence.
jurisprudence.
Therein lies
lies their
their human
human value
value for
for all
all times.
times. The
The development
development of
of
Therein
Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform
cuneiform law
law culminated
culminated in
in the
the Laws
of HamHamSumero-Akkadian
Laws of
murapi (hereafter
(hereafter referred
referred to
to as
as LH).
murapi
LH).
The LH
LH compose
compose the
the largest
largest and
and most
important corpus
corpus of
of
The
most important
cuneiform law.
treatises on
on Mesopotamian
law have
have
cuneiform
law. No
No theoretical
theoretical treatises
Mesopotamian law
come down
down to
to us.
us. (They
(They probably
probably did
did not
not exist;
exist; we
we have
have no
no theoretical
theoretical
come
But the
result of
treatises for
for any
any of
of the
the sciences.)
sciences.) But
the LH
LH are
are the
the result
of aa tretretreatises
mendous work
work of
of collecting,
collecting, unifying,
unifying, and
and systematizing
systematizing legal
legal norms.
norms.
mendous
This work
work was
was based
based on
on premises
premises essentially
essentially different
different from
from those
those curcurThis
rent in
in modern
modern law,
law, but
but its
its own
own principles
principles were
were followed
followed consistently
consistently
rent

116
n6

N. V.Kozyreva
Kozyreva
N.V.

enough.
enough. The
The norms
norms are
are systematized
systematized according
according to
to the
the subject
subject matter
matter
regulated,
and the
one norm
to another
another is
is by
associaregulated, and
the passage
passage from
from one
norm to
by association. Thus,
tion.
Thus, the
same object
object is
is discussed
discussed in
in contiguous
contiguous laws
from difdifthe same
laws from
ferent
legal aspects.
aspects. Cases
that seemed
seemed obvious
obvious and
and indisputable
indisputable are
are
ferent legal
Cases that
not mentioned
at all;
for example,
murder, theft,
theft, and
and sorcery.
not
mentioned in
in LH
LH at
all; for
example, murder,
sorcery.
Such cases
cases were
were decided
decided in
in court
court according
according to
to custom.
custom. At
At the
the same
same
Such
time,
time, the
the Babylonian
Babylonian lawyers
lawyers had
had difficulty
difficulty in
in formulating
formulating general
general
principles
and definitions
law, although
although they
certain
definitions of
of law,
they did
did have
have aa certain
principles and
understanding
of the
the fact
fact that
that such
such principles
do exist.
exist. However,
they
understanding of
principles do
However, they
expressed them
casuistically. Thus,
in one
one legal
expressed
them casuistically.
Thus, the
the principle
principle that
that in
legal case
case
there
(verdicts) seems
seems to
in 5,
there cannot
cannot be
be two
two decisions
decisions (verdicts)
to be
be expressed
expressed in
5,
in which
which the
is punished
"changing the
after it
it has
has
in
the judge
judge is
punished for
for "changing
the decision"
decision" after
once been
and aa document
document attesting
attesting it
it has
delivered. Or,
Or,
been made
made and
has been
been delivered.
once
again, the
minor or
or unfree
no
again,
the general
general principle
principle that
that aa minor
unfree person
person has
has no
legal
capacity seems
seems to
to be
expressed in
7, in
in which
is punpunlegal capacity
be expressed
in 7,
which aa person
person is
ished for
for acquiring
acquiring any
any kind
of property
"from the
of aa minor
minor
ished
kind of
property "from
the hands
hands of
son of
of aa man
(awilum) or
or from
from aaslave
slaveof
ofaaman
man ...
. . .without
without witness
witness
son
man (awilum)
and agreement"
agreement" (since
(since such
such an
acquisition could
could not
not be
made (Le.,
(i.e., was
was
and
an acquisition
be made
not legal)
witnesses who
who knew
knew the
the status
status of
of the
the vendor).
vendor).
not
legal) before
before witnesses
The
begin with
wherein Babylon
Babylon is
to be
be the
The LH
LH begin
with aa Prologue
Prologue wherein
is stated
stated to
the
"eternal
habitat of
of royal
royal power";
power"; this
change from
the earlier
earlier prin"eternal habitat
this is
is aa change
from the
principle,
which "royal
power" could
ciple, according
according to
to which
"royal power"
could move
move from
from one
one city
city to
to
another. Hammurapi's
Hammurapi's merits
merits are
are mentioned
mentioned not
not in
in regard
enanother.
regard to
to the
the entire
state but
only in
in regard
regard to
city of
of Mesobut only
to every
every particular
particular nome
nome city
Mesotire state
potamia;
specifically, in
in regard
regard to
to their
their tutelary
tutelary deities.
deities. (The
aim of
of
(The aim
potamia; specifically,
the promulgation
of the
the LH
LH is
is stated
stated in
Epilogue as
as follows:
follows: "So
"So
the
promulgation of
in the
the Epilogue
that the
strong should
should not
oppress the
so that
that orphan
orphan and
and
that
the strong
not oppress
the weak,
weak, so
8
widow should
should get
get justice.")
Then follow
follow the
the laws
widow
justice.") Then
laws proper.
proper. s The
The laws
laws
can be
into the
sections: (l)
(1) main
main principles
jusbe divided
divided into
the following
following sections:
principles of
of juscan
tice
(1-5);
of the
temple,
tice (
1-5); (2)
(2) protection
protection of
of propertythat
property-that of
the king,
king, the
the temple,
the "men"
"men" (community
(community members),
and the
the royal
servants (6-25);
(6-25);
the
members), and
royal servants
(3)
laws
concerning
service
holdings
(26-41);
(4)
operations
(3) laws concerning service holdings (26-41); (4) operations with
with
immovables and
and offences
offences connected
connected with
such (42-88);
(4288); (5)
(5) trading
trading
immovables
with such
and commercial
operations (89-126);
(6) family
law (
(127-95);
and
commercial operations
(89-126); (6)
family law
127 -95);
(7) bodily
(196-214); and
and (8)
(8) operations
operations with
and
(7)
bodily harm
harm (196-214);
with movables
movables and
hire
of persons
(215-82). There
There follows
follows an
an Epilogue
Epilogue with
curses on
on
hire of
persons (215-82).
with curses
everyone
should deviate
from the
Both the
Prologue and
and
everyone who
who should
deviate from
the laws.
laws. Both
the Prologue
the
Epilogue are
are written
in aa solemn
solemn and
and archaic
archaic language,
language, reminisreministhe Epilogue
written in
cent of
of poetic
are couched
couched in
in aa precise
and
cent
poetic texts.
texts. The
The laws
laws themselves
themselves are
precise and
clear business-like
clear
business-like style.
style.
8. The
division of
of the
the text
text into
into 282
282 separate
separate paragraphs
paragraphs is
is the
the work
of the
8.
The division
work of
the AsAsno formal
syriologists
published it;
it; there
syriologists who
who published
there is
is no
formal subdivision
subdivision in
in the
the original.
original.

The
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

117

Babylonian
not divided
civil,
Babylonian law,
law, like
like any
any ancient
ancient law,
law, was
was not
divided into
into civil,
criminal, procedural,
procedural, public
public law,
law, etc.
etc. The
The text
text of
of the
the LH
"synLH is
is "syncriminal,
thetic," proclaiming
proclaiming both
both positive
positive laws
laws and
and the
the punishment
punishment for
for their
their
thetic,"
infringement.
infringement.
As mentioned
mentioned above,
LH consists
As
above, the
the society
society depicted
depicted in
in the
the LH
consists of
of free
free
(awilum), royal
royalservants
servants(mushkenum),
(mushkenum),and
andslaves
slaves
community members
members (awilum),
community
(wardum).
(wardum). Practically,
Practically, the
the conditions
conditions of
of royal
royal servants
servants could
could differ
differ
greatly:
greatly: those
those belonging
belonging to
to the
the upper
upper strata
strata could
could obtain
obtain very
very conconsiderable
siderable allotments
allotments from
from the
the king
king and
and were
were treated
treated as
as community
community
members;
to the
members; those
those belonging
belonging to
the lower
lower strata
strata received
received tiny
tiny service
service
allotments
allotments or
or only
only rations
rations in
in kind,
kind, differing
differing but
but slightly
slightly from
from the
the
slaves. In
In other
other words,
words, there
there were
were numerous
steps between
between slavery
slavery
slaves.
numerous steps
and freedom
freedom within
within the
the category
category of
of royal
royal servants.
servants. Life,
Life, honor,
honor, and
and
and
mushkenumhave
havea alower
lowerprice
pricethan
thanwas
wasthe
the
personal inviolability
inviolability of
of aa mushkenum
personal
case for
the awilum
case
for the
awilum (
(196ff.).
196ff.). At
At the
the same
same time,
time, the
the property
property of
of the
the
mushkenumwas
wasbetter
better protected;
protected; after
after all,
all,ititwas
wasactually
actuallyaa part
part of
of
mushkenum
9
the royal
royal property.
Some vestiges
of legal
legal capability
capability still
still linger
linger with
the
property.9 Some
vestiges of
with
the slave:
the slave
slave of
the palace
wasallowed
allowed
the
slave: thus,
thus, the
of the
palace or
or of
of aa mushkenum
mushkenum was
to marry
marry aa free
woman, and
and the
the children
children of
of their
their marriage
marriage were
were free
free
to
free woman,
slaveowner
ownercould
coulddeclare
declarehis
hischildren
childrenfrom
froma aslave
slave
(175 76).AAslave
(175-76).
woman legally
legally his
his own
own (with
(with all
all the
the rights
rights ensuing
ensuing from
from such
such aa legal
legal
woman
act); but
but even
even if
if he
he did
did not
not make
make this
this declaration,
declaration, both
both the
the children
children
act);
and the
the mother
mother were
were emancipated
emancipated at
at his
his death
death (170-71).
(170-71). A
slave
and
A slave
who was
was bought
bought abroad
abroad was
was to
to be
be freed
freed without
without ransom
ransom if
if it
it appeared
appeared
who
that he
he was
was aa Babylonian.
Babylonian. For
For assault
assault and
and battery
battery of
of aa free
free man
man or
or for
for
that
questioning his
his slave
slave status,
status, aa slave
slave was
was not
not subject
subject to
to aa reprisal
reprisal out
out of
of
questioning
court but
but was
was punished
punished according
according to
to aa verdict
verdict in
in court.
court. (His
(His ear
ear was
court
was
cut off,
off, 205,
205, 282.)
282.) Moreover,
Moreover, slavery
slavery for
for debt
debt was
was limited
limited by
by aa threethreecut
year term.
term. (Either
(Either the
the debtor
debtor himself
himself or
or his
family member
or his
year
his family
member or
his
slave could
could become
become slaves
slaves for
for debt.)
debt.) A
free person
person could
could be
be sold
sold into
into
slave
A free
slavery, but
but only
only for
for aa term
term of
of three
three years
years (
(117).
In connection
connection with
with aa
slavery,
117). In
debt,
there
was
also
another
type
of
temporary
loss
of
liberty:
pledgdebt, there was also another type of temporary loss of liberty: pledging (
(114-16).
A pledged
pledged person,
person, apparently,
apparently, could
could be
be forcibly
forcibly aping
114-16). A
apprehended
by
the
creditor,
who
then
held
him
in
a
kind
of
private jail
prehended by the creditor, who then held him in a kind of private
jail
until the
the debt
debt was
was paid.
paid.
until
Creditors
tamkars).They
Theywere
were
Creditors were
were usually
usually the
the trading
trading agents
agents (the
(the tamkars).
state
but at
busistate officials,
officials, but
at the
the same
same time
time they
they could
could conduct
conduct different
different business
using their
their own
means. Each
city had
had an
an orgaorganess using
own private
private means.
Each important
important city
nization
of trading
trading agents
agents (karum,
(karum, literally
literally "quay").
"quay").ItIt had
had the
the power
power
nization of
9.
9. This
This is
is also
also the
the reason
reason why
why the
the property
property of
of the
the mushkenum
mushkenumwas
wasspecifically
specificallyproprotected in
tected
the Laws
of the
the Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Eshunna,
whereas the
property
in the
Laws of
Eshunna, whereas
the protection
protection of
of the
the property
of
citizen was
was relegated
relegated to
to customary
customary law.
of aa citizen
law.

118

N. V. Kozyreva
N.V.

of
of administrative
administrative surveillance
surveillance over
over the
the tamkars,
tamkars, and
and itit settled
settled their
their
mutual accounts
accounts and
and their
accounts with
state. The
The tamkars
tamkarstraded
traded
mutual
their accounts
with the
the state.
internationally
in person
and through
their aids,
aids, the
internationally both
both in
person and
through their
the shamalls.
shamalls.
The
latter were
were wandering
traders, not
owning means
means of
of their
own.
The latter
wandering traders,
not owning
their own.
Another field
field of
of activity
activity -of
of the
the tamkars
tamkars was
was usury,
as mentioned
mentioned
Another
usury, as
Loans in
in kind
granted for
for an
an interest
interest of
of one
one third
of the
the
above.10 Loans
above.1O
kind were
were granted
third of
sum, and
and loans
loans in
in silver,
silver, for
an interest
of one
one fifth.
The loan
loan was
usufor an
interest of
fifth. The
was ususum,
ally for
for aa short
short term,
the harvest.
Business documents
documents
ally
term, typically
typically until
until the
harvest. Business
appear to
document the
existence of
of other
other types
types of
of loans,
loans, including
including
appear
to document
the existence
those
compound interest.
interest. To
To aa certain
certain extent,
extent, the
LH attempt
attempt to
to
the LH
those with
with compound
protect
from the
the creditors'
creditors' abuses:
abuses: in
in some
some cases,
cases, payment
payment
protect the
the debtors
debtors from
of the
debt could
could be
deferred (48);
(48); one
one could
could pay
in kind
in lieu
lieu of
of
of
the debt
be deferred
pay in
kind in
silver (49);
(49); the
the harvest
harvest of
of aa field
field or
or of
of an
an orchard
orchard could
could not
not be
seized
silver
be seized
to
debt (66);
(66); giving
giving false
false measure
or weight
or in
in
measure or
weight in
in lending
lending or
to pay
pay aa debt
receiving payment
for aa debt
debt was
was punished
punished (94?).
(94?).
receiving
payment for
Agriculture
was the
the basis
basis of
Mesopotamia; no
wonder that
Agriculture was
of all
all life
life in
in Mesopotamia;
no wonder
that
the LH
LH pay
pay great
great attention
attention to
to it.
it. The
The main
main type
type of
of agricultural
agricultural econeconthe
omy was
the small
small one;
one; large
large landowners
landowners either
either used
used for
for work
certain
omy
was the
work certain
royal servants
servants set
set at
at their
their disposal
disposal or
or rented
out the
the land
land in
in small
small plots
plots
rented out
royal
for aa share
share of
of the
(one third
or one
one half
half of
of the
the crop,
crop, 46)
46) or
or
for
the harvest
harvest (one
third or
for
for aa fixed
fixed payment
payment in
in advance
advance (45).
(45). The
The tenant
tenant was
was obliged
obliged to
to work
work
carefully, ensuring
ensuring aa reasonable
reasonable income
income (42-44).
(4244). The
could
The term
term could
carefully,
be
if the
the tenant
tenant suffered
suffered losses
losses owing
owing to
to natural
natural disaster
disaster
prolonged if
be prolonged
(47). The
farmer had
had to
to maintain
irrigation system
system in
in good
good
(47).
The farmer
maintain the
the irrigation
order, and
and if
if his
his neighbor'S
neighbor's land
land was
was damaged
damaged through
through his
order,
his carecarelessness,
be responsible
responsible (53-56).
(53-56). Cattle
Cattle and
and sheep
sheep were
were
he would
would be
lessness, he
usually
entrusted to
to special
special herdsmen
herdsmen (royal
(royal or
or hired
men), and
and they
they
usually entrusted
hired men),
were responsible
for damage
damage caused
caused by
by the
animals as
as well
as for
for any
any
the animals
well as
were
responsible for
damage to
to the
the herd
owing to
to the
the herdsman's
actions (26367).
herd owing
herdsman's actions
(263-67).
damage
Work for
for hire
hire seems
seems to
have been
one could
could hire
hire
Work
to have
been widely
widely practiced;
practiced; one
freemen as
as well
well as
as slaves.
freemen
slaves.
The LH
LH list
for many
many types
of labor,
labor, beginning
with
The
list wage
wage rates
rates for
types of
beginning with
the most
most skilled
skilled (wages
(wages for
for physicians,
physicians, veterinary
veterinary surgeons,
surgeons, house
house
the
builders,
ship builders),
builders), to
to the
for craftsmen
craftsmen (brickmakers,
(brickmakers,
builders, ship
the wages
wages for
smiths, carpenters,
carpenters, shoemakers,
shoemakers, weavers),
weavers), down
down to
to unskilled
unskilled labor
labor
smiths,
(215-24,
Workers were
were usually
usually hired
hired for
pe(21524, 253-74).
25374). Workers
for aa short
short periodfor the
sowing or,
or, much
much more
more frequently,
frequently, for
for the
the harvest
or for
for
riod-for
the sowing
harvest or
specified piece
piece of
of work
work on
on aa pay-by-day
pay-by-day basis.
basis. In
In the
the LH
LH the
the prices
prices
aa specified
for hire
hire given
given seem
seem to
to be
for aa day's
day's worth
worth of
of work.
work. The
The hired
hired man
man
for
be for
was responsible
responsible (both
and "criminally")
"criminally") for
for any
any eventual
eventual
was
(both materially
materially and
10.
responsible for
the collection
10. They
They were
were also
also responsible
for the
collection of
of taxes,
taxes, although
although this
this is
is not
not menmentioned in
the LH.
tioned
in the
LH.

The
The Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

119
119

losses
the hired
worker's fault.
losses that
that the
the owner
owner might
might incur
incur through
through the
hired worker's
fault.
The payment
payment to
to aa hired
worker made
it possible
for him
him to
to sustain
sustain his
his
The
hired worker
made it
possible for
family during
during the
the period
period of
of his
for hire.
family
his work
work for
hire.
The
LH devote
the family
The LH
devote considerable
considerable attention
attention to
to the
family as
as the
the primary
primary
nucleus
of Babylonian
society (
(127ff.).
marriage was
was legal
legal only
nucleus of
Babylonian society
127ff.). A
A marriage
only if
if
certain
legal formalities
128); aa marriage
marriage settlement
certain legal
formalities were
were observed
observed (
(128);
settlement
must
before witnesses;
witnesses; the
was
must have
have been
been agreed
agreed upon
upon before
the agreement
agreement was
usually oral,
oral, but
under certain
certain circumstances
circumstances (see
(see below),
below), it
it could
could also
also
usually
but under
be
was
be written.
written. The
The family
family was
was monogamous,
monogamous, and
and the
the wife's
wife's infidelity
infidelity was
punishable
by death
129). The
LH establish
punishable by
death (
(129).
The LH
establish detailed
detailed rules
rules for
for the
the
examination of
such accusations
accusations (
(130-36).
the husband
husband
examination
of such
130-36). However,
However, the
could
with his
his female
female slaves
slaves and
could declare
children
could cohabit
cohabit with
and could
declare the
the children
borne by
them to
to him
him as
his own
170). Under
borne
by them
as legally
legally his
own (
(170).
Under certain
certain condiconditions
(illness of
wife, 148;
148; marriage
with aa priestess
tions (illness
of the
the wife,
marriage with
priestess to
to whom
whom
childbirth was
was prohibited,
childbirth
prohibited, 145),
145),the
the husband
husband could
could take
takeaasecond
second wife.
wife.
A written
written agreement
agreement was
was drawn
drawn up
up when
when one
one married
married aa priestess
priestess or
or
A
some other
other rich
rich woman;
woman; such
such an
an agreement
agreement could
could refer
refer to
to the
the status
status
some
of the
the children
children and
and the
the possibility
possibility of
of taking
taking aa second
second wife.
wife. The
The aim
aim
of
of marriage
marriage was
was the
the procreation
of heirs
heirs to
to the
the family
family property
property and
and
of
procreation of
keepers of
of the
funerary cult
cult of
of the
ancestors; if
was not
mainkeepers
the funerary
the ancestors;
if this
this cult
cult was
not maintained, the
the ancestral
ancestral dead
experience famine
in the
the underundertained,
dead would
would experience
famine in
world.
The LH
LH recount
recount detailed
detailed provisions
provisions for
for the
relations
world. The
the property
property relations
between
and wife:
wife: of
of the
dowry and
and the
the bride-price
between husband
husband and
the dowry
bride-price (159
( 15964?) and
and of
of the
the wife's
wife's property
64?)
property (150).
( 150).
stated, Babylonian
Babylonian marriage
not conDespite
what is
Despite what
is sometimes
sometimes stated,
marriage did
did not
consist
purchase of
of aa bride:
bride: the
sist of
of the
the purchase
the amount
amount of
of the
the dowry
dowry exceeded
exceeded the
the
amount
163-64). The
amount of
of the
the bride-price
bride-price (
(163-64).
The act
act of
of marriage
marriage formally
formally
resembled
the act
act of
of purchase,
purchase, but
but this
this similarity
similarity existed
existed only
only because
because
resembled the
in ancient
ancient law
law purchase
purchase constituted
constituted the
the only
only conceivable
conceivable form
form of
of passin
passing
patriarchal authority
ing power
power over
over aa person
person or
or object
object from
from one
one patriarchal
authority to
to
another.
in Roman
another. (Even
(Even in
Roman law
law the
the emancipation
emancipation ofthe
of the son
son from
from under
under
the father's
father's patriarchal
patriarchal authority
authority took
took the
the form
form of
of aa fictitious
fictitious act
act of
of
the
sale and
and purchase.)
purchase.)
sale
The
The LH
LH also
also devote
devote much
much attention
attention to
to problems
problems of
of inheritance
inheritance
(165ff.).
permitted only
(165ff.). Disinheritance
Disinheritance was
was permitted
only after
after aa son
son repeated
repeated aa
serious
167 -68). If
serious offence
offence (
(167-68).
If the
the marriage
marriage was
was childless,
childless, the
the adopadoption
tion of
of other
other people's
people's children
children (according
(according to
to an
an agreement
agreement with
with the
the
blood
185ff.).1lu The
The
blood parents)
parents) or
or of
of foundlings
foundlings offered
offered aa solution
solution (
(185ff.).
11.
however, be
be reclaimed
in court
by his
his real
parents, unless
he
11. The
The child
child could,
could, however,
reclaimed in
court by
real parents,
unless he
had
been adopted
adopted by
by aa eunuch
eunuch (there
(there were
at the
the royal
royal court
court and
and in
the temples)
temples)
had been
were many
many at
in the
or by
The zikrum
zikrumwas
wasa awoman,
woman,probably
probablyperforming
performinga amale
malerole
roleinincertain
certain
or
by aa zikrum.
zikrum. The
cults, who
who could
could not
not have
children of
of her
own.
have children
her own.
cults,

120
120

N. V.
V. Kozyreva

property
property situation
situation of
of the
the priestesses
priestesses is
is discussed
discussed in
in some
some detail.
detail. It
It was
was
customary in
in Babylonia
Babylonia to
to consecrate
consecrate little
little girls
girls to
to the
temples for
for serserthe temples
customary
vice to
to the
the gods;
these girls
subsequently became
somegods; these
girls subsequently
became priestesses,
priestesses, somevice
times
of high
rank. They
They were
entitled to
to aa certain
certain share
share in
in the
the
high rank.
were entitled
times of
parental
property (
176ff.), and
brothers usuparental property
(l76ff.),
and after
after their
their deaths
deaths the
the brothers
usually inherited
inherited this
share.
this share.
ally
the Babylonians
Babylonians did
between civil
As
As noted
noted above,
above, the
did not
not distinguish
distinguish between
civil
and
and criminal
criminal law,
law, but
but the
the LH
LH give
give much
much attention
attention to
to punishments
punishments for
for
offences
breach of
with royal
royal seroffences and
and crimes:
crimes: from
from breach
of duties
duties connected
connected with
service to
to infringements
infringements of
of property
rights and
and crimes
crimes against
against persons.
persons.
property rights
vice
In the
the LH
punishable by
by death
very considerIn
LH the
the number
number of
of crimes
crimes punishable
death is
is very
considerable
able and
and applied
applied to
to very
very diverse
diverse offences,
offences, ranging
ranging from
from felons'
felons' acquiracquiring other
other persons'
to adultery.
adultery. For
For some
some especially
especially grave
grave
ing
persons' property
property to
crimes,
crimes, the
the LH
LH prescribe
prescribe particular
particular means
means for
for carrying
carrying out
out the
the death
death
penalty;
for example,
example, burning
for incest
incest with
with one's
one's mother
mother (
(158)
or
penalty; for
burning for
158) or
impaling for
for the
complicity of
of the
in the
the murder
murder of
of her
her husband
husband
impaling
the complicity
the wife
wife in
(156).
In some
some other
other cases,
cases, aa punishment
punishment according
according to
to the
the principle
principle
(
156). In
of talion
prescribed. This
This could
could be
"mirroring" punishmentpunishment
of
talion was
was prescribed.
be aa "mirroring"
that is,
is, retaliation
retaliation by
by inflicting
inflicting the
the same
same injury
injury that
that the
the criminal
criminal had
had
that
inflictedor symbolical-for
symbolicalfor example,
example, cutting
cutting off
off the
the hand
has
inflicted-or
hand that
that has
"sinned." In
In other
other cases
cases aa compensation
compensation in
in money
money was
was fixed.
fixed.
"sinned."
The principle
of talion
was known
known in
in earlier
earlier Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian legislalegislaThe
principle of
talion was
tion, but
but only
only in
in the
the LH
LH is
is it
it applied
applied so
so widely
widely and
and consistently.
consistently. The
The
tion,
widespread
idea that
the talion
survival of
of the
the vendetta
vendetta is
widespread idea
that the
talion represents
represents aa survival
is
false.
false. The
The vendetta
vendetta is
is based
based on
on the
the principle,
principle, inherited
inherited from
from primitive
primitive
society, of
of collective
collective guilt
guilt and
and collective
collective responsibility.
responsibility. As
As the
the concept
concept
society,
of individual
individual personality
personality develops,
develops, so
so does
does the
the concept
concept of
of individual
individual
of
guilt and
and individual
individual responsibility.
responsibility. Moreover,
Moreover, it
it is
is in
in the
the developing
developing
guilt
civic society's
society's interest
interest that
feuds should
should not
not continue
continue indefinitely,
indefinitely,
that feuds
civic
which is,
is, of
of course,
course, the
the case
case in
in aa vendetta.
vendetta. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the principle
principle of
of
which
money
compensation is
is introduced,
introduced, and
and only
only later
later the
of taltalmoney compensation
the principle
principle of
ion, which
which for
for the
the legal
legal consciousness
consciousness of
of that
that epoch
epoch was
as
was perceived
perceived as
ion,
the
most
just
solution.
In
other
words,
the
development
of
responsithe most just solution. In other words, the development of responsibility
is toward
individualization, and
and that
of punishment
punishment is
is toward
its
bility is
toward individualization,
that of
toward its
public
execution.
public execution.
The
were oral
The proceedings
proceedings of
of law
law in
in Babylonia
Babylonia were
oral and
and competitive.
competitive.
This means
means that
that an
an action
action could
could be
brought against
against aa party
only
This
be brought
party only
through
complaint from
from the
the other
other interested
interested party,
and in
in the
the
through aa complaint
party, and
had to
course of
of the
the trial,
trial, each
each of
of the
the parties
parties had
to prove
prove its
its statements.
statements. No
No
course
written minutes
were kept,
but certain
certain important
important moments
moments of
of the
the trial
trial
written
minutes were
kept, but
could be
fixed in
in writing.
writing. The
The main
main proofs
proofs were
evidence of
of the
the
were the
the evidence
could
be fixed
witnesses (see,
(see, e.g.,
e.g., 9-11)
9-11) and
and documents.
documents. In
In aa few
few cases,
cases, if
if no
no
witnesses
other means
means of
of establishing
establishing the
available, recourse
recourse was
other
the truth
truth were
were available,
was
made to
to aa deity.
deity. This
This supernatural
supernatural help
help could
could take
take two
two forms:
forms: ordeal
ordeal
made

The
Babylonian Period
Period
The Old
Old Babylonian

121
121

by water
water and
and oaths
oaths in
in the
the names
names of
of the
the gods.
gods. The
The ordeal
by water
water conconby
ordeal by
sisted of
of dipping
dipping the
the defendant
defendant into
into aa river:
river: if
if he
sank and
and drowned,
drowned,
sisted
he sank
it was
was considered
considered that
that the
god of
of the
river had
had punished
punished him;
him; if
if he
he
it
the god
the river
swam, he
he was
was acquitted.
acquitted.1212 In
In the
the opinion
opinion of
of the
the times,
times, perjury
perjury in
in an
an
swam,
oath
oath to
to the
the gods
gods would
would inevitably
inevitably bring
bring about
about the
the gods'
gods' punishment
punishment of
of
the guilty.
guilty. Therefore,
Therefore, such
such an
an oath
oath was
was considered
considered sufficient
sufficient for
for acthe
acquittal, whereas
quittal,
whereas aa refusal
refusal to
to swear
swear an
an oath
oath was
was regarded
regarded as
as proof
proof that
that
the accusation
accusation had
had been
been justified.
A false
false accusation
accusation and
and false
false evithe
justified. A
evidence were
were punished
punished according
according to
to the
the principle
principle of
of talion;
talion; that
that is,
is, the
the
dence
accuser bore
bore the
the punishment
that would
would have
have been
been meted
meted out
out to
to the
the
accuser
punishment that
defendant had
the accusation
accusation been
been justified.
justified.
defendant
had the
The
The LH
LH were
were considered
considered to
to be
be model
model legislation
legislation for
for as
as long
long as
as the
the
"cuneiform
of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia endured.
"cuneiform culture"
culture" of
endured. They
They were
were copied
copied and
and
studied
studied until
until the
the Hellenistic
Hellenistic and,
and, even,
even, Parthian
Parthian period
period of
of Babylon's
Babylon's
known to
us,
history.
history. About
About forty
forty copies
copies (or
(or fragments)
fragments) ofthe
of the LH
LH are
are known
to us,
which
of most
most other
texts.
which is
is more
more than
than can
can be
be said
said of
other ancient
ancient texts.
Finally, it
noted that
MesoFinally,
it should
should be
be noted
that the
the opinions
opinions of
of the
the experts
experts on
on Mesopotamian
potamian law
law differ
differ widely.
widely. Some
Some of
of them
them believe
believe that
that what
what we
we have
have
selfbefore us
us are
are not
not laws
laws in
in the
the proper
sense of
of the
the word
word but
but royal
royal selfbefore
proper sense
praise that
that aims
aims at
at publicizing
publicizing the
the king's
king's wisdom
wisdom and
and justice;
others
praise
justice; others
feel that
that they
they are
are no
no more
more than
than theoretical
theoretical exercises
exercises of
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian
feel
scholars with
with no
no practical
practical value.
value. According
to this
latter, rather
rather widescholars
According to
this latter,
widespread, opinion,
opinion, actual
actual laws
laws were
were not
not promulgated
promulgated in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia at
at
spread,
all, but
but imaginary
imaginary laws,
laws, which
which had
other practical
practical value
value than
than that
that of
of
all,
had no
no other
extolling the
the justice
of the
the kings,
kings, were
were written
written down,
down, even
even incised
incised on
on
extolling
justice of
years.
stone, and
and then
then copied
copied and
and studied
studied by
by scholars
scholars for
for hundreds
hundreds of
of years.
stone,
We find
find this
this point
point of
of view
view quite
quite unacceptable.
The texts
texts of
of law
law were,
were,
We
unacceptable. The
no doubt,
doubt, supposed
supposed to
to be
be learned
learned by
by rote
rote in
in the
the schools:
schools: that
that was
was the
the
no
way
all
sciences
were
studied
in
Babylonia.
way all sciences were studied in Babylonia.
Opinions
also differ
Opinions also
differ among
among those
those scholars
scholars who
who actually
actually do
do regard
regard
them as
as actual
actual laws.
them
laws. (Some
(Some believe
believe that
that they
they were
were applied
applied to
to the
the entire
entire
population;
others that
they were
were valid
valid only
the royal
royal servants.)
In
population; others
that they
only for
for the
servants.) In
the Soviet
Soviet Union,
Union, the
the opinion
opinion is
is dominant
dominant that
that these
these texts
texts were
were acthe
actual laws (albeit
primitive ones)
ones) and
and that
that they
for the
the enentuallaws
(albeit primitive
they were
were binding
binding for
tire
they did
did not
not duplicate
duplicate customary
customary law,
law, and
and
tire population.
population. However,
However, they
where the
the legislator
legislator thought
thought the
the latter
latter sufficient
sufficient to
to guarantee
justice
where
guarantee justice
and did
did not
require amendment
amendment or
or change,
change, it
it continued
continued to
to be
be apapand
not require
plied.
At the
the same
same time,
royal laws
paid special
special attention
attention to
to the
the
plied. At
time, the
the royal
laws paid
interests of
the royal
sector, including
including royal
royal servants,
and especially
especially to
to
interests
of the
royal sector,
servants, and
cases of
of possible
conflicts between
the interests
interests of
of the
the state
state and
and of
of pricases
possible conflicts
between the
private persons.
vate
persons.
12.
12. In
In the
the European
European Middle
Middle Ages,
Ages, the
the reverse
reverse was
was true:
true: the
the one
one who
who swam
swam was
was conconsidered
sidered guilty.
guilty.

122
122

N. V.
V. Kozyreva

The
The End
End of
of the
the Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period
Hammurapi's
reforms and
Hammurapi's reforms
and legislative
legislative activities,
activities, far-reaching
far-reaching in
in their
their
scope and
and aims,
aims, made
great impression
impression on
contemporaries, and
and
scope
made aa great
on his
his contemporaries,
he was
was long
long remembered
remembered by
future generations
generations of
of Mesopotamians.
Mesopotamians.
he
by future
All
frequently innovative
innovative in
in form
form and
and execution,
execution, were
were
All his
his measures,
measures, frequently
not, however,
aimed at
at changing
changing the
society but,
rather, at
at prethe society
but, rather,
prenot,
however, really
really aimed
serving
serving the
the traditional
social institutions,
institutions, such
such as
as the
the in-kind
in-kind economy,
economy,
traditional social
community
land ownership,
and so
so on.
on. Consequently,
Consequently, what
what actually
actually
ownership, and
community land
happened was
was that
that Hammurapi
Hammurapi systematically
systematically counteracted
counteracted all
all that
that
happened
was new,
new, all
all that
that was
regarded in
in his
his time
time as
as destructive
destructive of
of the
the state
state
was
was regarded
and undermining
of its
its social
social and
and economic
economic foundations.
foundations. By
By imposand
undermining of
imposing
severe
restrictions
on
private
activities
that
led
to
the
enrichment
ing severe restrictions on private activities that led to the enrichment
of some
some and
and the
of others,
Hammurapi's reforms,
in essence,
essence,
of
the ruin
ruin of
others, Hammurapi's
reforms, in
were
aimed
against
increasing
the
production
and
circulation
of comcomwere aimed against increasing the production and circulation of
modities and
and money.
money. Although
Although such
such increase
increase did
did indeed
indeed lead
lead to
to the
the
modities
growth of
of usury,
as well
well as
as to
to the
the abuse
abuse of
of political
and underundergrowth
usury, as
political power,
power, and
mined community
land ownership,
ownership, it
it was
the only
only possible
avenue of
of
mined
community land
was the
possible avenue
economic development
development under
under the
conditions. ThereThereeconomic
the then-prevailing
then-prevailing conditions.
fore, all
all attempts
attempts to
to curb
curb this
this development
development had
no chance
chance of
of lasting
lasting
fore,
had no
success.
success.
Hammurapi
the most
prominent statesmen
Hammurapi was,
was, no
no doubt,
doubt, one
one of
of the
most prominent
statesmen
Mesopotamia, and
his personal
personal qualities
played aa sigsigin
in the
the history
history of
of Mesopotamia,
and his
qualities played
nificant role
in the
the rise
of Babylon
Babylon and
and the
the longtime
longtime preservation
of
rise of
preservation of
nificant
role in
its
Mesopotamia. However,
its authority
authority over
over aa large
large part
part of
of Mesopotamia.
However, the
the same
same
forces that
that undermined
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
Ur and
and that
that caused
caused
undermined the
the Third
forces
its demise
continued to
to operate
operate even
even after
after the
establishment of
of the
the
the establishment
its
demise continued
Babylonian
kingdom. After
After Hammurapi's
Hammurapi's death,
death, the
state that
he had
had
Babylonian kingdom.
the state
that he
established continued
continued for
for over
over two
two hundred
hundred years,
although attacks
attacks
established
years, although
perpetrated
by external,
external, as
as well
as internal,
internal, enemies
enemies gradually
gradually weakweakperpetrated by
well as
ened its
its stability.
stability. The
of the
the Amorites
Amorites of
of the
earlier period
ened
The role
role of
the earlier
period was
was
now taken
taken over
over by
Kassite pastoral
who infiltrated
infiltrated Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
now
by Kassite
pastoral tribes
tribes who
from the
eastfrom the
the central
The onslaughts
onslaughts of
from
the east-from
central Zagros
Zagros Mountains.
Mountains. The
of
the Kassites,
difficulty of
of defending
defending the
the extensive
extensive borders,
borders, the
the
the
Kassites, the
the difficulty
economic hardships
hardships caused
caused by
by the
government's inability
inability to
control
economic
the government's
to control
usury,
and the
loss of
of land
land by
by the
common people
people weakened
Babylon
the loss
the common
weakened Babylon
usury, and
and spurred
spurred the
the separatist
separatist trends
of the
tributary regions.
regions.
and
trends of
the tributary
The
The first
first city
city to
to fall
fall away
away from
from Babylon
Babylon was
was Terqa,
Terqa, situated
situated at
at the
the
mouth
Khabur River,
by the
pasmouth of
of the
the Khabur
River, the
the region
region formerly
formerly roamed
roamed by
the pastoral
Hanean tribes
of the
Amorites. Here
large contingent
contingent of
of Kastribes of
the Amorites.
Here aa large
Kastoral Hanean
sites now
now settled.
settled. Then
all the
southern cities
cities revolted,
supported by
Then all
the southern
revolted, supported
by
sites
the Idamarats
Idamarats and
and Yamutbala
Yamutbala tribes.
rebellion was
was cruelly
cruelly supsupthe
tribes. This
This rebellion
B.C. by
by Hammurapi's
Hammurapi's son,
son, Samsuiluna.
Samsuiluna. Many
Many cities
cities of
of
pressed
in 1739
1739 B.C.
pressed in
the south
south were
were completely
completely destroyed
destroyed and
and remained
remained uninhabited
uninhabited for
for aa
the

The
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period
The Old

123
12 3

long
time. Among
these were
were Larsa
and the
the ancient
centers of
of SuSulong time.
Among these
Larsa and
ancient centers
merian
civilization, Uruk
guardians of
of the
merian civilization,
Uruk and
and Ur,
Ur, guardians
the millennium-long
millennium-long
cuneiform
Babylon was
cuneiform cultural
cultural tradition.
tradition. Babylon
was never
never to
to reintegrate
reintegrate the
the
south completely.
completely. The
The kingdom
kingdom of
of the
the Sealand
Sealand that
that formed
formed on
the
south
on the
shores of
of the
the Persian
Gulf existed
existed for
for over
over two
two hundred
years.
shores
Persian Gulf
hundred years.
Powerful
Powerful rivals
rivals of
of the
the Babylonian
kingdom, which
which was
was still
still the
the
Babylonian kingdom,
largest
in Mesopotamia,
appeared toward
toward the
the middle
middle of
of the
the sevensevenlargest in
Mesopotamia, appeared
teenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., reducing
reducing the
the territorial
territorial size
size of
of the
the state
state even
even
teenth
more. In
the south,
south, Lagash
and Ur,
Ur, together
together with
with their
their adjoining
termore.
In the
Lagash and
adjoining terkingdom of
ritories,
part of
of the
the kingdom
of the
the Sea-Country.
Sea-Country. The
The northnorthritories, became
became part
ern Babylonian
Babylonian frontier
was moved
moved to
to the
the south
south of
of Mari
Mari and
and Asshur.
Asshur.
ern
frontier was
Beyond the
the Tigris,
Tigris, Babylon
still controlled
controlled the
the territories
territories of
of the
the IdaIdaBabylon still
Beyond
marats and
and Yamutbala
Yamutbala tribes.
tribes. The
The Hanean
kingdom, centered
centered in
in
marats
Hanean kingdom,
Terqa, remained
strong in
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, but
but in
in this
this area
area the
the
remained strong
in Upper
Terqa,
Kassite dynasty
replaced the
dynasty. A
A new
new king
king
Kassite
dynasty replaced
the Akkadian-Amorite
Akkadian-Amorite dynasty.
with the
the Kassite
Kassite name
Kashtiliash assumed
assumed power
there and
and ruled
ruled
name of
of Kashtiliash
power there
with
until the
the end
end of
of the
the Babylonian
Babylonian dynasty.
dynasty. From
From there,
there, the
the Kassites
Kassites infilinfiluntil
trated southern
southern Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in
in small
small groups.
groups. Many
Many of
of them
them hired
hired
trated
themselves out
out for
for seasonal
seasonal work
work in
cities and
villages or
or entered
entered the
the
themselves
in cities
and villages
military service.
service. After
After the
the invasion
of the
the Hittites,
Hittites, led
led by
by Mursilis
Mursilis I,
I,
military
invasion of
who, in
in 1595
1595 B.C.,
B.C., apparently
apparently deposed
deposed Samsuditana,
Samsuditana, the
the last
last king
king of
of
who,
the Babylonian
dynasty, the
the Kassites
seized royal
royal power
power in
in Babylon.
Babylon.
the
Babylonian dynasty,
Kassites seized
Their reign
reign lasted
lasted for
for over
over four
four hundred
hundred years.
years.
Their

55
Sumerian
Sumerian Culture
Culture
V. K.
V.
K. AFANASIEVA

The
Religious Perception
of the
World and
and the
The Religious
Perception of
the World
the
Arts
in Early
Lower Mesopotamia
Arts in
Early Lower
Mesopotamia

In
Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone
Age), humanity's
humanity's emotional
In the
the early
early Chalcolithic
(Copper-Stone Age),
emotional
and
perception of
world had
and intellectual
intellectual perception
of the
the world
had greatly
greatly advanced
advanced since
since
the
time of
people's fundamental
the time
of their
their Stone
Stone Age
Age forebears.
forebears. However,
However, people's
fundamental
method of
of generalizing
generalizing continued
continued to
to be
be an
an emotionally
emotionally conditioned
conditioned
method
of aa phenomenon
phenomenon by
by metaphor;
metaphor; that
process
process of
of expressing
expressing the
the essence
essence of
that
is,
is, in
in order
order to
to express
express an
an abstract
abstract characteristic,
characteristic, one
one identified
identified and
and
matched two
or more
phenomena having
some typical
charmatched
two or
more phenomena
having some
typical feature
feature or
or characteristic
acteristic trait
trait in
in common.
common. For
For example,
sun was
because
example, the
the sun
was aa bird,
bird, because
sky. Likewise,
Likewise, earth
earth was
was aa mother.
these emoboth
soared in
in the
both soared
the sky.
mother. From
From these
emotional
associations, myths
myths were
born. Myths
Myths were
were not
not only
only metaphorimetaphoritional associations,
were born.
cal interpretations
interpretations of
of phenomena,
they were
were also
also actual
actual emotional
emotional
cal
phenomena, they
experiences. When
common everyday
everyday technical
technical experiexperiWhen verification
verification by
by common
experiences.
ments
impossible or
or insufficient
insufficient (for
(for instance,
if it
it was
the
instance, if
was beyond
beyond the
ments was
was impossible
abilities of
of commonly
commonly accepted
accepted production
sympathetic
production methods),
methods), sympathetic
abilities
magic
Such magic
is practiced
cannot
practiced by
by peoples
peoples who
who cannot
magic was
was practiced.
practiced. Such
magic is
distinguish, either
either in
in judgment
or practical
actions, between
logical
distinguish,
judgment or
practical actions,
between logical
and nonlogical
connections.
and
nonlogical connections.
Meanwhile, people
people also
began to
realize that
that certain
things and
Meanwhile,
also began
to realize
certain things
and
events
life and
events concerning
concerning life
and work
work followed
followed aa natural
natural order,
order, that
that there
there
were certain
certain regularities
regularities determining
determining the
the "behavior"
nature, anianiwere
"behavior" of
of nature,
mals,
and objects.
objects. The
The only
only way
way in
in which
which one
one could
could explain
explain this
this order
order
mals, and
was by
by assuming
behavior was
was
assuming that
that such
such behavior
was induced
induced by
by intelligent
intelligent actions,
actions,
because
was only
human actions
because it
it was
only in
in human
actions that
that the
the connection
connection between
between
be observed.
cause
cause and
and effect
effect could
could immediately
immediately be
observed. In
In nature,
nature, such
such
actions
to powerful
powerful beings
who were
the metaphoric
metaphoric exexactions were
were ascribed
ascribed to
beings who
were the
pression of
pression
of world
world order.
order. People
People imagined
imagined these
these mighty
mighty living
living prinprinciples not
not as
as an
an ideal
ideal "something,"
"something," not
not as
as spirits,
spirits, but
but as
physically
as physically
ciples
active and,
and, hence,
hence, substantial
substantial beings.
Therefore, it
it was
was perceived
as
beings. Therefore,
perceived as
active
possible to
influence their
they could,
could, for
for example,
example, be
placated.
their will;
will; they
be placated.
possible
to influence
It must
must be
pointed out
out that
that actions
actions based
on logic
logic and
and those
based on
on
It
be pointed
based on
those based
magic were
were considered
considered to
be equally
equally reasonable
and useful
to human
human
magic
to be
reasonable and
useful to
life, including
including productive
activities. The
difference was
logical aclife,
productive activities.
The difference
was that
that logical
ac-

Sumerian
Culture
Sumerian Culture

125
12 5

tions
practical, empirical,
empirical, and
obvious explanations,
explanations, and
tions had
had practical,
and obvious
and magical
magical
actions (rituals,
(rituals, worship)
worship) had
had aa mythical
mythical explanation.
explanation. In
In the
mind of
the mind
of
actions
ancient
people, any
repetition of
of some
ancient people,
any magic
magic action
action was
was aa repetition
some action
action
performed by
by aa god
god or
or an
an ancestor
ancestor at
at the
the beginning
of time
time and
and still
still
performed
beginning of
enacted under
the same
same conditions.
Thus, this
this was
was an
an epoch
epoch when
when hisunder the
conditions. Thus,
hisenacted
torical changes
changes were
were imperceptible,
imperceptible, when
when development
development was
was extremely
extremely
torical
slow and
and the
the stability
stability of
of the
the world
world depended
on the
the rule
rule of
depended on
of acting
acting as
as
slow
the gods
or ancestors
ancestors did
did in
in the
the beginning
of time.
time. The
The criterion
criterion of
of
the
gods or
beginning of
verifying by
practice, as
as we
we know
applicable to
to such
such actions
actions
verifying
by practice,
know it,
it, was
was not
not applicable
and concepts.
concepts.
and
Magical activities
to influence
the personified
Magical
activities were
were attempts
attempts to
influence the
personified laws
laws of
of
nature
nature through
through the
the emotional,
emotional, rhythmical,
rhythmical, and
and "divine"
"divine" word,
word, sacrisacrificial
ficial offerings,
offerings, ritualistic
ritualisticbody
body movements,
movements, and
and so
soon.
on.Such
Such activities,
activities,
like any
be necessary
like
any othersocially
other socially essential
essential actions,
actions, seemed
seemed to
to be
necessary for
for the
the
life
of t'he
tlie community.
community.
life of
During
Neolithic Age
Age (the
latest period
it
During the
the Neolithic
(the latest
period of
of the
the Stone
Stone Age),
Age), it
appears
abstract connections
laws
appears that
that the
the existence
existence of
of certain
certain abstract
connections and
and laws
real environment
be perceived.
governing
governing the
the real
environment began
began to
to be
perceived. This
This new
new conconsciousness
been reflected
in the
introduction of
of geometric
geometric
reflected in
the introduction
sciousness may
may have
have been
humans, animals,
plants,
abstraction
depicting the
abstraction into
into art,
art, depicting
the world
world of
of humans,
animals, plants,
and motion.
ornamentation replaced
replaced the
the disorderly
disorderly conconand
motion. Abstract
Abstract ornamentation
glomeration of
of magical
magical drawings
drawings of
of animals
animals and
and people
(though the
the
people (though
glomeration
earlier images
images sometimes
were accurate
accurate and
and faithful
in their
their details).
details).
earlier
sometimes were
faithful in
The geometrical
geometrical image,
image, however,
however, retained
retained its
magical purpose
purpose and,
and, at
at
The
its magical
the same
same time,
not divorced
divorced from
from human
daily activities.
the
time, was
was not
human daily
activities.
present in
the manufacture
Artistic creativity
Artistic
creativity was
was present
in the
manufacture of
of necessary
necessary
household
objects, whether
whether pottery,
colored beads,
beads, or
or statuettes
statuettes of
of
pottery, colored
household objects,
gods,
but it
it was
was especially
gods, goddesses,
goddesses, and
and ancestors,
ancestors, but
especially evident
evident in
in works
works
intended
for magical
magical and
and cultic
cultic feasts
feasts or
or for
funerary use
(so that
that the
the
intended for
for funerary
use (so
deceased
the objects
in the
the afterlife).
making of
deceased could
could use
use the
objects in
afterlife). The
The making
of objects
objects
for cultic
cultic and
and household
use entailed
entailed aa creative
creative process
through which
which
for
household use
process through
an
was guided,
guided, consciously
by aa certain
instinct
an artist
artist was
consciously or
or unconsciously,
unconsciously, by
certain instinct
or
flair, which
which developed
he or
or flair,
developed as
as he
or she
she worked.
worked.
The
of the
Early Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic ages
ages reveals
reveals aa
The pottery
pottery of
the Neolithic
Neolithic and
and Early
most important
where the
most
important stage
stage of
of artistic
artistic generalization,
generalization, where
the principal
principal
feature is
is rhythm.
rhythm. The
sense of
of rhythm
is probably
probably inherent
inherent in
in hufeature
The sense
rhythm is
human
it was
was aa long
long time
time before
before people
began to
embody it
man nature,
nature, but
but it
people began
to embody
it
in images.
images. Rhythm
is hardly
felt in
images. It
It begins
to
in
Rhythm is
hardly felt
in Palaeolithic
Palaeolithic images.
begins to
appear
appear during
during the
the Neolithic
Neolithic Age
Age as
as an
an attempt
attempt to
to order
order and
and organize
organize
space. Painted
shows how
to generalize
their
learned to
generalize their
space.
Painted pottery
pottery shows
how people
people learned
impressions of
of nature
and stylizing
stylizing objects
objects and
and phenomphenomimpressions
nature by
by grouping
grouping and
ena and
them into
geometric, plant,
plant, aniena
and transforming
transforming them
into harmonious,
harmonious, geometric,
animal, or
or abstract
abstract ornaments
ornaments that
that were
controlled by
by rhythm.
rhythm.
were rigorously
rigorously controlled
mal,
Starting with
with the
simplest dottedincised-line ornaments
ornaments that
that
the simplest
dotted- and
and incised-line
Starting

126

V.
V. K. Afanasieva
Afanasieva

decorated
decorated the
the earliest
earliest pottery
pottery and
and culminating
culminating in
in the
the complex,
complex, symsymmetrical
metrical designs
designs that,
that, as
as if
if in
in motion,
motion, appear
appear on
on vessels
vessels of
of the
the fifth
fifth
millennium B.C.,
B.C., we
we can
can see
see that
that all
all these
these compositions
compositions are
are organically
organically
millennium
rhythmical.
It is
is as
as if
if the
the rhythm
rhythm of
of colors,
colors, lines,
lines, and
and shapes
shapes echoed
echoed
rhythmical. It
the
rhythm of
of motion-the
motionthe rhythm
rhythm of
of aa hand
hand slowly
slowly turning
turning the
the clay
the rhythm
clay
vessel
form it
it (since
the potter's
wheel had
had not
not yet
yet been
intropotter's wheel
been introvessel to
to form
(since the
duced)and perhaps
even the
the rhythm
rhythm of
of an
an accompanying
accompanying song
song or
or
duced)-and
perhaps even
tune. Ceramic
Ceramic art
art also
also provided
the opportunity
opportunity to
to fix
or imprint
imprint an
an
tune.
provided the
fix or
idea or
or aa story
story by
using conventional
conventional representative
symbols; even
even the
the
idea
by using
representative symbols;
most abstract
abstract ornament
ornament conveyed
conveyed some
some information
information derived
derived from
from
most
tradition.
tradition.
In studying
studying Neolithic
Chalcolithic sculpture,
sculpture, we
confront
In
Neolithic and
and Early
Early Chalcolithic
we confront
even more
more complex
complex forms
forms of
of generalization
(even beyond
beyond the
the artistic
artistic
even
generalization (even
level). Figurines
Figurines with
with an
an emphasis
emphasis on
on female
female and
and especially
especially maternal
maternal
level).
features, found
found in
in granaries
granaries and
and hearths,
hearths, phalli
phalli and
and figures
figures of
of bull
bull
features,
calves, frequently
frequently found
found in
in association
association with
human-like figures-they
figuresthey
with human-like
calves,
all
of the
the fertility
The most
all represented
represented aa syncretic
syncretic image
image of
fertility of
of the
the earth.
earth. The
most
complex expression
expression of
of this
this concept
concept appears
appears in
in the
the male
male and
and female
female
complex
statuettes from
from Lower
Lower Mesopota,mia
Mesopotamia at
at the
beginning of
of the
fourth
the beginning
the fourth
statuettes
millennium B.C.
B.C. They
They have
animal-like snouts,
snouts, and
and their
their shoulders
shoulders
millennium
have animal-like
and eyes
eyes frequently
frequently have
have added-on
added-on pouches
pouches or
or inserts
inserts for
for actual
actual vegeand
vegetation
(date seeds
seeds or
or grain).
grain). These
These figurines
figurines cannot
cannot yet
be called
called ferferyet be
tation (date
tility deities;
deities; they
represent aa stage
stage preceding
of the
the
preceding the
the creation
creation of
tility
they represent
image of
of the
the community's
community's tutelar
tutelar deity.
deity. We
We find
find such
such images
images at
at aa later
later
image
period,
paralleling the
evolution of
of architectonic
architectonic structures,
structures, which
which
period, paralleling
the evolution
started with
with outdoor
outdoor altars
and progressed
temples.
altars and
progressed to
to temples.
started
The
Protoliterate Period
be called
The culture
culture of
of the
the Protoliterate
Period can
can safely
safely be
called SumeSumerian, or,
rian,
or, at
at least,
least, proto-Sumerian.
proto-Sumerian. This
This culture
culture is
is found
found throughout
throughout
Lower
Mesopotamia. The
Lower and
and Upper
Upper Mesopotamia.
The following
following are
are among
among the
the greatgreatthis period:
period: temple
building, glyptic
est
est achievements
achievements of
of this
temple building,
glyptic art
art (engrav(engraving
new forms
seals), new
forms of
of plastic
plastic arts,
arts, new
new principles
principles in
in figurative
figurative art,
art,
ing of
of seals),
and
and the
the invention
invention of
of writing.
writing.
the arts
people's consciousness
All
All the
arts of
of that
that time,
time, as
as well
well as
as people's
consciousness of
of the
the
world,
by worship.
worship. However,
we must
point out
world, were
were colored
colored by
However, we
must point
out that
that
when
when dealing
dealing with
with the
the community
community cults
cults of
of ancient
ancient Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in
in
general, it
it is
is difficult
difficult to
to draw
draw any
any conclusion
conclusion about
about aa system
system of
of SumeSumegeneral,
rian
rian religion.
religion. It
It is
is true
true that
that the
the same
same cosmic
cosmic deities
deities were
were worshiped
worshiped
everywhere. These
were An,
An, "Heaven"
"Heaven" (Akkadian
(Akkadian Anu);
Anu); Enki,
Enki, "Lord
"Lord
These were
everywhere.
of the
the Earth,"
Earth," the
deity of
of the
the World
World Ocean,
Ocean, upon
upon which
the
of
the deity
which floats
floats the
Earth (Akkadian
(Akkadian Ea);
Ea); and
and Enlil,
Enlil, "Lord-Breath-of-the-Air,"
"Lord-Breath-of-the-Air," the
the deity
deity
Earth
Ellil). EnEnof the
the forces
forces between
between the
Earth and
and the
Heavens (Akkadian
(Akkadian Ellil).
of
the Earth
the Heavens
lil was
also the
the god
god of
of the
the Sumerian
Sumerian tribal
tribal union
centered in
in Nippur.
Nippur.
IiI
was also
union centered
There were
were also
also deities
deities of
of the
the sun
sun and
and the
the moon
moon and
and different
different
There
mother-goddesses. But
But more
more important
important were
were the
local tutelary
deities
mother-goddesses.
the local
tutelary deities

Sumerian
Sumerian Culture
Culture

127
12

of
each community,
with aa spouse,
spouse, son,
of each
community, usually
usually with
son, and
and retinue.
retinue. There
There
were innumerable
innumerable minor
minor gods
gods and
and evil
evil deities
deities associated
associated with
with grain,
grain,
were
illnesses and
disascattle,
cattle, the
the home,
home, and
and the
the granary,
granary, as
as well
well as
as with
with illnesses
and disasters.
ters. They
They usually
usually differed
differed from
from community
community to
to community,
community, and
and difdifferent,
ferent, contradictory
contradictory myths
myths were
were told
told about
about them.
them.
Temples were
were not
not erected
erected to
to every
every deity-only
deityonly to
to the
the most
most imporimporTemples
tant
tant ones
ones and,
and, mainly,
mainly, to
to the
the tutelary
tutelary god
god of
of the
the community.
community. The
The outoutside walls
walls and
and platforms
platforms of
of aa temple
temple were
were decorated
decorated with
with alternating
alternating
side
recesses
recesses and
and salients.
salients. (This
(This technique
technique was
was repeated
repeated each
each time
time the
the
temple was
was completely
completely rebuilt
rebuilt on
on the
the same
same site.)
site.) The
The temple
temple itself
itself was
temple
was
composed of
of three
three parts:
the central
central part
part was
was aa long
long court
court with
with an
an imcomposed
parts: the
image of
of the
the god
god at
at the
the far
far end,
end, and
and two
two rooms
rooms were
were attached
attached symmetrisymmetriage
cally at
at the
sides of
of this
this court.
court. The
The altar
altar was
was at
at one
one end
end of
of the
the court
court
cally
the sides
and
and the
the table
table for
for sacrificial
sacrificial offerings
offerings at
at the
the other.
other. During
During this
this period,
period,
the temples
temples of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia allliad
all had aa similar
similar layout.
layout.
the
Thus,
new type
type of
Thus, aa certain
certain new
of sacred
sacred architecture
architecture developed
developed in
in the
the
north,
north, as
as well
well as
as in
in the
the south,
south, of
of Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. It
It embodied
embodied certain
certain
building
became traditional
Mesobuilding principles
principles that
that soon
soon became
traditional for
for all
all future
future Mesopotamian religious
religious architecture.
architecture. The
The main
main principles
principles were
were as
as follows:
follows:
potamian
(1)
(1) The
The sanctuary
sanctuary was
was always
always rebuilt
rebuilt on
on the
the same
same site
site (all
(all subsequent
subsequent
reconstructions
incorporated the
alreconstructions incorporated
the previous
previous ones,
ones, so
so that
that the
the temple
temple always
the same
same place).
ways remained
remained in
in the
place). (2)
(2) The
The central
central temple
temple was
was placed
placed
on an
an elevated
elevated man-made
man-made platform
and was
was made
accessible by
by stairstairon
platform and
made accessible
cases
on two
two sides.
sides. (It
(It is
is probably
probably the
custom of
of always
always erecting
erecting aa
cases on
the custom
temple
five, and,
temple on
on the
the same
same site
site that
that resulted
resulted in
in three,
three, five,
and, finally,
finally, even
even
seven receding
receding platforms,
platforms, one
one on
on top
top of
of the
the other,
other, with
the temple
temple on
on
seven
with the
the very
very topthe
so-called ziggurat.)
ziggurat.) The
The raising
raising of
of the
the temple
temple high
high
the
top~the so-called
up emphasized
emphasized its
its antiquity
and the
the indigenous
indigenous character
character of
of the
the comcomup
antiquity and
munity, as
as well
well as
as the
connection of
of the
the sanctuary
sanctuary with
with the
heavenly
munity,
the connection
the heavenly
abode of
of the
the god.
(3) The
The temple
temple complex
complex consisted
consisted of
of aa tripartite
tripartite
abode
god. (3)
temple with
roofless internal
courtyard surrounded
surrounded
temple
with aa central
central hall
hall and
and aa roofless
internal courtyard
by
auxiliary chambers
chambers (in
(in northern
northern Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia such
such courtcourtby auxiliary
yards could
could also
also be
be covered).
covered). (4)
(4) The
The external
external walls
walls of
the temple
temple and
and
yards
of the
of the
the platform
or platforms
platforms were
were segmented
segmented into
alternating projecprojecof
platform or
into alternating
tions and
and recesses.
recesses.
tions
From
ancient Uruk,
Uruk, we
we know
of aa very
very special
special structure,
structure, the
From ancient
know of
the sosodeccalled
Red Building,
Building, which
called Red
which featured
featured aa sort
sort of
of stage
stage with
with columns
columns decorated
in mosaics.
mosaics. This
This may
may have
for meetings
meetings of
of the
the
orated in
have been
been aa place
place for
popular assembly
assembly (in
(in the
the courtyard)
courtyard) and
and of
of the
the council
council (on
(on the
the stage).
popular
stage).
The
culture, even
still primitive,
primitive, introduces
introduces aa
The beginning
beginning of
of urban
urban culture,
even if
if still
new stage
stage in
the development
development of
of figurative
figurative arts
arts in
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia.
new
in the
The
period became
became richer
The culture
culture of
of this
this new
new period
richer and
and more
more diverse.
diverse. For
For
example, new
new cylinder
cylinder seals
seals began
began to
to appear
appear in
place of
of the
the earlier
earlier
example,
in place
stamp
seals.
stamp seals.

128

V.
V. K. Afanasieva
Afanasieva

The
The plastic
plastic arts
arts of
of early
early Sumer
Sumer are
are closely
closely related
related to
to glyptic
glyptic art.
art. The
The
seal-amulets
so
seal-amulets in
in the
the shape
shape of
of animals
animals or
or animal
animal heads
heads that
that were
were so
widespread during
during the
Protoliterate Period
Period may
may be
as an
an art
art
the Protoliterate
be regarded
regarded as
widespread
form
All
form combining
combining glyptics,
glyptics, relief,
relief, and
and three-dimensional
three-dimensional sculpture.
sculpture. All
these
these objects
objects were
were functionally
functionally seals.
seals. The
The lower
lower side
side of
of the
the figurine
figurine
was flattened
flattened and
and incised
incised with
images. The
The incised
incised images
images are
are usually
usually
with images.
was
related to
to the
main figure:
the reverse
lion's head
head we
we may
may find
find
related
the main
figure: on
on the
reverse of
of aa lion's
carved small
small lions,
lions, and
and on
on the
the reverse
reverse of
of aa ram's
ram's head
may find
find
head we
we may
carved
horned animals
animals or
or aa figure
figure of
of aa man
man (apparently
(apparently aa shepherd).
shepherd).
horned
Another
Another trait
trait of
of early
early Sumerian
Sumerian art
art is
is its
its narrative
narrative character.
character. Each
Each
represents aa story,
be read
frieze
frieze of
of aa cylinder
cylinder seal
seal represents
story, and
and each
each image
image can
can be
read
in sequence.
sequence. The
The story
story can
can be
about nature,
nature, the
the animal
animal world,
or
in
be about
world, or
is only
only in
in the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period
Period
about the
the artist-about
artistabout humanity.
It is
about
humanity. It
that
motif of
of the
the human
human being
first appears
appears in
in art.
art.
that the
the motif
being first
Although people
were depicted
depicted in
in art
art during
during the
the Palaeolithic
Palaeolithic Age,
Although
people were
Age,
the resulting
resulting images
images were
were very
very stylized.
stylized. In
In Neolithic
and Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic
the
Neolithic and
art people
people appear
appear as
as integral
integral parts
of nature:
nature: people
yet conconart
parts of
people had
had not
not yet
presents synsciously detached
detached themselves
themselves from
from it.
it. Early
Early art
art typically
typically presents
synsciously
cretic representations:
representations: human-animal-plant
human-animal-plant images
images (e.g.,
(e.g., figurines
figurines of
of
cretic
frogs that
in the
shoulders for
for holding
holding grains
grains and
and fruit
fruit
frogs
that have
have niches
niches in
the shoulders
pits
or figurines
figurines of
of aa woman
woman feeding
feeding aa young
young animal);
animal); or
or humanhumanpits or
phallic representations
representations (man
(man represented
phallus alone,
alone, as
as aa symsymphallic
represented by
by aa phallus
bol of
of reproduction).
reproduction).
bol
In Sumerian
Sumerian art
art of
of the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period
we can
can see
see how
how people
people
In
Period we
began
Thus the
the art
began to
to distinguish
distinguish themselves
themselves from
from nature.
nature. Thus
art of
of Lower
Lower
time constitutes
Mesopotamia during
Mesopotamia
during this
this time
constitutes aa new
new qualitative
qualitative stage
stage in
in
the
between the
human being
being and
is
the relation
relation between
the human
and the
the environment.
environment. It
It is
typical that
that objects
typical
objects of
of art
art in
in the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period
Period give
give the
the impresimpression of
of an
an awakening
awakening human
human energy,
energy, of
of people's
people's consciousness
consciousness of
of
sion
their newly
newly discovered
discovered potential
potential and
and of
of the
the power
of their
their attempts
attempts at
at
their
power of
self-expression in
in aa world
that they
they were
able to
control with
with increasincreasself-expression
world that
were able
to control
ing
success.
ing success.
From the
From
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic Period
Period we
we have
have many
many archaeological
archaeological finds
finds
that
provide more
more reliable
information about
about certain
certain common
common trends
trends
that provide
reliable information
in the
the arts
arts of
of that
that period.
A definite
definite type
type of
of temple
temple style
style had
had emerged.
emerged.
in
period. A
This was
the temple
temple placed
on aa high
high platform.
platform. It
It was
sometimes sursurThis
was the
placed on
was sometimes
rounded
by aa wall.
wall. (The
usually was
was walled
walled in.)
rounded by
(The entire
entire temple
temple area
area usually
in.)
The ancillary
ancillary rooms
rooms were
were clearly
clearly separated
separated from
from the
the central
central hall
hall or
or
The
and their
their number
number decreased.
decreased. The
The columns
columns and
and
courtyard of
of worship,
courtyard
worship, and
semicolumns disappeared,
disappeared, and,
and, along
along with
with them,
so did
did the
the mosaic
mosaic
semicolumns
them, so
facings.
A
fundamental
artistic
design
in
temple
architecture
confacings. A fundamental artistic design in temple architecture continued to
to be
breakup of
of the
the external
external walls
in projections
and retinued
be the
the breakup
walls in
projections and
recesses. It
It is
is quite
quite possible
the concept
concept of
of aa multistory
ziggurat of
of
possible that
that the
multistory ziggurat
cesses.
the main
main deity
deity of
of aa city
city was
was developed
developed during
during this
this period,
gradually
the
period, gradually

Sumerian
Sumerian Culture
Culture

129
129

replacing the
the temple
temple on
on the
the high
high platform.
platform. There
There were
were also
also temples
temples
replacing
that were
were dedicated
dedicated to
to lesser
lesser deities.
deities. These
These were
were smaller,
smaller, without
platthat
without platforms, and
and were
were usually
also built
built within
the temple
temple precinct.
precinct.
forms,
usually also
within the
A novel
novel architectural
architectural structure
structure was
was discovered
discovered in
in Kish.
Kish. It
It is
is aa secusecuA
lar building,
building, the
the first
example of
of aa Sumerian
Sumerian structure
structure combining
combining aa
lar
first example
palace and
and aa fortress.
fortress.
palace
Sumerian sculpture,
sculpture, in
in most
most cases,
cases, is
is represented
represented by
by small
small figurines
figurines
Sumerian
(25-40 cm.)
cm.) made
made from
from local
local alabaster
alabaster and
and other
other softer
softer stone
stone (lime(25-40
(limestone, sandstone,
sandstone, etc.).
etc.). They
They were
were usually
usually placed
niches inside
the
stone,
placed in
in niches
inside the
temples.
bodily proportions
temples. The
The bodily
proportions of
of these
these figurines
figurines differ
differ according
according to
to
region. In
In the
the northern
northern cities
cities of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia they
they are
are exagexagregion.
geratedly tall,
tall, whereas
whereas in
in the
the south
south they
they are
are disproportionately
disproportionately short.
short.
geratedly
They all
all have
have highly
highly distorted
distorted bodily
bodily proportions
proportions and
and emphasize
emphasize one
one
They
or two
two features-most
featuresmost frequently,
frequently, the
the eyes,
eyes, the
the nose,
nose, and
and the
the ears.
ears.
or
Such figurines
figurines were
were placed
placed in
in temples
temples probably
so that
that they
they might
might
Such
probably so
prayas proxies-for
proxiesfor those
those who
who placed
placed them
them there.
there. These
These figurines
figurines
pray-as
did not
not have
have to
to be
be actual
actual portraits
portraits of
of their
their owners,
owners, as
as was
was the
the case
case in
in
did
Egypt, where
where the
the development
development of
of portrait
portrait sculpture
sculpture was
was affected
affected by
Egypt,
by
the requirement
requirement of
of magic.
(Otherwise, the
the "double"
"double" might
might not
not know
know
the
magic. (Otherwise,
its body.)
body.) In
In Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia aa short
short identifying
identifying inscription
inscription on
on
its
the statuette
statuette was
was considered
considered to
to be
be more
more than
than sufficient.
sufficient. The
The deliberdeliberthe
ate emphasis
emphasis of
of facial
facial traits
traits probably
probably served
served aa magical
magical purpose:
purpose: large
large
ate
ears (the
(the Sumerians
Sumerians considered
considered ears
ears to
to be
be the
the receptacles
of wisdom);
ears
receptacles of
wisdom);
wide-open eyes
eyes with
with aa pleading
pleading gaze
gaze combined
combined with
with the
the amazement
wide-open
amazement of
of
magical enlightenment;
enlightenment; and
and hands
hands folded
folded in
in aa gesture
gesture of
of prayer.
prayer.
aa magical
These features
features often
often give
give life
life and
and expression
expression to
to the
the otherwise-clumsy
otherwise-clumsy
These
figurines. Apparently,
Apparently, it
it was
was more
more important
important to
to convey
convey the
the inner
inner state
state
figurines.
rather than
than the
the bodily
bodily form;
form; the
the latter
latter was
was elaborated
elaborated only
only to
to the
the dederather
gree to
to which
which it
it accomplished
accomplished the
the intrinsic
aim of
of sculpture:
sculpture: to
to create
create
gree
intrinsic aim
an image
image endowed
endowed with
with supernatural
supernatural qualities-all-seeing
qualitiesall-seeing and
and allan
allhearing.
hearing.
In the
the official
official art
art of
of the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic Period,
Period, that
that peculiar-at
peculiarat
In
times,
times, free-interpretation
freeinterpretation characteristic
characteristic of
of the
the best
best artistic
artistic creations
creations
of
no longer
of the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period
Period is
is no
longer found.
found. Sculptured
Sculptured figures
figures of
of
the
Early
Dynastic
Period,
even
if
they
represent
fertility
deities,
comthe Early Dynastic Period, even if they represent fertility deities, completely lack
lack sensuousness;
sensuousness; they
they aspire
aspire to
to be
be superhuman
superhuman or
or even
even
pletely
inhuman.
inhuman.
The continuously
continuously warring
warring nomes
nomes had
had different
different pantheons
pantheons and
and riturituThe
als. There
There was
was no
no uniform
uniform mythology
mythology for
for the
the whole
whole country
country (except
(except
als.
that the
the main
function of
of all
all deities
deities of
of the
third millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. was
was to
to
that
main function
the third
promote
fertility). Therefore,
Therefore, despite
despite the
the common
common general
general type
type of
of the
the
promote fertility).
sculptures, the
the representations
representations widely
differ in
in their
details. Cylinder
Cylinder
sculptures,
widely differ
their details.
seals begin
to predominate
in glyptic
glyptic art,
art, depicting
depicting heroes
heroes and
and also
also
seals
begin to
predominate in
animals
rearing up
on their
hind legs.
animals rearing
up on
their hind
legs.

130

V.
V. K. Afanasieva
Afanasieva

Our
Our knowledge
knowledge of
of the
the goldsmiths'
goldsmiths' art
art of
of the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic Period
Period
is
the excavations
the royal
royal tombs
Ur. Objects
is mainly
mainly based
based on
on the
excavations of
of the
tombs at
at Ur.
Objects
from these
these excavations
excavations can
can rightfully
rightfully be
be included
included among
among the
the greatest
greatest
from
creations in
in the
the art
art of
of jewelry
jewelry making.
making.
creations
Art of
of the
Akkadian Period
Period probably
can be
characterized by
Art
the Akkadian
probably can
be best
best characterized
by
referring
motif; namely,
namely, that
that of
of aa deified
deified king,
king, who
who first
first
referring to
to its
its central
central motif;
appears in
in history
history and,
and, later,
later, also
also in
in ideology
ideology and
and the
the arts.
arts. In
In history
history
appears
and
he appears
who acacand in
in legends
legends he
appears as
as aa man
man of
of nonroyal
nonroyal ancestry
ancestry who
quired power,
gathered an
an army,
army, and
and became
became the
the first
first ruler
ruler in
in the
the hisquired
power, gathered
history of
of the
the Lower
Lower Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian nomes
nomes to
to rule
rule all
all of
of Sumer
Sumer and
and
tory
Akkad. Artistically,
Artistically, we
we find
find aa sculptured
sculptured portrait:
portrait: aa manly
manly head
head with
with
Akkad.
straight, clearly
clearly outlined
outlined lips
lips and
and aa small,
small, aquiline
aquiline nose
nose on
on aa lean
lean face.
face.
straight,
It is
is an
an idealized
idealized portrait,
portrait, possibly
possibly even
even generalized,
generalized, but
but clearly
clearly exexIt
pressing the
the king's
king's physical
physical type.
type. This
This portrayal
portrayal clearly
clearly reflects
reflects the
the imimpressing
age of
of the
historical and
and legendary
legendary victorious
victorious hero,
hero, like
like Sargon
Sargon of
of
the historical
age
Akkade. (Such
(Such is
is the
the copper
copper bust
bust from
from Nineveh,
Nineveh, supposedly
supposedly aa likeness
likeness
Akkade.
of Sargon.)
Sargon.)*1 The
The stele
stele of
of Naram-Su'en
Naram-Su'en celebrating
celebrating his
his victory
victory over
over the
the
of
mountain tribes
tribes shows
shows the
the deified
deified king
conducting victorious
cammountain
king conducting
victorious campaigns
at the
the head
head of
of his
his army
army and
and ascending
ascending aa steep
steep slope,
slope, ahead
ahead of
of
paigns at
his warriors.
warriors. He
He is
larger than
than the
the other
other figures,
figures, and
and the
the symbols
symbols of
his
is larger
of
the Sun
Sun and
and the
the Moon,
Moon, attesting
attesting to
to his
his own
own divinity,
divinity, radiate
radiate above
above his
his
the
head. A
A favorite
favorite theme
theme of
of Akkadian
Akkadian glyptic
glyptic art
art is
is aa mighty
mighty hero
hero with
with
head.
long curly
curly locks
locks and
and aa beard
beard who
who fights
lion. The
The hero's
hero's muscles
muscles are
are
long
fights aa lion.
taut; with
with .one
one hand
he restrains
restrains the
the lion,
lion, who
who is
is standing
standing on
on his
his hind
hind
taut;
hand he
legs with
with his
his claws
claws helplessly
helplessly grasping
grasping the
air, and
and with
with his
his other
other he
he
legs
the air,
holds aa dagger
dagger that
that pierces
pierces the
the predator
predator between
between the
the shoulder
shoulder blades.
blades.
holds
To aa certain
certain extent,
extent, the
the changes
changes occurring
occurring in
in the
the art
art of
of the
the Akkadian
Akkadian
To
Period may
may be
be related
to the
artistic traditions
traditions of
of the
northern centers
centers
Period
related to
the artistic
the northern
of
Lower
Mesopotamia.
Scholars
occasionally
speak
of
the
"realism"
of Lower Mesopotamia. Scholars occasionally speak of the "realism"
of Akkadian
Akkadian art.
art. This
This is
is not
not realism
realism as
as we
we understand
understand it
it today;
today; the
the
of
attention
of
the
artist
was
not
focused
upon
the
real,
even
if
typical,
attention of the artist was not focused upon the real, even if typical,
traits of
of aa given
given subject,
subject, but
but rather
rather on
on those
those that
that express
express its
its essential
essential
traits
idea.
Nevertheless,
the
lifelike
character
of
the
represented
subjects
is
idea. Nevertheless, the lifelike character of the represented subjects is
fascinating.
fascinating.
The interest
interest in
in the
the individual
individual that
to emerge
emerge in
in the
the arts
arts was
The
that began
began to
was
brought on
on by
by events
events of
of the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Akkade
Akkade which
which undermined
undermined
brought,
the established
established traditions
traditions of
of the
the Sumerian
Sumerian priesthood.
priesthood. The
The influence
influence
the
of Akkadian
Akkadian art
art lasted
lasted for
for centuries.
centuries. It
It is
of
is still
still evident
evident in
in the
the artwork
artwork of
of
the last
last period
period of
of Sumerian
Sumerian history,
history, the
the Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur
Ur and
and the
the
the
Issin dynasty.
dynasty. However,
However, the
the overall
overall impression
impression left
left by
by the
the objects
objects of
of
Issin
1.
doubtful: artistically
artistically and
1. The
The identification
identification is
is doubtful:
and archaeologically,
archaeologically, Sargon
Sargon the
the AnAncient's time
time belonged
to the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic III
III Period.
Period. Naram-Su'en
is aa more
more likely
likely
cient's
belonged to
Naram-Su'en is
candidate for
the original.
original. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).
candidate
for the
(IMD).

Sumerian Culture

131

this later
this
later time
time is
is that
that of
of monotony
monotony and
and stereotype.
stereotype. This
This also
also reflects
reflects
the reality
of that
time: the
the seals
seals were
were made
gurush-craftsmen in
in
the
reality of
that time:
made by
by gurush-craftsmen
the huge
the
huge collective
collective workshops
workshops of
of the
the Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty ofUr.
of Ur. With
With great
great
skill and
and faith
faith they
they reproduced,
reproduced, over
over and
over again,
again, the
the same
same conconskill
and over
ventional and
and prescribed
prescribed motifa
scene of
of man
man worshiping
worshiping his
god.
ventional
motif-a scene
his god.
Sumerian Literature

Today
we know
know more
than 150
Today we
more than
150 Sumerian
Sumerian literary
literary works.
works. (Many
(Many are
are
preserved in
in fragmentary
fragmentary form.)
form.) Among
Among them
we find
find mythical
tales
preserved
them we
mythical tales
in verse,
epic poems,
love songs
songs related
related to
the sacred
sacred
in
verse, epic
poems, psalms,
psalms, nuptial
nuptial love
to the
marriage
deified kings
kings and
and priestesses,
laments, commarriage rite
rite of
of deified
priestesses, funereal
funereal laments,
comhymns honoring
honoring kings
kings (beginning
with the
plaints
plaints about
about calamities,
calamities, hymns
(beginning with
the
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur),
Ur), and
and literary
literary imitations
imitations of
of royal
inscriptions.
Third
royal inscriptions.
There
precepts, moral
There are
are numerous
numerous didactic
didactic texts:
texts: precepts,
moral instructions,
instructions, dedebates
dialogue form,
form, collections
of fables,
fables, anecdotes,
proverbs, and
and
bates in
in dialogue
collections of
anecdotes, proverbs,
popular
popular sayings.
sayings.
Hymns
Hymns constitute
constitute the
the best
best represented
represented genre
genre of
of Sumerian
Sumerian literature.
literature.
The earliest
earliest hymns
hymns appear
appear toward
middle of
of the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic
The
toward the
the middle
Period. Hymns
are, without
the earliest
collective
Period.
Hymns are,
without aa doubt,
doubt, among
among the
earliest collective
means
of addressing
addressing the
the deity.
deity. They
They had
had to
to be
written down
down with
with the
the
means of
be written
utmost punctiliousness.
punctiliousness. Not
Not aa single
single word
word could
be changed
arbitrarily,
utmost
could be
changed arbitrarily,
because not
because
not one
one image
image in
in the
was fortuitous----:-each
fortuitouseach had
some
the hymn
hymn was
had some
specific
mythological content.
content.
specific mythological
Hymns were
were intended
intended to
to be
be read
aloud by
by aa single
priest or
by aa
Hymns
read aloud
single priest
or by
choir.2
The emotions
emotions that
that the
the hymn
hymn expressed
expressed and
and induced
induced were
were colcolchoir.2 The
lective.
fully reflected
power inherent
lective. Such
Such compositions
compositions fully
reflected the
the power
inherent in
in rhythrhythmic language,
perceived magically
magically and
and emotionally.
emotionally. Hymns
Hymns usually
usually
mic
language, perceived
praise
praise aa deity
deity and
and enumerate
enumerate the
the deeds,
deeds, names,
names, and
and epithets
epithets of
of the
the
deity.
us stem
deity. Most
Most hymns
hymns that
that have
have come
come down
down to
to us
stem from
from the
the school
school
3
tradition of
of Nippur
and are,
are, in
most cases,
cases, dedicated
to Enlil
Enlil (the
patradition
Nippur 3 and
in most
dedicated to
(the patron
the city)
city) and
and to
deities in
in his
his entourage.
entourage. There
There are
are
tron god
god of
of the
to other
other deities
also hymns
to kings
kings and
and temples.
temples. Hymns
Hymns could,
could, however,
however, be
dedialso
hymns to
be dedicated only
only to
to deified
deified kings,
kings, so
so not
not all
all Sumerian
Sumerian kings
kings qualified.
qualified.
cated
Along with
hymns, laments
belong to
texts of
public worAlong
with the
the hymns,
laments also
also belong
to texts
of public
worship.
ship. They
They are
are very
very typical
typical of
of Sumerian
Sumerian literature
literature (especially
(especially laments
laments
2.
texts were
were not
directly from
from clay
2. The
The texts
not read
read directly
clay tablets.
tablets. They
They were
were memorized
memorized from
from
the
the scribe.
Priests of
the third
B.C. were,
the "word"
"word" of
of the
scribe. Priests
of the
third and
and second
second millennia
millennia B.C.
were, as
as aa rule,
rule,
illiterate.
illiterate.
compositions were
recorded and,
and, more
more often
often than
than not,
not, composed
Nip3. These
3.
These compositions
were recorded
composed in
in Nipitself. They
They provided
provided reading
reading material
material for
for students
students and
and graduate
graduate scribes.
scribes. The
The lipur
pur itself.
library
of Nippur
Nippur belonged
to aa school
school or
or schools,
schools, the
the so-called
so-called e-dubba
e-dubba(house
(houseofoftablets).
tablets).
brary of
belonged to
Although
was aa secular
secular institution
institution (it
(it prepared
scribes for
for the
the civil
civil service),
service), it
it was
Although this
this was
prepared scribes
was
natural that
that in
an important
center of
of worship
as Nippur,
Nippur, priests
priests were
were also
also very
natural
in such
such an
important center
worship as
very
influential
in the
school teaching.
teaching.
influential in
the school

132

V.
V. K. Afanasieva
Afanasieva

about
about national
national disasters).
disasters). However,
However, the
the oldest
oldest work
work of
of this
this type
type that
that
we
worship-it is
we know
know of
of is
is not
not related
related to
to divine
divine worshipit
is aa lament
lament about
about the
the
destruction of
of Lagash
Lagash by
by Lugalzagesi,
Lugalzagesi, king
king of
of Umma.
The lament
lament
destruction
U mma. The
tells
of the
calamities inflicted
inflicted upon
the culprit.
culprit.
tells of
the calamities
upon Lagash
Lagash and
and condemns
condemns the
The other
laments that
that have
have come
us-those over
the fall
The
other laments
come down
down to
to usthose
over the
fall
of
Akkad, the
destructions of
of Ur,
Ur, Nippur,
Nippur, Eridu,
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad,
the destructions
Eridu, and
and
Urukare
all connected
Such literary
literary works
usually
Uruk-are all
connected with
with ritual.
ritual. Such
works were
were usually
composed when
cities were
or on
on the
the occaoccacomposed
when the
the destroyed
destroyed cities
were being
being rebuilt
rebuilt or
sion of
of the
down of
of aa temple
temple before
one was
to be
built
the pulling
pulling down
before aa new
new one
was to
be built
sion
in
its place.
place.
in its
Among the
texts of
of worship,
series of
of
Among
the texts
worship, we
we find
find the
the remarkable
remarkable series
poems (or
religious songs)
beginning with
with "The
poems
(or religious
songs) beginning
"The Descent
Descent of
of Inanna
Inanna
into
Netherworld" and
Death of
into the
the Netherworld"
and ending
ending with
with "The
"The Death
of Dumuzi,"
Dumuzi,"
which narrate
about the
the dying
dying and
and resurrected
deities and
and
narrate the
the myth
myth about
resurrected deities
which
which are
are related
corresponding rituals.
goddess of
of carnal
carnal love
which
related to
to corresponding
rituals. The
The goddess
love
and animal
animal fertility,
fertility, Innin
Innin (Akkadian
(Akkadian Inanna),
Inanna), fell
fell in
in love
love with
the
and
with the
shepherd god
god (or
(or shepherd
shepherd hero),
hero), Dumuzi,
Dumuzi, and
and took
took him
him for
for her
shepherd
her hushusband.
Later, she
she descended
descended into
into the
the Netherworld,
Netherworld, apparently,
apparently, to
to chalchalband. Later,
lenge the
the power
power of
of its
its queen.
queen. Inanna
killed but
was returned
returned to
to
Inanna was
was killed
but was
lenge
life
by means
of aa trick
by the
the gods.
gods. She
She was
was allowed
allowed to
to return
return
trick played
played by
life by
means of
to earth
earth (where,
(where, in
in the
meantime, all
all living
living creatures
creatures had
ceased to
to
to
the meantime,
had ceased
reproduce)
one condition:
condition: she
she had
to pay
live ransom
ransom to
to the
the
under one
had to
pay aa live
reproduce) under
Netherworld.
Inanna was
was revered
different Sumerian
Sumerian cities,
and in
in
Netherworld. Inanna
revered in
in different
cities, and
each one
one she
she had
had aa husband
or lover.
All these
deities fell
fell on
on their
their
each
husband or
lover. All
these deities
knees
worshiping her
and begging
begging for
for mercy.
mercy. Only
Only Dumuzi
Dumuzi proudly
proudly
knees worshiping
her and
refused.
Dumuzi was
was surrendered
surrendered to
to the
the evil
evil messengers
messengers from
from the
the
refused. Dumuzi
Netherworld.
In vain
did Utu,
the solar
solar god,
god, fulfilling
fulfilling the
the prayer
of
Netherworld. In
vain did
Utu, the
prayer of
Dumuzi's sister,
sister, Geshtinanna
Heavens"), turn
him into
into
Dumuzi's
Geshtinanna ("The
("The Vine
Vine of
of Heavens"),
turn him
an animal
animal and
and hide
Dumuzi was
was finally
killed and
and
an
hide him
him three
three times.
times. Dumuzi
finally killed
carried
off
to
the
Netherworld.
However,
Geshtinanna,
sacrificing
carried off to the Netherworld. However, Geshtinanna, sacrificing
herself, achieves
achieves Dumuzi's
Dumuzi's release
for half
half aa year,
year,
the living
living for
herself,
release back
back to
to the
while
she
herself
descends
into
the
world
of
the
dead.
While
the
godwhile she herself descends into the world of the dead. While the godshepherd
rules
the
world,
the
plant-goddess
dies.
The
structure
shepherd rules the world, the plant-goddess dies. The structure of
of
the
is much
more complex
complex than
the simplified
simplified versions
of the
the
the myth
myth is
much more
than the
versions of
death and
and resurrection
resurrection of
of the
fertility deities
deities that
are featured
featured in
in our
our
death
the fertility
that are
popular
popular books.
books.
The Nippur
Nippur tradition
tradition also
verse legends
The
also includes
includes nine
nine verse
legends about
about the
the
feats of
of heroes
heroes who,
who, according
according to
to the
the King
King List,
List, belonged
to the
the semisemifeats
belonged to
legendary
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Uruk:
Enmerkar, Lugalbanda,
Lugalbanda, and
and GilgaGilgaUruk: Enmerkar,
legendary First
mesh. It
It seems
seems that
the Nippur
tradition began
to be
created during
during
that the
Nippur tradition
began to
be created
mesh.
the
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur,
whose kings
kings were
closely connected
connected with
with
the Third
Ur, whose
were closely
Uruk.
The founder
founder of
of this
dynasty traced
family line
line to
to Gilgamesh.
Gilgamesh.
this dynasty
traced his
his family
U
ruk. The
The Uruk
Uruk legends
legends were
included in
in the
Nippur tradition
tradition beThe
were probably
probably included
the Nippur
because Nippur
was aa cultural
cultural center,
center, and
and whatever
whatever nome
nome happening
happening to
to
cause
Nippur was

Sumerian Culture

133
133

of a kingdom always desired to be connected with it. Durbe the seat of

ing Ur III and the First Dynasty of
of Issin, a uniform
uniform Nippur literary
perpetuated in the e-dubbas
tradition was perpetuated
e-dubbas(schools)
(schools)ofofthe
theother
othercities.
cities.
All the heroic legends known to us from those times were at the
stage of
of forming series or cycles, a process typical of epics (e.g., the
grouping of
of heroes by their birthplace is one stage in such a serialization). However, these stories are too heterogeneous to be easily
different pegrouped together as epics. The compositions stem from different
riods; some are more finished and perfect
perfect (like the remarkable poem
about Lugalbanda and the monstrous eagle) and some less so. It is
difficult to determine, even approximately, when these stories
very difficult
of the motifs could be later additions. The legwere composed; some of
ends may have undergone transformations
transformations over the centuries. In any
case, it is clear that they constitute an early literary genre that eventually developed into the epic. The hero of
of such compositions is not
often
yet the typical epic hero, monumental in his proportions and often
tragic but, rather, the lucky lad of
of a magical fairy tale, related to gods
powerful king with certain divine
but not a god himself; or he is a powerful
features.
Historians of literature often
often contrast the heroic epics (or their
precursors) with the so-called mythical epics (in the former, the heclassification is not applicable
roes are men; in the latter, gods). Such a classification
of the fighting deity is
to Sumerian literature, in which the image of
of the mortal hero. In addition to the aboveless typical than that of
mentioned compositions, two more epic or pre-epic tales with divine
of the goddess Innin (Inheroes are known. One tells about the fight of
personification of
of the Netherworld-"Mount
Netherworld"Mount Ebekh,"
anna) with the personification
as it is called in the text. The other describes the war fought by the
god Ninurta against the evil demon Asak, also an inhabitant of the
Netherworld. At the same time, Ninurta appears as an ancestor-hero.
He builds
builds aa dike
dike from
from aa huge
huge pile
pile of
of rocks
rocks in
in order
order to
to protect
protect Sumer
Sumer
He
of the Primeval Ocean that spill over the fields,
from the waters of
fields, and so
diverts them
them into
into the
the Tigris.
Tigris.
diverts
More common to Sumerian literature are the so-called etiological
(explanatory) myths, which deal with the creative actions of the gods.
of the world as the
Among other things, they describe the creation of
Sumerians visualized
visualized it.
it. Sumer
Sumer probably
probably did
did not
not produce
produce comprecompreSumerians
hensive cosmogonic legends (or, at least, they have not been written
down). It is
is difficult
difficult to
to explain
explain why
why this
this is
is so.
so. It is
is unlikely
unlikely that
that the
the idea
idea
down).
of the
the struggle
struggle of
of the
the titanic
titanic natural
natural forces
forces (the
(the gods
gods and
and the
the giants,
giants,
of
the senior
senior and
and the
the junior
gods, etc.)
etc.) had
had no
no place
place in
in the
the Sumerian
Sumerian apapthe
junior gods,
prehension
of
the
world,
especially
since
the
motif
of
the
death
and
prehension of the world, especially since the motif of the death and
the resurrection
resurrection of
of nature
nature (when
(when aa deity
deity departs
departs for
for and
and then
then returns
returns
the
from
the
Underworld)
was
actually
well
developed
in
Sumerian
myfrom the Underworld) was actually well develope<;i in Sumerian my-

134
134

V.
V-K.K-Afanasieva
Afanasieva

thology,
thology, as
as shown
shown by
by the
the stories
stories of
of Innin-Inanna
Innin-Inanna and
and Dumuzi
Dumuzi and
and of
of
other gods,
gods, such
such as
as Enlil.
other
Enlil.
The
The arrangement
arrangement of
of life
life on
on earth-the
earththe establishment
establishment of
of order
order and
and
prosperity-was
poprosperitywas probably
probably the
the most
most favored
favored subject
subject in
in Sumerian
Sumerian poetry.
etry. Such
Such compositions
compositions include
include stories
stories about
about the
the creation
creation of
of gods,
gods,
whose
whose duty
duty it
it was
was to
to supervise
supervise the
the earthly
earthly order,
order, assign
assign divine
divine duties,
duties,
establish the
the divine
divine hierarchy,
hierarchy, populate
populate the
the earth
earth with
with living
living beings,
beings,
establish
and even
even to
create the
farming tools.
The principal
principal deities
deities actactand
to create
the various
various farming
tools. The
ing
ing as
as creators
creators are
are usually
usually Enki
Enki and
and Enlil.
Enlil.
beMany
Many etiological
etiological myths
myths are
are structured
structured in
in the
the form
form of
of dialogues
dialogues between representatives
of various
various branches
branches of
of the
the economy
economy and
and even
even
tween
representatives of
between various
various objects
objects in
in daily
daily life,
life, .each
each trying
trying to
to prove
prove its
its superisuperibetween
e-dubbaplayed
playeda alarge
largerole
roleinin
ority over
over the
other. The
Sumerian e-dubba
ority
the other.
The Sumerian
launching this
this literary
literary genre,
genre, which
is typical
typical of
of many
later Oriental
Oriental
launching
which is
many later
literatures. We
little about
about this
this school
school in
in its
its early
early days;
days; we
we only
only
We know
know little
literatures.
know that
that it
it did
did exist.
exist. (Many
(Many didactic
didactic aids
aids from
from the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Peknow
Pee-dubbabecame
becamea aclearly
clearlydefined
definedinstitution
institutionatat
riod are
are available.)
available.) The
The e-dubba
riod
least as
as early
early as
as the
millennium B.C.
B.C. Its
Its basic
aim was
purely
least
the third
third millennium
basic aim
was purely
practical: the
the school
school prepared
prepared scribes,
scribes, surveyors,
surveyors, and
and other
other such
such propropractical:
fessionals. As
As the
the school
school developed,
developed, its
its teaching
teaching became
more univeruniverfessionals.
became more
sal, so
so that
that toward
toward the
the end
end of
of the
the third
third and
and beginning
beginning of
of the
the second
second
sal,
e-dubbabecame
becamethe
theacademic
academiccenter
centerofofitsitstime.
time.
millennium B.C.,
B.C., the
the e-dubba
millennium
All the
the existing
existing branches
branches of
of knowledge
taught: mathematics,
mathematics,
knowledge were
were taught:
All
grammar, singing,
singing, music,
music, and
and law.
law. The
The studies
studies included
included learning
learning
grammar,
by rote
rote lists
lists of
of medical,
medical, botanical,
botanical, geographical,
geographical, pharmacological,
pharmacological,
by
legal terms
terms (also
(also laws),
laws), etc.,
etc., as
as well
well as
as lists
lists (catalogues)
(catalogues) of
of literary
literary
legal
compositions.
compositions.
Most of
of the
the compositions
compositions mentioned
mentioned above
above have
come down
down to
to us
us in
in
have come
Most
the
the form
form of
of texts
texts written
written down
down by
by teachers
teachers or
or pupils
pupils at
at school.
school. But
But
there are
are also
also some
some literary
literary texts
texts specifically
specifically called
called "e-dubba
there
"e-dubbatexts."
texts."
These are
are literary
literary essays
essays describing
describing life
life at
at school
school and
and its
its rules
rules and
and
These
didactic
Dididactic works
works (precepts,
(precepts, moral
moral admonitions,
admonitions, and
and instructions).
instructions). Directed
primarily at
at students,
students, they
they frequently
frequently took
form of
of verse
verse
took the
the form
rected primarily
dialogues,
but some
were texts
dialogues, but
some were
texts of
of folk
folk wisdom,
wisdom, aphorisms,
aphorisms, proverbs,
proverbs,
anecdotes, fables,
fables, and
and sayings.
sayings. (The
(The only
only known
known example
example of
of aa SumeSumeanecdotes,
rian
rian fairy
fairy tale
tale in
in prose
prose is
is an
an e-dubba
e-dubbatext.)
text.)
We
variety of
We can
can infer
infer the
the richness
richness and
and variety
of Sumerian
Sumerian literature
literature even
even
from this
short summary.
summary. This
This tremendously
material, stemstemfrom
this short
tremendously diverse
diverse material,
ming from
from different
different times
(most of
of it
it was
written down
down at
at the
the very
very
ming
times (most
was written
end of
of the
the third
or, perhaps,
perhaps, in
in the
the beginning
of the
the second
second millenmillenend
third or,
beginning of
nium B.C.),
preserved much
much of
of the
the style
style of
of oral
oral literary
literary art.
art. The
The basic
nium
B.C.), preserved
basic
device of
of most
of the
the mythical
mythical epic
epic and
and pre-epic
stories is
is aa continuous
continuous
most of
pre-epic stories
device
reiteration of
of the
same dialogues,
dialogues, which
in the
same
the same
which are
are couched
couched in
the same
reiteration
words
but
are
delivered
between
different
interlocutors
in
succession.
words but are delivered between different interlocutors in succession.

Sumerian
Sumerian Culture
Culture

135
135

three-fold repetition of
of the epics and
This was not merely the typical three-fold
fairy tales (in Sumerian literature, this repetition is sometimes ninefold) but, most importantly, an aid to memory. This device obviously
was inherited from the oral transmission of
of myths and poems, a feature of
of rhythmical and magical speech, reminiscent of
of the invocations
of the shamans. The compositions, mostly constructed from monoof
logues and repetitive dialogues, where the action is slow, appear to us
as loose,
loose, crude,
crude, and
and thus
thus imperfect
imperfect (though
(though surely
surely the
ancients did
did
as
the ancients
not regard them as such). If
If aa story written
written on aa clay
clay tablet was inintended as
as aa kind
kind of
of synopsis
synopsis to
guide aa storyteller's
storyteller's memory,
memory, why
why was
tended
to guide
was
it necessary
necessary to
repeat the
the same
same sentence
sentence nine
nine times
over? This
is even
even
it
to repeat
times over?
This is
stranger because
because the
heavy and
and unwieldy.
This fact
fact
stranger
the written
written tablet
tablet was
was heavy
unwieldy. This
alone should
should suggest
suggest the
the need
need for
for brevity
and conservation
conservation of
of space
space
brevity and
alone
(which actually
actually is
is taken
taken into
into account
account in
in Akkadian
literature toward
toward
(which
Akkadian literature
the
middle of
of the
second millennium
millennium B.C.).
suggests that
that SuSuthe middle
the second
B.C.). All
All this
this suggests
merian
literature, to
to aa considerable
considerable degree,
degree, was
merian literature,
was nothing
nothing more
more than
than aa
record
of oral
oral literature.
literature. The
The writers
writers did
did not
intend to
from
record of
not intend
to deviate
deviate from
the spoken
spoken word,
word, which
which they
set in
in clay,
clay, preserving
all the
the stylistic
stylistic
the
they set
preserving all
characteristics and
and peculiarities
peculiarities of
of the
the spoken
spoken poetic
poetic word.
word.
characteristics
Nevertheless, it is important to note that Sumerian "literati"
"literati"the
-the
scribeshad no intention of
of reproducing in writing all the oral lore
scribes-had
and all its genres. The selection was conditioned by the needs of
of the
of the cult. Parallel to the written protoliterature,
school and, in part, of
oral compositions continued to exist, but they have remained unrecorded. The spoken art might perhaps have been even richer than the
written.
written.
It would be erroneous to conclude that the incipient Sumerian
literature lacked artistic and emotional value. The metaphoric way of
of
thinking itself
itself fostered imaginative speech and so did the use of
of parallelisms, a typical feature of
of ancient Oriental poetry. Sumerian poems
are actually rhythmical speech. They have no rigid meter; we fail to
of qualitative versus quantitative counts of
of foot,
find any indication of
pauses, or stressed syllables. The main poetic devices used to emphasize rhythm were reiteration, rhythmical enumeration of
of divine epiof the first words of
of a line for several
thets, sequential anaphoras of
of oral poetry, whose
lines, and so on. All these are actually attributes of
effect was here preserved in written literature.
emotional effect
The written Sumerian literature also reflected
reflected the evolution from
from
of the new class society.
primitive ideology to that of
When examining ancient Sumerian texts, especially mythological
compositions, we are struck by the lack of
of "high-style" poetic images.
Sumerian gods are not simply earthly creatures on a grand scale.
Their world is not the world of
of human feelings and deeds. But it is
of powerlessness in
easy to see how primitive people, with their sense of

136

V.
V. K. Afanasieva
Afanasieva

the
the face
face of
of greater,
greater, indomitable
indomitable natural
natural forces,
forces, seeing
seeing themselves
themselves
helpless, at
at the
the mercy
mercy of
of these
these forces,
forces, could
could well
well have
have imagined
imagined the
the
helpless,
gods as
as beings
beings who
who created
created living
living things
things from
from the
the soil
soil under
under their
their
gods
fingernails,
would, on
whim, send
flood
fingernails, as
as beings
beings who
who could
could and
and would,
on aa whim,
send aa flood
to destroy
destroy all
all humanity.
humanity. And
And the
the Sumerian
Sumerian Netherworld?
Netherworld? From
From the
the
to
available descriptions,
descriptions, it
it appears
appears to
to be
particularly chaotic
chaotic and
and hopehopeavailable
be aa particularly
less place.
There is
is no
no judge
of the
the dead,
dead, no
no scales
scales with
with which
which to
to
judge of
less
place. There
weigh people's
people's deeds.
deeds. There
There are
are little
little or
or no
no illusions
illusions about
about 'justice
"justice
weigh
after death."
death." An
An ideology
ideology that
that was
was to
to counter
counter this
this natural
natural feeling
feeling of
of
after
horror and
and hopelessness
hopelessness was,
was, however,
however, itself
itself at
at first
first rather
rather helpless.
helpless.
horror
The written
written compositions
compositions mimicked
mimicked the
the subjects
subjects and
and forms
forms of
of
The
primitive
oral poetry.
poetry. As
As the
ideology of
of the
the class
class society
society developed
developed
primitive oral
the ideology
and gradually
gradually came
came to
to dominate
dominate in
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, the
the content
content
and
of the
the literature
literature also
also changed.
changed. It
It began
began to
to develop
develop new
new forms
forms and
and
of
genres, and
and the
the gap
gap between
written and
and "oral"
"oral" literatures
literatures grew
grew
genres,
between the
the written
wider and
and became
became quite
quite obvious.
obvious. Already
Already at
at the
the later
later stage
stage of
of developdevelopwider
ment of
of Sumerian
Sumerian society,
society, the
the didactic
didactic literature
literature and
and the
the serialization
serialization
ment
of mythological
mythological subjects
subjects show
show aa growing
growing independence,
independence, exhibiting
exhibiting
of
different directions
directions of
of development
development for
for the
the written
written word.
word. This
This new
new
different
stage in
in the
the literature
literature was,
was, however,
however, elaborated
elaborated no
no longer
longer by
by the
the SuSustage
merians but
but by
by their
their cultural
cultural heirs-the
heirsthe Babylonians
Babylonians (Akkadians).
(Akkadians).
merians

6
6
The
The Predynastic
Predynastic Period
Period and
and the
the
Early
Early and
and the
the Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
in Egypt
Egypt
I.
I. V.
V. VINOGRADOV
VINOGRADOVt+

The Emergence
Emergence of
of the
the State
State in
Egypt
The
in Egypt
We do
do not
know for
for certain
certain whether
whether Sumer
Sumer or
or Egypt
Egypt was
the first
first cracraWe
not know
was the
have reason
reason to
civilidle
dle of
of civilization.
civilization. However,
However, we
we have
to believe
believe that
that the
the civilization
Northeast Africa
the great
zation that
that arose
arose in
in Northeast
Africa on
on the
the shores
shores of
of the
great Nile
Nile
may have
been the
the more
more ancient.
ancient.
may
have been
The
boundaries of
Egypt are
The boundaries
of ancient
ancient Egypt
are very
very distinctly
distinctly outlined
outlined by
by nanature:
ture: in
in the
the south
south (in
(in the
the vicinity
vicinity of
of today's
today's Aswan,
Aswan, some
some 1,200
1,200 kilokilometers
from the
the Mediterranean)
Mediterranean) lay
lay the
the almost
almost impassable
impassable First
First
meters from
Cataract of
of the
the Nile;
in the
the Libyan
Libyan plateau's
sandy ledges
ledges
Cataract
Nile; in
the west
west the
plateau's sandy
trace aa line
line relatively
close to
to the
the Nile;
to the
east the
the Nile
Valley borborNile; to
the east
Nile Valley
trace
relatively close
ders
on lifeless
lifeless and
and rocky
mountain spurs.
spurs. Below
Below the
the First
First Cataract,
Cataract,
ders on
rocky mountain
the Nile
directly north
along aa narrow
narrow and
long valley
valley (Upper
(Upper
the
Nile flows
flows directly
north along
and long
Egypt). Its
width varies
varies from
to 20
20kilometers.
kilometers.Some
Some200
200kilometers
kilometers
Egypt).
Its width
from 11 to
from the
the mouth
mouth of
of the
the Nile,
Nile, the
the river
river divides
divides into
into several
several branches,
branches,
from
and the
the valley
valley widens,
widens, forming
forming the
the famous
famous Nile
Delta (Lower
(Lower Egypt).
Egypt).
and
Nile Delta
The source
source of
of the
the Nile,
located thousands
thousands of
of kilometers
kilometers from
from Egypt,
Egypt,
The
Nile, located
was unknown
unknown to
to the
the Egyptians.
But it
it is
is here
here we
we find
find the
the reasons
reasons for
for
Egyptians. But
was
the specific
specific hydrological
hydrological regime
regime of
of the
the river,
river, the
the peculiarities
peculiarities of
of which
which
the
exerted an
an enormous
enormous influence
influence on
on many
many aspects
aspects of
of Egyptian
Egyptian life
life for
for
exerted
millennia. Two
Two thousand
thousand kilometers
kilometers south
south of
of the
the First
First Cataract,
Cataract, not
not
millennia.
far from
from the
the present
present city
city of
of Khartoum
Khartoum (the
(the capital
capital of
of Sudan),
Sudan), two
far
two
rivers
merge
to
form
the
Nile:
the
White
Nile
and
the
Blue
Nile. The
The
rivers merge to form the Nile: the White Nile and the Blue Nile.
swift Blue
Blue Nile
Nile flows
from Lake
Lake Tana,
Tana, high
high in
in the
the mountains
mountains of
of EthiEthiswift
flows from
opia.
The
quiet
and
wide
White
Nile
passes
through
a
chain
of
large
opia. The quiet and wide White Nile passes through a chain of large
lakes and
and boggy
boggy plains
plains in
in Central
Central Africa.
Africa. In
the spring,
spring, when
when snow
snow
lakes
In the
melts rapidly
rapidly in
the mountains
mountains of
of Ethiopia
Ethiopia and
and when
when tropical
tropical Africa
Africa
melts
in the
has its
its rainy
rainy season,
season, the
the swollen
swollen waters
waters of
of the
the Blue
Blue and
and White
White Nile
Nile
has
carry downstream
downstream tiny
tiny suspen_ded
suspended particles
particles of
of mineral
mineral substances
substances
carry
from the
the mountains
mountains and
and organic
organic residues
residues from
from the
the lush
lush tropical
tropical vegefrom
vegetation. Toward
Toward the
the middle
middle of
of July,
the high
high water
reaches the
the southsouthJuly, the
water reaches
tation.
ern borders
borders of
of Egypt.
times, the
the flood
flood carries
carries ten
ten times
times more
more water
water
ern
Egypt. At
At times,
than normal,
normal, and
and having
overcome the
the bottleneck
bottleneck of
of the
the narrow
narrow
than
having overcome
straits at
at the
the First
First Cataract,
Cataract, it
it gradually
gradually inundates
inundates all
all of
of Egypt.
Egypt. The
The
straits

138

I. V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov
I.V.

flood peaks
peaks in
in August
August and
and September,
September, when
when the
the water
water level
level rises
rises
flood
14
meters above
14 meters
above normal
normal in
in the
the south
south and
and 8-10
8-10 meters
meters in
in the
the north.
north.
In the
the middle
middle of
of November,
the waters
waters recede
recede rapidly,
rapidly, and
and the
the river
river
In
November, the
returns
banks. During
this four-month-Iong
returns to
to its
its normal
normal banks.
During this
four-month-long deluge,
deluge, the
the
Nile deposits
deposits suspended
suspended mineral
mineral and
and organic
organic particles
particles over
over the
the entire
entire
Nile
flooded region.
region.
flooded
Over
Nile's uninterrupted
Over the
the span
span of
of thousands
thousands of
of years,
years, the
the Nile's
uninterrupted anannual cycle
cycle produced
produced the
the alluvial
alluvial soil
soil of
of Egypt.
Egypt. The
The once
once narrow
narrow and
and
nual
rocky
Upper Egypt
plain of
rocky valley
valley of
of Upper
Egypt and
and the
the plain
of Lower
Lower Egypt,
Egypt, which
which at
at
one time
time was
was aa bay
of the
the Mediterranean,
are now
now covered
covered with
with aa deep
deep
one
bay of
Mediterranean, are
layer of
of fluvial
depositsthe soft
soft and
and porous
porous Nile
Nile silt.
silt. This
This fertile,
fertile,
layer
fluvial deposits-the
easily tillable
tillable soil
soil is
is the
the country's
country's primary
primary resource
resource and
and the
the reason
reason for
for
easily
its secure
secure and
and plentiful
plentiful harvests.
harvests. The
The soil,
soil, ready
ready for
for plowing,
plowing, actually
actually
its
glitters as
as if
if it
it were
were coated
coated with
with aa black
varnish. The
The ancient
ancient inhabiinhabiglitters
black varnish.
tants called
called the
the entire
entire country
country Kemet,
Kemet, "the
"the Black."
Black." The
The name
name is
is quite
quite
tants
appropriate, because
it was
was the
the blackness
of its
its alluvial
alluvial soil
soil that
that made
made
appropriate,
because it
blackness of
the Nile
the only
only region
region able
able to
to sustain
sustain human
human life
life in
in the
the severe
severe
the
Nile Valley
Valley the
heat and
and aridity
aridity of
of North
Africa. Although
Although surrounded
surrounded by
hostile,
heat
North Africa.
by hostile,
arid, and
and rocky
rocky red
red deserts,
deserts, this
this fertile
fertile land-created
landcreated and
and watered
watered by
by
arid,
the Nileprovided
the ideal
ideal conditions
conditions for
for people
people to
to settle
settle and
and susthe
Nile-provided the
sustain themselves
themselves by
irrigation agriculture.
agriculture.
tain
by irrigation
The
Nile at
The wetlands
wetlands of
of the
the Nile
at first
first must
must have
have appeared
appeared inhospitable
inhospitable to
to
the first
first settlers.
settlers. The
region was
was covered
covered with
with thick,
thick, impenetrable
impenetrable
the
The region
groves of
of Nile
reed (papyrus)
(papyrus) and
and acacia
acacia that
that grew
grew along
along the
the banks
of
Nile reed
banks of
groves
the river;
river; the
the vast
vast swamps
swamps of
of the
the Delta
Delta lowland
lowland were
were swarming
swarming with
with
the
insects, predators,
predators, and
and poisonous
poisonous snakes;
snakes; and
and large
large numbers
numbers of
of croccrocinsects,
odiles and
and hippopotamuses
hippopotamuses thrived
thrived in
in the
the river.
river. The
The Nile
itself was
Nile itself
was
odiles
indomitable during
during the
the flood
season, when
when its
its waters
waters would
would sweep
sweep
indomitable
flood season,
everything in
in their
their path.
path. It
It is
is therefore
therefore not
not surprising
surprising that
that the
the first
first
everything
people settled
settled in
in the
the valley
valley proper
proper only
only during
during the
the Neolithic
Neolithic Age,
Age,
people
when
they already
already had
had sufficiently
sufficiently effective
effective stone
stone tools
tools at
at their
their diswhen they
disposal
and had
had acquired
acquired various
various skills.
skills. It
It can
can be
be surmised
surmised that
that they
they
posal and
came here
here only
only in
in order
order to
to escape
escape harsher
harsher environmental
environmental conditions.
conditions.
came
Ten
to twelve
years ago
North Africa
was
Ten to
twelve thousand
thousand years
ago the
the climate
climate of
of North
Africa was
less arid
arid than
than it
it is
is today.
today. The
The ice
ice that
that had
had covered
covered part
part of
of Europe
Europe and
and
less
Asia during
during the
the end
end of
of the
the Ice
Ice Age
Age was
melting. Winds
Winds carried
carried
Asia
was finally
finally melting.
North Africa,
Much of
of
moisture toward
toward North
moisture
Africa, producing
producing abundant
abundant rainfall.
rainfall. Much
today's
deserts were
were savannahs,
savannahs, covered
covered with
with tall
tall grasses
grasses that
today's deserts
that sussustained
abundant animal
animal life.
life. Tribes
of hunters,
hunters, who
were at
at the
the MesoTribes of
who were
Mesotained abundant
lithic
and
Early
Neolithic
stage
of
development,
inhabited
the
area of
of
lithic and Early Neolithic stage of development, inhabited the area
today's
Sahara.
These
were
the
people
who
made
the
rock
drawings
today's Sahara. These were the people who made the rock drawings of
of
elephants,
ostriches, antelopes,
antelopes, and
and buffalos,
as well
well as
as lively
lively hunting
hunting
elephants, ostriches,
buffalos, as
scenes. None
of these
animals are
are desert
desert dwellers;
dwellers; numerous
numerous wadis
wadis
scenes.
None of
these animals

The
The Predynastic
Predynastic Period,
Period, Early
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
in Egypt
Egypt

139
139

(dry
that formerly
formerly fed
west) propro(dry riverbeds
riverbeds that
fed the
the Nile
Nile from
from the
the east
east and
and west)
vide evidence
of aa milder
milder climate
vide
evidence of
climate in
in the
the past.
past.
Toward
millennium B.C.
B.C. the
northern winds
Toward the
the fifth
fifth millennium
the moist
moist northern
winds weakweakened,
North Africa
Africa became
became increasingly
more arid;
ened, and
and North
increasingly more
arid; the
the water
water table
table
dropped,
transformed themselves
dropped, and
and the
the savannahs
savannahs gradually
gradually transformed
themselves into
into
desert. By
that time
time some
some of
of the
the hunting
tribes had
learned to
domestidesert.
By that
hunting tribes
had learned
to domestiand had
become herdsmen.
onsetting drought
drought forced
cate
animals and
cate animals
had become
herdsmen. The
The onsetting
forced
these tribes
tribes to
to migrate
the tributaries
of the
the Nile,
which, meanmeanthese
migrate toward
toward the
tributaries of
Nile, which,
while, were
were drying
drying up.
up. Archaeologists
Archaeologists have
have discovered
discovered numerous
numerous
while,
campsites of
of Stone
Stone Age
Age tribes
tribes along
along the
the wadis.
campsites
wadis.
The
desert continued
As the
last of
the Nile
Nile tributaries
The desert
continued to
to expand.
expand. As
the last
of the
tributaries
dried
were forced
to move
move closer
and closer
closer to
to the
of
dried up,
up, people
people were
forced to
closer and
the edge
edge of
the
Nile. The
Age saw
the Nile.
The Neolithic
Neolithic Age
saw the
the settlement
settlement of
of pastoralist
pastoralist tribes
tribes at
at
the
edge of
of the
and the
the first
first attempts
attempts at
at agriculture.
agriculture.
the edge
the Nile
Nile Valley
Valley and
Archaeological
Archaeological excavations
excavations of
of Late
Late Neolithic
Neolithic settlements
settlements of
of the
the
sixth
to fourth
millennia B.C.
their inhabitants
sixth to
fourth millennia
B.C. show
show that
that their
inhabitants led
led aa comcompletely sedentary
they engaged
is attested
by the
pletely
sedentary life.
life. That
That they
engaged in
in farming
farming is
attested by
the
hand
hand grinding
grinding stones,
stones, wooden scythes
scythes with flint
flint teeth,
teeth, and
and barley
barley and
and
emmer
was an
emmer grains
grains found
found by
by archaeologists.
archaeologists. (Emmer
(Emmer was
an early
early variety
variety
of
wheat.) Discoveries
pigs testify
of wheat.)
Discoveries of
of the
the bones
bones of
of cattle,
cattle, sheep,
sheep, and
and pigs
testify to
to
the existence
breeding. Hunting,
Hunting, fishing,
wild
the
existence of
of stock
stock breeding.
fishing, and
and gathering
gathering wild
plants
also important
important activities.
activities. The
settleplants were
were also
The inhabitants
inhabitants of
of these
these settlements,
were usually
the valley,
ments, which
which were
usually located
located along
along the
the edge
edge of
of the
valley, still
still
shied
Nile and
not attempt
the river.
shied away
away from
from the
the Nile
and did
did not
attempt to
to tame
tame the
river.
the Chalcolithic
the invention
With
With the
the advent
advent of
of the
Chalcolithic Age
Age and
and the
invention of
of
copper
tools, people
people began
began to
move resolutely
resolutely into
Nile Valley.
Valley.
copper tools,
to move
into the
the Nile
The
annual floods
raised the
the banks
The sedimentation
sedimentation from
from thousands
thousands of
of annual
floods raised
banks
of
the actual
valley floor,
of the
the Nile
Nile above
above the
the level
level of
of the
actual valley
floor, forming
forming aa backbackriver and
flow naturally
slope
naturally into
into the
the
slope away
away from
from the
the river
and allowing
allowing water
water to
toflow
valley
during flood
flood seasons.
the river
river and
valley during
seasons. In
In order
order to
to tame
tame the
and to
to control
control
the
water flow
flow into
the water
into the
the valley,
valley, people
people strengthened
strengthened the
the riverbanks,
riverbanks,
erected
dikes
along
the
river,
and
built
transverse
earthen
erected dikes along the river, and built transverse earthen dams
dams from
from
the
banks to
would be
be retained
the banks
to the
the foothills,
foothills, so
so that
that the
the water
water would
retained in
in the
the
fields,
with suffifields, allowing
allowing the
the silt
silt to
to settle
settle and
and the
the earth
earth to
to be
be soaked
soaked with
sufficient moisture.
moisture. Drainage
canals were
were also
also dug
in order
order to
to route
route the
the
cient
Drainage canals
dug in
water
into the
the Nile
before the
the sowing
sowing season.
season.
water back
back into
Nile before
These were
beginnings of
of the
the development
development of
of aa basin
These
were the
the beginnings
basin irrigation
irrigation
system during
during the
half of
of the
the fourth
fourth millennium
millennium B.C.;
B.C.; they
system
the first
first half
they laid
laid
the
the country's
thousands of
the foundation
foundation for
for the
country's irrigation
irrigation system
system for
for thousands
of
years
come, until
the first
our century.
century. The
ancient irrigairrigayears to
to come,
until the
first half
half of
of our
The ancient
tion
dependent upon
the hydrological
hydrological pattern
of the
Nile
tion system
system was
was dependent
upon the
pattern of
the Nile
and ensured
ensured one
one yearly
yearly harvest,
harvest, which,
conand
which, under
under the
the prevailing
prevailing conditions, ripened
during the
(sowing beginning
in NovemNovemditions,
ripened during
the winter
winter (sowing
beginning in

140
0
14

/.
I. V.
V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov

ber,
ber, after
after the
the flood);
flood); it
it was
was reaped
reaped in
in early
early spring.
spring. Plentiful
Plentiful and
and stable
stable
because the
yearly silt
harvests were
were ensured
harvests
ensured because
the yearly
silt deposits
deposits guaranteed
guaranteed an
an
annual
annual regeneration
regeneration of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian soil.
soil. In
In the
the heat
heat of
of the
the sun
sun the
the
deposits
produced the
phosphorous compounds
deposits produced
the nitrogenous
nitrogenous and
and phosphorous
compounds
necessary for
necessary
for the
the following
following harvest.
harvest. Consequently,
Consequently, Egyptian
Egyptian farmers
farmers
did not
not have
have to
maintain the
the fertility
fertility of
fields by
artificial means;
means;
did
to maintain
of their
their fields
by artificial
the
soil did
the soil
did not
not require
require any
any additional
additional mineral
mineral or
or organic
organic nutrients.
nutrients.
and its
The
The harnessing
harnessing of
of the
the river
river and
its adaptation
adaptation to
to human
human needs
needs was
was aa
long process
that probably
probably lasted
lasted throughout
throughout the
the fourth
fourth millennium.
millennium.
long
process that
Each
and tribe
tribe that
that dared
dared to
to descend
descend into
into the
the Nile
Nile Valley
Valley
Each community
community and
and to
to settle
settle on
on one
one of
of the
few existing
existing elevations-inaccessible
elevationsinaccessible to
to the
and
the few
the
floodwaters-immediately
floodwatersimmediately embarked
embarked on
on aa heroic
heroic struggle
struggle with
with nature.
nature.
The gained
gained experience
experience and
and habits,
habits, the
the organized
organized effort,
effort, and
and the
the reThe
relentless work
work of
of an
an entire
entire tribe
tribe were
eventually crowned
crowned with
with the
the sucsuclentless
were eventually
cess of
of mastering
mastering aa small
small portion
of the
the valley.
This resulted
in the
cess
portion of
valley. This
resulted in
the
creation of
of local
local irrigation
irrigation systems-the
systemsthe base
for the
the economy
economy of
of the
creation
base for
the
community that
that had
had built
built it.
community
it.
It is
is likely
likely that
that in
in the
the course
course of
of creating
creating the
the irrigation
irrigation system,
system, imIt
important
portant changes
changes in
in the
the social
social life
life of
of the
the clan
clan or
or tribal
tribal community
community also
also
occurred. This
came with
the change
change in
in living
living condicondioccurred.
This metamorphosis
metamorphosis came
with the
tions, work
work habits,
habits, and
tions,
and production
production organization
organization in
in the
the distinctive
distinctive enenvironment of
of the
the Nile
Since we
information
vironment
Nile Valley.
Valley. Since
we have
have virtually
virtually no
no information
about the
events of
of that
are forced
forced to
quite
about
the events
that time,
time, we
we are
to reconstruct
reconstruct them
them quite
hypothetically. It
It is
is most
most probable
the social
social structure
structure consisted
consisted
probable that
that the
hypothetically.
of communities
communities of
neighbors.1I The
of
of neighbors.
The traditional
traditional functions
functions of
of tribal
tribal chiefs
chiefs
and priests
priests were
were also
also in
the process
of changing.
changing. The
The organization
organization
and
in the
process of
of the
the complex
complex irrigation
irrigation economy
economy was
was now
now their
their
and management
and
management of
responsibility, and
and they,
they, together
together with
with their
their closest
closest associates,
associates, took
took
responsibility,
hold
of the
the economic
economic advantages
advantages giving
them power.
Inevitably, this
this
hold of
giving them
power. Inevitably,
led
to
the
development
of
a
social
stratification
based
on
property
led to the development of a social stratification based on property
status. The
The group
group prevailing
prevailing in
in the
the economy
economy needed
needed to
ensure the
status.
to ensure
the
preservation
of
a
social
structure
favorable
to
itself.
Ways
to
maintain
preservation of a social structure favorable to itself. Ways to maintain
political supremacy
supremacy over
over the
the majority
majority of
of community
community members
members must
must
political
have evolved,
evolved, .undoubtedly
undoubtedly influencing
influencing the
the character
character of
of the
entire
have
the entire
community itself.
itself. The
The conditions
conditions necessary
necessary for
for the
development of
of irircommunity
the development
rigation systems
systems were
were responsible
responsible for
for the
the creation
creation of
of aa specific
specific type
type of
rigation
of
aggregation in
in the
the framework
framework of
of each
each irrigation
irrigation and
and economic
economic unit.
unit.
aggregation
Such an
an aggregation
aggregation would
combine the
characteristics of
of aa rural
rural
Such
would combine
the characteristics
community with
of an
an incipient
incipient state.
state. Traditionally,
Traditionally, such
such social
social
community
with those
those of
organizations are
are given
given the
Greek name
name "nomes."
"nomes."
organizations
the Greek
1.
1. No
No traces
traces of
of autonomous
autonomous village
village communities
communities during
during the
the historical
historical period
period of
of
pharaonic Egypt
been discovered.
pharaonic
Egypt have
have been
discovered.

The
Predynastic Period,
Period, Early
in Egypt
The Predynastic
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
Egypt

141
141

Each independent
nome had
had its
its own
own territory,
Each
independent nome
territory, which
which was
was confined
confined
to the
irrigation system
to
the local
local irrigation
system and
and represented
represented aa single
single economic
economic unit.
unit.
It
reIt had
had an
an administrative
administrative center-a
centera walled
walled city
city where
where the
the monarch
monarch resided with
retinue. The
The city
city also
also housed
housed aa temple
temple of
of the
the local
local deity.
deity.
sided
with his
his retinue.
There
nomes by
There were
were about
about forty
forty such
such nomes
by the
the time
time the
the united
united Egyptian
Egyptian
state was
was first
first formed.
formed. In
In the
the narrow
valley of
of Upper
Upper Egypt
Egypt each
each nome,
nome,
narrow valley
state
located
located on
on the
the right
right or
or left
left bank
bank of
of the
the Nile,
Nile, bordered
bordered directly
directly only
only on
on
northern and
and southern
southern neighbors.
neighbors. The
The nomes
of Lower
Lower Egypt
Egypt were
were
northern
nomes of
often separated
separated from
from each
each other
other by
by marshes.
marshes. Available
Available sources
sources do
do not
not
often
provide us
with sufficient
sufficient information
information to
to trace
trace the
the history
history of
of the
the nomes
nomes
provide
us with
before
they became
part of
of aa united
Egypt and
and served
served as
as its
its local
local adadbefore they
became part
united Egypt
units. However,
However, we
do know
know that
that the
the nomes
nomes
ministrative and
and economic
economic units.
ministrative
we do
maintained their
their distinctiveness
distinctiveness and
and tendency
tendency toward
toward isolation
for
maintained
isolation for
many centuries.
centuries. Symbolic
Symbolic images
in relief
relief on
on flat
shale tablets
that were
were
many
images in
flat shale
tablets that
preserved
from that
scenes of
of internecine
strife between
betwreen
preserved from
that time
time depict
depict scenes
internecine strife
the nomes.
nomes. We
We see
see bloody
bloody battles
battles on
on land
land and
and water,
water, processions
of
the
processions of
prisoners
tied with
with ropes,
ropes, and
and captured
captured herds
cattle
prisoners tied
herds of
of long-horned
long-horned cattle
and sheep
sheep and
This long
long and
and persistent
struggle resulted
resulted in
in the
the
and
and goats.
goats. This
persistent struggle
subjugation of
of weaker
by their
their stronger
stronger neighbors.
These wars
wars
subjugation
weaker nomes
nomes by
neighbors. These
produced
large unions
unions of
of nomes
nomes in
Upper and
that were
were
produced large
in Upper
and Lower
Lower Egypt
Egypt that
headed by
by the
the ruler
ruler of
of the
the strongest,
strongest, victorious
victorious nome.
nome. Of
Of course,
course, such
such
headed
conquests do
do not
not preclude
preclude the
the possibility
of the
the peaceful
alliance of
of
conquests
possibility of
peaceful alliance
some individual
individual nomes
nomes with
with their
stronger neighbors.
neighbors.
some
their stronger
Finally,
Finally, some
some time
time during
during the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the fourth
fourth millennium,
millennium,
the
nomes of
the north
the nomes
of the
the south
south and
and the
north formed
formed the
the kingdoms
kingdoms of
of Upper
Upper
and
Egypand Lower
Lower Egypt.
Egypt. One
One of
of the
the southernmost
southernmost Upper
Upper (southern)
(southern) Egypthe Upper
Upper
tian nomes,
nomes, centered
centered in
in the
the city
city of
of Hieraconpolis,2
Hieraconpolis,2 united
tian
united the
Egyptian nomes.
nomes. The
The task
task of
of uniting
uniting the
north was
was undertaken
undertaken by
Egyptian
the north
by
one of
of the
the western
western Delta,
centered in
in the
city of
of Buto.
Buto.
one
the nomes
nomes in
in the
Delta, centered
the city
The
of Upper
Upper Egypt
wore aa high
and the
the kings
kings
The kings
kings of
Egypt wore
high white
white headdress,
headdress, and
of Lower
Lower Egypt,
Egypt, aa red
red crown.
crown. With
With the
the creation
creation of
of aa unified
unified Egypt,
the
of
Egypt, the
symbol of
of royal
for the
the duration
duration of
of ancient
ancient Egyptian
history
symbol
royal power
power for
Egyptian history
became aa red
red and
and white
crown.
became
white crown.
2.
Because ancient
to the
Mesopotamian cuneiform
2. Because
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian writing
writing (in
(in contrast
contrast to
the Mesopotamian
cuneiform
script) does
does not
express vowels,
scholars must
must reconstruct
reconstruct the
the ancient
ancient pronunciation
pronunciation of
of
script)
not express
vowels, scholars
Egyptian words
words and
and proper
indirect methods-mainly
methodsmainly from
from the
pronunciaEgyptian
proper names
names by
by indirect
the pronunciation of
of Egyptian
names in
in languages
languages of
of other
other nations
nations in
in later
(second to
to first
first
tion
Egyptian names
later periods
periods (second
B.C.)- These
These reconstructions
reconstructions are
are very
very unreliable;
unreliable; most
most Egyptologists
Egyptologists continue
continue
millennia B.C.).
millennia
to use
use aa conventional
conventional pronunciation,
pronunciation, fully
fully aware
aware of
of its
its imprecision.
imprecision. In
In this
book we
we use
to
this book
use
such conventional
conventional spellings
spellings of
of most
most Egyptian
Egyptian proper
proper names.
names. Some
Some names
names are
are given
given in
such
in
their ancient
ancient Greek
Greek equivalents,
equivalents, and
and some
some cities
cities are
are called
called by
by the
the names
names that
the Greeks
Greeks
their
that the
and Romans
Romans gave
gave them
them during
during later
later antiquity:
Memphis (in
(in the
the conventional"
conventional Egypand
antiquity: Memphis
Egyptological reading
reading it
it is
is Men-nefer),
Men-nefer), Thebes
Thebes (Waset
(Waset according
according to
to the
the conventional
conventional Egyptologicai
Egyptological pronunciation),
pronunciation), Buto,
Buto, Hieraconpolis,
Hieraconpolis, Heliopolis,
Heliopolis, etc.
tological
etc.

142

I. V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov
I.V.

The
The history
history of
of both
both kingdoms
kingdoms is
is almost
almost unknown;
unknown; we
we are
are acacquainted with
only aa few
few dozen
royal names,
names, mostly
mostly from
from Upper
Upper
quainted
with only
dozen royal
Egypt. We
We know
little indeed
indeed about
about the
the fierce
struggle between
between
Egypt.
know very
very little
fierce struggle
the
two kingdoms
kingdoms for
for hegemony,
hegemony, aa struggle
struggle that
lasted many
centhe two
that lasted
many centuries
and ended
ended with
of the
cohesive and
and economically
economically
turies and
with the
the victory
victory of
the cohesive
strong Upper
Upper Egypt.
Egypt. It
It is
is thought
thought that
place at
at the
the
strong
that this
this victory
victory took
took place
end of
of the
the fourth
fourth millennium,
millennium, although
although our
our chronology
chronology for
for early
early
end
Egypt remains
remains very
very unreliable.
unreliable.
Egypt
The
The efforts
efforts of
of the
the individual
individual nomes,
nomes, and
and even
even those
those of
of larger
larger
unions
unions of
of nomes,
nomes, were
were not
not sufficient
sufficient for
for the
the proper
proper maintenance
maintenance of
of
the economic
economic structure
structure of
of aa country
country that
that comprised
comprised separate,
separate, uncon.,
unconthe
nected or
or marginally
marginally connected
connected irrigation
irrigation systems.
systems. The
The merger
merger of
of
nected
several nomes
nomes and,
and, eventually,
eventually, of
of all
all of
of Egypt
Egypt into
into one
one state
state (which
(which
several
was
accomplished as
as aa result
result of
of lengthy
lengthy and
and bloody
bloody wars)
wars) made
made poswas accomplished
possible the
the improvement
improvement of
of the
the irrigation
irrigation system,
system, the
the organization
organization of
of
sible
its regular
regular and
and effective
effective maintenance,
maintenance, the
the widening
widening of
of canals,
canals, the
the
its
strengthening of
of the
the dikes,
dikes, the
the development
development of
of the
the Delta
Delta marshlands
marshlands
strengthening
by common
common efforts,
efforts, and,
and, generally,
generally, aa rational
rational use
use of
of the
the waters
waters of
of the
the
by
Nile. All
All this
this was
was an
an absolutely
absolutely necessary
necessary foundation
foundation for
for the
the future
future
Nile.
development of
of Egypt,
Egypt, and
and it
it was
was made
made possible
only by
by the
the country's
country's
development
possible only
unification under
under aa single
single central
central administration,
administration.
unification
Nature itselfseemed
have made
Nature
itself seemed to
to have
made Upper
Upper and
and Lower
Lower Egypt
Egypt economeconomUpper Egypt
was
ically
ically complementary.
complementary. Whereas
Whereas the
the narrow
narrow valley
valley of
of Upper
Egypt was
almost
fields, making
very scarce,
almost entirely
entirely used
used for
for fields,
making land
land for
for grazing
grazing very
scarce, the
the
wide
of the
Delta and
and its
its land
land reclaimed
from swamps
swamps could
could
wide expanse
expanse of
the Delta
reclaimed from
also
be used
used for
herds. Later
documents attest
to the
also be
for herds.
Later documents
attest to
the Egyptian
Egyptian practice
practice
cattle, at
at aa certain
certain time
time of
of the
the year,
from Upper
Upper Egypt
Egypt to
to the
the
of sending
sending cattle,
of
year, from
pastures of
which became
became the
pastures
of Lower
Lower Egypt,
Egypt, which
the livestock-breeding
livestock-breeding center
center
of Egypt.
of
Egypt. Moreover,
Moreover, most
most of
of Egypt's
Egypt's orchards
orchards and
and vineyards
vineyards were
were also
also
concentrated in
in the
north.
concentrated
the north.
The long,
long, so-called
so-called Predynastic
Predynastic Period
Period of
of Egyptian
Egyptian history
history began
began
The
when
first farming
Nile and
when the
the first
farming cultures
cultures appeared
appeared close
close to
to the
the Nile
and lasted
lasted
until
unification of
until the
the unification
of the
the state.
state. The
The groundwork
groundwork for
for the
the Egyptian
Egyptian
state was
was laid
laid during
during the
the Predynastic
Predynastic Period
Period and
and was
was economically
economically
state
based
on the
the organization
organization of
of irrigation
irrigation agriculture
agriculture throughout
throughout the
the
based on
valley. Toward
Toward the
the end
end of
of the
the Predynastic
Predynastic Period
Period in
in Egypt,
Egypt, writing
writing was
valley.
was
invented, primarily,
perhaps, to
to serve
serve the
the economic
economic needs
of the
the
invented,
primarily, perhaps,
needs of
emerging state.
state. This
This development
development marks
marks the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the history
history
emerging
of dynastic
dynastic Egypt
Egypt toward
toward the
the end
end of
of the
the fourth
fourth millennium.
millennium.
of
The people
people who
who developed
developed the
the Nile
Nile Valley
Valley and
and created,
created, so
so early
early in
in
The
language
history, such
such aa unique
unique and
and great
great civilization
civilization spoke
spoke Egyptian,
Egyptian, aa language
history,
that is
is now
now extinct.
extinct. The
The first
written records
records in
in this
this language
language come
come
that
first written
from the
the end
end of
of the
the Predynastic
Predynastic Period;
Period; the
the last
last hieroglyphic
hieroglyphic inscripinscripfrom

The
The Predynastic
Predynastic Period,
Period, Early
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
in Egypt
Egypt

143
143

3
tion is dated to the fourth
fourth century A.D.
A.D. 3 The Egyptian
Egyptian language belonged
to
a
branch
of
the
Afrasian
(Afro-Asiatic
or Hamito-Semitic)
Hamito-Semitic)
longed to a branch of the Afrasian (Afro-Asiatic or
indirect data indicate that the tribes
language family. However, many indirect
that settled in
in the
the Nile
Nile Valley
Valley were
were ethnically
ethnically heterogeneous
heterogeneous and
and spoke
different dialects.
dialects. Naturally,
Naturally, this
ethnic heterogeneity
gradually disdisdifferent
this ethnic
heterogeneity gradually
appeared over
over the
millennia.
appeared
the millennia.
T
h e physical appearance of
of Egyptians of
of the Predynastic Period is
The
Multicolored reliefs and wall paintings and statues
well documented. Multicolored
of average height and slender
slender build with broad
show them
them to have been
been of
shoulders and
and straight
straight black hair (but often
often these are wigs). Traditionally, in dynastic times, Egyptian men
men are painted
painted in brick red
red and
women in yellow. We also find numerous depictions of
of other
other tribes and
of the Nile Valpeoples who were in frequent
frequent contact with the people of
ley. In the west their neighbors were the light-skinned, blue-eyed
In the east there were tall people with yellowish-tan
yellowish-tan skin,
Libyans. In
prominent
and thick facial hair, including short
prominent noses, and
short beards, typical
of Western
Their southern
southern neighbors, who inhabited
of
Western Asia. Their
inhabited Ethiopia
Ethiopia on
Nile/4 or Nubia, were of
of a dark
dark violet complexion. Representatives
Representatives
the Nile,
of the Negroid tribes of
of southern Sudan
Sudan are depicted with black,
of
curly hair.
The periodization
of the history of
of dynastic Egypt, which covers apThe
periodization of
proximately the thirtieth
thirtieth century to the end of
of the fourth
fourth century
proximately
century B.C.,
B.C.,
from the semilegendary
semilegendary King
Alexander the Great, is closely
from
King Menes
Menes to Alexander
connected with Manethonian
connected
Manethonian tradition. Manetho was an Egyptian
priest who lived in Egypt shortly after
after Alexander
Alexander the Great's campaigns. He wrote a two-volume History of
of Egypt in Greek. UnfortuUnfortufrom his book remain, the earliest of
of which are
nately, only quotations from
found
found in works by historians from
from the first century A.D.
A.D. But
But even these
frequently distorted, are extremely valuable in that they
bits, although
although frequently
of a work written by a man about his own country and
and its
are fragments
fragments of
great history, based on original documents that were easily accessible to
him and
and are lost to us.
Manetho divides the history of
of dynastic Egypt int.o
into three broad
broad periods: the Old, the Middle, and the New Kingdoms. Each of
of these
kingdoms is divided into dynasties, ten for each kingdom-thirty
kingdomthirty in
all. Manetho's division of
of Egyptian history into three periods reflects
reflects
of the country,
development of
certain actual qualitative stages in the development
but
uniform distribution
of dynasties among the kingdoms is conbut his uniform
distribution of

3. The
The later
later Egyptian
Egyptian language,
language, called
called Coptic,
Coptic, coexisted
coexisted with
Arabic in
in Egypt
Egypt
3.
with Arabic
during the
the Middle
Middle Ages
Ages and
and survived
survived in
some regions
beginning of
of the
the modmodduring
in some
regions until
until the
the beginning
ern age.
ern
age.
4. In
4.
In ancient
ancient times
times the
the name
name Ethiopia
Ethiopia (Kush)
(Kush) designated
designated today's
today's northern
northern Sudan,
Sudan,
not the
the contemporary
contemporary state
of Ethiopia.
not
state of
Ethiopia.

144
144

I.
V. Vinogradov
I-VVinogradov

ventional. Although
Although many
many of
of Manetho's
dynasties actually
actually comprise
comprise
ventional.
Manetho's dynasties
members
of one
one ruling
ruling family,
family, some
some of
of them
include several
several unreunrethem include
members of
lated ruling
houses. In
In one
one case,
case, two
two royal
brothers were
in two
lated
ruling houses.
royal brothers
were placed
placed in
two
different dynasties.
dynasties. Regardless
Regardless of
of such
such problems,
scholars continue
continue to
to
different
problems, scholars
adhere to
to the
the convenient
convenient Manethonian
Manethonian dynastic
dynastic scheme.
scheme. A
A few
few corcoradhere
rections have
since been
introduced into
into the
periodization of
of ancient
ancient
rections
have since
been introduced
the periodization
Egyptian history:
history: the
the first
first two
two Manethonian
Manethonian dynasties
dynasties are
are treated
septreated sepEgyptian
arately
as the
Early Kingdom,
and the
ones, starting
starting with
the
the Early
Kingdom, and
the last
last ones,
with the
arately as
Twenty-first Dynasty,
Dynasty, are
are classified
classified as
as the
the Late
Late Kingdom.
Kingdom.
Twenty-first
The Early
Early Kingdom
Kingdom
The
The Early
Early Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt includes
includes the
and Second
Second ManethoManethoThe
the First
First and
nian dynasties,
more than
hundred years
years of
nian
dynasties, which
which cover
cover more
than two
two hundred
of history
history
(ca.
Manetho regards
King Menes,
Menes, founder
(ca. 3000-2800
3000-2800 B.C.).
B.C.). Manetho
regards King
founder of
of the
the
First Dynasty,
the unifier
unifier of
was probably
probably the
the same
First
Dynasty, as
as the
of Egypt.
Egypt. He
He was
same king
king
who is
is identified
identified in
in the
the most
most ancient
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian chronicle
chronicle as
as Hor
Hor Aha
Aha
who
("Horus
he was
("Horus the
the Champion"}.5
Champion").5 However,
However, he
was not
not the
the first
first ruler
ruler in
in
Upper
Egypt who
who claimed
claimed to
to rule
rule over
over all
all of
of Egypt.
Egypt. The
The so-called
so-called
Upper Egypt
Na'rmer tablet,
tablet, found
the excavations
Na'rmer
found during
during the
excavations at
at Hieraconpolis,
Hieraconpolis, gives
gives
symbolic account
account of
of this
this king's
king's victory
victory over
over the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Lower
Lower
aa symbolic
Egypt.
was one
one of
of the
the last
last predynastic
rulers in
in Upper
Egypt.
Na'rmer was
predynastic rulers
Upper Egypt.
Egypt. Na'rmer
The relief
relief on
on this
this tablet
tablet depicts
depicts him
unified
The
him triumphantly
triumphantly wearing
wearing the
the unified
crown of
of Upper
and Lower
Lower Egypt.
Egypt. It
It seems
seems that
some of
of Na'rmer's
Na'rmer's
Upper and
that some
crown
predecessors were
were also
also inclined
inclined to
to consider
consider themselves
themselves conquerors
conquerors of
predecessors
of
the north
north and
and pretended
to the
the united
united crown.
crown. The
The reason
reason that
that Manethe
pretended to
Manetho
placed Menes
Menes at
at the
top of
of his
his list
of Egyptian
Egyptian kings
kings is
is probably
probably
the top
list of
tho placed
due
to
the
fact
that
a
stable
annalistic
tradition
began
in
Egypt
under
due to the fact that a stable annalistic tradition began in Egypt under
the
reign
of
this
particular
king.
But
under
Menes,
as
well
as
under
the reign of this particular king. But under Menes, as well as under
his predecessors
and even
even his
his successors,
successors, the
the unity
unity of
of the
the country
country was
his
predecessors and
was
not
finally
achieved.
For
a
long
time,
the
subjugated
Lower
Egypt rerenot finally achieved. For a long time, the subjugated Lower Egypt
fused to
accept its
its defeat,
defeat, and
and during
almost the
entire period
period of
the
during almost
the entire
of the
fused
to accept
Early Kingdom
battles continued
continued to
to be
fought there.
there.
Early
Kingdom bloody
bloody battles
be fought
The kings
of the
the first
first two
two dynasties
dynasties were
were apparently
apparently natives
natives of
of the
the
The
kings of
Upper
nome of
the middle
Upper Egyptian
Egyptian nome
of Thinis,
Thinis, situated
situated in
in the
middle of
of Upper
Upper
Egypt.
the vicinity
near the
the city
Egypt. In
In the
vicinity of
of this
this nome,
nome, near
city of
of Abydos
Abydos (which
(which
Dead),
later
became the
later became
the center
center of
of worship
worship of
of Osiris,
Osiris, the
the god
god of
of the
the Dead),
archaeologists
royal tombs
archaeologists discovered
discovered royal
tombs of
of the
the Early
Early Kingdom:
Kingdom: those
those of
of
Djer, Semerkhet,
Semerkhet, Ka'a,
Ka'a, and
and others.
others. The
The written
written names
names of
of these
kings
Djer,
these kings
5.
5. Horus
Horus is
is the
the name
name of
of one
one of
of the
the principal
principal Egyptian
Egyptian solar
solar deities
deities and
and was
was reprereprewas considered
considered to
to be
be the
the incarnation
incarnation of
of Horus
Horus and
and bore,
bore, in
in
sented as
as aa falcon.
falcon. The
The king
king was
sented
addition to
to his
his own
own name,
name, aa special
special "Horus"
"Horus" name.
name.
addition

The
in Egypt
The Predynastic
Predynastic Period,
Period, Early
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
Egypt

145
145

included
the image
included the
image of
of the
the Falcon
Falcon god,
god, Horus.
Horus. This
This god
god was
was the
the patron
patron
of most
most of
of the
the rulers
rulers of
of the
the Early
Early Kingdom.
Kingdom.
of
We
We can
can assess
assess the
the development
development of
of the
the productive
productive forces
forces by
by the
the
abundant
the Early
abundant finds
finds of
of tools
tools in
in the
Early Dynastic
Dynastic tombs.
tombs. The
The artifacts
artifacts are
are
mainly of
of copper:
copper: flat-work
axes, knives,
knives, adzes,
adzes, harpoons,
harpoons, fishing
fishing
mainly
flat-work axes,
hooks, saws,
saws, blades
blades for
for wooden
battle axes
axes with
with rounded
rounded cutting
cutting
hooks,
wooden hoes,
hoes, battle
edges, daggers,
daggers, cups,
cups, and
and vessels
vessels of
of different
different shapes
shapes and
and uses.
uses. In
In adadedges,
dition to
to the
copper items,
items, many
many stone
stone (mainly
(mainly flint)
tools and
and objects
objects
dition
the copper
flint) tools
of daily
daily use
use were
were also
also found,
found, as
as were
ivory objects,
objects,
of
were wooden
wooden work
work tools,
tools, ivory
Egyptian faience,6
faience,6 ornaments,
ornaments, and
and different
different types
types of
of ceramics
ceramics made
made
Egyptian
before
the invention
invention of
of the
the potter's
potter's wheel.
wheel. The
The basic
basic construction
construction mabefore the
materials were
wood; the
the use
of stone
stone was
was still
still very
very
terials
were adobe
adobe bricks
bricks and
and wood;
use of
limited.
limited.
Thus, Egyptians
of the
the Early
lived in
the Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic or
or
Thus,
Egyptians of
Early Kingdom
Kingdom lived
in the
Copper-Stone
Age. The
irrigation system
system of
Copper-Stone Age.
The irrigation
of the
the country
country was
was already
already
functioning and
expanded; therefunctioning
and was
was constantly
constantly being
being improved
improved and
and expanded;
therefore,
all the
the natural
natural conditions
by the
the Nile
fore, all
conditions offered
offered by
Nile Valley
Valley could
could be
be
fully exploited.
exploited. This
This led
led to
to an
an enormous
enormous growth
labor productivity,
productivity,
fully
growth of
oflabor
especially
in agriculture,
agriculture, in
spite of
of the
the society'S
society's low
level of
of technical
technical
especially in
in spite
low level
was generated,
potential for
development.
Surplus produce
produce was
generated, and
and the
the potential
for
development. Surplus
its
accumulation and
and utilization
utilization led
to all
all the
usual consequences.
consequences.
its accumulation
led to
the usual
The
population was
was able
necesThe fact
fact that
that the
the Egyptian
Egyptian population
able to
to find
find all
all the
the necessities
the valley
far from
from it,
it, was
was also
favorable for
for the
sities in
in the
valley itself,
itself, or
or not
not far
also favorable
the
country's early
early progress.
progress. The
The Nile
contained aa large
large variety
of
country's
Nile Valley
Valley contained
variety of
stone, including
including the
the soft
soft and
and easily
easily workable
workable limestone.
The acacia
acacia
stone,
limestone. The
to some
groves, still
still extensive
extensive at
at that
that time,
time, compensated
compensated to
some degree
degree for
for
groves,
the
continuous shortage
shortage of
of construction
construction timber,
timber, which,
which, since
since very
very ananthe continuous
cient times,
times, was
was delivered
delivered to
to Egypt
Egypt by
by sea
sea from
from the
Lebanon. The
The
cient
the Lebanon.
papyrus groves
groves provided
provided aa seemingly
seemingly inexhaustible
inexhaustible source
source of
of raw
mapapyrus
raw materials. Papyrus
Papyrus was
was widely
widely used
in Egypt
Egypt to
to manufacture
manufacture aa sort
sort of
of
terials.
used in
paper, as
as well
well as
as for
for wattle
make boats
that were
were used
used to
to fish
fish and
and
paper,
wattle to
to make
boats that
hunt waterfowl
backwaters of
hunt
waterfowl in
in the
the quiet
quiet backwaters
of the
the Nile
Nile Delta.
Delta. Young
Young papapyrus shoots
shoots were
were even
even used
used for
for food.
food. The
The Nile
was famous
famous for
for its
pyrus
Nile was
its
abundance offish-the
of fishthe basic
basic nonvegetable
food of
of the
the Egyptians.
Egyptians.
abundance
nonvegetable food
Since
Since predynastic
predynastic times,
times, Egyptians
Egyptians extracted
extracted copper
copper from
from the
the
mines in
in the
was mined
mined east
mines
the Sinai
Sinai Peninsula.
Peninsula. Gold
Gold was
east of
of the
the valley,
valley, in
in the
the
desert, and
and later
later in
in the
the south,
south, in
in Ethiopia
on the
desert,
Ethiopia on
the Nile.
Nile.
The
principal cultivated
grain in
in Egypt
The principal
cultivated grain
Egypt was
was barley,
barley, which
which partially
partially
raising reached
reached aa new
new level
level of
of advanceadvancereplaced emmer.
emmer.77 Livestock
replaced
Livestock raising
6.
6. Egyptian
Egyptian faience
faience is
is aa special,
special, hardened,
hardened, composite
composite mass
mass with
with aa glazed
glazed surface,
surface,
usually of
of aa light
light blue
blue collar.
collar.
usually
7. Emmer
Emmer and
and spelt
spelt are
are very
very similar
similar species
species of
of wheat
wheat and
and among
among the
the oldest
oldest culti7.
cultivated cereals.
cereals. Emmer
Emmer was
more productive
productive species.
species.
was later
later replaced
replaced by
by more
vated

146

I.
/. V.
V.Vinogradov
Vinogradov

ment.
ment. Ancient
Ancient sourCes
sources indicate
indicate the
the existence
existence of
of several
several kinds
kinds of
of
horned
cattle,
sheep,
goats,
donkeys,
and
pigs.
Vegetable
gardening
horned cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, and pigs. Vegetable gardening
and
were also
being developed,
the Delta.
and viticulture
viticulture were
also being
developed, especially
especially in
in the
Delta. The
The
linen found
found in
in the
the tombs
tombs of
of that
that time
time testifies
testifies to
to the
the cultivation
cultivation of
of flax
flax
linen
and
and to
to aa well-developed
well-developed weaving
weaving industry.
industry. Apart
Apart from
from their
their agriculagricultural
and farming
farming activities,
activities, Egyptians
Egyptians also
also fished,
fished, hunted,
and raised
raised
tural and
hunted, and
waterfowl.
waterfowl.
The formation
formation and
and consolidation
consolidation of
of aa unified
unified state
state is
is aa lengthy
lengthy and
and
The
complex process.
process. In
In Egypt
Egypt it
it took
the entire
entire period
of the
the
complex
took practically
practically the
period of
Early Kingdom.
The unification
unification of
of Egypt
Egypt obviously
obviously brought
brought imporimporEarly
Kingdom. The
tant changes
changes to
to the
the structure
structure of
of the
the country's
country's administration.
administration. The
The
tant
management of
of the
the vast
irrigation systems-their
systemstheir expansion,
expansion, maintemaintemanagement
vast irrigation
nance, and
and improvement-became
improvementbecame the
the responsibility
responsibility of
of royal
royal officials.
officials.
nance,
The
The Early
Early Kingdom
Kingdom was
was the
the epoch
epoch when
when the
the single-state
single-state machinery
machinery
of
the First
of Egypt
Egypt was
was developed.
developed. Inscriptions
Inscriptions from
from the
First and
and Second
Second dydynasties abound
abound with
with terms
terms for
for numerous
numerous officials
officials and
and official
official posts.
posts.
nasties
Some
Some of
of these
these had
had existed
existed earlier,
earlier, and
and others
others were
were newly
newly established
established
in response
response to
to the
the increasing
increasing complexity
complexity of
of economic
economic and
and administraadministrain
tive
tive tasks,
tasks, in
in the
the capital
capital as
as well
well as
as in
in the
the nomes,
nomes, during
during the
the entire
entire span
span
of the
Early Kingdom.
Kingdom. These
These changes
changes apparently
apparently attest
attest to
to aa search
search for
for
of
the Early
the
best ways
ways to
manage the
the production,
production, accounting,
accounting, and
and distribution
distribution
the best
to manage
of goods.
goods.
of
Our
knowledge of
prevailing in
Our knowledge
of the
the social
social structure
structure prevailing
in Egypt
Egypt during
during
the Early
Early Kingdom
is very
sparse. We
know that
there was
was aa large
large
the
Kingdom is
very sparse.
We know
that there
royal
royal economy
economy and
and that
that it
it had
many branches;
it included
included arable
arable and
and
had many
branches; it
grazing
vineyards and
grazing land,
land, vineyards
and orchards,
orchards, aa food
food administration,
administration, craft
craft
royal econworkshops, and
workshops,
and shipyards.
shipyards. Impressions
Impressions of
of seals
seals from
from the
the royal
economy have
have reached
reached us
us not
not only
only from
from the
the royal
royal tombs
tombs of
of the
the First
First and
and
omy
Second
the tombs
of nobles
Second dynasties
dynasties but
but also
also from
from the
tombs of
nobles and
and of
of aa number
number
of lower
lower functionaries,
functionaries, who
apparently received
allowances in
in kind
kind
of
who apparently
received allowances
from
from the
the royal
royal economy.
economy. It
It is
is reasonable
reasonable to
to assume
assume that
that there
there must
must
have been
other, nonroyal
nonroyal economies
economies that
existed side
side by
by side
side with
with
have
been other,
that existed
the royal,
royal, but
but we
have practically
practically no
no information
information about
about them.
Howthe
we have
them. However, judging
the lavish
burials of
of the
the elite,
elite, which
which were
were not
not much
much
judging by
by the
lavish burials
ever,
different from
from the
royal tombs,
tombs, it
it seems
seems that
these prominent
people,
different
the royal
that these
prominent people,
originating in
in the
the nomes
nomes and
and being
closely connected
connected with
with them,
them,
being closely
originating
maintained considerable
considerable economic
economic independence
independence and
and probably
still
maintained
probably still
disposed of
of significant
significant inherited
inherited estates
estates in
in their
their respective
respective nomes.
nomes.
disposed
We have
information about
about the
people who
who worked
in the
royal
We
have no
no information
the people
worked in
the royal
economy and
and in
in the
the economies
economies of
of the
the elite,
elite, nor
nor do
do we
we have
have any
any data
data
economy
about
the exploitation
about the
exploitation methods
methods to
to which
which the
the workers,
workers, drawn
drawn into
into
these
economies, were
were subjected.
subjected. The
later period
period of
of the
the Old
Old KingKingThe later
these economies,
dom provides
much more
more information
information regarding
regarding the
the state
state of
of the
the
dom
provides much

The
Period, Early
The Predynastic
Predynastic Period,
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
in Egypt
Egypt

147
147

workers.
An examination
tombs from
the First
First and
workers. An
examination of
of the
the tombs
from the
and Second
Second dydynasties
nasties leads
leads to
to the
the conclusion
conclusion that
that there
there already
already existed
existed considerable
considerable
inequality
inequality in
in wealth.
wealth. Apart
Apart from
from the
the rich
rich tombs
tombs of
of the
the elite,
elite, we
we also
also
find more
more modest
burials of
of persons
persons who
who apparently
apparently held
held positions
positions
modest burials
find
king and
within
within the
the economies
economies of
of the
the king
and the
the noblemen.
noblemen. Very
Very modest
modest
have been
tombs
tombs of
of people
people from
from the
the lower
lower levels
levels of
of Egyptian
Egyptian society
society have
been
discovered
discovered as
as well.
well. These
These burials
burials are
are simply
simply shallow
shallow pits
pits on
on the
the edge
edge
of the
the desert.
desert.
of
Little
Little is
is known
known about
about the
the historic
historic events
events that
that took
took place
place in
in these
these reremote
mote centuries.
centuries. The
The kings
kings of
of the
the first
first two
two dynasties
dynasties fought
fought continuous
continuous
herdsmen and
and captured
wars
wars against
against the
the Libyan
Libyan herdsmen
captured many
many animals,
animals, as
as
well
well as
as numerous
numerous prisoners.
prisoners. The
The Egyptian
Egyptian army
army also
also operated
operated in
in the
the
Sinai
Sinai mountains,
mountains, where
where it
it defended
defended the
the Egyptian
Egyptian copper
copper mines
mines from
from
the
the incursions
incursions of
of Western
Western Asiatic
Asiatic tribes.
tribes. The
The Egyptians
Egyptians also
also invaded
invaded
the
the land
land beyond
beyond the
the First Cataract-Nubia.
CataractNubia. But most
most of
of the
the available
available
information
itself, where
where the
the struggle
struggle
information tells
tells us
us about
about battles
battles in
in Egypt
Egypt itself,
the end
with
with the
the recalcitrant
recalcitrant and
and rebellious
rebellious north
north lasted
lasted until
until the
end of
of the
the
Second Dynasty.
Dynasty. The
The "White
"White Walls"-the
Walls"the city
city of
of Memphis-whose
Memphiswhose
Second
founding
founding is
is attributed
attributed to
to Menes,
Menes, played
played an
an important
important and
and strategic
strategic
role
role in
in this
this period
period of
of war.
war. The
The city
city was
was situated
situated on
on the
the west
west bank
bank of
of
the
into Lower
the Nile
Nile in
in Upper
Upper Egypt,
Egypt, at
at the
the opening
opening of
of the
the valley
valley into
Lower
Egypt.
Egypt. From
From this
this fortress
fortress the
the southerners
southerners could
could rule
rule over
over the
the Delta.
Delta.
The
The many
many years
years of
of war
war in
in the
the north
north eventually
eventually culminated
culminated in
in the
the
south's
Secsouth's final
final victory
victory during
during the
the rule
rule of
of King
King Kha'sekhemui
Kha'sekhemui of
of the
the Second
ond Dynasty,
Dynasty, who
who brutally
brutally suppressed
suppressed the
the last
last uprisings
uprisings in
in the
the Delta.
Delta.
He symbolically
symbolically commemorated
commemorated his
his victory
victory on
on the
the pedestals
pedestals of
of his
his
He
he inscribed
two
two statues,
statues, where
where he
inscribed the
the number
number of
of enemy
enemy dead
dead in
in the
the
last battle;
battle; according
according to
to the
the inscription,
inscription, they
they numbered
numbered about
about fifty
fifty
last
thousand.
thousand.
Some
Some sort
sort of
of interdynastic
interdynastic struggle
struggle also
also took
took place
place during
during the
the Early
Early
Kingdom.
Kingdom. It
It was
was marked
marked by
by aa change
change in
in the
the patron
patron god
god of
of the
the royal
royal
throne:
throne: the
the god
god Horus
Horus (the
(the divine
divine patron
patron of
of the
the Early
Early Kingdom
Kingdom
rulers) was
was replaced
replaced by
by the
god Seth.
Seth. Seth
Seth (or
(or Sutekh),
Sutekh), the
god of
of the
the
the god
rulers)
the god
Desert,
Desert, was
was Horus's
Horus's eternal
eternal rival.
rival. Later
Later on,
on, aa compromise
compromise was
was reached
reached
by which
which the
the names
names of
of Horus
Horus and
and Seth
Seth appeared
appeared together
together in
in the
the
by
throne name
name (title)
(title) of
of one
one of
of the
the Second
Second Dynasty
Dynasty kings.
kings. But
But Horus
Horus
throne
eventually triumphed
triumphed over
over his
enemy, and
and Seth's
Seth's name
name was
was subsesubseeventually
his enemy,
quently eliminated
eliminated from
from the
throne name
name of
of the
the kings.
the throne
kings ..
quently
The
The defeat
defeat of
of the
the north
north and
and the
the end
end of
of the
the dynastic
dynastic squabbles
squabbles reresulted
sulted in
in the
the final
final unification
unification of
of the
the country,
country, beginning
beginning aa new
new epoch
epoch in
in
MenesEgyptian
Egyptian history-the
historythe Old
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. The
The "White
"White Walls"
Walls" of
of Menes
the city
city of
of Memphis-became
Memphisbecame the
the capital
capital of
of the
the unified
unified kingdom.
kingdom. Acthe
According
to aa widely
Aigyptos and
cording to
widely accepted
accepted opinion,
opinion, the
the Greek
Greek word
word Aigyptos
and

148

I.
/. V.
V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov

today's
were derived
names of
today's "Egypt"
"Egypt" were
derived from
from one
one of
of the
the names
of this
this city:
city: conconventionallyvocalized
Het-ka-Ptal}"B 8meaning
meaning"Estate
"Estateof
ofthe
theDouble
Doubleof
of
ventionally
vocalized Het-ka-Ptah,
PtalJ.,"
the principal
principal god
city.99
Ptah," the
god of
of the
the capital
capital city.

The
The Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom

The epoch
epoch of
of the
Kingdom (from
about the
of the
the
The
the Old
Old Kingdom
(from about
the beginning
beginning of
twenty-eighth century
century B.C.
to the
the twenty-third
twenty-third cencentwenty-eighth
B.C. to
the middle
middle of
of the
tury
covers aa five-hundred-year
of Egyptian
It is
tury B.C.)
B.C.) covers
five-hundred-year period
period of
Egyptian history.
history. It
is
the time
time of
of the
the Third,
Third, Fourth,
Fourth, Fifth,
Fifth, and
Manethonian dynasdynasthe
and Sixth
Sixth Manethonian
ties. The
The Egypt
Egypt of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom evolved
evolved from
from the
the Early
Early Kingdom
Kingdom
ties.
but represented
represented aa qualitatively
new stage
the development
but
qualitatively new
stage in
in the
development of
of the
the
country. The
The focal
focal event
event was
was the
the final
final consolidation
consolidation of
of the
the country
country
country.
political unit.
unit. There
There were
were no
with
into
into one
one single
single political
no substantial
substantial changes
changes with
regard
production tools:
the changes
were mainly
regard to
to production
tools: the
changes here
here were
mainly quantiquantitative.
even the
the sharp
sharp increase
increase in
in the
of copper
copper tools,
But even
the number
number of
tools,
tative. But
among other
great changes
in construction;
soft limeamong
other things,
things, caused
caused great
changes in
construction; soft
limestone began
on aa grand
grand scale
scale as
as aa building
material. The
The
began to
to be
be used
used on
building material.
stone
limestone
cut up
into blocks
copper saws
saws that
from
limestone was
was cut
up into
blocks by
by copper
that were
were made
made from
special forge-hardened
forge-hardened ingot
ingot copper.
copper. Large
Large numbers
numbers of
of various
various
special
copper tools
and their
small-scale replicas
in Old
Old Kingcopper
tools and
their small-scale
replicas were
were found
found in
Kingdom tombs.
abundance of
of copper
did not,
not, however,
dom
tombs. The
The abundance
copper tools
tools did
however, prepreclude the
existence of
of stone
stone tools,
tools, which
which were
were still
still in
in use,
use, as
as were
were
clude
the existence
wooden
implements such
such as
as hoes,
scythes with
and primihoes, scythes
with flint
flint teeth,
teeth, and
primiwooden implements
tive
tive plows.
plows.
The
unification of
the more
The complete
complete unification
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
more effective
effective organizaorganization of
production within
within the
the unified
unified land
tion
of production
land contributed
contributed enormously
enormously to
to
aa general
general improvement
improvement in
in all
all branches
branches of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian economy.
economy.
The texts
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom
first rays
rays of
light on
The
texts of
Kingdom shed
shed the
the first
of light
on some
some
important
important aspects
aspects of
of social
social relationships
relationships in
in the
the Egyptian
Egyptian economy.
economy.
Numerous documents
the existence
royal estate,
Numerous
documents confirm
confirm the
existence of
of aa royal
estate, temple
temple
estates, and,
and, especially,
especially, of
of economies
economies belonging
personsbelonging to
to private
private personsestates,
nobles or
or dignitaries-who
dignitarieswho occupied
occupied high
at the
the royal
court
nobles
high positions
positions at
royal court
and in
in the
administration (in
(in the
as well
well as
as in
in the
local nomes).
and
the administration
the capital
capital as
the local
nomes).
Innumerable colored
colored reliefs,
accompanied by
explanatory inscripinscripInnumerable
reliefs, accompanied
by explanatory
tions, cover
cover the
the inner
inner walls
of the
the impressive
impressive tombs
tombs of
of noblemen.
noblemen. They
They
walls of
tions,
disclose aa picture
of life
life as
as it
it may
may have
on the
the large
estates, "the
"the
disclose
picture of
have been
been on
large estates,
own house"
(perdjet),
of thedignitaries.
dignitaries.The
Theimages
imagesfound
found in
inthe
thetombs
tombs
own
house" (per
djet) , ofthe
are closely
connected with
the Egyptian
cult and
and reflect
the Egyptian
Egyptian
are
closely connected
with the
Egyptian cult
reflect the
concept of
of the
the Hereafter
Hereafter as
as an
an eternal
eternal continuation
continuation of
of earthly
earthly life;
life;
concept
8. Actually,
8.
Actually, at
at least
least in
in the
the later
later period,
period, the
the name
name of
of the
the city
city was
was pronounced
pronounced HeHe-

ku-Ptah.
ku-Ptah.

9.
belief of
Ka, or
magi9. In
In the
the belief
of the
the Egyptians,
Egyptians, the
the Ka,
or more
more exactly
exactly ku'
ku' ("double"),
("double"), was
was aa magical
substance of
any image.
image. It
It was
was thought
possess its
its own
own independent
independent existence.
cal substance
of any
thought to
to possess
existence.

The Predynastic Period, Early and Old Kingdoms in Egypt

149
149

of normal everyday activities,

hence, they provide detailed illustrations of
yielding a picture of
of the real economic situation surrounding
surrounding the
deceased.
The reliefs tell us about the dignitary himself
himself and his immediate
immediate
household. He is usually shown as the head of
of an extended
extended family,
family,
including his wife and children, brothers and sisters, his elderly
mother, other
household members. Here we also
other relatives, and other household
see numerous servants, singers, dancers, barbers, fan-bearers, and
bodyguards. It
It is interesting to note that the junior
of the
junior members of
of the estate together
together with the household
household
family served the master of
participated in the running of
servants and sometimes participated
of his economy.
The vast economic establishment
establishment of
of a dignitary consisted of
of a main
estate and many other properties (single households and villages) situated in different
different parts of
of the country, in Upper as well as in Lower
Egypt. A large staff
staff of
of different
different kinds of
of employees-s<::ribes,
employeesscribes, foremen, accounting clerks, keepers of
of documents, and managers-all
managersall reported
directed the
ported to a "House Superintendent,"
Superintendent," or manager, who directed
entire economic life of
of "the own house" and controlled
controlled the labor of
of a
multitude of
of people who worked in the different
different branches of
of the master's economy. These included farmers, herdsmen, fishermen, bird
keepers, gardeners, orchard
orchard keepers, bakers, beer brewers, coppersmiths, jewelers, potters, stonecutters, weavers, sandalmakers, carreliefs
penters, joiners, shipbuilders, artists, and sculptors. The vivid reliefs
depict all these specialists in the process of
of going about their daily
chores in the field, in the pastures, in the workshops, and in the master's house.
During the Old Kingdom, workers in the fields were typically orgaemployed in sowing and harvesting the crops. As
nized into gangs employed
from the scenes of
of farm work and from
from the exfar as we can judge
judge from
planatory texts, the grain for sowing was supplied
planatory
supplied to the farmhands
farmhands
from the master's granaries, and the draft
draft animals (usually two longfrom
horned
horned cows per worker) were assigned from
from his herd. The harvested
grain belonged
belonged to the master and was hauled to his threshing floor on
donkeys and later stored in the granaries.
Detachments
Detachments of
of workers were also assigned to hauling heavy objects
and loading ships (the main mode of
of transportation
transportation in Egypt) and
were engaged
engaged in many other tasks; when necessary, they could be
transferred from
from one type of
of work to another.
another.
transferred
The industrial production
production of
of a dignitary's economy was concentrated in common workshops (the "Hall of
of Masters") where artisans
specializing in diverse crafts were employed. Only the men worked
here; the women worked in separate weaving workshops. (There was
also a special food complex where various provisions were prepared.)
prepared.)
In all crafts, there was a division of
of labor: often
often each artifact
artifact was

150

I.
/. V.
V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov

treated
treated by
by different
different craftsmen
craftsmen at
at various
various stages
stages of
of production.
production. All
All the
the
means
production in
the workshop
workshop belonged
belonged to
the owner
means of
of production
in the
to the
owner of
of the
the
economy, and
and all
all the
the goods
goods produced
produced by
the craftsmen
craftsmen went
into his
his
economy,
by the
went into
warehouse.
warehouse. Consequently,
Consequently, all
all those
those who
who worked
worked in
in aa dignitary's
dignitary's econeconomy were
of property
in tools
tools and
and means
means of
of production.
production.
omy
were dispossessed
dispossessed of
property in
the tomb
tomb reliefs,
reliefs, the
the workers
workers in
noble's household
According
to the
According to
in the
the noble's
household
economy
economy received
received their
their food
food rations-grain,
rationsgrain, fish,
fish, bread,
bread, vegetables,
vegetables,
beer, etc.....,-from
master's warehouses,
warehouses, orchards,
beer,
etc.from the
the master's
orchards, cattle
cattle ranges,
ranges,
fisheries, granaries,
granaries, and
and food-processing
food-processing shops.
shops. The
The pictures
show
pictures show
fisheries,
farmers being
issued clothesa
short apron-and
apronand aa special
special ointment,
ointment,
farmers
being issued
clothes-a short
which
the farm
farm workers
workers used
used to
protect their
their exposed
exposed bodies
bodies from
from the
the
to protect
which the
hot
the cloudless
hot sun
sun when
when toiling
toiling in
in the
the fields,
fields, almost
almost naked,
naked, under
under the
cloudless
Egyptian sky.
sky. We
We do
do not
not know
whether the
the master's
master's laborers
laborers had
had any
any
know whether
Egyptian
other
sources of
of subsistence
subsistence with
with which
which to
supplement their
their rations.
other sources
to supplement
rations.
However,
tomb pictures
pictures show
us retail
retail markets
markets where
where the
However, the
the same
same tomb
show us
the
same laborers
seem to
to be
exchanging goods.
goods. We
We see
see aa lively
lively trade
trade in
in
same
laborers seem
be exchanging
cereals, bread,
bread, vegetables,
vegetables, and
and fish,
exchanged for
for fishing
hooks, sansanfish, exchanged
fishing hooks,
cereals,
dals, mirrors,
beads, and
and other
other articles.
articles. Price
Price was
measured in
in units
units of
dals,
mirrors, beads,
was measured
of
grain. The
The existence
existence of
of such
such markets
markets suggests
suggests that
that at
at least
least some
some workworkgrain.
ers disposed
disposed of
of aa certain
certain surplus
surplus of
of food
food products
products and
and that
that probably
probably
ers
craft production
consisted in
in part
part of
of aa system
system of
of fixed
tasks. The
The work
work
craft
production consisted
fixed tasks.
norm,
high and
and unlikely
the
norm, no
no doubt,
doubt, was
was very
very high
unlikely to
to have
have been
been below
below the
full productive
capacity of
of aa craftsman.
craftsman. Egyptian
Egyptian workers
frequently
full
productive capacity
workers frequently
is probable
probable that
that any
any worker
worker
were driven
driven on
on with
with lashes
or canes.
canes. But
it is
lashes or
But it
were
able to
to fulfill
fulfill his
his assigned
assigned task
task (productive
(productive norm)
norm) could
surable
could produce
produce aa surplus
that,
by
right,
was
his
to
dispose
of
at
will.
He
could
barter
his
plus that, by right, was his to dispose of at will. He could barter his
personal
savings
at
the
market
in
exchange
for
the
items
he
needed.
personal savings at the market in exchange for the items he needed.
Workers who
who were
were involved
involved in
in the
the dignitaries'
dignitaries' economies
economies were
were thus
thus
Workers
entitled
to
some
personal
movable
property.
As
far
as
we
can
judge
entitled to some personal movable property. As far as we can judge
from the
the relatively
relatively scanty
scanty information
information we
we have,
have, the
and temple
temple
from
the royal
royal and
economies of
of the
Kingdom were
organized along
along the
the same
same lines.
lines.
economies
the Old
Old Kingdom
were organized
Keeping in
in mind
mind the
the undoubtedly
important role
role played
the
undoubtedly important
played by
by the
Keeping
economies of
of the
the dignitaries
dignitaries in
in the
the overall
overall economy
economy of
of Egypt
Egypt during
during
economies
the
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, we
we must
must now
now attempt
attempt to
to explain
explain their
their relationship
relationship
to the
the royal
(state) economy.
economy. Egyptian
Egyptian texts
that "the
"the own
own
royal (state)
texts teach
teach us
us that
to
was something
with respect
to the
house"
house" of
of aa nobleman
nobleman was
something "external"
"external" with
respect to
the
house" included
"internal,"
"internal," or
or state,
state, economy.
economy. A
A dignitary'S
dignitary's "own
"own house"
included
lands and
and properties
inherited from
from his
his parents.
parents. It
It was
was usually
usually the
the ellands
properties inherited
eldest son
son of
of the
the family
family head
head who
who inherited
inherited the
estate upon
father's
the estate
upon his
his father's
dest
death. This
why the
dignitary's younger
brothers had
had to
to work
in
This was
was why
the dignitary's
younger brothers
work in
death.
his household
household and
and were
were sustained
sustained at
at the
the expense
expense of
of his
his economy.
economy.
his
Moreover, aa dignitary
dignitary could
could own
own properties
inherited from
from other
other perperMoreover,
properties inherited
sons, as
as well
as obtained
obtained as
as aa "reward";
"reward"; that
is, purchased
property.
sons,
well as
that is,
purchased property.
We
get the
impression that
the inherited
inherited and
and purchased
properties
We get
the impression
that the
purchased properties

The
Predynastic Period,
The Predynastic
Period, Early
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
in Egypt
Egypt

151

and
he had
and lands
lands were
were the
the dignitary's
dignitary's personal
personal property;
property; he
had the
the right
right to
to
dispose
truth." A
A portion
portion of
was
dispose of
of it
it as
as he
he wished.
wished. It
It was
was his
his "in
"in truth."
of it
it was
the Hereafter,
automatically
automatically set
set aside
aside for
for the
the cult
cult of
of the
Hereafter, which
which required
required
the maintenance
priests to
the
maintenance of
of aa large
large staff
staff of
of funeral
funeral priests
to serve
serve his
his tomb.
tomb.
In
this property
property "in
truth," aa dignitary
In addition
addition to
to this
"in truth,"
dignitary also
also had
had property
property
"for service,"
service," which
which he
he did
did not
not have
have the
to dispose
dispose of
of at
at his
his own
own
"for
the power
power to
discretion,
not his
property; it
discretion, because
because it
it was
was not
his personal
personal property;
it could
could be
be taken
taken
away from
from him
him together
together with
with his
his position
or post.
For this
this reason,
reason, he
he
away
position or
post. For
kept both
both types
types of
of properties
properties clearly
clearly separated.
separated. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, availkept
available
that aa dignitary's
dignitary's well-being
well-being depended
depended primarily
primarily
able records
records indicate
indicate that
on what
what he
received by
by virtue
virtue of
of his
his rank,
rank, and
and it
it is
is difficult
difficult to
to imagine
imagine
on
he received
dignitary's career
career during
during the
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom as
as being
being outside
outside the
the state
state
aa dignitary's
service. We
We must
must note
note that
that Egyptian
Egyptian state
state ranks
ranks were,
were, as
as aa rule,
rule, heredheredservice.
itary and
and passed
passed from
from father
father to
to son,
son, although
although each
each of
of these
these transfers
transfers
itary
had to
to be
be sanctioned
sanctioned by
by the
the king.
king. In
In this
this manner,
manner, the
the personal
personal and
and
had
official aspects
aspects of
of aa dignitary's
dignitary's "own
"own house"
became closely
closely interinterofficial
house" became
twined. It
It is
not by
by accident
accident that
that the
the Egyptian
Egyptian term
term for
for "own"
"own" (djet)
(djet)
is not
twined.
had aa broader
broader meaning
meaning than
than ours:
ours: it
it could
could designate
designate full
full property
property
had
lO But
rights.10
But it
it could
could also
also designate
designate property
property possessed
possessed for
for use
use by
by virvirrights.
tue of
of service.
service.
tue
It
is natural
natural that
that the
the large
large staff
staff of
of production
production organizers
organizers ofthe
of the royal,
royal,
It is
temple, and
and dignitaries'
dignitaries' economies-clerks,
economiesclerks, scribes,
scribes, accountants,
accountants, and
and
temple,
controllershad aa different
different status
status than
than the
the people
people who
who physically
physically lalacontrollers-had
bored in
these economies.
Many of
of the
the first
but not
the latter
held
bored
in these
economies. Many
first but
not the
latter held
government posts,
posts, so
so that
that they
they had
estates and
and dependent
dependent people
people
government
had land
land estates
who worked
worked for
for them
them at
at their
their disposal.
disposal. This
This category
category must
also have
have
who
must also
included the
the low
low and
and middle
middle levels
levels of
of temple
temple personnel
personnel and
and the
the nunuincluded
merous priests
connected with
with the
the cult
cult of
of the
the dead.
dead. (The
(The top
top priesdy
priestly
merous
priests connected
functions were
were concentrated
concentrated in
in the
the hands
hands of
of the
the royal
royal court
court and
and the
the
functions
local
provincial
administration.)
This
category
could
also
include
local provincial administration.) This category could also include
sculptors,
painters, physicians,
and other
other talented
talented craftscraftssculptors, architects,
architects, painters,
physicians, and
men who
who had
had become
become wealthy
wealthy in
in the
the royal,
temple, and
and dignitaries'
dignitaries'
men
royal, temple,
economies. Many
Many burials
burials (some
(some quite
quite rich)
rich) of
of people
people from
from this
this middle
middle
economies.
level in
the society
society of
of the
the second
second half
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom have
have been
been
level
in the
half of
discovered.
discovered.
The
The word
word for
for slave
slave (bak)
(bak)was
wasknown
knownnot
notlater
laterthan
than the
theEarly
Early KingKingdom. Documents
Documents from
from this
this period
period show
show that
that slaves
slaves could
could be
be bought
bought
dom.
and sold
sold (e.g.,
(e.g., aa document
document from
from the
the Sixth
Sixth Dynasty
Dynasty mentions
mentions the
the purpurand
chase of
of slaves);
slaves); hence,
hence, there
there existed
existed aa slave
slave market.
market. For
For the
the most
most
chase
part, the
the slaves
slaves were
were people
people of
of Egyptian
Egyptian origin,
origin, though
though some
some were
were
part,
10.
According to
10. According
to our
our definition,
definition, this
this consists
consists of
of one's
one's right
right to
to prevent
prevent any
any other
other perperson
own
son from
from possessing,
possessing, using,
using, and
and disposing
disposing of
of property
property at
at one's
one's own
own will
will and
and in
in one's
one's own
interest.
interest.

152

I.
V Vinogradov
Vinog;radov
I.V.

foreigners.
must, however,
be conceded
that it
to rereforeigners. It
It must,
however, be
conceded that
it is
is difficult
difficult to
construct the
the mechanism
mechanism by
by which
which persons
of Egyptian
Egyptian extraction
extraction
persons of
construct
could
enslaved under
in the
the
could have
have been
been enslaved
under the
the conditions
conditions that
that prevailed
prevailed in
Old
The predominance
of enormous
enormous and
and relatively
closed
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. The
predominance of
relatively closed
self-sufficient economies,
economies, which
produced all
all that
needed from
from
self-sufficient
which produced
that was
was needed
production tools
to consumer
consumer goods,
goods, could
could not
hinder the
the develproduction
tools to
not but
but hinder
development of
of commodity-money
commodity-money exchange
exchange relationships.
Given the
the nanaopment
relationships. Given
ture
of the
economies, there
little reason
appearance of
ture of
the economies,
there was
was little
reason for
for the
the appearance
of
enslavement for
for debt,
debt, which
of some
some later
later Near
Eastern
enslavement
which was
was typical
typical of
Near Eastern
societies. It
It is
is likely
likely that
that most
most of
of the
household slaves
slaves were
were descendescensocieties.
the household
dants of
of the
inhabitants of
of the
the Nile
Valley who
who had
had been
captured and
and
dants
the inhabitants
Nile Valley
been captured
enslaved by
the victors
victors in
in the
the wars
wars between
between the
the nomes
and belween
between
enslaved
by the
nomes and
both the
the early
early Egyptian
Egyptian states.
states. But
But there
there also
also must
must have
been some
some
both
have been
means of
enslaving fellow
fellow countrymen.
countrymen. We
tenmeans
of enslaving
We know
know that
that there
there was
was aa tendency among
among high-ranking
of the
the second
second half
half of
of the
Old
dency
high-ranking persons
persons of
the Old
Kingdom to
to broadcast
their virtue
virtue by
by bragging
that they
they did
did not
not
Kingdom
broadcast their
bragging that
enslave aa single
single Egyptian
Egyptian in
in their
lifetimes. This
This conscious
conscious demondemonenslave
their lifetimes.
stration of
of ethics
ethics leads
leads us
to believe
that the
the possibility
of enslaving
enslaving
stration
us to
believe that
possibility of
inhabitants of
Valley was
was indeed
indeed not
not excluded,
although it
it
inhabitants
of the
the Nile
Nile Valley
excluded, although
was
clearly considered
considered reprehensible
and was
by the
the
was possibly
possibly banned
banned by
was clearly
reprehensible and
royal authority.
authority. Indirect
Indirect information
information about
about the
the enslavement
enslavement of
of Egyproyal
Egyptians comes
comes mainly
mainly from
from the
the end
end of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, when
the dedetians
when the
cline of
of the
the central
central power
was already
already being
being felt.
felt.
cline
power was
There
the royal,
royal, temple,
temple, and
dignitaries' economies
There is
is no
no doubt
doubt that
that the
and dignitaries'
economies
were predominant
predominant in
Old Kingdom.
were
in the
the economic
economic structure
structure of
of the
the Old
Kingdom.
Were
these large
large economies
economies the
the sole
sole organized
organized labor
labor sector
sector in
in the
the
Were these
country
perhaps quite
country or
or were
were there
there other,
other, perhaps
quite minor,
minor, autonomous
autonomous priprivate/commercial economies?
question on
vate/commercial
economies? It
It is
is difficult
difficult to
to answer
answer this
this question
on
the
of available
available Egyptian
Egyptian sources,
sources, because
all of
of them
them refer
only
the basis
basis of
because all
refer only
to the
to
and dignitaries'economies.
dignitaries' economies. It
It is
is only
only on
on the
the basis
the royal,
royal, temple,
temple, and
basis
of
that we
we can
the existence
ecoof aa few
few indirect
indirect data
data that
can assume
assume the
existence of
of such
such an
an economic sector.
For instance,
nobleman who
nomic
sector. For
instance, aa nobleman
who lived
lived around
around the
the end
end of
of
the Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty apparently
apparently bought
land from
from aa group
group of
of nisutiu
the
bought land
nisutiu
(plural, "persons
"persons belonging
therefore must
have
(plural,
belonging to
to the
the king"),
king"), who
who therefore
must have
enjoyed some
some kind
of individual
individual or
or collective
collective rights
their own
land
enjoyed
kind of
rights to
to their
own land
and were
able to
dispose of
of it
it at
at their
discretion. It
It is
is possible
that
and
were able
to dispose
their discretion.
possible that
some inscriptions
inscriptions of
of noblemen
noblemen from
from the
the end
end of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom
some
point
to the
the existence
existence of
of small
small individual
individual economies.
economies. According
According to
the
point to
to the
texts, the
the dignitaries
dignitaries helped
helped some
some obviously
obviously poor
agriculturalists with
with
texts,
poor agriculturalists
draft
animals and
and seed
seed during
during the
season. It
It is
is difficult
difficult to
to
draft animals
the plowing
plowing season.
imagine such
such aid
aid within
within the
framework of
of the
and dignitaries'
dignitaries'
the framework
the royal
royal and
imagine
economies, which,
which, as
as we
we have
have mentioned,
mentioned, were
were based
based on
on entirely
entirely difdifeconomies,
ferent principles.
Finally, is
is it
it possible
possible that,
that, once
once ruined,
ruined, such
such small
small
ferent
principles. Finally,
individual owners
owners became
became dependent
dependent on
on large
large estate
estate owners
owners and
and were
were
individual

The
Predynastic Period,
Egypt
The Predynastic
Period, Early
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
in Egypt

153
153

transformed into.
into bak-slaves?
transfDrmed
bak-slaves?Was
WasititfrDm
fromamDng
amongthese
thesethat
thatthe
thenumernumerDUS
ous funeral
funeral priests
priests were
were recruited,
recruited, serving
serving in
in the
the dignitaries'
dignitaries' cult
cult that
that
guaranteed the
the dignitaries'
dignitaries' existence
existence in
in the
the hereafter?
hereafter? Were
Were there,
there,
guaranteed
perhaps, amDng
among the
the traders
traders in
in the
the markets
markets depicted
depicted Dn
on the
the tDmb
tomb wall
wall
perhaps,
paintings, in
in additiDn
addition to.
to the
the wDrkers
workers Df
of the
the large
large econDmies,
economies, small
small ininpaintings,
dividual producers?
producers? All
this is
is just
just speculatiDn.
speculation. The
The available
available material
material
dividual
All this
is tDD
too scanty
scanty and
and cDntradictDry
contradictory to.
to draw
draw any
any sDlid
solid conclusiDns.
conclusions.
is
The
The Egyptian
Egyptian state
state was
was headed
headed by
by the
the king,
king, Dften
often called
called pharaDh.
pharaoh.
This term
term CDmes
comes to.
to us
us from
from the
the Greek
Greek but
but stems
stems frDm
from an
an ancient
ancient
This
Egyptian
per- '0, meaning
Egyptian (New
(New KingdDm)
Kingdom) allegDrical
allegorical royal
royal epithet:
epithet: per-'o,
meaning
"big hDuse"
house" (i.e.,
(i.e., palace).
palace). The
The king's
king's actual
actual prDper
proper name
name was
was cDnsidconsid"big
ered
ered sacred,
sacred, and
and its
its utterance
utterance was
was tabDD.
taboo.
The
The Egyptian.
Egyptian king
king pDssessed
possessed unlimited
unlimited eCDnDmic
economic and
and pDlitical
political
pDwer
power and
and the
the dignity
dignity Df
of high
high priest.
priest. All
All impDrtant
important actiDns
actions within
within the
the
country and
and abroad
abroad were
were carried
carried DUt
out in
in the
the name
name Df
of the
the pharaDh:
pharaoh:
country
major irrigatiDn
irrigation and
and building
building prDjects,
projects, extractiDn
extraction Df
of metal
metal and
and stDne
stone
majDr
frDm
from the
the surrDunding
surrounding deserts,
deserts, and
and wars
wars and
and trading
trading expeditiDns.
expeditions. The
The
king was
was revered
revered as
as aa gDd
god and
and was
was deemed
deemed to.
to be
be similar
similar in
in every
every rereking
spect to.
to the
the gDds;
gods; in
in fact,
fact, it
it is
is quite
quite pDssible
possible that
that to.
to the
the Egyptians,
Egyptians, he
he
spect
was even
even mDre
more pDwerfui.
powerful. During
During the
the heyday
heyday Df
of the
the Old
Old KingdDm
Kingdom the
the
was
grandeur Df
of the
the kings'
kings' final
final resting
resting places-the
placesthe pyramids-eclipsed
pyramidseclipsed
grandeur
the temples
temples erected
erected to.
to hDnDr
honor the
the gDds.
gods. The
The royal
royal tides
titles were
were lengthy
lengthy
the
and were
were cDnstandy
constantly embellished
embellished with
with new
new epithets.
epithets. The
The full
full tide
title Df
of an
an
and
Egyptian king
king contained
contained five
five royal
royal names,
names, including
including his
his persDnal
personal and
and
Egyptian
throne names.
names. Until
Until the
the end
end DfEgyptian
of Egyptian history,
pharaoh presented
presented
throne
histDry, aa pharaDh
himself as
as king
king Df
of Upper
Upper and
and LDwer
Lower Egypt
Egypt in
in commemoratiDn
commemoration Df
of the
the
himself
fDrmerly
formerly independent
independent kingdDms
kingdoms Df
of the
the nDrth
north and
and sDuth.
south. The
The dual
dual
system Df
of SDme
some administrative
administrative state
state Dffices
offices was
was aa remnant
remnant frDm
from the
the
system
two predynastic
predynastic kingdDms.
kingdoms.
two.
The
The mDst
most impDrtant
important aide
aide Df
of the
the king
king was
was the
the high
high Dfficial
official called
called
tchati,
tchati, who.
whomanaged,
managed, inin the
thename
nameDf
ofthe
theking,
king,the
the Dverall
overalleCDnDmic
economic
life Df
of the
the country
country and
and presided
presided Dver
over the
the highest
highest court
court Df
of justice.
At
life
justice. At
tchaticDuld
could also.
alsoDCCUPY
occupy SDme
someDther
other tDP
top pDStS;
posts;fDr
for inincertain times
the tchati
certain
times the
stance, he
could be
be the
the head
head Df
of the
the administratiDn
administration in
in the
the capital.
capital. HDWHowstance,
he cDuld
ever, during
during almDst
almost the
the entire
entire span
span of
was nDt
not
ever,
Df Egyptian
Egyptian history,
histDry, he
he was
entrusted with
with the
the armed
armed fDrces,
forces, which
which were
were placed
placed under
under aa separate
separate
entrusted
top functiDnary-the
functionarythe commander
commander Df
of the
the army.
army.
tDP
The
The Dnce-independent
once-independent nDmes
nomes became
became administrative~ecDnDmic
administrative-economic
units
units Df
of the
the kingdDm.
kingdom. In
In the
the flDruitDf
floruit of the
the Old
Old KingdDm
Kingdom (during
(during the
the
FDurth
Fourth Dynasty),the
Dynasty), the nDmes
nomes became
became tDtally
totally subDrdinate
subordinate to.
to the
the central
central
pDwer.
power. The
The king
king could
could transfer
transfer the
the "nDmarchs"
"nomarchs" (nDme
(nome rulers)
rulers) frDm
from
Dne
was
one nDme
nome to.
to anDther
another at
at his
his discretiDn.
discretion. A
A ruthless
ruthless central
central cDntrDI
control was
imposed
on all
all the
the activities
activities Df
of the
the IDcal
local administratiDn.
administration. During
the
impDsed Dn
During the
Third and
and FDurth
Fourth dynasties,
dynasties, the
the supreme
supreme aristDcracy
aristocracy in
in the
capital
Third
the capital

154
154

I. V.
IV- Vinogradov

consisted
tight circle
the king's
king's blood-relations.
blood-relations. The
consisted of
of aa tight
circle of
of the
The highest
highest
state
state functionaries-the
functionariesthe tchati,
tchati,the
themilitary
militarycommanders,
commanders,the
thechiefs
chiefsof
of
the various
various offices
and work
work projects,
supreme priests
of the
most
the
offices and
projects, the
the supreme
priests of
the most
important Egyptian
Egyptian temples-belonged
templesbelonged to
house and
and reprerepreimportant
to the
the royal
royal house
sented the
ruling dynasty.
dynasty. This
This centralized
centralized administration
administration operated
operated
sented
the ruling
through
huge and
and complex
complex bureaucratic
apparatus.
through aa huge
bureaucratic apparatus.
The infantry
infantry constituted
constituted the
only military
military branch
in the
the standing
standing
The
the only
branch in
army of
of Egypt,
Egypt, the
the formation
formation of
of which
which went
went back
the Early
Early Kingarmy
back to
to the
Kingdom. Its
Its soldiers
soldiers were
armed with
with bows
and arrows
arrows and
and carried
carried short
short
bows and
dom.
were armed
swords. The
The troops
troops were
were frequently
frequently transported
transported to
to the
the battle
sites on
on
swords.
battle sites
freight riverboats.
riverboats. Egypt's
Egypt's northern
northern and
and southern
southern borders
were profreight
borders were
protected by
by defensive
defensive lines
lines of
of forts
forts that
that housed
housed military
military garrisons.
garrisons. It
It is
tected
is
interesting to
to note
note that
that the
the police
functions were
in Egypt
Egypt
interesting
police functions
were performed
performed in
since the
the earliest
earliest times
times by
people of
of north
north Nubian
Nubian origin
origin whose
whose councounby people
since
try had
had long
long since
since been
been conquered
conquered by
by Egypt.
Egypt. These
These were
were the
the Medja.
Medja.
try
Egypt
Egypt is
is frequently
frequently given
given the
the figurative
figurative name
name ~'The
"The Land
Land of
of the
the
Pyramids."
Pyramids." These
These grandiose
grandiose funerary
funerary structures
structures of
of the
the rulers
rulers of
of the
the
Old Kingdom-silent
Kingdomsilent witnesses
witnesses of
of the
unheard-of power
of the
the EgypOld
the unheard-of
power of
Egyptian kings-are
kingsare scattered
scattered around
around Cairo
Cairo and
and south
south of
of it.
it. They
They were
were
tian
erected for
for the
the eternal
eternal glorification
glorification of
of the
the names
names of
of the
the pharaohs
who
erected
pharaohs who
rested in
in the
the underground
underground chambers
chambers of
of these
these peculiar
mausoleums.
peculiar mausoleums.
rested
The first
still of
of the
the step
step type,
type, is
is sixty
sixty meters
meters high
high and
and was
The
first pyramid,
pyramid, still
was
built near
near the
the present
town of
of Saqqara,
Saqqara, south
south of
of Cairo,
Cairo, for
for Pharaoh
Pharaoh
present town
built
Djeser (Third
Dynasty), founder
founder of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom.
was built
Djeser
(Third Dynasty),
Kingdom. It was
built by
by
gifted architect,
architect, physician,
physician, and
and tchati-the
tchatithe famous
famous Imhetep.
Imhetep. The
The
aa gifted
Greeks later
later identified
identified him
with the
the patron
god of
of medicinemedicine
Greeks
him with
patron god
Aesculapius.
Aesculapius.
In
the Giza
In the
Giza suburb
suburb of
of Cairo
Cairo still
still stands
stands the
the impressive
impressive Great
Great PyraPyramid of
mightiest king
king of
Fourth Dynasty-Cheops
mid
of the
the mightiest
of the
the Fourth
DynastyCheops (Khufu).
(Khufu). It
It
is the
the only
only remaining
remaining structure
structure of
of the
the Seven
Seven Wonders
Wonders of
of the
Ancient
is
the Ancient
World. This
This structure
structure was
2,300,000 perfectly
fitted giant
giant
World.
was built
built using
using 2,300,000
perfectly fitted
Nearby stand
stone
blocks and
stone blocks
and reaches
reaches aa height
height of
of 150
150 meters.
meters. Nearby
stand the
the
pyramids of
Khufu's successors:
younger son,
(Kha'fpyramids
of Khufu's
successors: his
his younger
son, Chephrenes
Chephrenes (Kha'fRa'), whose
pyramid is
meters lower
lower than
Ra'),
whose pyramid
is only
only 33 meters
than his
his father's,
father's, and
and the
the
much smaller
smaller (66
(66 meters)
of another
another pharaoh
pharaoh of
of the
the same
same
much
meters) pyramid
pyramid of
dynasty, Mycerinus
Mycerinus (Menkau-Ra').
(Menkau-Ra'). Each
Each king
king of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom bebedynasty,
gan
building his
he ascended
throne. Each
gan building
his tomb
tomb as
as soon
soon as
as he
ascended the
the royal
royal throne.
Each
pyramid's
construction could
could have
lasted for
for several
several dozens
dozens of
of years.
pyramid's construction
have lasted
years.
Herodotus, who
traveled through
through Egypt
Egypt in
in the
the fifth
fifth century
century B.C.,
B.C., left
left
Herodotus,
who traveled
us aa vivid,
vivid, although
although not
entirely accurate,
accurate, account
account of
of the
the construction
construction
not entirely
us
of Cheops's
Cheops's pyramid
as it
it was
was imagined
imagined by
by distant
distant descendants
descendants of
of the
the
of
pyramid as
people
witnessed the
the building.
building.
people who
who witnessed
According
plunged the
According to
to Herodotus,
Herodotus, Cheops
Cheops plunged
the country
country into
into an
an abyss
abyss

The Predynastic
Predynastic Period,
Period, Early
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
in Egypt
Egypt
The

155
155

of
of disaster by forcing all Egyptians to work for him. Some of
of the
from quarries in the
workers hauled huge boulders toward the Nile from
eastern desert, while others loaded them on ships and ferried
ferried them to
eastern
the left
left bank
of the Nile. Another
Another multitude of
of laborers dragged
the
bank of
dragged the
stones to
to the
the foothills
foothills of
of the
the Libyan
construction site.
site.
stones
Libyan plateauthe
plateau-the construction
One hundred
hundred thousand
thousand people
people supposedly
supposedly labored,
labored, day-in
day-in and
and daydayOne
out, in
in three-month-Iong
three-month-long shifts.
shifts. It
It took
took ten
ten years
to build
build the
the
out,
years just
just to
tomb proper
and the
the road
road over
over which
which the
the boulders
boulders were
were dragged.
dragged.
proper and
tomb
T h e pyramid
pyramid itself
itself took
took twenty
twenty years
years to
to erect.
erect.
The
pyramid was local
Actually, the main building material used for the pyramid
quarried right at the foot of
limestone, quarried
of the future
future monument. It
It was
only the high-quality white limestone used for the finishing of
of the interior chambers and for the exterior
hauled from
exterior facets that was hauled
from
across the.
number of
the river. A limited number
of working teams were engaged
engaged
in the actual construction
construction of
of the pyramid. These were permanent,
permanent,
trained workers. Special work gangs labored
labored in the neighboring
neighboring quarquarries. There is no doubt, however, that great numbers of
of unskilled laborers were used for auxiliary tasks and that many workers were
taken away from
from their daily productive duties.
near the Fourth
Nestled near
Fourth Dynasty pyramids stands the Great Sphinx.
from a cliff
cliff to a height of
of twenty meters, its face, partially erased
Cut from
by the ravages of
of time, is said to resemble the face of
of King Chephrenes, in whose time the statue was probably
probably carved. The
T h e City of
of the
Deadthe
of the nobles from
from the golden
of the Old
Dead-the burial site of
golden age of
Kingdom who, even after
after death, wished to remain near their master
of his monument-spreads
monumentspreads out over a large area close to
at the foot of
the pyramids.
The kings of
of the Fifth
Fifth and Sixth dynasties also erected their pyraof the Fifth
Fifth Dynasty stand near Abusir and in the Saqmids. Those of
of the Sixth Dynasty kings were also built in
qara region; the pyramids of
the Saqqara region.
The
T h e Old Kingdom did not leave us very many royal inscriptions.
number of
of biographical
biographical inscriptions of
of digniHowever, there are a number
taries and nomarchs that tell about military campaigns, trade expediexploitation of
of useful
useful minerals outside Egypt.
tions, and the exploitation
Snefru, founder
founder of
Fourth Dynasty, undertook
undertook a great
of the Fourth
King Snefru,
campaign into Ethiopia on the Nile, from
from where he took
military campaign
brought back 200,000 head of
of livestock.
7,000 Nubian prisoners and brought
campaign he brought
1,100 Libyan prisFrom his Libyan campaign
brought into Egypt 1,100
oners and
and more
more livestock.
livestock. The
The kings
kings of
of the
Fifth Dynasty-Sahu-Ra'
DynastySahu-Ra'
oners
the Fifth
Unisfought the Asiatic tribe in the Sinai and also organized
and Vnis-fought
On the walls of
of the memorial temple of
of Sahucampaigns into Libya. On
of ships with Asiatic and Libyan prisoners
Ra4 there are depictions of
Ra'

156

I.
V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov
I.V.

being
transported to
to Egypt.
Egypt. These
These reliefs
reliefs give
give us
us our
our first
glimpse into
into
being transported
first glimpse
place possibly
possibly
Egyptian
Egyptian travels
travels to
to the
the distant
distant and
and mysterious
mysterious Punt,1I
Punt,11 aa place
located in
in present-day
present-day Somalia.
Somalia. At
At that
that time
time the
the canal
canal between
between the
the
located
eastern branch
branch of
of the
the Nile
Nile and
and the
the Red
Red Sea
Sea had
had not
not yet
yet been
been dug.
dug.
eastern
Thus, the
the voyage
to start
start in
in the
the city
city of
of Coptos
Coptos in
in Upper
Upper Egypt,
Egypt,
Thus,
voyage had
had to
from where
where the
the Egyptians
Egyptians followed
followed the
dry riverbed
Wadi HamHamfrom
the dry
riverbed Wadi
mamat,
on foot,
foot, to
the shore
shore and
and then
traveled by
sea to
from
mamat, on
to the
then traveled
by sea
to Punt,
Punt, from
where
they brought
brought myrrh,
myrrh, frankincense,
frankincense, and
and gold.
gold.
where they
The kings
of the
Sixth Dynasty
also undertook
undertook military
campaigns.
The
kings of
the Sixth
Dynasty also
military campaigns.
Pepi
I, the
second king
of the
the Sixth
Sixth Dynasty,
Dynasty, fought
fought Asiatic
Asiatic tribes
tribes bethe second
king of
bePepi I,
yond
Sinai Peninsula,
Peninsula, mobilizing
mobilizing his
forces on
on land
land and
and on
on sea.
sea.
the Sinai
his forces
yond the
The son
son ofPepi
of Pepi I,
I, Meren-Ra',
Meren-Ra', conducted
conducted expeditions
expeditions into
into Ethiopia
Ethiopia on
on
The
the Nile.
the
Nile.
that were
Many of
Many
of the
the inscriptions
inscriptions that
were made
made by
by functionaries
functionaries at
at their
their
work stations
work
stations in
in the
the mines
mines and
and quarries
quarries tell
tell about
about the
the organization
organization of
of
"peaceful"
minerals, about
"peaceful" expeditions
expeditions to
to obtain
obtain minerals,
about the
the struggles
struggles with
with
the
the steppes
the pastoralist
pastoralist tribes
tribes in
in the
steppes during
during the
the expeditions,
expeditions, and
and about
about
victories
over them.
them. As
As in
in the
the past,
mountains of
of the
the Sinai
Sinai were
were exvictories over
past, the
the mountains
exploited
for the
the mining
of copper
copper and
and for
for the
the extraction
extraction of
of turquoise.
turquoise.
mining of
ploited for
rare varieties
of
Stone
was available
Stone was
available everywhere,
everywhere, but
but in
in many
many cases,
cases, rare
varieties of
rock
had to
For instance,
rock had
to be
be brought
brought from
from afar.
afar. For
instance, lapis
lapis lazuli
lazuli arrived
arrived in
in
Egypt by
of aa multistage
multistage exchange
exchange from
from today's
today's Afghanistan.
NuAfghanistan. NuEgypt
by way
way of
merous expeditions
expeditions were
were organized
organized to
to bring
bring Lebanese
Lebanese cedar
cedar from
from the
the
merous
shores of
of the
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean.
Mediterranean. Ebony,
Ebony, ivory,
ivory, and
and lion
lion and
and leopshores
leopard skins
skins were
were brought
brought from
from Nubia.
of now,
informaard
Nubia. As
As of
now, we
we have
have no
no information about
about the
the Nubian
gold fields
that were
extensively exploited
exploited by
Nubiqn gold
fields that
were extensively
by
tion
Egyptians
later times.
During the
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, gold
gold was
in
was mined
mined in
Egyptians in
in later
times. During
the
desert
east
of
the
Nile
Valley;
it
was
also
brought
from
Punt
via
the
the desert east of the Nile Valley; it was also brought from Punt via the
Red Sea.
Sea.
Red
Despite
Despite the
the Old
Old Kingdom's
Kingdom's uncontested
uncontested might,
might, the
the internal
internal situasituanot without
tion was
tion
was not
without its
its worries.
worries. For
For some
some reason,
reason, the
the period
period of
of the
the
Third Dynasty
shrouded in
in darkness.
darkness. We
We know
know only
only about
about its
its
Third
Dynasty is
is shrouded
founder, Djeser.
Djeser. During
During the
Fourth Dynasty,
Dynasty, the
pyramid
founder,
the Fourth
the unfinished
unfinished pyramid
and the
statue of
of the
the elder
elder son
son of
of Cheops,
Cheops, Djedef-Ra',
Djedef-Ra', may
inand
the ruined
ruined statue
may inbetween two
Chedicate an
an internecine
internecine war
war between
two brothers
brothers that
that ended
ended in
in Chedicate
phrenes' victory.
But the
the dramatic
dramatic end
end of
of the
the powerful
powerful Fourth
Fourth
phrenes'
victory. But
Dynasty and
and the
the ascent
ascent of
of the
Fifth Dynasty
Dynasty and
and its
its founder,
founder, Userkaf,
Dynasty
the Fifth
Userkaf,
are once
once again
again hidden
hidden from
from us.
are
us.
The
to important
The rule
rule of
of this
this dynasty
dynasty led
led to
important ideological
ideological changes
changes that
that
were
connected with
with the
the introduction
introduction of
of the
the cult
cult of
of Ra',
Ra\ the
the Sun
Sun god.
god.
were connected
He was
was worshiped
worshiped throughout
throughout the
the Egyptian
Egyptian state.
state. Ra'
Ra' was
prinHe
was the
the prin11.
11. The
The reading
reading of
of this
this name
name is
is conventional
conventional and
and dubious;
dubious; it
it probably
probably sounded
sounded
more
more like
like "Pawane."
"Pawane."

The
The Predynastic
Predynastic Period,
Period, Early
Early and
and Old
Old Kingdoms
Kingdoms in
in Egypt
Egypt

157
157

cipal god of
of the Heliopolis nome, where the Fifth
Fifth Dynasty probably
identified only with the god
originated. The king no longer was identified
Horus, the traditional patron of
of the Early Dynastic Egyptian kings,
of Ra'. Each king of
of the new dybut was now represented as the son of
nasty erected temples to the Sun, in honor of Ra'. Such temples featured enormous obelisks built within their walled yards. Important
political changes also marked the Fifth
Fifth Dynasty, the external signs
of persons from aristocratic families but unrebeing the promotion of
lated to the king to the highest state offices (contrary to the situation
during the
the preceding
preceding dynasty).
dynasty).
during
half of
of the Old Kingdom saw the hidFinally, the entire second half
den but tenacious struggle for political and economic autonomy of
of
strengthening nome administrations against the excessive dominaof the central authority. For this struggle, there is no direct,
tion of
written evidence,
evidence, and
and evidence
evidence may
may never
never have
existed in
written
written
have existed
in written
of the
form. But we can gain valuable insights if we observe the tombs of
Upper Egyptian nomarchs of
of the Sixth Dynasty. Necropoles of
of the
of that time were discovered all over Upper
hereditary nomarchs of
Egypt. Their tombs became increasingly wealthier from generation to
generation (especially those situated farther from central Memphis),
whereas
of this
timethe pyramids-cannot
pyramidscannot be comwhereas the royal tombs of
this time-the
pared in grandeur
grandeur with the impressive structures erected by the
powerful
of the Fourth Dynasty.
powerful pharaohs of
The nomes gradually undermined
undermined the authority and power of
of the
central government, and the royal administration had to compromise
more and more with the governments of
of the nomes. A redistribution
of material and human resources was evolving in favor of
of the nomes
of
and at
at the
the expense
expense of
of the
center; the
the economic
economic power
of the
the kings
kings of
of
and
the center;
power of
Memphis was
was crumbling; their political power
power waning.
Soon after
after the death of
of Pepi II, a Sixth Dynasty pharaoh who I;uled
ruled
Egypt for almost one hundred
hundred years, the power of
of Memphis over
Egypt became merely nominal. Around the year 2200 B.C.,
B.C., the country broke up into many independent
independent regions: nomes. Thus ended the
Old Kingdom.

7
7
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
The
of Egypt
Egypt
and
the Hyksos
and the
Hyksos Invasion
Invasion
I. v.
V. VINOGRADOV
VlNOGRADOV+t

The
The First
First Intermediate
Intermediate Period
Period

It is
is customary
customary to
to define
define the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom as
as the
the epoch
epoch of
of aa new
new
It
unification
of Egypt
Egypt at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the third
third millennium,
millennium, rebuilt
rebuilt from
from
unification of
the ruins
ruins of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom by
by natives
natives of
of aa southern
southern Upper
Upper Egypthe
Egyptian nome,
nome, that
that of
of Thebes.
Thebes. This
This was
was achieved
achieved by
by the
the last
last kings
kings of
of the
the
tian
Eleventh Dynasty,
Dynasty, and
and the
the kingdom
kingdom was
was consolidated
consolidated by
by the
the pharaohs
pharaohs
Eleventh
of the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty.
Dynasty. This
This dynasty's
dynasty's dominion
dominion lasted
lasted for
for two
two hunhunof
dred years
years and
and saw
saw the
the florescence,
as well
well as
as the
the rapid
rapid decline,
decline, of
of the
the
dred
florescence, as
kingdom.
kingdom.
The
The end
end of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom and
and the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the Middle
Middle
Kingdom are
are separated
separated by
by an
an almost
almost two
two hundred
hundred and
and fifty
fifty year
year pepeKingdom
riod
riod called
called the
the Intermediate
Intermediate Period.
Period. This
This was
was aa time
time of
of fragmentation
fragmentation
of the
the state,
state, of
of great
great social
social upheavals,
upheavals, and
and of
of violent
violent internal
internal struggles
struggles
of
for
the reunification
we
for the
reunification of
of Egypt.
Egypt. It
It is
is in
in this
this period
period of
of transition
transition that
that we
the explanation
the differences
probably
probably ought
ought to
to look
look for
for the
explanation of
of the
differences between
between
the
Middle Kingdom
the Old
the Middle
Kingdom and
and the
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom.
The dissolution
dissolution of
of the
the unified
unified state,
state, the
the development
development of
of the
nomes
The
the nomes
toward
rivalry and
toward economic
economic and
and political
political isolation,
isolation, and
and the
the resulting
resulting rivalry
and
armed conflicts
conflicts among
among them
had aa deleterious
deleterious effect
effect on
on the
entire
armed
them had
the entire
economic strutture
structure of
of the
the country
country and
and on
on the
the irrigation
irrigation system:
system: the
the
economic
basis
for Egypt's
Egypt's material
material well-being.
well-being. Records
Records of
of the
the ephemeral
ephemeral Sevbasis for
Seventh to
to Ninth
dynasties are
are full
full of
of accounts
accounts of
of famine
famine years,
years, of
of arable
arable
enth
Ninth dynasties
land turned
turned into
into swamps
swamps and
and overgrown
overgrown with
with impenetrable
impenetrable thickets,
thickets,
land
and of
of fields
abandoned by
by the
the farmers,
farmers, leaving
leaving no
no one
one to
to cultivate
cultivate
and
fields abandoned
them. Even
Even the
the once-wealthy
once-wealthy and
and flourishing
flourishing parts
parts of
of the
the country
country had
had
them.
become
depopulated. The
The interminable
interminable struggles
struggles between
the nomes
nomes
become depopulated.
between the
aggravated Egypt's
Egypt's already
already difficult
difficult situation
situation and
and wrought
wrought further
further dedeaggravated
struction and
and calamity
calamity upon
upon the
the land.
land. Naturally,
Naturally, this
this situation
situation had
had the
the
struction
potential to
to create
create serious
serious social
social upheavals
upheavals among
among the
the laboring
laboring groups,
groups,
potential
who, no
no doubt,
doubt, must
must have
borne the
the brunt
of pain
pain and
and deprivation.
deprivation.
have borne
brunt of
who,
Many documents
documents and
and literary
literary sources
sources from
from that
epoch hint
hint at
at the
the ininthat epoch
Many
creasing frustration
frustration and
and ensuing
ensuing disturbances
disturbances among
among the
the lower
lower classes
classes
creasing
of Egyptian
Egyptian society.
society.
of

The
Hyksos Invasion
Invasion
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Hyksos

159
159

It
It seems
seems that
that socially
socially induced
induced mass
mass actions
actions of
of the
the people
people are
are rereflected in
in two
two literary
literary compositions
compositions that
that can
can be
dated to
to this
this period.
period. It
It
flected
be dated
was
time of
of gro~ing
growing recognition
recognition of
of the
for the
country's politiwas aa time
the need
need for
the country's
political and
and economic
economic reunification.
reunification.
cal
A
A large
large but
but badly
badly damaged
damaged papyrus
papyrus (preserved
(preserved in
in Leiden,
Leiden, the
the
Netherlands) contains
contains aa passionate
passionate appeal
appeal by
man called
called Ipuwer
Ipuwer
Netherlands)
by aa man
who may
may have
have been
been closely
closely connected
connected with
the ruling
ruling circles
circles of
of the
the
who
with the
north. He
He calls
calls for
for the
the restoration
restoration of
of the
old Egyptian
Egyptian order
order and
and for
for
north.
the old
the reunification
reunification of
of the
country into
into one
one single
single state.
state. Ipuwer
Ipuwer describes
describes
the
the country
in
poetic form
diin poetic
form the
the calamities,
calamities, perhaps
perhaps exaggerated,
exaggerated, that
that befell
befell the
the divided
the prevailing
prevailing hostility
vided land:
land: the
hostility and
and mutual
mutual hatred,
hatred, the
the plundering
plundering
and murdering,
murdering, the
the desolation
desolation and
and famine,
famine, people
people eating
eating grass
grass and
and
and
washing
people eating
that in
washing it
it down
down with
with water,
water, people
eating foods
foods that
in the
the old
old days
days
were fed
and even
even cases
cases of
cannibalism. The
The poet-narrator
poet-narrator
were
fed to
to the
the pigs,
pigs, and
of cannibalism.
mourns
the destroyed
destroyed cities
cities and
and the
the ruined
the fallen
fallen palaces
palaces
mourns the
ruined nomes,
nomes, the
and
by the
and the
the desecrated
desecrated tombs.
tombs. He
He is
is saddened
saddened by
the interruption
interruption of
of the
the
age-old trade
trade with
with the
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean region
region (there
(there is
is no
no
age-old
longer even-any
even-any cedar
cedar lumber
lumber left
left to
to make
make sarcophagi
sarcophagi for
for the
the welllonger
wellborn!)
and by
by the
the disruption
relations: the
the south,
south, torn
torn by
born!) and
disruption of
of internal
internal relations:
by
discord, does
does not,
not, as
as before,
supply the
the north
north with
grain, handicrafts,
handicrafts,
discord,
before, supply
with grain,
fruit, and
and aromatic
aromatic oils.
oils. The
The inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the surrounding
surrounding oases
oases no
no
fruit,
longer descend
descend into
into the
the valley
to bring
their gifts.
gifts. Ipuwer
Ipuwer is
is distressed
distressed
longer
valley to
bring their
at seeing
seeing Asiatic
Asiatic and
and Libyan
Libyan barbarians
barbarians taking
taking advantage
advantage of
of Egypt's
Egypt's
at
weakness by
by invading
invading and
plundering the
the defenseless
defenseless Delta.
Delta. Most
Most of
of
weakness
and plundering
all, he
he is
is concerned
concerned about
about the
the widespread
widespread uprising
of the
the people.
people. Eiall,
uprising of
Either these
these rebellions
rebellions took
during Ipuwer's
Ipuwer's lifetime,
lifetime, or
or they
they were
were
ther
took place
place during
still vivid
vivid in
in the
memories of
of his
his contemporaries.
contemporaries. In
In Ipuwer's
Ipuwer's own
own
still
the memories
words, the
the land
land has
has turned
turned like
like aa pot
pot spinning
spinning on
on aa potter's
potter's wheel:
the
wheel: the
words,
poor have
have grown
and the
the rich
grown poor;
he who
who had
had
poor
grown wealthy
wealthy and
rich have
have grown
poor; he
no bread
bread has
has become
become the
the owner
owner of
of granaries;
granaries; he
he who
no animals
animals
no
who had
had no
to pull
pull his
plow has
come to
to possess
herd; he
who had
had not
not one
one boat
boat
to
his plow
has come
possess aa herd;
he who
has
come
to
own
ships;
he
who
had
no
hut
now
owns
a
house;
he
who
has come to own ships; he who had no hut now owns a house; he who
did
not
weave,
even
for
his
own
needs,
dons
the
finest
linen,
while
did not weave, even for his own needs, dons the finest linen, while
noble persons
wear rags;
he who
who could
could not
even make
make his
own coffin
coffin
noble
persons wear
rags; he
not even
his own
now
has
his
own
mausoleum,
while
the
bodies
of
the
former
owners
now has his own mausoleum, while the bodies of the former owners
have
thrown out
out into
into the
desert. Ipuwer
Ipuwer proclaims
that only
only with
with
have been
been thrown
the desert.
proclaims that
the
restoration
of
the
old
order
would
Egypt
be
rid
of
all
these
calamithe restoration of the old order would Egypt be rid of all these calamities; harmony
harmony would
again prevail
prevail once
once the
the old
old state
state offices
offices were
were reties;
would again
reestablished. People
People would
dig canals,
canals, and
and tend
tend
established.
would again
again build
build pyramids,
pyramids, dig
the orchards.
orchards. With
With the
the position
of the
aristocracy regained,
regained, the
the robthe
position of
the aristocracy
robberies and
and rebellions
rebellions would
would disappear,
disappear, and
and the
the roads
roads would
would again
again be
be
beries
safe for
for travelers.
travelers. The
The rise
of Egyptian
Egyptian power
power would
would reduce
reduce the
the forforsafe
rise of
eigners to
barbarians trembling
its might.
might.
eigners
to barbarians
trembling before
before its
Another papyrus,
papyrus, kept
in Leningrad's
Leningrad's State
Hermitage, echoes
Another
kept in
State Hermitage,
echoes the
the

160
i6o

I. V.
/.
V.Vinogradov
Vinogradov

Leiden
papyrus text
Leiden document.
document. The
The Hermitage
Hermitage papyrus
text takes
takes the
the form
form of
of aa
prophecy that
supposed to
have been
to Pharaoh
Pharaoh Snefru,
Snefru, the
the
prophecy
that was
was supposed
to have
been read
read to
founder
powerful Fourth
the learned
founder of
of the
the powerful
Fourth Dynasty,
Dynasty, in
in his
his palace
palace by
by the
learned
priest
This document
of the
same sad
sad events
events so
so vividly
priest Neferti.
Neferti. This
document tells
tells of
the same
vividly
described
we read
the general
described by
by Ipuwer.
Ipuwer. Again,
Again, we
read of
of the
general decline
decline of
of the
the
country,
murders, looting,
hunger, misfortunes,
country, the
the destruction,
destruction, murders,
looting, hunger,
misfortunes, ininternal discord,
by foreigners.
prophecy had
ternal
discord, and
and incursions
incursions by
foreigners. Neferti's
Neferti's prophecy
had
the
same intention
intention as
Ipuwer's pronouncementa
call for
for the
the same
as Ipuwer's
pronouncement-a call
the restorestoration
ration of
of aa single
single authority
authority and
and the
the return
return of
of the
the old
old order
order to
to Egypt.
Egypt.
There is,
is, however,
however, an
an important
important difference:
Ipuwer's appeal
appeal
There
difference: whereas
whereas Ipuwer's
has the
quality of
of an
an idealized
idealized vision
vision and
and is
is not
not addressed
addressed to
to any
any spehas
the quality
specific
is more
more concrete.
concrete. It
It predicts
predicts the
arcific person,
person, Neferti's
Neferti's prophecy
prophecy is
the arrival of
of aa southern
southern king,
king, born
born in
in Upper
Upper Egypt,
Egypt, who
who will
will place
upon his
place upon
his
rival
head
double crown
pacify the
head the
the double
crown of
of Egypt,
Egypt, who
who will
will unify
unify Egypt,
Egypt, pacify
the ininternal strife,
strife, restore
and banish
banish falsehood.
falsehood. He
will defeat
defeat
ternal
restore the
the truth,
truth, and
He will
the LiOyans
Libyans and
Asiatics and
and restore
restore the
fortifications. Neferti
Neferti
the
and Asiatics
the border
border fortifications.
calls this
this future
future unifier
of Egypt
Egypt "Ameni"
"Ameni"a
shortened form
form of
of the
the
calls
unifier of
-a shortened
name
the founder
Dynasty, Amenemhet
name of
of the
founder of
of the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty,
Amenemhet I.
I.
It
reasonable to
that Neferti's
Neferti's prophecies
were written
It is
is reasonable
to assume
assume that
prophecies were
written
down
final stage
one ruler
down during
during the
the final
stage of
of Egypt's
Egypt's reunification
reunification under
under one
ruler
and that
that they
they originated
circles directly
directly connected
connected with
with the
the
and
originated from
from circles
founder of
of the
new dynasty.
appeals, however,
however, may
have
founder
the new
dynasty. Ipuwer's
Ipuwer's appeals,
may have
been written
earlier.1
been
written earlier.!
Egyptian texts
texts make
make it
it possible
to establish
establish the
the fundamental
fundamental mileEgyptian
possible to
milestones of
of the
struggle for
for unity
unity long
long before
Amenemhet II ascended
ascended
stones
the struggle
before Amenemhet
the throne.
In the
of the
century B.C.,
Achtoes
the
throne. In
the middle
middle of
the twenty-second
twenty-second century
B.C., Achtoes
(Kheti)
He was
was the
ruler of
(Kheti) declared
declared himself
himself pharaoh.
pharaoh. He
the ruler
of the
the HeracleoHeracleopolis
situated some
some 120
120 kilometers
south of
of Memphis
Memphis (Ninth
(Ninth
polis nome,
nome, situated
kilometers south
Dynasty).
Achtoes II and,
Dynasty). Achtoes
and, especially,
especially, the
kings of
of the
the Tenth
Tenth Dynasty
Dynasty
the kings
managed to
to unite
unite part
of the
Upper Egyptian
Egyptian valley.
Later, the
the
managed
part of
the Upper
valley.22 Later,
Thehan
nome gained
Theban nome
gained strength
strength in
in the
the south.
south. Egypt
Egypt saw
saw the
the simultanesimultaneous
the Eleventh
Dyous rule
rule of
of the
the Tenth
Tenth Dynasty
Dynasty in
in Heracleopolis
Heracleopolis and
and the
Eleventh Dynasty in
Achtoes III,
king of
wrote or
nasty
in Thebes.
Thebes. Achtoes
III, king
of Heracleopolis,
Heracleopolis, wrote
or dictated
dictated
advice to
to his
his son,
son, persuading
live in
in peace
with the
the southern
southern
advice
persuading him
him to
to live
peace with
-

1. We
We must
out that
that both
both documents
documents are
are later
later copies
copies made
during the
the New
1.
must point
point out
made during
New
Kingdom.
The Leiden
papyrus was
was written
written during
the Nineteenth
Nineteenth Dynasty
Dynasty and
Kingdom. The
Leiden papyrus
during the
and the
the
Leningrad
papyrus around
the middle
Eighteenth Dynasty.
there is
Leningrad papyrus
around the
middle of
of the
the Eighteenth
Dynasty. However,
However, there
is no
no
doubt
texts of
papyri stem
an earlier
time. Formerly,
opinions difdoubt that
that the
the texts
of both
both papyri
stem from
from an
earlier time.
Formerly, opinions
differed in
in dating
dating the
the events
events mentioned
mentioned in
in these
these documents.
documents. Today,
Egyptologists
fered
Today, most
most Egyptologists
confidendy
time preceding
confidently attribute
attribute the
the events
events to
to the
the First
First Intermediate
Intermediate Period-the
Periodthe time
preceding
the Middle
Kingdom.
)I
the
Middle Kingdom.
2.
2. Manetho's
Manetho's Seventh,
Seventh, Eighth,
Eighth, and
and Ninth
Ninth dynasties
dynasties belong
belong to
to the
the troubled
troubled period
period
that spanned
the time
time between
between the
the Tenth
Tenth Dynasties.
Dynasties. These
These three
three interthat
spanned the
the Sixth
Sixth and
and the
intermediate
no written
written evidence.
mediate dynasties
dynasties left
left no
evidence.

The
Hyksos Invasion
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Hyksos
Invasion

161

kingdom. But
kingdom.
But aa showdown
showdown was
was unavoidable;
unavoidable; the
the Heracleopolis
Heracleopolis kings
kings
sought and
and obtained
obtained support
support from
from some
some of
of the
the nomarchs
nomarchs in
in their
their
sought
struggle with
Thebes. And
around the
the year
2040 B.C.,
B.C., the
the king
king
struggle
with Thebes.
And finally,
finally, around
year 2040
of Thebes,
Thebes, Mentchuhetep
I, became
became pharaoh
pharaoh of
of all
all Egypt.
Egypt. Here
of
Mentchuhetep I,
Here bebegins the
history of
of the
the Middle
Kingdom.
gins
the history
Middle Kingdom.

The
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom
During the
the Intermediate
when centralized
During
Intermediate Period,
Period, when
centralized management
management of
of
the irrigation
irrigation system
system collapsed,
collapsed, we
we find
find aa considerable
considerable increase
increase in
in
the
local
initiative in
in Egypt.
Egypt. This
This is
is the
local initiative
the time
time when
when aa more
more efficient
efficient plow
plow
appeared in
in the
the fields,
making it
it easier
easier to
soil and
and to
to imappeared
fields, making
to prepare
prepare the
the soil
improve cultivation.
cultivation. There
There also
also appeared
appeared many
many new
tools used
in farmfarmprove
new tools
used in
ing and
and crafts.
crafts. Invented
Invented in
in nomes
nomes that
often separated
separated by
by large
large
ing
that were
were often
distances,
these new
new tools
tools spread
spread gradually
gradually throughout
throughout the
the entire
entire
distances, these
country as
as aa result
result of
of internal
internal trade.
trade. Old
Old tools
tools were
were also
also being
being imimcountry
proved.
Toward the
the end
end of
of this
this period,
began to
to use
use
period, the
the Egyptians
Egyptians began
proved. Toward
bronze (a
(a copper-tin
copper-tin alloy),
alloy), although
although pure
pure copper
copper remained
remained the
main
bronze
the main
industrial
metal for
long time
to come.
come. A
new, more
more productive,
and
industrial metal
for aa long
time to
A new,
productive, and
larger breed
of horned
horned cattle
cattle appeared
appeared and
and gradually
gradually completely
completely relarger
breed of
replaced
earlier long-horned
long-horned variety.
variety. This
This progress
stimulated
placed the
the earlier
progress was
was stimulated
by the
need to
free as
as many
many able
able hands
hands in
in the
the nomes
as possible
in
by
the need
to free
nomes as
possible in
order
to
compensate
for
the
problems
created
by
the
disruption
of
order to compensate for the problems created by the disruption of
the centralized
centralized economic
economic organization.
organization. All
these new
new inventions
inventions and
and
the
All these
methods
were
assimilated
and
continued
to
develop
during
the
methods were assimilated and continued to develop during the rereunited
state of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom.
Kingdom.
united Egyptian
Egyptian state
Internal
Egyptian trade
grew during
during the
Intermediate Period,
Period,
Internal Egyptian
trade grew
the First
First Intermediate
though it
it would
would appear
appear that
the conditions
conditions were
were far
far from
from propitious.
propitious.33
though
that the
This
with the
the decline
the self-sufficient
This growth
growth was
was connected
connected with
decline of
of the
self-sufficient large
large
economies
Kingdom's aristocracy,
rooted at
economies belonging
belonging to
to the
the Old
Old Kingdom's
aristocracy, rooted
at the
the
capital.
the role
capital. It
It was
was simultaneous
simultaneous with
with the
the rise
rise of
of the
role of
of smaller
smaller econoeconomies.
mies. At
At some
some time,
time, the
the owners
owners of
of these
these economies
economies may
may have
have become
become
supporters
the nomarchs
nomarchs in
in their
the kings
supporters of
of the
their struggle
struggle against
against the
kings at
at
Memphis
were promoted
of
Memphis and
and then
then were
promoted for
for their
their service
service into
into the
the ranks
ranks of
the
independent regional
regional rulers
the numerous
numerous independent
rulers of
of the
the First
First Intermediate
Intermediate
Period. The
The number
number of
of persons
persons who
who received
received their
their material
material sustesustePeriod.
nance
for their
administration, at
nance for
their service
service in
in the
the administration,
at the
the court,
court, and
and in
in the
the
army grew
grew considerably.
considerably. It
It is
is natural
natural that
that the
the numerous
small and
and
army
numerous small
medium-sized economies
economies of
of the
the new
new functionaries
in the
the service
service of
of
medium-sized
functionaries in
3.
3. The
The fact
fact is
is that
that the
the stronger
stronger and
and more
more extended
extended an
an ancient
ancient kingdom
kingdom was,
was, the
the
worse
the conditions
conditions for
for trade,
because strong
strong royal
royal power
power laid
laid its
its hand
arbitrarily
worse were
were the
trade, because
hand arbitrarily
on the
the profits
profits by
of taxation
or by
by submitting
submitting the
the trader
trader to
administrative control.
control.
on
by way
way of
taxation or
to administrative
(IMD).
Editor's note
Editor's
note (IMD).

162

I.
/. V.
V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov

the
the local
local and
and the
the central
central administration
administration did
did not
not dispose
dispose of
of the
the producproductive resources
resources of
of the
the earliest
earliest dignitaries'
dignitaries' large
large economies
economies and
and were
were
tive
unable
produce all
This shortunable to
to produce
all the
the tools
tools and
and products
products they
they needed.
needed. This
shortcoming
be compensated
by some
coming could
could be
compensated for
for only
only by
some degree
degree of
of specializaspecialization,
which was
was conducive
rise of
tion, which
conducive to
to the
the rise
of an
an intensive
intensive exchange
exchange between
between
the
the different
different economies.
economies. Internal
Internal trade
trade also
also was
was characteristic
characteristic of
of the
the
entire period
of the
Middle Kingdom.
Kingdom.
entire
period of
the Middle
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom inherited
inherited from
from the
First Intermediate
Intermediate Period
Period
The
the First
the
increased influence
influence of
of the
local administrations
administrations on
economic
the increased
the local
on the
the economic
and political
political life
life of
of the
country. The
The independence
independence of
nomarchs
and
the country.
of the
the nomarchs
was
so great
great that
that even
even at
at the
the end
end of
of this
this epoch,
epoch, some
some of
of them
them conconwas so
tinued to
to date
date events
events according
according to
to the
the count
count of
of their
their own
own years
tinued
years of
of
rule, to
to preside
over the
the worship
worship of
of the
the local
local gods,
and to
to call
call themthemrule,
preside over
gods, and
selves sons
sons of
of the
the local
local deities,
deities, as
as formerly
formerly did
did the
the pharaohs.
The
selves
pharaohs. The
nomarchs headed
headed the
the local
local armed
armed forces,
forces, whose
whose strength
strength was
was frefrenomarchs
quently quite
quite significant,
significant, and
and surrounded
surrounded themselves
themselves with
with large
large and
and
quently
splendid retinues
retinues of
of courtiers,
courtiers, bodyguards,
bodyguards, and
and servants.
servants. The
The posisplendid
position of
of the
the local
local rulers
rulers did
did not
not weaken
weaken even
even during
during the
the rule
rule of
of the
the
tion
pharaohs of
of the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty;
Dynasty; their
their power
power may
may have
have actually
actually ininpharaohs
creased. Their
Their tombs
tombs became
became richer
richer under
the first
first pharaohs
of that
that
creased.
under the
pharaohs of
dynasty. During
During the
the Middle
Kingdom, the
the nomarchs
no longer
longer
dynasty.
Middle Kingdom,
nomarths were
were no
simple executors
executors of
of the
the central
central administration's
administration's will
at the
the regional
regional
simple
will at
level, as
as was
case under
under the
the mighty
mighty pharaohs
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom,
level,
was the
the case
pharaohs of
but
had gained
gained aa significant
significant amount
amount of
of independence
independence within
within the
the new,
but had
new,
united
state. Their
Their rule
hereditary, and
and the
the pharaoh's
pharaoh's apapunited state.
rule became
became hereditary,
pointment
of
a
new
nomarch
became
a
mere
formality.
pointment of a new nomarch became a mere formality.
Naturally, the
the position
position of
the new
pharaohs, who
forced to
Naturally,
of the
new pharaohs,
who were
were forced
to
share
power with
with the
the local
was less
less stable
than that
that of
of
share their
their power
local nomarchs,
nomarchs, was
stable than
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom pharaohs.
It was
was therefore
therefore not
not surprising
surprising that
that
the
pharaohs. It
hidden
hidden conflicts
conflicts between
between the
the local
local rulers
rulers and
and the
the central
central authority,
authority,
internal disorders
disorders and
and disturbances,
disturbances, court
court conspiracies,
conspiracies, and
and intrigues
intrigues
internal
abounded
abounded during
during the
the entire
entire course
course of
of the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty.
Dynasty.
Many important
important positions
positions at
at court
court and
and in
in the
the administrative
administrative mamaMany
chinery
by the
chinery of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom were
were held,
held, not
not only
only by
the hereditary
hereditary
aristocracy of
of the
the capital,
capital, who
who had
had family
family ties
ties to
to the
the new
new dynasty,
dynasty, and
and
aristocracy
by persons
persons from
local nome
but also
by persons
by
from the
the local
nome administrations,
administrations, but
also by
persons
of simple
simple extraction
extraction who
who held
held important
important posts
posts and
and owed
owed their
their wellof
wellbeing entirely
pharaoh. "The
being
entirely to
to the
the pharaoh.
"The king
king is
is food,"
food," said
said aa top
top functionfunctionary, not
not one
one of
of the
the nobility,
nobility, in
in the
the middle
middle of
of the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty.
Dynasty.
ary,
Obviously, it
it was
precisely this
this class
class of
of people
most interinterObviously,
was precisely
people who
who were
were most
ested in
in strengthening
strengthening the
central power;
main support
support
ested
the central
power; they
they were
were the
the main
of the
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom rulers.
rulers. It
It is
is quite
quite probable
probable that
one of
of the
inof
the Middle
that one
the incentives to
to build
build the
enormous irrigation
irrigation system
system in
in the
the Fayum
Fayum Oasis
Oasis
centives
the enormous
was
to ensure
material well-being
well-being of
of aa large
large number
number of
of these
these
was to
ensure the
the material

The
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Hyksos
Hyksos Invasion
Invasion

163

people. The
The Fayum
Fayum irrigation
irrigation project
significantly expanded
expanded the
the area
area
project significantly
people.
of
of the
the country's
country's arable
arable land.
land. It
It is
is characteristic
characteristic that
that this
this newly
newly develdeveloped acreage
acreage lay
lay fairly
fairly close
close to
Egyptian capital
capital and
and the
royal court.
court.
oped
to the
the Egyptian
the royal
The
The reunification
reunification of
of the
the country
country and
and the
the consolidation
consolidation of
of the
the cencentral
tral authority
authority brought
brought with
with it
it aa reactivation
reactivation of
of extensive
extensive building
building
projects, expeditions
expeditions to
and exploitation
projects,
to mines
mines and
and quarries,
quarries, and
exploitation of
of new
new
mineral
mineral deposits.
deposits. The
The Egyptians
Egyptians continued
continued to
to obtain
obtain their
their copper
copper and
and
turquoise
but by
the time
turquoise supply
supply from
from the
the Sinai
Sinai mountains,
mountains, but
by the
time of
of the
the
Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, other
other mines
mines between
between the
the Nile
Nile and
and the
the Red
Red Sea
Sea in
in
Nubia had
Nubia
had been
been discovered.
discovered. Gold
Gold was
was no
no longer
longer extracted
extracted only
only in
in the
the
eastern
was extracted
eastern desert
desert of
of Upper
Upper Egypt
Egypt but
but was
extracted in
in northern
northern Ethiopia
Ethiopia
on
relations between
between Egypt
Egypt and
on the
the Nile
Nile as
as well.
well. The
The interrupted
interrupted relations
and
other
with the
other countries
countries were
were renewed.
renewed. Egypt
Egypt recommenced
recommenced its
its trade
trade with
the
countries
Lebanese cedar
was
countries of
of the
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean region.
region. Lebanese
cedar was
shipped to
to Egypt
Egypt mainly
mainly via
via the
the Phoenician
Phoenician city
city of
of Byblos,
shipped
Byblos, and
and EgypEgyptian
began to
tin. The
tian traders
traders began
to import
import tin.
The Cretan
Cretan pottery
pottery found
found in
in Egypt
Egypt
and the
Egyptian implements
discovered in
in Crete
Crete demonstrate
demonstrate the
the
and
the Egyptian
implements discovered
existence
between both
Kingexistence of
of commerce
commerce between
both countries
countries during
during the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom.
resumed their
visits to
to distant
distant Punt.
Punt.
dom. Furthermore,
Furthermore, Egyptian
Egyptian ships
ships resumed
their visits
On
investigations of
On the
the basis
basis of
of comprehensive
comprehensive and
and complex
complex investigations
of
Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom texts,
texts, O.
O. D.
D. Berlev
Berlev was
was able
able to
to identify
identify the
the social
social
stratum
produced the
stratum of
of the
the people
people who
who produced
the material
material wealth
wealth of
of the
the councountry;
hemwew nisut,
nisut,
try; the
the Egyptians
Egyptians described
described them
them with
with the
the general
general term
term hemwew
"the
"the royal
royal hemwew."4
hemwew."4Berlev
Berlevsucceeded
succeededinindetermining
determiningthe
theposition
positionofof
the
the royal
royal hemwew
hemwewininEgyptian
Egyptiansociety,
society,their
theirrelationship
relationshipwith
withsimilar
similar
social
social categories,
categories, the
the methods
methods used
used to
to exploit
exploit the
the royal
royal hemwew,
hemwew,and
and
their
their connection
connection with
with state
state institutions.
institutions.
The
hemwewnisut
nisutencompassed
encompassedpractically
practicallythe
theentire
entireworking
working
The term
term hemwew
population of
royal hemwew
population
of the
the country.
country. The
The main
main duty
duty of
of the
the royal
hemwewwas
wastoto
work
work in
in aa specific
specific profession
profession or
or trade.
trade. They
They were
were exploited
exploited by
by the
the
royal and
and temple
temple economies,
economies, as
as well
well as
as by
by private
private persons:
people who
who
royal
persons: people
held
held positions
positions in
in the
the central,
central, nome,
nome, and
and temple
temple administrations.
administrations. The
The
connection
hemewwith
withone
onecertain
certainprofession
professionwas
wastypical
typical
connection of
of each
each royal
royal hemew
of
of this
this social
social stratum.
stratum. This
This is
is the
the reason
reason why
why the
the royal
royal hemwew
hemwewwere
were
most frequently
not as
most
frequently mentioned
mentioned not
as such
such but
but in
in their
their professional
professional cacapacity: as
pacity:
as agricultural
agricultural hands,
hands, herdsmen,
herdsmen, orchard
orchard keepers,
keepers, gardeners,
gardeners,
fishermen,
fields and
and in
fishermen, bird
bird catchers-all
catchersall those
those who
who toiled
toiled the
the fields
in the
the
grazing
grazing lands
lands and
and who
who practiced
practiced other
other outdoor
outdoor trades.
trades. They
They could
could
also be
servants, dancers,
dancers, singers,
singers, musicians,
musicians, barbers,
barbers, and
and teachersteachers
be servants,
also
that is,
is, people
people who
who served
served the
the master
directly, as
as well
his relatives
relatives
that
master directly,
well as
as his
4.
4. The
The term
term hemew
hemewisisusually
usuallytranslated
translated"slave,"
"slave,"yet
yetsuch
suchananinterpretation
interpretationisisnot
notacaccurate.
In order
in its
curate. In
order to
to avoid
avoid incoIT.ect
incorrect associations,
associations, we
we use
use this
this term
term in
its conventional
conventional
hemew(plural,
(plural,hemwew).
hemwew).
Egyptological reading,
reading, hemew
Egyptological

164

I.
/. V.
V.Vinogradov
Vinogradov

and
their houses
palace. The
fields were
and close
close associates,
associates, in
in their
houses or
or in
in the
the palace.
The fields
were
worked
exclusively by
men, whereas
domestic tasks
tasks could
could be
perworked exclusively
by men,
whereas domestic
be performed by
or women.
The royal
hemwewalso
alsoworked
workedininthe
thespespeformed
by men
men or
women. The
royal hemwew
cialized
food production
(the shnau)
as well
well as
as in
in the
the
production establishments
establishments (the
shnau) as
cialized food
workshops of
of the
the royal,
royal, temple,
temple, and
and dignitaries'
dignitaries' economies.
economies.
workshops
The
royal hemwew
hemwewwere
wereassigned
assignedtototheir
theirduties
dutiesinintheir
theirearly
earlyyouth
youth
The royal
and could
could not
not choose
choose aa profession.
profession. Special
Special inspection
inspection reviews
reviews were
were
and
conducted
conducted in
in the
the nomes,
nomes, in
in the
the name
name of
of the
the royal
royal administration,
administration, to
to
assign
professions to
to young
young people
who had,
to Egyptian
assign professions
people who
had, according
according to
Egyptian
notions, come
hemwew were
wereininnotions,
come of
of age.
age. All
All the
the children
children of
of the
the royal
royal hemwew
spected, regardless
of their
their parents'
occupation. First,
the strongest
strongest
parents' occupation.
First, the
spected,
regardless of
and toughest
toughest young
chosen for
for the
army. Some
Some royal
royal
and
young men
men were
were chosen
the army.
hemwewchildren
childrenwere
werealso
alsoassigned
assignedinto
intothe
thelower
lowerpriesthood.
priesthood.NatuNatuhemwew
rally, any
any acquired
acquired trade
trade skills
skills were
were taken
taken into
into account
account when
when aa youngyoungrally,
ster was
was selected,
selected, and
and so
so the
the son
son of
of aa craftsman
craftsman would
would usually
usually also
also
ster
become aa craftsman.
craftsman. A
A great
great portion
portion of
of young
young people
people became
became farm
farm
become
laborers or
or were
were distributed
distributed among
among other
other basic
basic professions,
professions, dependdependlaborers
ing on
on the
the needs
needs of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian economy.
economy. For
For most
most young
young men,
men, such
such
ing
compulsory assignments
assignments were
were for
for life,
life, although
although reassignments
reassignments could
could
compulsory
also be
be made
made during
during the
the inspections.
inspections. Thus,
Thus, an
an old,
old, ailing
ailing farmhand
farmhand
also
could be
be given
given aa lighter
lighter duty-that
dutythat of
of aa doorkeeper,
doorkeeper, for
for instance.
instance.
could
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
enable us
us to
to elucidate
the social
Documents
Documents of
Kingdom enable
elucidate the
social
status
of the
the royal
royal hemwew.
hemwew. People
Peoplebelonging
belongingtotothis
thissocial
socialclass
classconsticonstistatus of
tuted
tuted the
the country's
country's general
general working
working population.
population. Deprived
Deprived of
of property
property
in tools
tools and
and means
means of
of production,
they worked
worked in
in economies
economies that
that did
did
in
production, they
not
together with
with the
the production
not belong
belong to
to them
them and
and together
production tools
tools and
and means,
means,
(djet)either
either of
ofan
an individual
individualfunctionary
functionary
they
were in
in the
the possession
possession (djet)
they were
or
or of
of temple
temple or
or state
state (royal)
(royal) institutions.
institutions. The
The exploitation
exploitation and
and proviprovision methods
methods were
were the
the same
same regardless
regardless of
of profession
profession and
and employer,
employer,
sion
whether royal,
royal, temple,
temple, or
private. Therefore,
the Egyptian
whether
or private.
Therefore, the
Egyptian workers
workers
did not
not perceive
perceive any
any particular
difference in
in their
their own
own status,
status, wherwherdid
particular difference
ever
they worked.
However, in
in order
order to
to clearly
clearly understand
understand the
the ecoecoever they
worked. However,
nomic
and social
social structure
structure of
of Egyptian
Egyptian society,
society, it
it is
is important
important to
to point
point
nomic and
out that
that the
the relationship
relationship of
of the
the master
master to
to the
the royal
royal hemwew
hemwew who
who
out
worked
in
his
private
establishments
was
somewhat
loose, because
because
worked in his private establishments was somewhat loose,
they did
did not
not actually
actually belong
belong to
to him
him but,
rather, to
to his
his official
official position.
position.
but, rather,
they
They
were
assigned
to
him,
together
with
the
land
and
other
propThey were assigned to him, together with the land and other property, for
for his
his service
service as
as aa royal
royal functionary.
functionary. Under
this arrangement
arrangement
erty,
Under this
the master
could not
dispose of
of the
hemwewatathis
hisdiscretion.
discretion.We
We
the
master could
not dispose
the royal
royal hemwew
know that
children of
of the
the royal
royal hemwew
hemwewwere
wereassigned
assignedprofessions,
professions,
know
that the
the children
during the
the inspection,
inspection, in
in economies
economies of
other officials
officials or
or institutions,
institutions,
during
of other
but not
not necessarily
necessarily those
those where
where their
their parents
parents worked.
worked. Consequently,
Consequently,
but
hemwewwho
who
the master
master had
had no
no right
right over
over the
the offspring
offspring of
of the
the royal
royal hemwew
the
were in
in his
employment.
were
his employment.

The
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Hyksos
Hyksos Invasion
Invasion

165

Another
Another social
social category
category of
of dependent
dependent people,
people, quantitatively
quantitatively insiginsignificant
whom
nificant in
in comparison
comparison with
with the
the royal
royal hemwew,
hemwew,were
werethe
thebakew,
bakew,
whom
we
remember from
from the
the Old
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. The
bakewwere
wereactual
actualslaves
slavesinin
we remember
The bakew
every sense
sense of
of the
the word:
word: they
they were
were exploited
exploited exclusively
exclusively by
by private
private
every
economies and
and differed
differed from
from the
the hemwew
hemwewininthat
thatthey
theywere
werethe
theproppropeconomies
erty of
of their
their masters;
masters; they
they were
were excluded
excluded from
from the
the overall
state econeconerty
overall state
omy and
and not
subject to
the country's
country's labor
labor force
force distribution
distribution system;
system;
omy
not subject
to the
they
did not
not take
part in
in the
the inspections
inspections for
for vocational
vocational assignments
assignments
they did
take part
and
not assigned
professions by
the royal
administration. NatuNatuand were
were not
assigned professions
by the
royal administration.
rally, they
they lacked
lacked any
any strictly
strictly professional
designation.
rally,
professional designation.
While
hemwewperformed
performedtheir
theirassigned
assignedwork
workininthe
thedifdifWhile the
the royal
royal hemwew
ferent
ferent branches
branches of
of the
the private
private economies,
economies, the
the bakew
bakewwere
weretheir
theirmasmasters'
were given
ters' personal
personal household
household servants
servants or
or were
given different
different occasional
occasional
tasks.
A master
tasks. A
master had
had the
the right
right to
to dispose
dispose of
of aa bakew's
bakew'sfate
fateatathis
hisdiscrediscretion,
tion, and
and the
the bakew's
bakew'schildren
childrenwere
werehis
hisfull
fullproperty;
property;a aslave
slavemarket
market
existed
bakew could
existed where
where bakew
couldbe
befreely
freelybought
boughtand
andsold.
sold.ItItisisinteresting
interesting
that aa nobleman,
had hundreds
hundreds of
hemwew ininhis
that
nobleman, who
who had
of royal
royal hemwew
hisemploy,
employ,
found
to widely
his purchase
found it
it necessary
necessary to
widely publicize
publicize his
purchase of
of even
even aa single
single
bak.
between aa royal
royal hemew,
hemew,
bak. This
This clearly
clearly underlines
underlines the
the difference
difference between
owned by
by the
the master
master only
his state
state service,
and aa bak,
bak,
owned
only on
on condition
condition of
of his
service, and
who was
owned by
by the
as aa personal
personal possession.
possession.
who
was owned
the master
master as
It
It seems
seems that
that enslavement
enslavement of
of Egyptians,
Egyptians, especially
especially of
of young
young people
people
is, their
their conversion
conversion
from among
broad working
from
among the
the broad
working populationthat
population-that is,
to
to the
the condition
condition of
of bakew-was
bakewwasquite
quitecommon
commonwhen
whenthe
thecentral
centralauauthority
was
losing
its
strength
at
the
end
of
the
Old
Kingdom
esthority was losing its strength at the end of the Old Kingdom and,
and, especially, during
times of
Intermediate Period.
pecially,
during the
the difficult
difficult times
of the
the First
First Intermediate
Period.
Once
country had
its new
new political
political unity
unity during
Once the
the country
had achieved
achieved its
during the
the
Twelfth
Dynasty, the
the attempts
be suppressed
Twelfth Dynasty,
attempts at
at enslavement
enslavement began
began to
to be
suppressed
by
is unlikely
unlikely that
been completely
by the
the state.
state. But
But it
it is
that it
it could
could have
have been
completely
eliminated.
eliminated.
There
foreign prisoners
prisoners to
There was
was no
no exploitation
exploitation of
of foreign
to speak
speak of
of during
during
the
First Intermediate
Period, and
was not
much of
it during
the First
Intermediate Period,
and there
there was
not much
of it
during
early
from the
middle of
the Twelfth
Dyearly Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom times.
times. But
But from
the middle
of the
Twelfth Dynasty,
of aliens
into Egypt
Egypt increased
increased significantly.
nasty, the
the influx
influx of
aliens into
significantly. They
They
appeared in
in the
establishments of
of the
aristocracy and
and wealthy
wealthy funcfuncappeared
the establishments
the aristocracy
tionaries
and even
even in
employ of
of modest
Egyptian officials.
officials. Among
Among
tionaries and
in the
the employ
modest Egyptian
the
find foreigners
foreigners (almost
excluthe dependent
dependent Egyptian
Egyptian population,
population, we
we find
(almost exclusively Asiatics;
Asiatics; i.e.,
i.e., Western
Western Semites)
Semites) who
who were
captured by
by the
sively
were captured
the EgypEgyptian
armed forces
forces near
near the
the northeastern
Their
tian armed
northeastern Egyptian
Egyptian border.
border. Their
situation
was somewhat
somewhat peculiar.
peculiar. The
foreigners were
registered with
with
situation was
The foreigners
were registered
the rest
of the
the labor
labor force
force by
the central
central administration,
administration, just
as the
the
the
rest of
by the
just as
hemwewwere,
were,and
andlike
likethe
therest
restofofthe
thelaboring
laboringpopulation,
population,the
the
royal hemwew
royal
Asiatics could
could be
be employed
employed by
by the
the royal,
royal, temple,
temple, and
and private
private establishestablishAsiatics
ments. But
But in
in private
private economies
economies they
they often
often had
had no
no specific
specific profession
profession
ments.

166
i66

I. V.
/.
V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov

and
and were
were used
used for
for any
any available
available odd
odd jobs
jobs at
at the
the discretion
discretion of
of their
their
master, as
were the
the bakew.
master,
as were
bakew.The
Thefew
fewavailable
availabledocuments
documentsare
aresufficient
sufficient
to
conclude that
labor of
mainly in
in the
the house
house
that the
the labor
of foreigners
foreigners was
was used
used mainly
to conclude
for
personal service
the royal
noblemen's food
for personal
service and
and in
in the
royal and
and noblemen's
food production
production
shnau), as
as well
well as
as in
in artisans'
artisans' shops,
shops, including
including spespeestablishments
establishments (the
(the shnau),
cial
weaving shops
women worked,
worked, including
those taken
cial weaving
shops (where
(where only
only women
including those
taken
captive). As
As aa rule,
foreigners were
not used
used for
for farm
farm work,
work, such
such as
as
captive).
rule, foreigners
were not
work
herding. All
All
work in
in the
the fields,
fields, gardens,
gardens, and
and orchards
orchards and
and animal
animal herding.
such work
work in
in the
the royal,
royal, temple,
temple, and
and private
economies was
private economies
was mainly
mainly asassuch
signed to
the royal
royal hemwew.
hemwew.
signed
to the
The
so-called royal
were aa major
major factor
factor influencing
influencing Egyptian
Egyptian
The so-called
royal works
works were
Their raison
raison d'etre
were also
by
society.
society. Their
d'etre and
and organization
organization were
also discovered
discovered by
studying Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom materials.
materials. The
carried
The royal
royal works
works were
were carried
studying
out
through aa labor
labor conscription
for the
the state
state or
or the
the king,
king, aa burden
burden
out through
conscription for
that also
also lay
lay on
on the
the royal
royal hemwew.
that
hemwew.ItItmeant
meantdiverting
divertingthe
themen
menfrom
from
their everyday
everyday professional
professional tasks,
tasks, regardless
regardless of
of where
they used
used to
to
their
where they
was temporary,
temporary, perhaps
perhaps for
work. The
The diversion
diversion was
for the
the duration
duration of
of aa
work.
few months.
The conscripts
conscripts were
were forced
forced into
into special
special guarded
guarded camps
camps
few
months. The
where
were assigned
where they
they were
assigned their
their new
new tasks.
tasks. The
The exploitation
exploitation under
under the
the
regime of
of the
royal works
works was
was heavy;
the labor
labor was
was hard,
so everybody
everybody
the royal
heavy; the
hard, so
regime
tried
tried to
to escape
escape conscription,
conscription, which,
which, however,
however, was
for the
the
was unavoidable
unavoidable for
hemwew.Among
Amongthe
theroyal
royalworks,
works,heavy
heavyconstruction
constructionand
andearthearthroyal
royal hemwew.
moving jobs
were the
fundamental occupations.
included work
work
moving
jobs were
the fundamental
occupations. This
This included
on the
the irrigation
irrigation system
system and
and the
the exhausting
exhausting work
work in
in mines
mines and
and quarquaron
ries. A
obligatory labor
labor was
was serving
serving as
as oarsmen
oarsmen in
in the
the large
large royal
royal
ries.
A royal
royal obligatory
rowing
another royal
work was
watering the
the state
state gardens
gardens and
and
royal work
was watering
rowing fleet;
fleet; another
orchards, which
which were
situated above
above the
the naturally
naturally irrigated
irrigated arable
arable
orchards,
were situated
land. These
These plots
required aa continuous,
continuous, manual
supply of
of water.
water.
land.
plots required
manual supply
(During the
did not
yet use
use mechanical
mechanical
the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, Egyptians
Egyptians did
not yet
(During
water-lifting
devices.) The
administration and
and management
management of
of the
the
The administration
water-lifting devices.)
tchati,who
whowas
wasinincharge
chargeof
ofcoorcoorroyal
in the
hands of
of the
royal works
works were
were in
the hands
the tehati,
dinating the
functions of
of the
the different
state departments
dinating
the functions
different state
departments that
that were
were reresponsible for
for the
the punctual
delivery of
of qualified
qualified and
and auxiliary
auxiliary workers,
workers,
sponsible
punctual delivery
tools, and
and provisions.
enlisted in
in the
the royal
royal works
works could,
could, when
when
provisions. People
People enlisted
tools,
required,
also be
assigned to
to private
private economies-during
economiesduring harvest
harvest time,
time,
required, also
be assigned
for instance.
instance.
for
From
From the
the above,
above, it
it becomes
becomes obvious
obvious that
that within
the entire
entire socioecowithin the
socioeconomic
hemwewplayed
playedthe
theleading
leadingrole
roleininthe
thelife
lifeofof
nomic structure
structure the
the royal
royal hemwew
the
Middle Kingdom.
Kingdom. There
is no
no doubt
doubt that
that this
this extensive
extensive social
social strastrathe Middle
There is
tum
of the
so clearly
clearly described
described in
in the
the Middle
Middle
tum of
the working
working population,
population, so
Kingdom
could not
not have
have first
first appeared
appeared during
reladuring this
this relaKingdom documents,
documents, could
tively
earlier, and
to
brief period;
period; it
it must
must have
have existed
existed earlier,
and it
it continued
continued to
tively brief
function during
during the
subsequent stages
stages of
of Egyptian
Egyptian history.
history. The
The social
social
function
the subsequent
status of
of the
the royal
royal hemwew
hemwewduring
duringthe
theMiddle
MiddleKingdom
Kingdomwas
wasvery
verysimisimistatus

The
Hyksos Invasion
Invasion
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Hyksos

167

lar
lar to
to that
that of
of the
the workers
workers exploited
exploited in
in the
the royal,
royal, temple,
temple, and
and dignidignitaries'
taries' economies
economies of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. It
It is
is probably
probably true
true that
that the
the
workers
workers of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdoni
Kingdom were
were more
more closely
closely tied
tied to
to certain
certain of
of the
the
large economies,
economies, and
and it
it is
is also
also probable
probable that
that the
the all-inclusive
all-inclusive cencenlarge
tralized labor
labor force
force distribution,
distribution, prevalent
prevalent during
during the
the Middle
Middle KingKingtralized
dom,
dom, did
did not
not exist
exist earlier.
earlier. Sources
Sources from
from the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom suggest
suggest
that this
this social
social stratum
stratum of
of the
the working
working population
population continued
continued to
to exist
exist
that
throughout the
the entire
entire history
history of
of that
that period
period under
under the
the new
new general
general
throughout
semdet,meaning
meaning"professions"-that
"professions"thatis,is,people
peopleclassiclassidesignation of
of semdet,
designation
fied by
by professions
professions or
or specialization.
specialization. Naturally,
Naturally, the
the conditions
conditions of
of most
most
fied
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian working
working population
population must
must have
have changed
changed throughout
throughout
of
the centuries,
centuries, and
and such
such changes
changes must
must be
investigated in
in detail
detail for
for each
each
the
be investigated
individual epoch.
epoch. But
But the
the royal
royal hemwew,
hemwew,asasdescribed
describedininthe
thesources
sourcesofof
individual
the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, with
with all
all their
their relationships
relationships and
and social
social interconinterconthe
nections, also
also enable
enable us
us to
to throw
throw some
some light
light on
on some
some still-obscure
still-obscure
nections,
problems concerning
concerning socioeconomic
socioeconomic relationships
relationships during
during the
the precedprecedproblems
ing Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom and
and the
the later
later New
New Kingdom.
Kingdom.
ing
We
We can
can now
now answer
answer the
the question
question of
of who
who established
established and
and expanded
expanded
the
the irrigation
irrigation system
system during
during the
the early
early periods
periods of
of Egyptian
Egyptian history,
history, and
and
who
who built
built the
the magnificent
magnificent mausoleums
mausoleums of
of the
the pharaohs-the
pharaohsthe pyrapyramids-during
midsduring the
the golden
golden age
age of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. All
All the
the great
great EgypEgyptian
tian achievements
achievements from
from the
the earliest
earliest times
times were
were accomplished
accomplished through
through
the efforts
efforts of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian working
working population,
population, people
people exploited
exploited by
by
the
basically
basically the
the same
same methods
methods used
used during
during the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom.
Kingdom. HowHowever, during
during the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, some
some substantial
substantial changes
changes appeared
appeared
ever,
in the
the organization
organization of
of labor.
labor. The
The Egyptian
Egyptian farm
farm laborers
laborers of
of the
the Middle
Middle
in
Kingdom, much
much like
like their
their Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom predecessors
predecessors (cf.
(cf. the
the agriculagriculKingdom,
tural
tural workers
workers in
in the
the dignitaries'
dignitaries' economies),
economies), did
did not
not own
own means
means of
of
production (land,
(land, draft
draft animals)
animals) as
as property;
property; they
they had
had no
no right
right to
to the
the
production
harvested
harvested product
product and
and received
received their
their sustenance
sustenance from
from the
the granaries
granaries
and
and warehouses
warehouses of
of their
their master's
master's economy
economy or
or from
from those
those of
of the
the ininstitution
stitution that
that employed
employed them.
them. But,
But, whereas
whereas the
the agriculturalists
agriculturalists of
of the
the
Old Kingdom
Kingdom worked
worked in
in gangs
gangs when
when plowing,
plowing, sowing,
sowing, and
and harvestharvestOld
ing,
ing, each
each agricultural
agricultural laborer
laborer in
in the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom now
an
now worked
worked an
individual parcel
parcel of
of land
land assigned
assigned to
to him
him and
and for
for which
which he
he was
was perperindividual
production system
sonally responsible.
responsible. The
The gang
gang production
system became
became obsolete
obsolete not
not
sonally
only in
in agriculture
agriculture but
but also
also in
in many
many other
other branches
branches of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian
only
economy.
economy.
A
A deep
deep chasm
chasm separated
separated the
the Egyptian
Egyptian working
working population
population from
from the
the
was, in
in fact,
fact, only
only the
the latter
latter who
who conconruling class
class of
of Egyptian
Egyptian society.
society. It
It was,
ruling
trolled the
the means
means of
of production.
production. Very
Very few
few royal
royal hemwew
hemwewmanaged
managedtoto
trolled
cross this
this social
social chasm.
chasm. It
It was
was no
no coincidence
coincidence that
that Egyptian
Egyptian schools,
schools,
cross
which instructed
instructed only
only children
children of
of functionaries
functionaries whose
whose career
career in
in the
the
which
administrative service
service was
was ensured,
ensured, made
made the
the students
students copy
copy texts
texts that
that
administrative

i68
168

I. V.
V. Vinogradov

told of
of the
the heavy
heavy lot
lot of
of people
people assigned
assigned to
to the
the different
different professions
professions by
told
by
the state.
state. This
This had
didactic purpose,
purpose, because
because according
according to
to royal
royal dedethe
had aa didactic
crees, functionaries
functionaries who
who committed
committed aa misdemeanor
misdemeanor could
could be
sent to
to
crees,
be sent
work as
as farmhands
farmhands in
in temple
temple economies;
economies; that
that is,
is, they
they could
could be
dework
be demoted to
to the
the level
level of
of the
the royal
royal hemwew.
moted
hemwew.
Now we
we must
briefly review
review the
the political
political history
KingNow
must briefly
history of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom. The
The last
last three
of the
Eleventh Dynasty,
Dynasty, all
all of
of whom
bore
dom.
three kings
kings of
the Eleventh
whom bore
the
personal name,
the same
same personal
name, Mentchuhetep,
Mentchuhetep, ruled
ruled for
for some
some forty
forty years
years
over
united country-from
countryfrom Elephantine
Elephantine in
in the
the south
south to
to the
the Delta
Delta
over aa united
in
the north-and
renewed the
relations. Under
in the
northand renewed
the disrupted
disrupted external
external relations.
Under
Mentchuhetep I,
I, Egyptians
Egyptians again
again began
began to
to work
the Sinai
Sinai copper
copper
Mentchuhetep
work the
mines, and
and Egyptian
Egyptian armies
armies successfully
successfully fought
fought Asiatics
Asiatics along
along the
the
mines,
northeastern borders
borders of
of Egypt.
Egypt. Mentchuhetep
Mentchuhetep II also
also conducted
conducted an
an
northeastern
expedition into
into the
the Wawat
Wawat region-part
regionpart of
of northern
northern Nubia
Nubia that
that borbor- .
expedition
dered on
on Egypt.
Egypt. Striving
Striving to
to consolidate
consolidate his
his position
position in
in the
the country,
country,
dered
this new
new king
king of
of aa united
united Egypt
Egypt began
began to
to erect
erect temples
temples to
to the
the local
local
this
Egyptian gods
gods all
all over
over the
the land.
land. The
The increased
increased power
power of
of the
the royal
royal
Egyptian
authority was
was marked
marked by
by intensive
intensive construction
construction projects
using stone,
stone,
authority
projects using
the greatest
greatest example
example of
of which
is the
the splendid
splendid funerary
funerary temple
temple of
of
the
which is
Mentchuhetep II in
in Deir
Deir el-Bahri
el-Bahri on
on the
the west
west bank
of the
the Nile,
close to
to
Mentchuhetep
bank of
Nile, close
Thebes. This
structure forms
forms an
an architectonic
architectonic ensemble
ensemble at
the center
center
Thebes.
This structure
at the
of which
which stands
stands aa two-tiered
two-tiered rectangular
rectangular building
surrounded by
of
building surrounded
by aa
colonnade and
and crowned
crowned by
small pyramid.
pyramid.
colonnade
by aa small
The Middle
Kingdom reached
the peak
of its
its power
during the
the
The
Middle Kingdom
reached the
peak of
power during
Twelfth Dynasty.
Dynasty. Since
Since the
the year
2000 B.C.,
B.C., only
only eight
eight kings
kings ruled
over
Twelfth
year 2000
ruled over
Egypt, their
covering more
more than
hundred years.
AmeneEgypt,
their rule
rule covering
than two
two hundred
years. Amenemhet
the Twelfth
marked by
by the
the transfer
mhet I's
Fs founding
founding of
of the
Twelfth Dynasty
Dynasty was
was marked
transfer
of the
country's capital
capital from
southern city
city of
of Thebes
Thebes (the
(the resiof
the country's
from the
the southern
residence of
of the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty
Dynasty kings)
kings) to
to the
the north.
north. The
The new
new Egyptian
Egyptian
dence
capital had
had the
the typical
typical name
name It-Tawi
It-Tawi ("Possessor
("Possessor of
of Both
Both Lands";
Lands"; i.e.
i.e.
capital
of all
all Egypt).
Egypt). It
It was
was located
located on
on the
the west
bank of
of the
the Nile,
near the
the
of
west bank
Nile, near
Fayum Oasis
Oasis at
at the
the junction
of Upper
Upper and
and Lower
Lower Egypt.
Egypt. The
The transfer
transfer
Fayum
junction of
to the
the new
new capital
capital was
was dictated
dictated by
by the
the desire
desire of
of the
kings, who
who came
came
to
the kings,
from the
the south,
south, to
to consolidate
consolidate their
their power
in the
the Delta
Delta region
and
from
power in
region and
thus to
strengthen the
the unity
unity of
of Egypt.
Egypt. This
This was
the goal
goal of
of Egyptian
Egyptian
thus
to strengthen
was the
rulers since
since the
the beginning
of the
the country's
country's history.
history.
rulers
beginning of
Having
Having achieved
achieved significant
significant progress
progress in
in firmly
firmly establishing
establishing their
their
rule over
over the
the entire
entire Egyptian
Egyptian territory,
territory, the
the kings
of the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dyrule
kings of
Dynasty led
led successful
successful military
military actions
actions to
to the
the west
west and
and east
east of
of the
the Delta.
Delta.
nasty
They
fought Libyan
Libyan and
and Western
Asiatic tribes,
who had
had repeatedly
repeatedly
They fought
Western Asiatic
tribes, who
invaded and
and ravaged
ravaged Lower
Lower Egypt.
Egypt. But
most of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian kings'
kings'
invaded
But most
attention was
was focused
focused on
on Nubia,
country that
had already
already been
been covattention
Nubia, aa country
that had
coveted by
the rulers
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. They
They wanted
gold,
eted
by the
rulers of
of the
the Old
wanted Nubian
Nubian gold,
copper,
ivory, and
and rare
varieties of
of wood.
wood. The
The most
most bellicose
bellicose ruler
ruler of
copper, ivory,
rare varieties
of

The
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Hyksos
Hyksos Invasion
Invasion

169
169

the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty
Dynasty was
was Senwesret
Senwesret Ill,
III, who
conducted several
several large
large
the
who conducted
military expeditions
expeditions south
south of
of the
First Cataract
Cataract and
and who
who brought
brought
military
the First
northern Ethiopia
Ethiopia on
on the
the Nile
Nile into
into aa close
close dependence
dependence on
on Egypt,
Egypt,
northern
connection that
that would
would last
last for
for aa long
long time.
time. In
In order
order to
to facilitate
facilitate
aa connection
the passage
passage of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian military
military ships
ships through
through the
the cataracts,
cataracts, he
he
the
ordered the
the cutting
cutting of
of aa bypass
channel through
through the
the cliffs.
cliffs. In
In the
the
ordered
bypass channel
eighth year
year of
of his
his reign,
reign, Senwesret
Senwesret III
III reached
reached the
the Second
Second Cataract
Cataract
eighth
and built
fortresses to
to the
the south
south of
of it
it on
on both
banks of
of the
the Nile.
Nile. His
His
and
built fortresses
both banks
inscriptions instructed
instructed his
his successors
successors to
to stand
stand fast
fast at
at this
this new
new border.
border.
inscriptions
Another
large
Another inscription,
inscription, dating
dating to
to the
the time
time of
of Senwesret
Senwesret II,
II, tells
tells of
of aa large
Egyptian campaign,
campaign, probably
the only
only one,
one, to
to the
the Asiatic
Asiatic country
country of
of
Egyptian
probably the
Retenu, which
which was
was situated
situated somewhere
somewhere in
in the
the territory
territory of
of today's
today's
Retenu,
Israel or
or southern
southern Syria.
Syria. Future
Future generations
generations of
of Egyptians
Egyptians combined
combined
Israel
the image
image of
of this
this mighty
mighty Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty
Dynasty pharaoh
pharaoh with
with the
the even
even
the
more warlike
warlike pharaohs
pharaohs of
of the
the New
New Kingdom,
Kingdom, creating
creating the
the image
image of
of
more
Sesostristhe legendary
legendary conqueror
conqueror of
of half
half the
the world.
world.
Sesostris-the
The
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom reached
reached its
its zenith
zenith during
during the
the almost
almost fiftyfiftyyear-long rule
rule of
of Amenemhet
Amenemhet Ill,
III, son
son of
of Senwesret
Senwesret Ill.
III. His
His reign
reign
year-long
spanned
spanned the
the end
end of
of the
the nineteenth
nineteenth and
and beginning
beginning of
of the
the eighteenth
eighteenth
centuries
B.C. It
It was
was during
during his
his reign
reign that
that the
the work
work on
on the
the vast
vast Fayum
Fayum
centuries B.C.
Oasis
Oasis irrigation
irrigation project,
project, begun
begun before
before him,
him, was
was completed.
completed. He
He also
also
built
was
built an
an imposing
imposing stone
stone building
building at
at the
the entrance
entrance to
to the
the Fayum
Fayum that
that was
by the
later
later admired
admired by
the Greeks,
Greeks, who
who called
called this
this enormous
enormous structure,
structure, with
with
its
its endless
endless halls
halls and
and passages,
passages, the
the "Labyrinth."
"Labyrinth." It
It was
was probably
probably AmeneAmenemhet Ill's
is possible
possible that
that some
some of
of these
these numerous
numerous
mhet
Ill's funerary
funerary temple.
temple. It
It is
rooms
to display
rooms were
were intended
intended to
display statues
statues of
of the
the numerous
numerous local
local and
and panpanEgyptian
this structure
union of
of
Egyptian deities,
deities, making
making this
structure aa symbol
symbol of
of the
the solid
solid union
Egypt under
under the
ruling dynasty.
dynasty.
Egypt
the ruling
Amenemhet
was the
pharaoh of
the Twelfth
Amenemhet III
III was
the last
last great
great pharaoh
of the
Twelfth Dynasty.
Dynasty.
After his
his death,
death, the
Middle Kingdom
began its
its rapid
rapid decline.
decline.
After
the Middle
Kingdom began
The
Kingdom were
The rulers
rulers of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
were never
never able
able to
to gain
gain comcomplete control
control over
over the
the separatist
separatist tendencies
tendencies of
of the
the hereditary
hereditary nome
nome
plete
administrations, which
also held
important positions
positions at
at the
royal court.
court.
administrations,
which also
held important
the royal
This tense
tense internal
internal strife
strife continued
continued throughout
Twelfth Dynasty,
Dynasty,
This
throughout the
the Twelfth
spilling into
into the
the country's
country's capital.
capital. An
An assassination
assassination attempt
attempt on
on AmeneAmenespilling
mhet
may have
have been
successful, and
and according
according to
Manetho, AmeneAmenemhet II may
been successful,
to Manetho,
mhet
II was
was murdered
murdered by
court eunuch.
eunuch. Sinuhe,
Sinuhe, aa dignitary
dignitary in
in the
the
mhet II
by aa court
court of
of Amenemhet
Amenemhet I,
I, was
was the
hero of
of an
an adventure
adventure story
story of
of that
that time.
time.
court
the hero
Apparently, while
in the
the army
army of
of the
the royal
royal successor
successor and
and future
future pharpharApparently,
while in
aoh, Senwesret
Senwesret I,
I, that
that was
was operating
operating in
in Libya,
he received
received news
of the
the
aoh,
Libya, he
news of
pharaoh's death
death and
and decided
decided to
to flee
flee Egypt
Egypt in
in fear
fear for
for his
his own
own life,
life, since
since
pharaoh's
the
risk of
of being
being assassinated
assassinated during
during dynastic
dynastic power
conflicts was
was very
very
the risk
power conflicts
great.
great.
In order
order to
lessen to
some degree
degree the
the threat
threat of
of revolt,
revolt, the
kings of
of
In
to lessen
to some
the kings

170

I.
/. V.
V. Vinogradov

the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty,
Dynasty, starting
starting with
with Amenemhet
Amenemhet I,
I, introduced
introduced the
the
practice
of appointing
appointing coregents
coregents during
during their
their lifetime.
lifetime. Neither
were
practice of
Neither were
matters peaceful
peaceful at
at the
the local
local level.
level. The
The powerful
powerful nomarchs
nomarchs had
had large
large
matters
military forces
forces at
at their
disposal and
and the
ability to
challenge the
king
their disposal
the ability
to challenge
the king
military
himself. It
It was
was for
for aa good
good reason
reason that
that the
the capital
capital It-Tawi
It-Tawi was
as aa
was built
built as
himself.
fortress (quite
(quite strong
strong by
the standards
standards of
of that
that time).
time). Amenemhet
Amenemhet III,
III,
fortress
by the
the strongest
strongest ruler
of the
Twelfth Dynasty,
Dynasty, was
finally able
able to
limit sigthe
ruler of
the Twelfth
was finally
to limit
significantly the
the power
power of
of the
the nomarchs
nomarchs by
by means
means of
of harsh
harsh measures
measures and
and
nificantly
with the
the help
of his
his officers
officers of
of nonaristocratic
nonaristocratic descent,
descent, the
the backbone
backbone
with
help of
of his
his army.
army. But
this was
the ruling
ruling dynasty's
dynasty's last
last success.
success. A
A few
few years
years
of
But this
was the
after the
the death
death of
of Amenemhet
Amenemhet III
III and
and after
after the
the brief
brief rule
rule of
of his
sister,
after
his sister,
Nefrusebek,
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty
Dynasty ceased
ceased to
to exist.
exist. The
The first
first kings
kings of
of the
the
Nefrusebek, the
Thirteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, who
who were
were probably
related to
to the
the preceding
dyThirteenth
probably related
preceding dynasty, held
held sway
sway in
in the
the Nile
Nile Valley
Valley up
up to
to the
the Second
Second Cataract
Cataract and
and
nasty,
maintained relations
eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean countries.
countries. But
But
maintained
relations with
with the
the eastern
soon Egypt
Egypt apparently
apparently divided
divided into
into two
two parts
parts (Thirteenth
(Thirteenth and
and FourFoursoon
teenth dynasties).
dynasties). At
this point,
point, Egypt
Egypt embarked
embarked on
on aa new
new stage
stage in
in its
its
teenth
At this
history that
that is
is customarily
customarily called
called the
Second Intermediate
Intermediate Period.
Period.
the Second
history

The Second
Second Intermediate
Intermediate Period
Period and
and the
the
The
Conquest of
of Egypt
Egypt by
by the
the Hyksos
Hyksos
Conquest
The Second
Second Intermediate
Intermediate Period
Period lasted
lasted for
for over
over two
two hundred
hundred years
years
The
and was
another dark
dark epoch
epoch in
in Egyptian
Egyptian history.
history. It
It was
marked by
and
was another
was marked
by
internal
internal instability,
instability, dynastic
dynastic strife,
strife, and
and conquest
conquest by
by aliens.
aliens. The
The king
king
lists
hundred names
lists of
of that
that time
time are
are eloquent:
eloquent: they
they contain
contain over
over two
two hundred
names
of pharaohs
pharaohs from
from this
this period.
This abundance
abundance of
of rulers
rulers indicates
indicates that
that
of
period. This
the royal
royal throne
throne became
became aa toy
toy in
in the
the hands
hands of
of warring
warring court
court cliques.
cliques.
the
There were
were even
even instances
instances of
of nonroyal
nonroyal persons
persons becoming
becoming pharaohspharaohs
There
especially
especially military
military commanders
commanders who
who managed
managed to
to advance
advance their
their forfortunes
tunes during
during the
the continuous
continuous revolts.
revolts.
While
the country
While the
country suffered
suffered under
under the
the difficult
difficult conditions
conditions at
at the
the
turn of
of the
the eighteenth
eighteenth and
and nineteenth
nineteenth centuries,
centuries, the
the Hyksos
Hyksos55 attacked
turn
attacked
and invaded
invaded Egypt
Egypt from
from the
the east
east by
way of
of the
the Sinai
Sinai Peninsula.
Peninsula. The
The
and
by way
Hyksos
were aa tribal
tribal union
Hyksos were
union of
of inhabitants
inhabitants of
of southern
southern Syria
Syria and
and
northern
Arabia who
possibly represented
several ethnic
ethnic groups.
groups. The
The
northern Arabia
who possibly
represented several
weakened
Egypt was
was incapable
incapable of
of mustering
mustering any
any significant
significant resistance
resistance
weakened Egypt
to
the invaders,
invaders, who
along battle
battle chariots,
never before
seen
to the
who brought
brought along
chariots, never
before seen
by the
Egyptians, and
and overran
overran the
eastern Delta,
Delta, where
where they
they estabthe Egyptians,
the eastern
estabby
lished their
in the
city of
of Avaris,
Avaris, situated
situated on
on one
one of
of the
the eastern
eastern
their base
base in
the city
lished
5.
name Hyksos
5. The
The name
Hyksoscomes
comestotoususfrom
fromthe
theGreek.
Greek.InInthe
theconventional
conventional"school"
"school"propronunciation, the
the term
heqa-hasut,meaning
meaning"rulers
"rulersofofthethedesert
deserthighhighnunciation,
term is
is pronounced
pronounced heqa-hasut,
Nubia, is
lands"
lands" or
or "rulers
"rulers of
of foreign
foreign lands,"
lands," because
because any
any foreign
foreign land,
land, except
except Nubia,
is located
located
above the
the level
level of
of Egypt
Egypt and,
and, in
in comparison
comparison to
to the
the fertile
fertile Nile
Valley, is
is desert.
desert.
above
Nile Valley,

The
the Hyksos
The Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
Hyksos Invasion
Invasion

171

branches
Nile. From
Hyksos conducted
branches of
of the
the Nile.
From here
here the
the Hyksos
conducted their
their raids
raids
southward, burning
cities, destroying
destroying temples,
temples, and
and killing
killing and
and imsouthward,
burning cities,
imprisoning many
many Egyptians.
Egyptians.66
prisoning
The
The Hyksos
Hyksos remained
remained in
in Egypt
Egypt for
for over
over 110
110 years.
years. But
But their
their kings,
kings,
traditionally assigned
assigned to
to the
the Fifteenth
Fifteenth and
and possibly
even the
the Sixteenth
Sixteenth
traditionally
possibly even
Manethonian dynasties,
dynasties, were
unable to
to fully
fully subdue
subdue the
country. It
It
Manethonian
were unable
the country.
was only
only under
under two
two of
of the
the Hyksos
Hyksos kings-Khian
kingsKhian and
and Apepi-that
Apepithat the
the
was
rule of
of the
the Hyksos
Hyksos extended
extended far
far to
to the
the south,
south, which
which otherwise
otherwise rerule
remained basically
independent. It
It is
is also
also probable
probable that
that the
the western
western Delta
Delta
mained
basically independent.
did not
entirely fall
fall under
of the
the Hyksos.
did
not entirely
under the
the power
power of
H yksos.
The
The Theban
Theban nome
nome initiated
initiated the
the Egyptian
Egyptian struggle
struggle for
for indepenindependence.
the Delta.
dence. Thebes
Thebes was
was situated
situated about
about 800
800 kilometers
kilometers south
south of
of the
Delta.
The
kings of
the Seventeenth
Dynasty, weak
weak in
the beginThe kings
of the
Seventeenth Theban
Theban Dynasty,
in the
beginthemselves most
the Upper
ning, gradually
ning,
gradually began
began to
to rally
rally around
around themselves
most of
of the
Upper
Egyptian nomes
nomes and,
Egyptian
and, once
once they
they had
had gathered
gathered substantial
substantial military
military and
and
economic
headed the
the struggle
the Hyksos
economic strength,
strength, headed
struggle to
to evict
evict the
Hyksos invaders.
invaders.
An
Egyptian legend,
partly preserved
An Egyptian
legend, partly
preserved in
in aa later
later New
New Kingdom
Kingdom verversion,
the beginning
beginning of
sion, tells
tells about
about the
of the
the liberation
liberation struggle
struggle and
and connects
connects
it
penultimate king
it with
with the
the penultimate
king of
of the
the Seventeenth
Seventeenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, Seqen-neSeqen-neRa', who
who apparently
apparently lost
lost his
his life
in this
this struggle.
struggle. This
This is
is confirmed
Ra',
life in
confirmed by
by
the
his mummy,
the discovery
discovery of
of his
mummy, which
which still
still shows
shows the
the marks
marks of
of mortal
mortal
wounds inflicted
inflicted with
battle-axes. His
His son
son Kames
appears to
to have
had
wounds
with battle-axes.
Kames appears
have had
more success.
success. He
He outfitted
outfitted aa large
large fleet,
gathering detachments
of
more
fleet, gathering
detachments of
medjas,and
andadvanced
advancedthe
thefighting
fightinginto
intothe
theregion
regionof
ofthe
the
bowmen
bowmen and
and medjas,
Hermopolis
Hermopolis nome,
nome, halfway
halfway between
between Thebes
Thebes and
and the
the Delta.
Delta. Though
Though
he reached
reached the
the walls
of Avaris,
Avaris, he
he was
was not
not fated
fated to
to take
take the
the city.
city. Dishe
walls of
Disturbances
precipitated by
turbances in
in the
the far
far south
south of
of the
the country,
country, probably
probably precipitated
by the
the
challenge of
of the
the Nubian
Nubian rulers
rulers to
Kames, prevented
prevented him
him from
from delivchallenge
to Kames,
delivering the
the final
final blow
blow against
against the
the enemy.
enemy. The
The Theban
Theban king
was forced
forced
ering
king was
to
terminate the
the siege
siege of
of Avaris
Avaris and
and to
to shift
shift his
his armies
armies to
to the
the south.
south.
to terminate
The
The final
final victory
victory over
over the
the Hyksos
Hyksos was
was achieved
achieved by
by Kames'
Kames' brother,
brother,
Ya'hmes (Amasis
(Amasis I),
I), founder
founder of
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, who
who asYa'hmes
ascended
cended the
the Egyptian
Egyptian throne
throne around
around 1600
1600 B.C.
B.C. This
This marks
marks the
the beginbeginning of
of the
the New
New Kingdom.
Kingdom.
ning
6.
6. Current
Current excavations
excavations at
at Tell
Tell el-Dab'a,
el-Dab'a, the
the ancient
ancient Avaris,
Avaris, have
have revealed
revealed that
that the
the
Hyksos
Hyksos also
also engaged
engaged in
in profitable
profitable long-distance
long-distance trade,
trade, linking
linking the
the Nile
Nile Valley
Valley with
with the
the
the Eastern
(PLK).
lands
lands of
of the
Eastern Mediterranean.
Mediterranean. Editor's
Editor's note
note (PLK).

8
8
The
New Kingdom
Kingdom of
The New
of Egypt
Egypt
I. V.
V. VINOGRADOV
VlNOGRADOV+t

General
General Outline
Outline of
of the
the Period
Period
The
The epoch
epoch of
of Egyptian
Egyptian history
history illustrated
illustrated by
by the
the largest
largest number
number of
of
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian finds
covers three
three Manethonian
Manethonian dynasties:
dynasties: the
the EighEighancient
finds covers
teenth,
Nineteenth, and
and Twentieth.
Twentieth. They
They extend
extend from
from the
the sixteenth
sixteenth
teenth, Nineteenth,
to
B.C.
to the
the eleventh
eleventh centuries
centuries B.C.
All
branches of
made significant
All branches
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian economy
economy made
significant advances
advances
from the
the very
very beginning
of this
this period.
Since the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty,
from
beginning of
period. Since
bronze was
was being
introduced all
all over
over the
the country,
country, although
although copper,
copper,
bronze
being introduced
stone, and
and wooden
wooden implements
implements were
still used.
The invention
invention of
of the
the
were still
used. The
stone,
foot-activated bellows
put an
an end
end to
strenuous and
and dangerous
dangerous
foot-activated
bellows put
to the
the strenuous
work of
of the
the metalworkers,
had to
to fan
fan their
work
metalworkers, who
who previously
previously had
their fires
fires by
by
blowing
air through
through long
long tubes.
tubes. A
A more
more convenient
convenient and
and efficient
efficient loom
loom
blowing air
was developed.
developed. An
improved plow
plow with
vertical handles,
handles, still
still rare
rare durdurAn improved
with vertical
was
ing the
the Middle
Kingdom, completely
completely displaced
displaced the
archaic plow.
plow. The
The
ing
Middle Kingdom,
the archaic
shadufs (a
(a long
long beam
on one
one end
end and
and aa counterweight
counterweight
shadufs
beam with
with aa bucket
bucket on
on the
the other)
other) was
to raise
raise water,
greatly increasing
increasing the
the proproon
was now
now used
used to
water, greatly
ductivity of
of the
the gardeners
gardeners and
and orchard
orchard keepers,
keepers, who
who until
then had
had to
to
ductivity
until then
carry
pottery
vessels
this
way
and
that
for
the
watering.
The
manufaccarry pottery vessels this way and that for the watering. The manufacture
of colored
colored glass,
new craft
craft for
for Egypt,
began to
develop rapidly.
rapidly.
ture of
glass, aa new
Egypt, began
to develop
Archaeologists
have
found
all
sorts
of
small
vessels
and
other
items
Archaeologists have found all sorts of small vessels and other items
made of
of opaque,
opaque, colored
colored glass
glass dating
dating from
from the
the New
Kingdom. Their
Their
made
New Kingdom.
appearance testifies
to successes
successes in
in chemical
chemical technology.
technology. Achieveappearance
testifies to
Achievements in
in applied
are also
also evident
evident in
in the
the development
development of
ments
applied chemistry
chemistry are
of
embalming techniques-the
techniquesthe mummies
of most
most New
Kingdom pharpharembalming
mummies of
New Kingdom
aohs have
very well
well preserved.
During aa much
much later,
later, troubled
troubled
aohs
have been
been very
preserved. During
period
of Egyptian
they were
were taken
out of
of their
their rock
rock tombs
tombs
period of
Egyptian history,
history, they
taken out
and hidden
from thieves
and desecrators
desecrators in
in aa secret
secret chamber
chamber near
the
and
hidden from
thieves and
near the
Theban necropolis,
they were
found only
last years
years of
of
Theban
necropolis, where
where they
were found
only in
in the
the last
the nineteenth
nineteenth century
century A.D.
A.D.
the
Both
Both the
the quality
quality and
and the
the quantity
quantity of
of domestic
domestic animals
animals underwent
underwent
changes during
during the
the New
This was
was due
due to
to an
an unpreceunprecechanges
New Kingdom.
Kingdom. This
dented influx
influx of
of thousands
thousands of
of cattle
cattle of
of different
different breeds,
breeds, sheep,
sheep, and
and
dented
other domestic
domestic animals
animals from
from countries
countries conquered
conquered by
by the
the Egyptian
Egyptian ararother
mies.
The first
depictions of
of camels
camels carrying
carrying loads
appear on
on Egypfirst depictions
loads appear
Egypmies. The

The
New Kingdom
Kingdom of
The New
of Egypt
Egypt

173
173

tian reliefs
began in
in Egypt
tian
reliefs from
from this
this time.
time. Horse-breeding
Horse-breeding began
Egypt during
during
the time
time of
of the
and gave
gave rise
rise to
to aa new
military arm-battle
armbattle
the
the Hyksos
Hyksos and
new military
chariots-which
pharaonic military
chariotswhich became
became an
an important
important factor
factor in
in pharaonic
military exexIn the
the Egyptian
Egyptian economy
economy the
the horse
horse found
found
peditions into
into Western
Asia. In
peditions
Western Asia.
no
use; but
but wheeled
by
no use;
wheeled carts
carts appeared
appeared in
in increasing
increasing numbers,
numbers, pulled
pulled by
as,
yoke
yoke oxen.
oxen. Such
Such vehicles
vehicles were
were for
for transportation
transportation of
of heavy
heavy loads,
loads, as,
for
However, the
for instance,
instance, in
in expeditions
expeditions to
to stone
stone quarries.
quarries. However,
the dragging
dragging
of
of sleds
sleds on
on the
the ground
ground remained
remained the
the principal
principal method
method ofload
of load hauling.
hauling.
The
The entire
entire economy
economy of
of the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom was
was closely
closely tied
tied to
to the
the
policy
of conquest
conquest conducted
conducted by
the pharaohs
pharaohs of
of the
and
policy of
by the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth and
Nineteenth dynasties.
Occupied territories
territories and,
with time,
time, entire
entire
Nineteenth
dynasties. Occupied
and, with
countries were
were literally
literally laid
laid waste.
waste. Suffice
Suffice it
it to
to say
say that
that the
traditional
the traditional
countries
Sinai mines
mines no
longer provided
provided the
the main
main source
source of
of copper
copper for
for Egypt;
Egypt;
no longer
Sinai
it was
was now
now brought
brought mainly
mainly from
from Syria
Syria and
Palestine or
or sent
sent from
from
it
and Palestine
Cyprus as
as gifts
gifts to
to the
the pharaohs.
pharaohs. Gold,
Gold, so
so lavishly
lavishly used
the Egyptian
Egyptian
Cyprus
used by
by the
court and
and in
in the
the temples,
temples, was
was the
the main
item of
of tribute
tribute imposed
imposed on
on
court
main item
subdued Ethiopia,
Ethiopia, and
and it
was also
also brought
from the
the conquered
conquered lands
lands
subdued
it was
brought from
possible that
that it
it also
also
of Western
Western Asia.
Silver was
was acquired
acquired there,
there, but
but it
of
Asia. Silver
it is
is possible
was obtained
obtained by
exchange from
from Asia
Asia Minor;
Minor; silver
silver was
was mined
mined in
in the
the
was
by exchange
country of
of the
the Hittites.
Timber continued
continued to
to be
be felled
felled in
in the
the mounmouncountry
Hittites. Timber
tains of
of Lebanon
Lebanon and,
and, to
to some
some extent,
extent* in
in Nubia.
the indepenindepentains
Nubia. Even
Even the
dent rulers
rulers of
of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia sent
sent presents
to the
the mighty
mighty Egyptian
Egyptian
dent
presents to
kings.
Contact with
with distant
distant Punt
Punt became
became more
more frequent:
frequent: communicacommunicakings. Contact
tions
this country
country were
facilitated by
canal
the construction
construction of
of aa canal
tions with
with this
were facilitated
by the
connecting the
the eastern
eastern branch
branch of
of the
the Nile
with the
the Red
Red Sea.
Sea. For
For
Nile with
connecting
Egypt, Punt
Punt meant
meant myrrh,
myrrh, frankincense,
frankincense, gold,
gold, rare
rare varieties
varieties of
of wood,
wood,
Egypt,
exotic
plants, and
animals. Egypt
also received
received grain,
grain, domestic
domestic anianiand animals.
Egypt also
exotic plants,
mals, and
and sundry
sundry food
food supplies
supplies in
in large
large quantities,
quantities, either
either acquired
acquired
mals,
through plunder
by the
the Egyptian
Egyptian armies
armies or
or as
as regular
regular tribute
tribute paypaythrough
plunder by
ments. Some
Some plants
plants unknown
unknown in
times began
began to
be cultivated
cultivated
in former
former times
to be
ments.
during the
the New
Kingdom.
during
New Kingdom.
In addition
addition to
to the
the imported
imported materials,
materials, local
local raw
raw materials
materials continued
continued
In
to be
be exploited
exploited as
as of
of old.
old. We
We may
especially mention
mention the
the unpreceunprecemay especially
to
dented increase
increase in
in the
the extraction
extraction of
of sandstone
sandstone from
from neighboring
dented
neighboring desdeserts, which
was used
used as
as building
building material
material in
in the
the immense
immense construction
construction
erts,
which was
projects
projects of
of the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom pharaohs.
pharaohs. From
From the
the onset
onset of
of the
the New
New
Kingdom, not
only mineral
mineral raw
materials but
grain and
and animals
animals
not only
raw materials
but also
also grain
Kingdom,
began
to flow
into Egypt.
Egypt.
began to
flow into
Returning from
from their
their military
military expeditions,
expeditions, the
the Egyptians
Egyptians brought
brought
Returning
unprecedented
of prisoners.
prisoners. Hunting
captives became
became
unprecedented multitudes
multitudes of
Hunting for
for captives
one of
of the
the main
main activities
activities of
of the
the Egyptian
army during
during their
their almost
almost
one
Egyptian army
annual raids
raids abroad.
abroad. Certainly,
Certainly, the
chase for
for captives
captives during
during the
the New
annual
the chase
New
Kingdom was
was necessitated
necessitated by
by the
the increased
increased requirements
requirements of
of the
the EgypEgypKingdom
tian economy
economy for
labor. We
We have
have many
many accounts
of the
the
accounts of
tian
for additional
additional labor.

174

I. V.
IV. Vinogradov

kings
kings presenting
presenting thousands
thousands of
of prisoners
prisoners to
to Egyptian
Egyptian temples
temples after
after
every successful
successful foreign
foreign expedition-especially
expeditionespecially to
to the
the Theban
Theban god
god
every
Amon,
who
became
the
supreme
deity
of
the
country.
We
also
know
Amon, who became the supreme deity of the country. We also know
that captives
captives were
were used
in the
the temple
temple economies,
economies, where
where they
they worked
worked
that
used in
in
weavers' shops,
builders in
in artisans'
artisans' and
and weavers'
shops, as
as builders
in construction
construction projects,
projects,
and also
also as
as shepherds.
shepherds. Many
Many foreigners
foreigners also
also worked
worked in
in the
the temple
temple
and
fields,
which was
was not
fields, which
not the
the case
case during
during the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom.
Kingdom.
The
widely used
used in
the private
private economies
economies of
of
The labor
labor of
of captives
captives was
was widely
in the
officials,
priests, minor
officials, especially
especially on
on the
the small
small farms
farms of
of priests,
minor temple
temple and
and
government
As soon
government functionaries,
functionaries, and
and warriors.
warriors. As
soon as
as the
the pharaohs
pharaohs
started their
their conquests,
conquests, they
they began
began to
to reward
reward the
the soldiers
soldiers distindistinstarted
guished in
in battle
with land
land grants
grants and
and with
with prisoners.
It is
is thus
thus
both with
prisoners. It
guished
battle both
not surprising
surprising that
into battle
"like lions"
lions" and
and "with
"with ajoyful
a joyful
not
that they
they went
went into
battle "like
heart"
in expectation
expectation of
of generous
generous rewards.
It is
is interesting
interesting to
note
heart" in
rewards. It
to note
that not
not all
all prisoners
used to
to supplement
supplement the
the domestic
domestic labor
labor
that
prisoners were
were used
force. It
It was
who were
were used
used as
as workers,just
workers, just as
as
was mainly
mainly Asian
Asian prisoners
prisoners who
force.
was the
the case
case in
in the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom;
Kingdom; captive
captive Sherden
Sherden sea
sea pirates,
pirates, posposwas
sibly natives
natives of
of faraway
faraway Sardinia,
Sardinia, frequently
frequently became
royal bodyguards;
bodyguards;
became royal
sibly
Libyans and
and Ethiopians
Ethiopians were
were recruited
into the
Egyptian armyarmy
recruited into
the Egyptian
Libyans
initially perhaps
only as
as auxiliary
auxiliary troops.
troops.
initially
perhaps only
Of
it was
the native
who continued
Of course,
course, it
was the
native Egyptian
Egyptian laborers
laborers who
continued to
to
produce the
bulk of
disproduce
the bulk
of material
material goods.
goods. They
They were
were compulsorily
compulsorily distributed
the different
trades and
tributed among
among the
different trades
and remained
remained in
in the
the same
same dependependent condition
condition and
and worked
for their
their masters
masters in
in the
the same
same way
way as
as they
they
dent
worked for
did
times.
did in
in Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom times.
The
The Egyptian
Egyptian Military
Military Empire
Empire during
during the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty
The
The principal
principal historical
historical sources
sources for
for the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom are
are annalistic
annalistic
texts
texts of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian kings
kings carved
carved on
on the
the walls
walls of
of the
the temples
temples they
they
built and
and biographies
of individual
individual warriors
warriors written
written on
on funeral
funeral stelae.
stelae.
biographies of
built
The New
Kingdom is
is also
also remembered
in later
later literary
literary texts,
The
New Kingdom
remembered in
texts, which
which
poetically re-created
accounts of
of innumerable
innumerable war
war
poetically
re-created the
the past
past with
with vivid
vivid accounts
expeditions, so
so typical
typical especially
especially of
of the
the beginning
beginning of
of this
epoch.
this epoch.
expeditions,
What
preconditions for
policies of
New
What were
were the
the preconditions
for the
the aggressive
aggressive policies
of the
the New
the Eighteenth
Kingdom
Kingdom that
that were
were initiated
initiated by
by the
the first
first pharaohs
pharaohs of
of the
Eighteenth
Dynasty
that had
Dynasty and
and that
had such
such an
an enormous
enormous influence
influence on
on all
all aspects
aspects of
of
Egyptian life?
life? To
the reasons,
reasons, we
we must
must return
return to
to the
the times
times
Egyptian
To understand
understand the
of the
Egyptian struggle
struggle for
for liberation
from the
foreign conquerors,
conquerors,
of
the Egyptian
liberation from
the foreign
the Hyksos.
Hyksos.
the
The
required the
The fight
fight against
against this
this strong
strong adversary
adversary required
the creation
creation of
of aa
numerous and
and powerful
powerful fighting
fighting force
force of
of an
an unprecedented
size. We
numerous
unprecedented size.
We
have no
no information
information about
about the
the number
number of
of soldiers
soldiers in
in this
army, but
but
have
this army,

The New Kingdom of Egypt

Egypt

175
175

we
we do
do know
know that
that during
during the
the New
New Kingdom,
Kingdom, ten
ten out
out of
of each
each hundred
hundred
young men
men mustered
mustered at
at the
the coming
coming of
of age
age were
were assigned
assigned to
to be
be solyoung
soldiers, whereas
whereas during
during the
Middle Kingdom
one in
in aa
diers,
the Middle
Kingdom the
the ratio
ratio was
was one
hundred.
There is
is no
doubt that
that the
the Egyptian
army greatly
increased
hundred. There
no doubt
Egyptian army
greatly increased
in size
size during
during the
the wars
wars of
of liberation.
liberation.
in
In order
to confront
the enemy,
the country
In
order to
confront the
enemy, the
country had
had to
to be
be reunified
reunified
and
central authority
be strengthened;
strengthened; aa concentration
concentration of
of
and the
the central
authority had
had to
to be
all material
material and
and human
resources was
was needed.
had been
done
all
human resources
needed. Much
Much had
been done
in
regard by
by the
Kames, the
the last
pharaoh of
the Sevenin this
this regard
the time
time of
of Kames,
last pharaoh
of the
Seventeenth
Dynasty. However,
the Theban
teenth Dynasty.
However, at
at aa decisive
decisive moment
moment of
of the
Theban king's
king's
struggle
against the
the Hyksos,
the Egyptian
arisstruggle against
Hyksos, influential
influential groups
groups of
of the
Egyptian aristocracy
tocracy refused
refused to
to support
support his
his effort
effort to
to evict
evict the
the invaders
invaders and
and to
to reunify
reunify
the
by Kames,
the country.
country. During
During aa council
council meeting
meeting called
called by
Kames, important
important
state
dignitaries suddenly
state dignitaries
suddenly announced
announced that
that they
they had
had no
no desire
desire to
to fulfill
fulfill
his
wish to
"punish the
the Asiatics."
They declared
that their
Egypt
his wish
to "punish
Asiatics." They
declared that
their life
life in
in Egypt
was
bad, since
they owned
best farmland
farmland and
their cattle
was far
far from
from bad,
since they
owned the
the best
and their
cattle
grazed
on the
vast meadows
meadows of
of the
Delta, and
and that
that
grazed without
without obstacle
obstacle on
the vast
the Delta,
the power
of the
the Hyksos,
in their
opinion, was
illusory: it
the
the
power of
Hyksos, in
their opinion,
was illusory:
it was
was they,
they, the
dignitaries, who
Egypt; the
the Hyksos
Hyksos did
did notthey
only ruled
ruled
dignitaries,
who governed
governed Egypt;
not-they only
over the
the "country
"country of
of the
Asiatics." The
The nobles
nobles also
also told
told the
the king
king that
that
over
the Asiatics."
they would
oppose the
the Hyksos
Hyksos only
only if
if the
the Hyksos
infringe on
on
they
would oppose
Hyksos were
were to
to infringe
their own
own interests.
interests.
their
The
pharaoh engaged
The angered
angered pharaoh
engaged the
the Hyksos
Hyksos in
in battle,
battle, disregarding
disregarding
the
his dignitaries
dignitaries and
without their
All this
the will
will of
of his
and without
their support.
support. All
this can
can be
be
understood
mind that
that the
nobles of
court of
understood if
if we
we keep
keep in
in mind
the nobles
of the
the court
of that
that
timethe aristocrats
of the
the emerging
emerging New
very
time-the
aristocrats of
New Kingdomwere
Kingdom-were very
their nomes,
closely
closely associated
associated with
with their
nomes, many
many of
of which
which only
only very
very recently
recently
had submitted
submitted to
the authority
authority of
of the
the new
new Theban
Theban king.
king. The
The descendescenhad
to the
dants of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom nomarchs,
who enjoyed
enjoyed aa great
great degree
degree
dants
nomarchs, who
of freedom
freedom in
in their
their nomes
nomes before
the advent
advent of
of the
the harsh
harsh reign
reign of
of
before the
of
Amenemhet III,
III, were
were not
not very
very eager
eager to
again have
have an
an excessively
excessively
Amenemhet
to again
strong central
central government.
government. The
The power
of the
the nome
administrations,
strong
power of
nome administrations,
which
had consolidated
consolidated their
their positions
in the
times of
which had
positions in
the preceding
preceding times
of
trouble,
continued to
be strong.
strong. Texts
Texts from
end of
of the
the SevenSeventrouble, continued
to be
from the
the end
teenth and
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth dynasties
dynasties inform
us that
that the
the
teenth
and beginning
beginning of
inform us
local nobility
nobility not
not only
only did
did not
help the
the Theban
Theban kings
endeavor
local
not help
kings in
in their
their endeavor
to evict
evict the
Hyksos and
and reunify
reunify the
the country
country under
Thebes but
but actively
actively
to
the Hyksos
under Thebes
opposed their
their aims
aims by
by provoking
provoking rebellions
rebellions in
in the
the south
south and
and north
opposed
north of
of
Egypt. Under
Under these
these circumstances,
circumstances, the
the Egyptian
Egyptian kings
kings had
had to
to rely
rely ininEgypt.
creasingly on
on the
the support
support of
of the
the growing
growing army.
army. Most
Most of
of its
its members
members
creasingly
were
young recruits
recruits who
who came
came from
from the
the working
stratum of
of Egyptian
Egyptian
were young
working stratum
battle. The
The new
new
society. Their
Their fighting
fighting ability
ability improved
with each
each new
new battle.
improved with
society.
Egyptian kings
kings also
also strove
strove to
to consolidate
consolidate their
their power
power by
by attracting
attracting
Egyptian

176

I. V.
V. Vinogradov

loyal
loyal subjects
subjects of
of nonaristocratic
nonaristocratic origin
origin into
into the
the different
different state
state adminisadministrative offices
offices in
in order
order to
counterbalance the
the opposition
opposition of
of the
old
trative
to counterbalance
the old
nobility.
nobility.
In this
this manner,
the policy
policy of
of centralization
centralization pursued
the Theban
Theban
In
manner, the
pursued by
by the
kings at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the Seventeenth
Seventeenth and
and beginning
of the
Eighteenth
kings
beginning of
the Eighteenth
dynasties created
created aa new
new social
social base,
base, consisting
consisting of
of soldiers
soldiers and
and adminadmindynasties
istrators whose
whose new
new positions
positions ensured
ensured material
material security.
security. A
A gradual
gradual
istrators
compulsory redistribution
of the
country's material
material and
and human
compulsory
redistribution of
the country's
human reresources was
taking place
the advantage
advantage of
of the
the new
new people
people and
and at
at
sources
was taking
place to
to the
the expense
expense of
of the
the old
old aristocracy
aristocracy in
in the
the capital
capital and
and in
in the
the nomes.
nomes. But
But
the
it was
chance that
that the
the land
land estates
estates the
the new
elite reit
was no
no mere
mere chance
new Egyptian
Egyptian elite
received were
were smaller
smaller than
than the
the possessions
possessions of
of their
predecessors of
of the
the
ceived
their predecessors
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, and
and that
that the
of the
the New
Kingdom no
no longer
longer
Old
the nomarchs
nomarchs of
New Kingdom
enjoyed in
in their
their nomes
nomes the
the amount
amount of
of political
influence that
that their
their
enjoyed
political influence
forerunners did.
did. However,
However, this
internal redistribution
redistribution of
of people,
people,
forerunners
this internal
land, and
and other
other property
property during
during the
the New
not sufficient
sufficient
land,
New Kingdom
Kingdom was
was not
for the
the accomplishment
accomplishment of
of the
intended goals.
goals. It
It could
could not
not be
made
for
the intended
be made
radical
enough, because
country's resources
resources were
were not
unlimited.
radical enough,
because the
the country's
not unlimited.
Thus, Egypt
Egypt began
to require
require aa continual
continual influx
influx of
of wealth-material
wealthmaterial
Thus,
began to
and human
human resources
resources from
from abroad-on
abroadon an
an ever-increasing
ever-increasing scale.
scale. The
The
and
interests of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian kings,
kings, who
consolidated their
their
interests
who had
had by
by then
then consolidated
power, coincided
coincided with
of the
the new
new stratum
stratum of
of civil
civil servants
servants who
who
power,
with those
those of
supported the
the dynasty.
dynasty. At
At the
the very
beginning of
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dysupported
very beginning
Dynasty, the
wars against
against the
the foreign
foreign invader,
invader, having
having culminated
culminated in
in the
the
the wars
nasty,
expulsion of
of the
developed into
into wars
wars of
of foreign
foreign conquest.
conquest.
expulsion
the Hyksos,
Hyksos, developed
These wars
wars were
were conducted
conducted in
in Western
Western Asia
and in
in the
the far
far south,
south, in
These
Asia and
in
Nubia,
over the
the span
span of
of many
decades. The
The purpose
of the
the military
military
Nubia, over
many decades.
purpose of
expeditions was
plunder of
of the
conquered lands.
lands.
expeditions
was plunder
the conquered
The roots
roots of
of the
the stubborn
stubborn struggle
struggle between
between the
the new
new elite
elite of
of royal
royal
The
servants, who
who rose
rose from
from the
the ranks
ranks of
of aa vast
social layer
layer of
of people
who
servants,
vast social
people who
supported
the royal
power, and
arissupported the
royal power,
and the
the old
old local
local and
and metropolitan
metropolitan aristocracies,
who, though
considerably shaken
shaken and
and exhausted,
exhausted, were
were still
still
tocracies, who,
though considerably
able to
to maintain
maintain significant
significant economic
economic and
and political
must be
be
able
political positions,
positions, must
sought in
the early
early period
period of
of the
the New
Kingdom. In
In one
one form
form or
or anansought
in the
New Kingdom.
other, this
conflict continued
continued throughout
throughout the
the entire
entire New
Kingdom.
other,
this conflict
New Kingdom.
In
this conflict,
to the
In connection
connection with
with this
conflict, we
we must
must now
now turn
turn to
the situation
situation
of
the priesthood.
priesthood. As
As late
to third
of the
late as
as the
the fourth
fourth to
third centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., the
the
hellenized
Egyptian priest
Manetho blamed
the Hyksos
Hyksos for
for desecratdesecrathellenized Egyptian
priest Manetho
blamed the
ing the
the Egyptian
Egyptian temples
during their
invasion. It
It was
natural then
then
ing
temples during
their invasion.
was natural
that the
the Theban
Theban kings
kings could
could count
count on
on the
the support
support of
of the
the priesthood
priesthood
that
in their
their war
war against
against the
the Hyksos.However,
Hyksos. However, the
in
the higher
higher priesthood
priesthood was
was
inextricably
tied
to
the
metropolitan
and
local
provincial
aristocracy
inextricably tied to the metropolitan and local provincial aristocracy
by
family relationships.
relationships. The
The highest
priestly positions
positions were
tradiby family
highest priestly
were traditionally
held by
from the
the families
families of
of the
the dignitaries
dignitaries and
and
tionally held
by persons
persons from

The New
New Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt
The

177
177

of a local administration was usually also the chief

nomarchs; the head of
chief
priest of
of the local cult. Therefore, the alliance between the Theban
influential Egyptian priests was apparently
kings and the numerous influential
solid enough only during the struggle for independence from the
Hyksos. This alliance began to weaken as the tension between the hecontinued to mount. The
new royal servants continued
reditary nobility and the new
kings of
of the
the Eighteenth
Dynasty apparently
apparently tried
tried to
to bolster
bolster this
this alkings
Eighteenth Dynasty
alliance with
with gifts;
gifts; upon
upon returning
returning from
from foreign
foreign expeditions,
expeditions, they
they prepreliance
sented aa good
good portion
portion of
of the
the booty
booty and
and prisoners
to the
the temples.
temples. The
The
sented
prisoners to
first gifts
gifts went
went to
to the
of the
principal Theban
Theban god,
god, Amon,
Amon, who
who
first
the priests
priests of
the principal
was identified
identified with
with the
the ancient
ancient god
god of
of Heliopolis,
Heliopolis, Ra',
and became
became the
the
Ra', and
was
supreme god
god of
of Egypt,
Egypt, Amon-Ra',
Amon-Ra', during
during the
the New
New Kingdom.
Kingdom. Yet,
Yet, it
it
supreme
was the
of Amon-Ra'
Amon-Ra' who
toward the
the end
end of
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth
was
the priests
priests of
who toward
Dynasty
the principal
of the
the new
new royal
royal servants
servants in
in
Dynasty became
became the
principal adversaries
adversaries of
their open
open struggle
struggle against
against the
the old
old aristocracy
aristocracy for
for positions
positions closer
closer to
to
their
the source
source of
of power.
power.
the
of the sixteenth cenUnder the new Theban dynasty at the onset of
tury B.C.,
B.C., Egypt was on the rise. Ya'hmes I (Amasis I), the first king of
successfully concluded the war against the Hyksos,
the New Kingdom, successfully
which began under his predecessor, Kames. The Egyptian warships,
approached the
of Avaris, and
through the canals, approached
the walls of
navigating through
after several
several battles
battles on
on water
water and
land, the
the capital
capital of
of the
the Hyksos
Hyksos fell.
fell.
after
and land,
While pursuing
pursuing the
the retreating
retreating foe,'
foe, the
the Egyptians
Egyptians invaded
invaded southern
southern
While
Palestine,
where for
three years
years they
they laid
laid siege
siege to
the fortified
fortified city
city of
of
Palestine, where
for three
to the
Sharuhen, probably
the last
last stronghold
stronghold of
of the
the Hyksos
close to
to EgypSharuhen,
probably the
Hyksos close
Egyptian borders.
borders. Eventually,
Sharuhen was
was taken,
taken, and
and the
the incursions
incursions of
of
tian
Eventually, Sharuhen
neighboring Western
Western Asian
tribes were
were repelled.
repelled. Thereupon,
Thereupon, Ya'hmes
Ya'hmes
neighboring
Asian tribes
took his
his army
army upriver,
upriver, south
south into
into northern
northern Ethiopia
Ethiopia (Nubia),
(Nubia), and
and
II took
defeated the
the insubordinate
insubordinate Kushite
tribes. He
also fought
fought against
against
defeated
Kushite tribes.
He also
some unnamed
unnamed rebel
rebel in
in Egypt
Egypt itself,
Tetian
itself, as
as well
well as
as against
against aa certain
certain Tetian
some
and his
"band of
of malefactors."
These struggles
struggles within
Egypt proper
proper
and
his "band
malefactors." These
within Egypt
reveal the
internal resistance
resistance of
of some
some local
rulers to
central auaureveal
the internal
local rulers
to the
the central
thority. Ya'hmes'
successor, Amenhetep
(Amenophis I),
continued
thority.
Ya'hmes' successor,
Amenhetep II (Amenophis
I), continued
the struggle
struggle against
against the
obstinate resistance
of the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of northnorththe
the obstinate
resistance of
ern Ethiopia.
Ethiopia.
ern
As a result of
of the military expeditions of
of the first two kings of
of the
extended its boundaries back to the old fronfronNew Kingdom, Egypt extended
from the Sinai Peninof the Middle Kingdom during its heyday: from
tiers of
sula in
to the
Second Cataract
Cataract of
of the
the Nile
south.
the north
north to
the Second
Nile in
in the
the south.
sula
in the
The beginning of
of the extensive military expeditions far beyond
of Pharaoh Thutmosis I.1I
Egyptian borders is associated with the name of
1. This
This is
is the
Greek variant
variant of
of his
his name.
name. In
In the
the conventional
conventional Egyptological
Egyptological reading
reading
1.
the Greek
it is
is Djehutimesu.
Djehutimesu.
it

178

I.
/. V.
V.Vinogradov
Vinogradov

Like
his predecessors,
turned his
his attention
to unLike his
predecessors, Thutmosis
Thutmosis II again
again turned
attention to
unruly
ruly Ethiopia
Ethiopia in
in order
order to
to "punish
"punish the
the rebels
rebels in
in foreign
foreign lands
lands and
and to
to
repel invasions
invasions from
from the
the desert
desert region."
region." Having
Having successfully
successfully accomaccomrepel
plished this
this task,
task, the
the Egyptian
troops advanced
plished
Egyptian troops
advanced farther
farther south,
south, reachreaching for
for the
the first
time the
the region
region of
of the
Third Cataract
Cataract of
of the
ing
first time
the Third
the Nile,
Nile,
Tombos, establishing
where
they built
built aa fortress
where they
fortress on
on the
the island
island of
of Tombos,
establishing aa
strong garrison.
garrison. After
After the
the southern
southern expedition,
expedition, the
Egyptian army
army
strong
the Egyptian
moved
moved north
north into
into Western
Western Asia
Asia and
and destroyed
destroyed the
the small
small principalities
principalities
in the
the oases
oases of
of Palestine
Palestine and
and Syria,
Syria, acquiring
acquiring much
much booty
and taking
taking
booty and
in
many prisoners
prisoners to
to Egypt.
Egypt. The
The army
army of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis II reached
reached Nahraina
Nahraina
many
(Mitanni) on
on the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, where
where the
the Egyptians
Egyptians for
for the
the first
time saw
(Mitanni)
first time
saw
large river
river flowing
in aa north-south
north-south direction
direction instead
instead of
of the
the southsouthaa large
flowing in
north direction
direction of
of the
the Nile,
to which
they were
were accustomed.
accustomed. This
This
north
Nile, to
which they
greatly amazed
amazed the
Egyptians and
and was
reflected in
in the
the Egyptian
Egyptian name
name
greatly
the Egyptians
was reflected
for the
the Euphrates:
"Reversed Water."
Water."
for
Euphrates: "Reversed
The
The successfully
successfully initiated
initiated campaigns
campaigns were
were interrupted
interrupted unexpectedly
unexpectedly
for more
more than
than twenty
next king,
Thutmosis II,
II, was
was sickly
sickly
for
twenty years.
years. The
The next
king, Thutmosis
and
by aa concubine,
concubine, Thutmosis
Thutmosis III,
was coregent
and short-lived.
short-lived. His
His son,
son, by
III, was
coregent
with
with his
his father
father while
while still
still aa minor.
minor. After
After the
the death
death of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis II,
II,
the
hands of
the real
real power
power passed
passed into
into the
the hands
of his
his widow,
widow, Hatshepsut,
Hatshepsut, who
who
became
the ruler
ruler of
of the
the country
country in
in the
the name
name of
of her
her husband's
husband's minor
minor
became the
son, but
soon ascended
ascended the
Egyptian throne
throne as
as the
the ruler
in her
her own
own
son,
but soon
the Egyptian
ruler in
right,
probably with
active support
support of
of the
Theban priesthood.
priesthood.
right, probably
with the
the active
the Theban
During
the rule
rule of
of Hatshepsut,
the army
army remained
virtually inactive
inactive
During the
Hatshepsut, the
remained virtually
years. The
The peaceful
rule of
of the
the female
female pharaoh
marked
for twenty
twenty years.
for
peaceful rule
pharaoh was
was marked
by intensive
intensive building
building activities
activities that
that clearly
clearly reflected
reflected aa special
special favoritism
favoritism
by
toward
the
priests
of
the
god
Amon.
Numerous
temples
consecrated
toward the priests of the god Amon. Numerous temples consecrated
to the
the country's
country's principal
god were
were built
at Thebes,
Thebes, as
as well
well as
as in
in the
the
principal god
built at
to
southern
and
northern
parts
of
the
country.
In
Deir
el-Bahri
stands
southern and northern parts of the country. In Deir el-Bahri stands
Hatshepsut's beautiful
funerary complex
complex built
Senmut, HatshepHatshepHatshepsut's
beautiful funerary
built by
by Senmut,
sut's architect
architect and
and court
court favorite.
favorite. Among
Among her
her foreign
foreign activities
activities only
only
sut's
one expedition,
expedition, to
Punt, is
is well
It is
is vividly
depicted on
on colone
to Punt,
well known.
known. It
vividly depicted
colored flat
in her
ored
flat reliefs
reliefs in
her tomb.
tomb.
Around
B.C., after
Around 1500
1500 B.C.,
after Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut died,
died, Thutmosis
Thutmosis III
III (who
(who had
had
not even
her reign)
finally became
not
even been
been officially
officially mentioned
mentioned during
during her
reign) finally
became
the
ruler, formally
the twenty-second
year of
his reign.
reign. He
the sole
sole ruler,
formally in
in the
twenty-second year
of his
He
fiercely attempted
attempted to
to obliterate
obliterate all
all mention
mention of
of his
stepmother, defiercely
his stepmother,
destroying
her statues,
her name
stroying her
statues, chiseling
chiseling away
away her
name from
from the
the walls
walls of
of
temples, and
and immuring
immuring between
between walls
walls thirty-meter-tall
thirty-meter-tall obelisks
obelisks that
that
temples,
had
been built
on her
orders. Nor
did he
he spare
spare the
men of
of her
her retihad been
built on
her orders.
Nor did
the men
retinue, not
not even
even the
the deceased,
deceased, such
such as
as Senmut,
Senmut, whose
whose tomb
ordered
nue,
tomb he
he ordered
destroyed. Political
Political life
life in
in the
the country
country drastically
drastically changed.
changed. The
The parpardestroyed.
tisans
of the
the new
king began
gain preeminence
preeminence within
ruling
new king
began to
to gain
within the
the ruling
tisans of
group of
of the
the society.
society. Thutmosis
Thutmosis III
III sought
sought support,
support, as
as did
did his
his predepredegroup

The
New Kingdom
Egypt
The New
Kingdom of
of Egypt

179

cessors,
mainly in
in the
the army
the new
new royal
royal servants'
servants' elite.
elite. Thus
Thus
cessors, mainly
army and
and in
in the
ended
peace, so
unusual for
ended the
the short
short period
period of
of peace,
so unusual
for the
the New
New Kingdom,
Kingdom,
and
and began
began aa new
new era
era of
of military
military conquest
conquest launched
launched by
by Thutmosis
Thutmosis III.
III.
Fragments
Fragments of
of aa chronicle
chronicle written
written by an
an Egyptian
Egyptian scribe
scribe who participated in
III were
preserved on
walls
pated
in the
the campaigns
campaigns of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis III
were preserved
on the
the walls
of the
temple of
Amon-Ra'. The
of
the Theban
Theban temple
of Amon-Ra'.
The original
original text,
text, written
written on
on
leather
long since
perished, but
but whatever
whatever remained
leather scrolls,
scrolls, has
has long
since perished,
remained enendocuments allow
us to
graved
graved in
in stone
stone and
and certain
certain other
other documents
allow us
to follow
follow the
the
military
military actions
actions of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis III,
III, which
which lasted
lasted for
for almost
almost twenty
twenty
years.
years.
In
the very
very year
year of
of Hatshepsut's
death the
departed
In the
Hatshepsut's death
the Egyptian
Egyptian army
army departed
from the
the command
from
the frontier
frontier fortress
fortress of
of Tcharu
Tcharu22 under
under the
command of
of ThutThutmosis III.
III. Ten
Ten days
later, the
the troops
troops reached
reached Gaza
Gaza in
southern Palmosis
days later,
in southern
Palestine, where
where the
celebrated the
the twenty-third
twenty-third anniversary
anniversary of
of his
his
estine,
the king
king celebrated
formal
On the
the next
next day
day he
into the
the interior
interior of
of WestWesthe proceeded
proceeded into
formal reign.
reign. On
ern Asia,
Asia, where
where he
he had
had to
to confront
confront aa large
large coalition
coalition headed
headed by
by aa
ern
minor
minor king
king of
of the
the city
city of
of Kadesh
Kadesh on
on the
the Orontes
Orontes River.
River. This
This time
time the
the
pharaoh
met aa unified
unified force
instead of
of the
the usual
usual uncoordinated
uncoordinated
pharaoh met
force instead
efforts of
of individual
individual minor
minor kings
kings and
and princes,
princes, typical
typical of
of earlier
earlier times.
efforts
times.
Thutmosis decided
decided to
to engage
engage in
in battle
battle at
at the
the walls
walls of
of the
the city
city of
of
Thutmosis
Megiddo.
Among the
approaches to
Megiddo. Among
the three
three possible
possible approaches
to the
the city
city he
he chose,
chose,
against
the advice
war council,
the shortest
shortest but
but most
difficult
advice of
of his
his war
council, the
most difficult
against the
route,
which led
pass along
along aa narrow
narrow path
path at
at the
the
through aa mountain
mountain pass
route, which
led through
edge of
of aa precipice.
"And he
he went
at the
the head
head of
of his
showing
edge
precipice. "And
went at
his troops,
troops, showing
the path
path to
to every
every man.
And horse
followed horse,
horse, and
and His
His Majesty
Majesty
the
man. And
horse followed
was at
at the
the head
of his
army," recounts
recounts the
the chronicle.
chronicle. When
When the
head of
his army,"
the EgypEgypwas
tians came
came out
the gorge
gorge into
into the
the Megiddo
Megiddo plain,
they built
built aa camp
camp
out of
of the
plain, they
tians
in full
full view
view of
of the
the enemy
enemy and
and spent
spent the
the night.
The next
next morning
morning the
the
in
night. The
pharaoh
himself, in
in aa golden
golden chariot,
chariot, led
led the
the troops
troops into
into battle.
battle. The
The
pharaoh himself,
enemy could
could not
not long
long withstand
onslaught of
of the
the serried
serried Egyptian
Egyptian
enemy
withstand the
the onslaught
army.
After
a
short
time,
the
troops
led
by
the
ruler
of
Kadesh
abanarmy. After a short time, the troops led by the ruler of Kadesh abandoned
their
chariots,
weapons,
and
tents
on
the
battlefield
and
hid
doned their chariots, weapons, and tents on the battlefield and hid
precipitously
behind
the
city
walls.
Many
of
the
retreating
soldiers
precipitously behind the city walls. Many of the retreating soldiers
had to
to be
be lifted
lifted by
by their
their garments
garments and
and pulled
over the
the city
city wall.
wall. The
The
had
pulled over
Egyptians, however,
however, failed
failed to
to take
take advantage
advantage of
of the
the enemy's
enemy's disarray,
disarray,
Egyptians,
proceeding
loot the
the abandoned
abandoned enemy
enemy camp
camp and
and to
to assess
assess
proceeding instead
instead to
to loot
the booty.
booty. Meanwhile,
the city
city gates
were closed.
closed. It
It was
was nevertheless
nevertheless
the
Meanwhile, the
gates were
absolutely imperative
that the
Egyptians take
take Megiddo.
Megiddo. "All
"All the
the lords
lords
the Egyptians
.absolutely
imperative that
of the
the northern
northern countries
countries are
are locked
locked in
in this
this city,"
city," the
the pharaoh
pharaoh said
said to
to
of
his soldiers.
soldiers. "Thus
"Thus the
the capture
capture of
of Megiddo
Megiddo will
will be
be like
like taking
taking thouthouhis
sands of
of cities."
cities." A
long siege
siege ensued-the
ensuedthe Egyptians
Egyptians had
had not
yet acsands
A long
not yet
acquired the
the art
of storming
storming fortresses.
fortresses. Only
Only after
after seven
seven months
months did
did the
the
quired
art of
2.
2. Cuneiform
Cuneiform sources
sources call
call it
it Tsilu.
Tsilu.

180
i8o

I./. V.V.
Vinogradov
Vinogradov

starved
starved city
city surrender.
surrender. The
The rulers
rulers prostrated
prostrated themselves
themselves before
before the
the
pharaoh and
and begged
begged for
for their
theirlives.
lives.The
The pardoned
pardoned and
and humbled
humbled "city
"city
pharaoh
lords" were
were sent
sent to
to their
their respective
respective cities
cities mounted
mounted on
on donkeys,
donkeys, while
while
lords"
the Egyptians
Egyptians again
again proceeded
proceeded to
to count
count their
their spoils.
spoils. The
The chronicle
chronicle
the
scrupulously enumerates
enumerates the
the military
military trophies
trophies captured
captured in
in Megiddo
Megiddo
scrupulously
and its
itsenvirons:
environs:"340
"340prisoners,
prisoners, 2,041
2,041horses,
horses, 191
191foals,
foals,66stallions."
stallions."ItIt
and
goeson,
on,listing
listinghundreds
hundreds of
ofchariots,
chariots,including
includingthe
thegold-plated
gold-plated chariot
chariot
goes
of the
the king
king of
of Kadesh,
Kadesh, copper
copper and
and leather
leather armor,
armor, wooden
wooden props
props for
for
of
royal tents,
tents, cows,
cows, oxen,
oxen, goats,
goats, thousands
thousands of
of sheep,
sheep, and
and an
an enormous
enormous
royal
amount of
of grain
grain "delivered
"delivered to
to His
HisMajesty
Majesty from
from the
thefields
fields of
of Megiddo."
Megiddo."
amount
And
And so,
so,year
year after
after year,
year, from
from the
the twenty-second
twenty-second to
to the
the forty-second
forty-second
year of
of his
his reign,
reign, Thutmosis
Thutmosis III
III led
led his
his troops
troops each
each summer
summer into
into
year
Western Asia
Asia when
when the
the harvest
harvest was
was ripe
ripe and
and conquered
conquered further
further cities
cities
Western
and regions
regions of
of Syria.
Syria. In
In one
one of
of their
their last
last expeditions
expeditions the
the Egyptians
Egyptians
and
once more
more took
took possession
possession of
of Kadesh,
Kadesh, but
but this
this time
time they
they stormed
stormed itit
once
through aa breach
breach in
in the
the city
city wall.
wall. The
The city
city of
of Carchemish
Carchemish became
became the
the
through
northernmost limit
limit of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis Ill's
Ill's Asian
Asian campaigns.
campaigns. It
It was
was an
an adadnorthernmost
vantageous strategic
strategic site
site at
at the
the junction
junction of
of Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor,
vantageous
and Syria.
Syria.
and
As aa consequence
consequence of
of his
his wars
wars against
against the
the small
small Syrian
Syrian principalities,
principalities,
As
itit was
was unavoidable
unavoidable that
that Thutmosis
Thutmosis III
III would
would eventually
eventually confront
confront the
the
Mitanni kingdom,
kingdom, situated
situated in
in northern
northern Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. This
This kingdom
kingdom
Mitanni
served
served as
as aa natural
natural rear
rear bulwark
bulwark for
for Western
Western Asiatic
Asiatic cities
cities in
in their
their
war with
with Egypt.
Egypt. On
On one
one occasion,
occasion, Egyptian
Egyptian boats
boats built
built in
in Byblos,
Byblos, on
on
war
the eastern
eastern shore
shore of
of the
the Mediterranean,
Mediterranean, were
were transported
transported to
to the
the EuEuthe
phrates on
on carts
carts pulled
pulled by
by oxen.
oxen. The
The Egyptians
Egyptians sailed
sailed downriver,
downriver, dedephrates
stroying Mitannian
Mitannian cities
cities and
and villages.
villages. After
After several
several clashes
clashes with
with the
the
stroying
Egyptians, the
the Mitannian
Mitannian troops
troops were
were forced
forced to
to retreat
retreat far
far beyond
beyond the
the
Egyptians,
river.
rIver.
In
In the
the south,
south, the
the Nubian
Nubian possessions
possessions of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis III
III extended
extended all
all
the way
way to
to the
the Fourth
Fourth Cataract
Cataract of
of the
the Nile.
Nile. No
No successor
successor of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis
the
could ever
ever go
go beyond
beyond his
his newly
newly established
established boundaries-south
boundariessouth or
or
could
north. Egypt
Egypt became
became the
the greatest
greatest world
world power,
power, spanning,
spanning, together
together
north.
with its
its tributary
tributary states,
states, 3,500
3,500 kilometers
kilometers from
from the
the north
north to
to the
the south.
south.
with
The
The degree
degree of
of dependence
dependence on
on Egypt
Egypt of
of the
the conquered
conquered countries
countries
and
and cities
cities varied.
varied. Ethiopia
Ethiopia had
had the
the closest
closest ties
ties to
to Egypt.
Egypt. Directly
Directly govgoverned
erned by
by an
an Egyptian
Egyptian administration,
administration, it
it was
was headed
headed by
by aa vicegerent
vicegerent
bore the
he was
who
who bore
the title
title Royal
Royal Son
Son of
of Kush,
Kush, although
although he
was not
not aa royal
royal
prince.
prince. In
In Western
Western Asia,
Asia, however,
however, the
the Egyptians
Egyptians had
had not
not been
been able
able
to establish
such aa strong
strong position
due to
to the
difficulties of
of crossing
crossing
the difficulties
to
establish such
position due
the desert
desert and
and the
the continual
continual counteraction
counteraction by
by neighboring
neighboring empires.
empires.
the
Nonetheless,
Egyptian garrisons
garrisons resided
resided in
in important
important Asiatic
Asiatic cities,
cities,
Nonetheless, Egyptian
and the
the heirs
heirs of
of the
rulers were
hostages in
in Egypt
Egypt and
and
and
the local
local rulers
were kept
kept as
as hostages
raised at
at the
Egyptian court
court in
in aa manner
favorable to
to the
the interests
interests of
of
raised
the Egyptian
manner favorable

The
The New
New Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt

181

the
pharaoh. The
The vicegerent
vicegerent of
of Egypt
Egypt in
in Asia
Asia bore
bore the
title Chief
Chief of
of
the pharaoh.
the title
the Northern
Countries.
the
Northern Countries.
Enormous
Egypt in
in the
form of
of yearly
tribute
Enormous wealth
wealth flowed
flowed into
into Egypt
the form
yearly tribute
from the
conquered lands
lands and
and in
form of
war loot
the territerrifrom
the conquered
in the
the form
of war
loot from
from the
tories
had not
not yet
yet been
been subdued.
subdued. The
The Egyptian
received
that had
Egyptian warriors
warriors received
tories that
large share
share of
of this
this wealth,
wealth, obtaining
obtaining military
military decorations,
decorations, land,
land, and
and
aa large
prisoners as
as reward
for their
their prowess.
prowess. The
The priesthood
likewise was
prisoners
reward for
priesthood likewise
was
not
neglected, as
as the
the pharaoh
pharaoh needed
needed their
their support;
support; the
the biggest
biggest share
share
not neglected,
of the
the war
war booty
booty went
the treasury
treasury of
of the
the Theban
Theban temple
temple of
of
of
went into
into the
Amon-Ra'.
Vast construction
construction projects
projects were
conducted in
in the
the main
main
Amon-Ra'. Vast
were conducted
Amon-Ra'
temple, as
as in
temples.
Amon-Ra' temple,
as well
well as
in other
other temples.
reign. He
Thutmosis III
III died
died in
in the
fifty-fourth year
of his
Thutmosis
the fifty-fourth
year of
his reign.
He was
was sucsucceeded by
son Amenhetep
who also
also spent
spent his
time in
military
Amenhetep II,
II, who
his time
in military
ceeded
by his
his son
campaigns, quelling
quelling rebellions
rebellions in
in various
various parts
of his
his realm.
This king
king
realm. This
campaigns,
parts of
claimed to
to have
brought more
more than
than 100,000
100,000 Asian
Asian captives
into
captives into
claimed
have brought
Egypt,
during one
one single
single punitive
expedition to
Western
punitive expedition
to Western
Egypt, possibly
possibly during
Asia.
son Thutmosis
Thutmosis IV
IV also
also led
several expeditions
expeditions to
to Asia
and
Asia. His
His son
led several
Asia and
subdued an
uprising in
Ethiopia.
subdued
an uprising
in Ethiopia.
The
punitive expeditions
Amenhetep II
II and
The punitive
expeditions of
of Amenhetep
and Thutmosis
Thutmosis IV
IV broke
broke
the resistance
resistance of
of the
minor kings
of Western
Western Asia.
The might
might of
of Egypt
Egypt
the
the minor
kings of
Asia. The
was
recognized by
by independent
was now
now also
also recognized
independent states:
states: Kassite
Kassite Babylonia,
Babylonia, the
the
Hittite
the city
Asshur. Following
Following an
an armed
armed confronconfronHittite kingdom,
kingdom, and
and the
city of
of Asshur.
tation, peaceful
peaceful relations
relations were
were established
established with
with the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Mitanni
tation,
Mitanni
and sealed
with the
marriage of
of Thutmosis
IV to
to aa Mitannian
Mitannian princess.
princess.
and
sealed with
the marriage
Thutmosis IV
It
is thus
surprising that
that the
the thirty-year
reign of
Amenhetep III,
It is
thus not
not surprising
thirty-year reign
of Amenhetep
III,
the successor
IV, was
the
successor of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis IV,
was exceptionally
exceptionally peaceful.
peaceful. Only
Only once,
once,
year of
his rule,
rule, did
did the
in the
in
the fifth
fifth year
of his
the new
new king
king conduct
conduct an
an expedition
expedition
into
Ethiopia. The
of Amenhetep
marked by
grandiose
into Ethiopia.
The reign
reign of
Amenhetep III
III was
was marked
by grandiose
building activities.
activities. A
A new
new and
majestic temple
temple was
built in
in Thebes
Thebes in
in
building
and majestic
was built
honor
of the
the Nile,
the capital,
capital,
honor of
of Amon-Ra'.
Amon-Ra'. On
On the
the west
west bank
bank of
Nile, near
near the
Amenhetep
erected aa suburban
suburban royal
It was
luxAmenhetep erected
royal residence.
residence. It
was aa large,
large, luxurious
to the
the north
north of
of which
which stood
stood the
the funerary
funerary temple
temple of
of the
the
urious palace,
palace, to
king,
statues of
of the
king, with
with two
two enormous
enormous statues
the pharaoh
pharaoh rising
rising in
in front
front of
of
its
of Memnon.
avenue flanked
its pylonsthe
pylons-the famous
famous Colossi
Colossi of
Memnon.33 An
An avenue
flanked by
by
sphinxes, sculpted
sculpted from
from pink
granite, was
the
pink Aswan
Aswan granite,
was unearthed
unearthed near
near the
sphinxes,
ruins
of
this
temple
during
the
last
century.
(Two
of
them
are
standruins of this temple during the last century. (Two of them are standing today
today on
on the
It was
incalcuing
the bank
bank of
of the
the Neva
Neva in
in Leningrad.)
Leningrad.) It
was the
the incalculable wealth
brought to
dependent states
states
lable
wealth brought
to Egypt
Egypt from
from tributary
tributary and
and dependent
that
that allowed
allowed Amenhetep
Amenhetep III
III to
to engage
engage in
in such
such gigantic
gigantic and
and lavish
lavish
building
building activities.
activities.
3. Years
Years later,
the colossi
remained standing,
standing, the
ancient Greeks
re3.
later, when
when only
only the
colossi remained
the ancient
Greeks regarded
them as
of Memnon,
Memnon, son
son of
of Eos,
the goddess
of dawn,
dawn, because
because the
the
garded'them
as images
images of
Eos, the
goddess of
morning
breeze produced
sounds as
as it
the cracks
cracks of
of the
the aging
aging
morning breeze
produced melodic
melodic sounds
it rushed
rushed through
through the
statues. The
The cracks
cracks were
patched on
on the
order of
emperor.
statues.
were patched
the order
of aa Roman
Roman emperor.

182

I. V.
V. Vinogradov

However,
However, we
we find
find that
that all
all was
was not
not well
well during
during the
the peaceful
peaceful time
time of
of
Amenhetep III.
III. The
internal stability
stability of
of the
gradually
Amenhetep
The internal
the kingdom
kingdom was
was gradually
eroding because
because of
of the
the continual,
continual, though
still unobtrusive,
struggle
eroding
though still
unobtrusive, struggle
class. On
On the
the one
one hand,
hand,
between
the two
two mighty
mighty factions
factions of
of the
the ruling
ruling class.
between the
the interests
interests of
of the
the hereditary
hereditary metropolitan
metropolitan and
and nome
nome aristocracy
aristocracy
the
and, on
on the
the other
other hand,
hand, those
those of
of the
the new
new social
social stratum
stratum of
of the
the new
new
and,
royal servants'
servants' elite
elite continued
continued to
to diverge.
diverge. An
An open
open struggle
struggle was
was about
about
royal
to erupt.
erupt. Its
Its result
was the
the so-called
so-called religious
religious reform
reform of
of Akhenaton
Akhenaton
to
result was
(Amenhetep IV).
(Amenhetep
IV).

The
Religious Reform
IV
The Religious
Reform of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
and the
the End
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty
and
End of

While still
still aa teenager,
teenager, Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
IV became
coregent with
with his
his fafaWhile
became coregent
ther, who
who in
in the
the last
last days
days of
of his
ther,
his life
life fell
fell gravely
gravely ill.
ill. During
During this
this time,
time, as
as
well as
as in
in the
the first
first years
years of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV's
IV's rule,
rule, his
his intelligent
intelligent and
and
well
energetic
energetic mother,
mother, Queen
Queen Tiyi,
Tiyi, aa commoner,
commoner, exerted
exerted aa strong
strong influinfluence on
on the
the affairs
affairs of
of the
the state.
state. The
The marriage
marriage of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep III
III to
to the
the
ence
daughter
daughter of
of an
an obscure
obscure cattle
cattle manager
manager of
of aa provincial
provincial temple
temple was
was apapparently not
not favorably
favorably regarded
regarded by
by the
the Theban
Theban priesthood
and the
the
priesthood and
parently
metropolitan aristocracy.
aristocracy. Personal
Personal enmity
enmity played
part in
in the
the events
events
metropolitan
played aa part
about to
to unfold,
unfold, but
but this
this enmity
enmity was
was itself
itself merely
merely aa manifestation
manifestation of
of
about
an old
old conflict
conflict that
that had
had been
brewing in
in the
the upper
upper stratum
stratum of
of the
the
an
been brewing
Egyptian aristocracy
aristocracy for
for many
many years.
years.
Egyptian
Amenhetep
B.C. His
His seventeenseventeenAmenhetep IV
IV became
became king
king about
about 1400
1400 or
or 1375
1375 B.C.
year
between the
year reign
reign witnessed
witnessed the
the harshest
harshest collision
collision between
the two
two mighty
mighty
parties of
of the
the ruling
ruling class.
class.
parties
The initiators
initiators of
of this
this decisive
decisive confrontation
confrontation were
were people
people of
of the
the vast
The
vast
stratum
stratum of
of royal
royal servants,
servants, particularly
particularly those
those who
who were
were personally
personally conconnected
nected to
to the
the royal
royal family.
family. The
The texts
texts of
of the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom call
call them
them
nemhu.
nemhu}4 The
The ablest
ablest representatives
representatives of
of this
this new
new group
group made
made distindistinguished service
service careers,
careers, consolidating
consolidating their
their positions
in all
all areas
areas of
of the
the
positions in
guished
Egyptian administrative
administrative and
and economic
economic bureaucracy,
bureaucracy, in
in the
the army
army and
and
Egyptian
in
hein the
the royal
royal court.
court. Their
Their main
main goal
goal became
became the
the removal
removal of
of the
the old
old hereditary nobility
nobility as
as far
far as
as possible
possible from
from the
the sources
sources of
of power
and
power and
reditary
wealth. The
pharaoh, heading
this new,
wealth.
The pharaoh,
heading this
new, loyal
loyal and
and dynamic
dynamic faction,
faction,
hoped to
to strengthen
strengthen his
his autocratic
autocratic power
power still
still further.
further.
hoped
The
task confronting
not an
The task
confronting the
the new
new royal
royal servants'
servants' elite
elite was
was not
an easy
easy
4.
4. The
The original
original meaning
meaning of
of the
the word
word nemhu
nemhuwas
was"poor,
"poor,destitute,
destitute,insignificant."
insignificant." But
But
with the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the middle
middle of
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty this
this term
term appears
appears with
with ininwith
people who
held very
creasing frequency
frequency in
in the
the inscriptions
inscriptions of
of people
who held
very important
important positions
positions in
in
creasing
the Egyptian
hierarchy. Thus,
Thus, nemhu
cametotodescribe
describethe
thepeople
peopleof
ofthe
thenew
newstratum
stratumof
of
the
Egyptian hierarchy.
nemhu came
royal
least during
New Kingdom),
hinting at
royal servants
servants (at
(at least
during the
the New
Kingdom), its
its original
original meaning
meaning hinting
at the
the
social origin
origin of
of the
the new
new elite
elite as
as contrasted
contrasted with
with the
the old
old aristocracy.
aristocracy.
social

The
Kingdom of
of Egypt
The New
New Kingdom
Egypt

183

one,
one, because
because their
their opponents
opponents still
still maintained
maintained secure
secure positions
positions at
at the
the
capital
capital and
and in
in the
the local
local centers.
centers. The
The influence
influence of
of the
the powerful
powerful Theban
Theban
priesthood, closely
closely tied
tied to
to the
the old
old hereditary
hereditary nobility,
nobility, was
was enormous.
enormous.
priesthood,
The priesthood
of Amon-Ra',
Amon-Ra', the
the principal
principal god
god since
since the
the beginning
beginning
The
priesthood of
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, became
became the
the most
most persistent
persistent rival
rival of
of the
the new
new
of
royal servants'
servants' elite
elite and
and of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
IV himself.
himself. It
It was
therefore
royal
was therefore
inevitable that
that the
the struggle
struggle acquired
acquired the
the outward
outward form
form of
of religious
religious
inevitable
conflict; its
its focal
focal point
point became
became the
the rivalry
rivalry between
the pan-Egyptian
pan-Egyptian
conflict;
between the
5
god Aton,
newly proclaimed
proclaimed by
by the
the pharaoh,
pharaoh, and
and the
the Theban
Theban god
god
god
Aton, 5 newly
4
Amon-Ra , along
along with
with other
other traditional
traditional gods
gods of
of Egypt.
Egypt.
Amon-Ra',
The bitter
and irreconcilable
irreconcilable position
position assumed
assumed by
the Theban
Theban
The
bitter and
by the
priesthood
better understood
if we
take into
into account
that by
by
priesthood can
can be
be better
understood if
we take
account that
that
had developed
developed between
between the
that time
time aa new
new system
system of
of relationships
relationships had
the
temple economy
the royal
typical of
temple
economy and
and the
royal administration.
administration. This
This system,
system, typical
of
the entire
rigid control
control by
the central
the
entire New
New Kingdom
Kingdom epoch,
epoch, involved
involved rigid
by the
central
government
branches of
of the
economy of
of the
temples and
and dedegovernment over
over all
all branches
the economy
the temples
manded significant
on temple
lands for
manded
significant transfers
transfers of
of grain
grain harvested
harvested on
temple lands
for
the benefit
benefit of
royal administration.
was to
to maintain
maintain the
the everthe
of the
the royal
administration. This
This was
evergrowing state
that similar
similar payments
growing
state machinery
machinery and
and the
the army.
army. It
It seems
seems that
payments
were also
also exacted
exacted from
from other
other productive
temple enterprises.
enterprises. In
In addiaddiwere
productive temple
tion, temples
supply grain
grain to
to their
their own
own workers
workers and
and to
to various
various
tion,
temples had
had to
to supply
nontemple functionaries
functionaries for
for their
their sustenance.
sustenance.
nontemple
We know
know about
about the
the generous
generous gifts
gifts presented
presented by
by the
the pharaohs
of the
the
We
pharaohs of
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty to
to many
Egyptian temples
temples after
after each
each successful
successful
Eighteenth
many Egyptian
military
expedition. But
But at
at the
same time
time it
it is
is evident
evident that
that the
the temple
temple
military expedition.
the same
economies became
an important
important source
source of
of wealth
wealth for
for the
the pharaohs
pharaohs
economies
became an
themselves,
them to
to continue
themselves, helping
helping them
continue their
their aggressive
aggressive foreign
foreign policy
policy
and to
to consolidate
consolidate the
the positions
positions of
of the
the royal
royal servants'
servants' elite.
elite. The
The conconand
trol over
over the
the temples
temples and
and the
the exactions
exactions of
of the
the central
central government
government
trol
probably increased
as time
time passed,
passed, provoking
provoking the
the discontent
discontent and
and reprobably
increased as
resistance of
of the
general and
and of
of the
most powerful
powerful
sistance
the priesthood
priesthood in
in general
the most
Theban priesthood
in particular.
particular. About
the time
when Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
IV
Theban
priesthood in
About the
time when
ascended the
the throne,
throne, the
the confrontation
the opposing
opposing parties
parties
ascended
confrontation between
between the
was reaching
reaching aa climax,
an overt
struggle became
inevitable.
was
climax, and
and an
overt struggle
became inevitable.
However,
in the
the beginning
of the
pharaoh's reign,
However, in
beginning of
the new
new pharaoh's
reign, events
events
evolved comparatively
comparatively slowly.
slowly. The
The reforms,
which would
would soon
soon cause
cause
evolved
reforms, which
tremendous repercussions
repercussions in
in all
all aspects
of Egyptian
gradtremendous
aspects of
Egyptian life,
life, were
were gradual. The
The introduction
introduction of
of aa new
new countrywide
countrywide state
state cult
cult of
of the
the god
god Aton,
Aton,
ual.
who was
was worshiped
worshiped as
as the
the personification
personification of
of the
the solar
solar disk,
disk, with
with its
its
who
rays, like
like outstretched
outstretched arms,
arms, radiating
radiating from
from its
its center
center and
and offering
offering the
the
rays,
5.
Aton or
Aten is
scholarly pronunciation
pronunciation of
name of
this god.
5. Aton
or Aten
is the
the traditional
traditional scholarly
of the
the name
of this
god.
Actually,
its
Actually, the
the Egyptological
Egyptological transcription
transcription of
of the
the name
name should
should have
have been
been Iten,
Iten, and
and its
actual New
Kingdom pronunciation
was apparently
apparently Yati.
Yati.
actual
New Kingdom
pronunciation was

184

I. V.
/.
V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov

country all
all the
good things
things in
in life,
life, by
no means
means implied
implied renunciation
renunciation
country
the good
by no
of the
the ancient
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian polytheism,
polytheism, especially
especially since
since the
the first
first temple
temple
of
dedicated
new god
by the
the pharaoh
pharaoh in
dedicated to
to the
the new
god was
was built
built by
in Thebes,
Thebes, near
near the
the
sanctuaries of
of Amon-Ra'.
Amon-Ra'.
sanctuaries
But
But the
the new
new countrywide
countrywide state
state cult
cult of
of Aton,
Aton, especially
especially patronized
patronized
by the
the pharaoh,
pharaoh, who
who proclaimed
proclaimed himself
himself the
the new
new god's
god's only
only son,
son,
by
meant
enormous temple
construction projects
and, correspondcorrespondmeant new
new enormous
temple construction
projects and,
ingly, grants
grants to
of land,
land, cattle,
cattle, and
and hunting
and
ingly,
to these
these new
new temples
temples of
hunting and
fishing facilities
facilities all
all over
over Egypt.
Egypt. The
The economies
economies of
of the
new temples
temples
fishing
the new
had to
to be
be provided
and staffed
staffed with
with both
high and
and lower
lower
had
provided with
with labor
labor and
both high
priests
serve the
the new
new god.
god. Texts
of that
show that
that the
new
Texts of
that time
time show
the new
priests to
to serve
temples were
staffed by
members of
servants'
temples
were mainly
mainly staffed
by members
of the
the new
new royal
royal servants'
elite. All
of this
significant reallocation
of material
material and
and huhuthis required
required aa significant
reallocation of
elite.
All of
man resources
resources in
in favor
favor of
of the
the new
new god
god and
and at
at the
the expense
expense of
of the
the priests
priests
man
who served
served the
the old
old traditional
traditional Egyptian
Egyptian gods
gods (especially
(especially Amon-Ra')Amon-Ra')
who
the main
main opponents
opponents of
of the
the reformer-king
reformer-king and
and his
supporters.
the
his supporters.
Apparently
Apparently in
in the
the sixth
sixth year
year of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV's
IV's rule
rule the
the struggle
struggle
between
between the
the two
two factions
factions strongly
strongly intensified,
intensified, soon
soon reaching
reaching its
its apoapogee.
king and
gee. The
The king
and his
his court
court left
left the
the unfriendly
unfriendly and
and hated
hated Thebes,
Thebes, and
and
new capital
capital was
was erected
erected 300
300 kilometers
kilometers downstream
downstream from
from the
the old
old
aa new
center
worship. The
The new
new capital
capital was
was named
named Akhet-Aton
Akhet-Aton
center of
of Amon-Ra'
Amon-Ra4 worship.
("The Horizon
Horizon of
of Aton,"
Aton," meaning
meaning the
the place
place where
where the
the solar
solar disk
disk rises
rises
("The
above the
the world;
world; today
today it
it is
is the
the archaeological
archaeological site
site of
of Tell-Amarna).
Tell-Amarna).
above
Somewhat earlier,
earlier, as
as aa sign
sign that
that even
even the
the name
of the
the god
god Amon
Amon
name of
Somewhat
should be
avoided in
in his
his own
own name,
name, he
he changed
changed his
his personal
personal name
name to
to
should
be avoided
Akhen-Aton
("Serviceable to
hereafter, Akhenaton).6
Akhenaton).6 The
The
Akhen-Aton ("Serviceable
to Aton";
Aton"; hereafter,
members of
of his
family and
and his
his dignitaries
dignitaries whose
whose names
names included
included the
the
members
his family
name of
of Amon
Amon or
or of
of any
any of
of the
the other
other old
old Egyptian
Egyptian gods
gods received
received new
new
name
names.
The names
names of
of gods
gods opposing
Aton began
erased from
from all
all
names. The
opposing Aton
began to
to be
be erased
monuments.
monuments.
The
Egyptian court,
by Akhenaton,
Akhenaton, remained
remained in
in the
The Egyptian
court, headed
headed by
the new
new
capital for
for over
over ten
ten years.
years. Built
Built in
in an
an unbelievably
unbelievably short
short time,
Akhettime, Akhetcapital
Aton became
large city
city with
with magnificent
magnificent royal
royal palaces,
an enormous
enormous
Aton
became aa large
palaces, an
temple honoring
honoring Aton,
Aton, vast
vast gardens,
and private
private residences
residences for
for high
high
temple
gardens, and
royal officials
officials who
who proudly
proudly advertised
advertised their
their humble
humble origins
origins in
in the
the ininroyal
scriptions of
of their
their rich
rich tombs.
tombs.
scriptions
partisans of
Led
Led by
by the
the king,
king, the
the dynamic
dynamic partisans
of these
these reforms
reforms seemed
seemed to
to
be
winning the
the battle
battle against
against their
their opponents.
opponents. But
But the
the cult
cult of
of Aton
Aton
be winning
had no
roots in
in the
the traditions
traditions and
and notions
notions either
either of
of the
the noblemen
noblemen or
or
had
no roots
of
the
Egyptian
populace
at
large.
The
replacement
of
the
contradicof the Egyptian populace at large. The replacement of the contradictory archaic
archaic cults
cults of
of the
the old
old gods
gods with
with the
the logically
logically reasoned,
reasoned, practory
prac6.
6. Akhenaton
Akhenaton is
is the
the traditional
traditional but
but incorrectly
incorrectly pronounced
pronounced name.
name. The
The EgyptoEgyptological
transcription is
logical transcription
is Ikh-ne-Iten.
Ikh-ne-Iten.

The
Egypt
The New
New Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt

185

tically exclusive
exclusive worship
worship of
of the
the solar
solar disk,
disk, Aton,
Aton, did
did not
not promise
promise aa
tically
better life
life for
for anyone
anyone but
but the
the appointees
appointees of
of the
the pharaoh,
pharaoh, who
who comcombetter
peted with
the old
old priesthood.
priesthood. It
It promised
promised neither
neither real
real nor
nor imaginary
imaginary
peted
with the
more just
just rewards
in the
benefits,
benefits, such
such as,
as, for
for example,
example, more
rewards in
the afterlife.
afterlife.
Meanwhile,
the priesthood
priesthood of
of Amon
strong not
solely beMeanwhile, the
Amon remained
remained strong
not solely
because
its material
the centuries,
cause of
of its
material wealth,
wealth, accumulated
accumulated through
through the
centuries, or
or its
its
embodiment
beliefs, but
embodiment of
of the
the old
old traditions
traditions of
of national
national beliefs,
but also
also because,
because,
since
since the
the time
time of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, the
the common
common people
people considconsidered
ered Amon
Amon the
the specific
specific defender
defender of
of the
the humble
humble man
man and
and the
the safest
safest
refuge
refuge in
in time
time of
of tribulation.
tribulation. Also,
Also, there
there was
was no
no irreconcilable
irreconcilable class
class
contradiction
contradiction between
between the
the two
two ruling-class
ruling-class groups:
groups: the
the adherents
adherents of
of
Amon and
and those
those of
of Aton.
Aton. And
And so,
so, the
the period
period of
of redistribution
redistribution of
of
Amon
power
and wealth
wealth was
was necessarily
followed by
by aa mutual
agreement bepower and
necessarily followed
mutual agreement
between the
the opposing
opposing factions.
factions.
tween
It is
is not
not surprising
surprising that
that the
the premature
premature death
death of
of the
the pharaoh
pharaoh (he
(he
It
had been
been ill
ill since
since an
an early
early age)
age) radically
radically changed
changed the
the course
course of
of events.
events.
had
husSemnekhka-Ra' and
and Tutankhamen,
Tutankhamen, the
the young
young and
and short-lived
short-lived husSemnekhka-Ra'
bands of
of Akhenaton's
Akhenaton's elder
elder daughter
daughter and
and the
the successors
successors of
of the
the
bands
reformer-king, lacked
lacked the
the authority,
authority, fanaticism,
fanaticism, and
and will
will of
of their
their
reformer-king,
father-in-law to
to continue
continue his
reform. A
brief but
but stormy
stormy struggle
struggle
father-in-law
his reform.
A brief
erupted over
over the
the succession
succession of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
IV during
during the
the rule
rule of
of
erupted
Semnekhka-Ra', whose
whose reign
reign lasted
lasted only
only three
three years.
During this
this time,
time,
Semnekhka-Ra',
years. During
the cult
cult of
of Aton
Aton underwent
underwent profound
profound changes.
changes. The
The exclusive
exclusive worship
worship
the
of Aton,
Aton, which
which was
was the
the rule
rule during
during the
the last
last years
years of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV,
of
IV,
was abolished,
abolished, and
and the
the old
old hierarchy
hierarchy of
of the
the gods
gods was
was eventually
eventually rewas
restored. The
The worship
worship of
of Amon
as the
the principal
principal god
god of
of Egypt
Egypt was
was fully
fully
stored.
Amon as
restored
at the
the very
very beginning
beginning of
of the
the rule
rule of
Tutankhamen,
restored probably
probably at
of Tutankhamen,
who abandoned
abandoned Akhet-Aton
and returned
returned to
to Thebes
Thebes with
with his
court.
who
Akhet-Aton and
his court.
The new
new boy-king,
boy-king, who
who had
had not
not yet
yet reached
reached even
even ten
ten years
years of
of age,
age,
The
did not
not of
of course
course accomplish
accomplish such
such an
an important
important action,
action, aa turning
turning
did
point in
point
in the
the country's
country's life,
life, on
on his
his own.
own. An
An influential
influential group
group of
of the
the forformer partisans
partisans of
of the
the reformer-king
reformer-king must
must have
have been
been active
active behind
behind the
the
mer
scenes, and
and being
being fully
fully aware
aware of
of the
the changed
situation, they
they were
were ininscenes,
changed situation,
peace with
Indeed, the
clined to
clined
to make
make peace
with their
their former
former adversaries.
adversaries. Indeed,
the most
most
influential personality
personality at
at the
the court
court of
of the
the young
young pharaoh
was an
an old
old
influential
pharaoh was
dignitary of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV,
IV, Ay,
Ay, commander
commander of
of the
the chariot
chariot troops,
troops,
dignitary
who
who until
until lately
lately had
had been
been aa zealous
zealous worshiper
worshiper of
of Aton.
Aton. The
The proof
proof of
of
his tomb,
tomb, which
which he
he
his loyalty
loyalty to
to this
this god
god was
was engraved
engraved on
on the
the walls
walls of
of his
his
erected early
early in
in his
life at
at Akhet-Aton.
Akhet-Aton.
erected
his life
Tutankhamen died
died at
at the
the age
of nineteen,
nineteen, having
ruled for
for almost
almost
Tutankhamen
age of
having ruled
ten
buried on
on the
the west
bank of
the Nile
the traditen years,
years, and
and was
was buried
west bank
of the
Nile in
in the
traditional burial
burial place
place of
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty kings-The
kingsThe Valley
Valley of
of
tional
the Kings,
Kings, near
near Thebes.
Thebes. His
His tomb,
tomb, hewn
into rock,
discovered in
in
the
hewn into
rock, was
was discovered
1922-24 by
by the
the English
English archaeologist
archaeologist Howard
Howard Carter.
Carter. Fortunately,
Fortunately, it
it
1922-24

186
i86

I. V.
/.
V.Vinogradov
Vinogradov

remained
remained almost
almost untouched
untouched by
by ancient
ancient looters
looters and
and yielded
yielded aa wealth
wealth of
of
remarkable
art objects
objects and
and other
other funerary
funerary items.
items. The
The name
name of
of the
the
remarkable art
owner
wealth, the
the unremarkable
unremarkable and
owner of
of this
this wealth,
and youthful
youthful king
king TutanTutankhamen, instantly
instantly became
entire world.
world.
khamen,
became known
known to
to the
the entire
The
virtually ceased
because TutanThe Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty virtually
ceased to
to exist,
exist, because
Tutankhamen
had no
and after
after an
an unsuccessful
attempt to
offer the
the
khamen had
no heirs,
heirs, and
unsuccessful attempt
to offer
throne to
to aa Hittite
prince, the
throne passed
passed to
to the
Ay.
throne
Hittite prince,
the throne
the old
old favorite,
favorite, Ay.
Ay may
may have
related to
to Nefertiti,
of AmenheAmenheAy
have been
been related
Nefertiti, the
the principal
principal wife
wife of
tep IV.
IV. Four
Four years
later, after
after Ay's
death in
in the
of the
the fourfourtep
years later,
Ay's death
the middle
middle of
teenth century,
century, the
throne was
was seized
seized by
the powerful
commander of
teenth
the throne
by the
powerful commander
of
the Egyptian
Egyptian army,
army, Haremhab.
Haremhab. This
This man,
who was
was not
even related
to
the
man, who
not even
related to
the
the
the ruling
ruling dynasty,
dynasty, was
was proclaimed
proclaimed king
king by
by the
the Theban
Theban priests
priests on
on the
occasion of
of aa festivity
festivity honoring
Amon.
occasion
honoring Amon.
The
reign of
thirty years
years and
was an
imThe reign
of Haremhab
Haremhab lasted
lasted for
for over
over thirty
and was
an important postreform
in Egyptian
This time
provides
portant
postreform period
period in
Egyptian history.
history. This
time provides
some
reforms. The
some insights
insights into
into the
the final
final fate
fate of
of Akhenaton's
Akhenaton's reforms.
The new
new
pharaoh
conducted aa fierce
fierce campaign
campaign against
against the
the memory
memory of
of the
the
pharaoh conducted
reformer-king, which
had already
already begun
his predecessors.
The
reformer-king,
which had
begun under
under his
predecessors. The
city of
of Akhet-Aton,
long since
since abandoned
and its
its inincity
Akhet-Aton, long
abandoned by
by the
the court
court and
habitants,
destroyed on
on his
his command.
command. Everything
Everything was
was
habitants, was
was ruthlessly
ruthlessly destroyed
reduced
dust: royal
of court
court officials,
officials, and
and workworkreduced to
to dust:
royal palaces,
palaces, residences
residences of
The name
name of
of the
the "Apostate
"Apostate from
from Akhet-Aton"
Akhet-Aton"
shops of
of sculptors.
sculptors.77 The
shops
disappeared from
from official
official documents,
documents, and
and the
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV's
IV's
disappeared
the years
years of
rule were
were merged
in the
the royal
royal chronicles
chronicles with
with the
the reign
reign of
of Haremhab.
Haremhab.
rule
merged in
The king,
king, seeking
seeking the
the support
support of
of the
the Theban
Theban priesthood
and of
of the
the
The
priesthood and
circles allied
allied with
it, erected
monumental sanctuaries
sanctuaries in
in the
Karnak
circles
with it,
erected monumental
the Karnak
temple
to the
the god
god Amon
Amon and
and presented
presented the
the temples
temples with
with vast
vast land
land esestemple to
tates,
as well
as people,
cattle, and
and aa variety
of implements.
implements. It
It seemed
seemed
well as
people, cattle,
variety of
tates, as
that the
the foes
foes of
of Akhenaton's
Akhenaton's reforms
reforms achieved
achieved aa resounding
resounding victory
victory
that
and that
that the
the royal
royal court
court fully
fully reversed
its social
social orientation.
orientation.
and
reversed its
However, texts
texts from
from the
the time
time of
of Haremhab
Haremhab also
also mention
mention another
another
However,
side
policies. He
not lack
to the
side of
of his
his policies.
He did
did not
lack in
in attention
attention to
the social
social stratum
stratum
that had
had supported
supported the
A decre..e
decree issued
issued by
Haremhab
that
the reformer-king.
reformer-king. A
by Haremhab
and engraved
engraved on
on stone
stone slabs
slabs in
in many
many Egyptian
Egyptian cities
cities imposed
imposed severe
severe
and
punishment
(the cutting
cutting off
off of
of aa guilty
guilty party's
nose and
and banishment
to
punishment (the
party's nose
banishment to
the desert
desert fortress
of Tcharu)
on any
any official
official found
found guilty
guilty of
of arbitrary
arbitrary
the
fortress of
Tcharu) on
actions
nemhu. Measures
Measures to
throughout the
the
to ensure
ensure justice
justice throughout
actions against
against aa nemhu.
country were
enacted; infringements
infringements were
be punished
death.
country
were enacted;
were to
to be
punished by
by death.
The protection
of the
the people
of the
the middle,
serving stratum,
stratum, espeespeThe
protection of
people of
middle, serving
cially
soldiers, became
and
the soldiers,
became aa permanent
permanent concern
concern of
of the
the pharaoh,
pharaoh, and
cially the
their
guaranteed by
their material
material well-being
well-being was
was guaranteed
by the
the wealth
wealth of
of the
the palace
palace
7.
7. In
In one
one of
of the
the workshops,
workshops, that
that of
of the
the sculptor
sculptor Djehutimes,
Djehutimes, archaeologists
archaeologists found
found
the incomparable
incomparable unfinished
unfinished head
head of
of Queen
Queen Nefertiti,
Nefertiti, as
as well
well as
as other
other masterpieces
of
the
masterpieces of
the so-called
so-called Amama
Amarna Period.
Period.
the

The
The New
New Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt

187

and the
the pharaoh's
pharaoh's granary.
granary. It
It is
is interesting
interesting that
that many
many top
top positions
positions in
in
and
the
before, by
by persons
the royal
royal court
court were
were still
still held,
held, as
as before,
persons from
from the
the lower
lower
and middle
middle echelons-functionaries
echelonsfunctionaries not
not connected
connected with
with the
the old
old
and
hereditary aristocracy
aristocracy concentrated
concentrated in
in Thebes.
Thebes. Egyptian
Egyptian kings
kings of
of the
the
hereditary
postreform period
were not
not predisposed
predisposed to
to spend
spend all
all their
their time
time
postreform
period were
in Thebes.
Thebes. Even
Even Tutankhamen's
Tutankhamen's court
court stayed
stayed mostly
mostly in
in northern
northern
in
Memphis rather
rather than
than in
in southern
southern Thebes.
Thebes. Haremhab
Haremhab moved
moved north
north
Memphis
immediately after
after his
coronation, and
and this
this tradition
tradition was
was continued
continued by
immediately
his coronation,
by
the pharaohs
pharaohs of
of the
the following
following Nineteenth
Nineteenth Dynasty.
Dynasty.
the
All this
this suggests
suggests that
that the
the long
long conflict
conflict between
between the
the old
old aristocracy,
aristocracy,
All
supported
supported by
by the
the Theban
Theban priesthood,
priesthood, and
and the
the new
new royal
royal servants'
servants'
elite,
elite, which
which arose
arose in
in the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty and
and
gradually
of open
gradually became
became entrenched,
entrenched, passed
passed through
through aa period
period of
open
struggle under
under Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
and ended
ended in
in aa sort
sort of
of temporary
temporary comcomstruggle
IV and
promise after
resulting in
promise
after his
his death,
death, resulting
in aa certain
certain territorial
territorial delineation.
delineation.
The
The influence
influence of
of the
the Theban
Theban priesthood
priesthood increased
increased in
in the
the southern
southern
portion
portion of
of the
the country,
country, whereas
whereas in
in the
the north,
north, where
where the
the royal
royal court
court
remained most
most of
of the
the time
time and
and where
where the
the bulk
bulk of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian army
army
remained
was stationed,
stationed, the
the strength
strength was
was on
on the
the side
side of
of the
the middle
middle stratum
stratum of
was
of
service people-the
peoplethe nemhu.
nemhu. During
During that
that time,
time, Lower
Lower Egypt,
Egypt, which
which
service
had formerly
formerly ranked
ranked second
second in
in economic
economic and
and political
political matters,
matters, enenhad
tered aa period
period of
of tremendous
tremendous growth.
growth. Its
importance increased
increased espeespetered
Its importance
cially with
with the
the resumption
of extensive
extensive military
operations in
in Western
Western
cially
resumption of
military operations
Asia by
by the
the pharaohs
pharaohs of
of the
the Nineteenth
Nineteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, who
who succeeded
succeeded
Asia
Haremhab after
after his
his death.
death.
Haremhab
Egypt
Egypt during
during the
the Nineteenth
Nineteenth Dynasty
Dynasty
The
The internal
internal struggle
struggle that
that dragged
dragged on
on in
in Egypt
Egypt for
for many
many years
years
affected
affected relations
relations with
with its
its Western
Western Asian
Asian possessions.
possessions. The
The onceoncesubmissive minor
minor local
local princes
princes began
began to
to secede
secede from
from Egypt.
Egypt. DocuDocusubmissive
ments from
tell
ments
from the
the diplomatic
diplomatic archive
archive of
of Akhet-Aton
Akhet-Aton (Tell-Amarna)
(Tell-Amarna) tell
us that
that Egypt
Egypt was
unable to
to provide
assistance even
even to
to
us
was unable
provide timely
timely military
military assistance
its own
own Asian
Asian allies
allies (and
(and very
very few
few of
of these
these remained)
remained) when
when they
they were
were
its
being attacked
attacked by
by neighbors
neighbors who
who no
no longer
longer recognized
recognized the
the authority
authority
being
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian king.
king. The
The Hittite
Hittite kingdom,
kingdom, which
which began
began its
its consoliconsoliof
dation in
Asia Minor
Minor during
during the
the middle
middle of
of the
fifteenth century
century B.C.,
dation
in Asia
the fifteenth
B.C.,
began to
to claim
claim pharaonic
pharaonic domains
domains in
in Syria
Syria and
and Palestine
Palestine and
and thus
thus
began
presented
a
very
serious
threat
to
Egyptian
interests
in
Western
Asia.
presented a very serious threat to Egyptian interests in Western Asia.
The separatist
separatist tendencies
tendencies of
of the
the local
local rulers,
their internal
internal wars,
wars, the
the
The
rulers, their
military
pressure
exerted
from
the
north
by
the
Hittites,
the
continual
military pressure exerted from the north by the Hittites, the continual
incursions
of bands
bands of
of Hapiru
Hapiru (see
(see Lecture
Lecture 14
14 for
for aa discussion
discussion of
of the
the
incursions of
Hapiru), and
and the
the utter
utter passivity
passivity of
of the
the Egyptian
army resulted
resulted in
in an
an
Hapiru),
Egyptian army
almost complete
complete loss,
loss, toward
toward the
the end
end of
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV's
I V's reign,
reign, of
of the
the
almost

188
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I.
V. Vinogradov
Vinogradov
I.V.

great
great gains
gains that
that had
had been
been achieved
achieved in
in Western
Western Asia
Asia under
under ThutmoThutmosis III.
III. The
The weak
successors of
of the
the reformer-king-the
reformer-kingthe last
last pharaohs
pharaohs
sis
weak successors
of the
Eighteenth Dynasty-were
Dynastywere not
capable of
consolidating the
the
of
the Eighteenth
not capable
of consolidating
foreign political
of Egypt,
Egypt, although
although an
an expedition
expedition was
was orgaorgaforeign
political position
position of
nized to
to Western
Western Asia
Asia during
during the
the reign
reign of
of Tutankhamen,
Tutankhamen, probably
probably
nized
under the
the command
command of
of Haremhab.
Haremhab. Once
Once the
the energetic
energetic Haremhab
Haremhab beunder
became king,
king, he
he was
forced to
to direct
direct his
attention to
to the
the internal
internal consolconsolcame
was forced
his attention
idation of
of the
country. His
His efforts
efforts were
quite successful,
successful, and
and the
kings
the country.
were quite
the kings
idation
of the
the next
next dynasty
were able
able to
attention to
to foreign
foreign afafof
dynasty were
to direct
direct their
their attention
fairs. Wide-scale
Wide-scale military
military operations
operations were
resumed in
in order
order to
recover
to recover
fairs.
were resumed
the lost
lost territories
territories in
in Western
A direct
direct confrontation
confrontation between
between
the
Western Asia.
Asia. A
the Egyptians
Egyptians and
and the
Hittites was
unavoidable.
the
the Hittites
was unavoidable.
king of
Seti
Seti I,
I, the
the second
second king
of the
the new
new dynasty,
dynasty, organized
organized large
large expediexpeditions across
borders. This
pharaoh succeeded
his father,
tions
across the
the Egyptian
Egyptian borders.
This pharaoh
succeeded his
father,
the founder
the dynasty,
who reigned
only two
Rameses
Rameses I,
I, the
founder of
of the
dynasty, who
reigned for
for only
two
years.
years.
Western Asia
Asia had
had not
not seen
seen an
an Egyptian
Egyptian king
king commanding
commanding the
the
Western
Egyptian army
army since
since the
the time
time of
of the
the redoubtable
redoubtable Amenhetep
II. Seti
Seti II
Egyptian
Amenhetep II.
personally led
led his
his great
great army
army in
in aa vast
vast campaign,
campaign, restoring
restoring Egyptian
Egyptian
personally
power all
all the
the way
way up
up to
to the
the Megiddo
Megiddo fortress-memorable
fortressmemorable since
since the
the
power
campaigns of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis III.
III. Seti
Seti II also
also conducted
conducted punitive
expedicampaigns
punitive expeditions deep
deep into
into Nubia
and west
of the
Delta, where
tions
Nubia and
west of
the Delta,
where he
he defeated
defeated LibLibyan tribes;
tribes; thereupon
thereupon he
he again
again crossed
crossed the
the Sinai.
Sinai. This
This time,
time, the
the
yan
Egyptian troops
troops entered
entered the
the Orontes
Orontes Valley
Valley and
and advanced
advanced to
to the
the city
city
Egyptian
of Kadesh
Kadesh (Qinza),
(Qinza), which
which had
had long
long since
since become
become aa Hittite
Hittite stronghold.
stronghold.
of
This was
was the
the first
first confrontation
confrontation between
Egyptian and
and Hittite
Hittite armies.
armies.
This
between Egyptian
However, the
the first
first clashes
clashes between
of both
contenders
between the
the vanguards
vanguards of
both contenders
However,
for hegemony
in Western
Western Asia
Asia were
merely aa test
of strength
strength in
in anticanticfor
hegemony in
were merely
test of
ipation of
of aa future,
future, decisive
decisive engagement.
engagement.
ipation
Toward the
the end
end of
of the
the fourteenth
fourteenth or
or the
the beginning
of the
the thirthirToward
beginning of
teenth
teenth centuries,
centuries, after
after the
the death
death of
of Seti
Seti I,
I, his
his twenty-two-year-old
twenty-two-year-old son
son
Rameses II
II became
ruler of
of the
the strengthened
strengthened Egyptian
Egyptian kingdom.
kingdom.
became ruler
Rameses
Rameses II's
IFs dream
dream was
was to
to restore
restore and
and expand
expand the
the Western
Asiatic
Western Asiatic
Rameses
possessions of
of Egypt.
Egypt. To
To accomplish
accomplish his
his aims,
aims, Rameses
Rameses II
II had
to dedepossessions
had to
the Hittitesno
Hittites-no easy
feat
feat the
easy task.
task.
For the
the first
first time
time the
the Egyptian
Egyptian army
army confronted
confronted aa strong,
strong, disciFor
disciplined armed
plined
armed force
force instead
instead of
of the
the familiar
familiar and
and uncoordinated
uncoordinated troops
troops
of the
the minor
rulers of
of Syria
Syria and
and Palestine,
Palestine, or
or aa weak
weak coalition
coalition of
of these,
these,
of
minor rulers
as was
the case
case during
during the
the reign
reign of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis III.
III. The
The Hittite
Hittite kingkingas
was the
dom was
at the
of its
its power,
and its
its army
army was
one
dom
was at
the peak
peak of
power, and
was united
united under
under one
commander,
King
Muwatallis,
who
also
relished
the
opportunity
to
commander, King Muwatallis, who also relished the opportunity to
crush
his
competitor
in
the
region.
Several
sources
tell
about
the
crush his competitor in the region. Several sources tell about the
fierceness of
of this
this difficult
difficult war.
war. Especially
Especially interesting
interesting is
is aa detailed
detailed and
and
fierceness

The
New Kingdom
The New
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt

189
18 9

vivid account
account of
of the
the first
first battle
by Rameses
Rameses II
against the
the HitHitvivid
battle fought
fought by
II against
tites under
under the
the walls
walls of
of Kadesh.
Kadesh.
tites
In
in 1312
B.C.)
In the
the spring
spring of
of the
the fifth
fifth year
year of
of his
his reign
reign (probably
(probably in
1312 B.C.)
Rameses
Rameses II
II gathered
gathered aa large
large army
army and
and departed
departed from
from the
the frontier
frontier
fortress
fortress of
of Tcharu.
Tcharu. After
After marching
marching for
for twenty-nine
twenty-nine days
days the
the vanvanguard,
by the
guard, led
led personally
personally by
the king,
king, encamped
encamped one-day's
one-day's march
march from
from
Kadesh. The
The Hittite
Hittite army
itself under
under the
walls of
this city,
Kadesh.
army positioned
positioned itself
the walls
of this
city,
together with
the allied
allied troops
of the
the small
small principalities
of Syria
Syria and
and
together
with the
troops of
principalities of
Asia Minor.
Minor. The
The Hittites
Hittites sent
sent scouts
scouts to
to the
the Egyptian
Egyptian camp
camp and
and misled
misled
Asia
Rameses II
II by
by convincing
convincing him
him that
that the
the armies
armies of
of his
adversaries were
were
Rameses
his adversaries
so scared
scared of
of the
Egyptians that
that they
they were
were hastily
retreating to
the
so
the Egyptians
hastily retreating
to the
north, far
far from
Without waiting
waiting for
for the
the rest
of his
army,
north,
from Kadesh.
Kadesh. Without
rest of
his army,
Rameses
II and
and his
his vanguard
detachment advanced
advanced to
to Kadesh,
Kadesh, comcomRameses II
vanguard detachment
menced battle,
battle, and
and narrowly
narrowly escaped
escaped total
total destruction.
destruction. A
A stroke
stroke of
of
menced
luck saved
saved the
the Egyptians:
Egyptians: the
the unexpected
unexpected appearance
appearance on
on the
the battleluck
battlefield
of an
an Egyptian
Egyptian contingent
contingent of
of recent
recruits that
that had
been sent
sent
recent recruits
had been
field of
earlier by
by the
the king
king along
along the
the seashore
seashore in
in order
order to
to join
join the
the main
main force
force
earlier
later. This
This fortuitous
fortuitous circumstance
circumstance saved
saved the
the situation.
situation. The
The countercounterlater.
attacks of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite battle
chariots were
futilethey just
interfered
attacks
battle chariots
were futile-they
just interfered
with one
one another,
another, their
their wheels
colliding in
in the
narrow mountain
mountain paswith
wheels colliding
the narrow
passage. For
some unexplained
unexplained reason,
reason, Muwatallis
Muwatallis held
held his
his infantry
infantry in
in
sage.
For some
reserve. The
The Egyptians
Egyptians managed
managed to
to hold
hold their
their positions
positions until
until the
the evereserve.
evening, when
when their
their main
main force
force was
was to
to arrive.
arrive. Eventually,
Eventually, neither
neither army
army
ning,
was able
able to
to prevail;
the battle
draw.
was
prevail; the
battle was
was aa draw.
It
It took
took Rameses
Rameses II
II fifteen
fifteen years
years of
of tough
tough fighting
fighting to
to dislodge
dislodge the
the
Hittites from
southern Syria
Syria and
to capture
capture Kadesh
and other
Hittites
from southern
and to
Kadesh and
other cities,
cities,
which the
the Egyptians
Egyptians were
were now
now able
able to
to take
take by
by storm
storm rather
than by
which
rather than
by
siege. The
The northern
northern portion
portion of
of the
the former
former possessions
possessions of
of ThutmoThutmosiege.
sis
the hands
sis III
III remained
remained in
in the
hands of
of the
the Hittites.
Hittites. In
In the
the twenty-first
twenty-first year
year of
of
his reign
reign (ca.
1296 or
or 1270
1270 B.C.)
B.C.) Rameses
Rameses II
II signed
signed aa peace
peace treaty
treaty with
with
his
(ca. 1296
King
later confirmed
beKing Hattusilis
Hattusilis III,
III, which
which was
was later
confirmed by
by the
the marriage
marriage between the
the Egyptian
king and
and the
the daughter
daughter of
of the
the Hittite
tween
Egyptian king
Hittite king.
king.
Following
Following the
the war
war with
with the
the Hittites,
Hittites, Rameses
Rameses II
II continued
continued to
to rule
rule
Egypt
Egypt for
for more
more than
than forty-five
forty-five years.
years. (He
(He had
had no
no peers
peers in
in longevity,
longevity,
save for
for Pepi
way back
in the
the Old
Old Kingdom.)
Kingdom.) In
In the
the tradition
tradition of
of his
his
save
Pepi II,
II, way
back in
predecessors,
Rameses II
chose Lower
Egypt for
his permanent
permanent resipredecessors, Rameses
II chose
Lower Egypt
for his
residence. He
He built
built aa luxurious
luxurious royal
royal residence
residence in
in the
the eastern
eastern Delta-the
Deltathe
dence.
city Per-Rameses
Per-Rameses ("House
("House of
of Rameses").
Rameses"). His
His extensive
extensive building
building accity
activity involved
involved Thebes,
Thebes, Abydos,
Abydos, and
and Nubia.
Nubia. In
In Nubia
Nubia he
he ordered
ordered the
the
tivity
carving of
of an
an enormous
enormous cave
cave temple
temple from
from aa sheer
sheer cliff.
cliff. Giant
statues
carving
Giant statues
of the
pharaoh, also
also hewn
hewn from
from the
the
of
the pharaoh,
the rock,
rock, flanked
flanked both
both sides
sides of
of the
entrance to
to the
the sanctuary.
sanctuary. This
to
entrance
This famous
famous templeAbu-Simbelhad
temple-Abu-Simbel-had to
be
cut into
into sections,
sections, raised,
and reconstructed
above the
of the
the
be cut
raised, and
reconstructed above
the waters
waters of

190
19

I. V.
V. Vinogradov

great
great Aswan
Aswan Dam
Dam water
water reservoir,
reservoir, where
where it
it stands
stands today,
today, majestically
majestically
rising
rising on
on the
the shore
shore of
of the
the artificial
artificial lake.
lake.
his death,
Rameses
Rameses II
II survived
survived many
many of
of his
his sons.
sons.88 After
After his
death, his
his thirthirteenth
teenth son,
son, the
the middle-aged
middle-aged Mer-ne-Ptab,
Mer-ne-Ptah, became
became king.
king. During
During his
his
reign
reign (last
(last quarter
quarter of
of the
the thirteenth
thirteenth century)
century) Egypt
Egypt was
was invaded
invaded from
from
the sea
the
sea and
and from
from Palestine
Palestine by
by the
the "Sea
"Sea Peoples"
Peoples" (see
(see Lecture
Lecture 14
14 for
for aa
the Sea
with aa major
discussion
discussion of
of the
Sea Peoples).
Peoples). This
This emergency
emergency coincided
coincided with
major
incursion of
of Libyan
Libyan tribes
tribes into
into the
the western
western Delta.
Delta. This
This first
first wave
wave of
of
incursion
Sea Peoples,
Peoples, some
some of
of whom
whom probably
probably came
came from
from western
western Asia
Asia Minor
Minor
Sea
and from
from the
the islands
islands of
of the
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean,
Mediterranean, was
was repelled
repelled by
and
by
Egyptian troops
troops led
led by
by Mer-ne-Ptab.
Mer-ne-Ptah. After
After his
his death
death serious
serious internal
internal
Egyptian
upheavals occurred
occurred in
in Egypt,
Egypt, leading
to another
another dynastic
dynastic change.
change.
upheavals
leading to
Egypt
Egypt during
during the
the Twentieth
Twentieth Dynasty
Dynasty
and
End of
New Kingdom
and the
the End
of the
the New
Kingdom

The
The last
last 150
150 years
years of
of the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom saw
saw the
the rule
rule of
of the
the Twentieth
Twentieth
Dynasty, which
which came
came to
to power
power after
after some
some tumultuous
tumultuous events
events obscurely
obscurely
Dynasty,
mentioned in
in the
the narrative
narrative portion
of one
one of
of the
the most
most important
important adadmentioned
portion of
ministrative-economic
ministrative-economic ancient
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian sources-the
sourcesthe huge
huge forty-fiveforty-fiveThis papyrus
during the
the time
time
meter-long Harris
Harris papyrus.
papyrus.99 This
meter-long
papyrus was
was written
written during
of Rameses
Rameses III
III (in
(in the
the twelfth
twelfth century
century B.C.).
B.C.). It
It seems
seems that
that the
the struggle
struggle
of
between the
the opposing
opposing elites
elites that
that reached
reached aa climax
climax during
during the
the reign
reign
between
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
IV flared
flared up
up again.
again. The
The compromise
compromise that
that had
had been
been
of
reached after
after the
the open
open struggle
struggle during
during the
the reign
reign of
of the
the reformerreformerreached
king lost
lost its
its force.
force. Under
Under the
the new
new circumstances,
circumstances, this
this struggle
struggle conconking
tinued below
below the
surface and
and gradually
gradually undermined
undermined the
strength and
and
tinued
the surface
the strength
unity of
of the
the country.
country. The
The power
of the
the central
central administration
administration was
was
unity
power of
radically weakened
weakened after
after the
the death
death of
of Rameses
Rameses II.
II. In
In addition,
addition, the
the ininradically
is possible
that aa
vasion by
by the
the Sea
Sea Peoples
Peoples was
was repelled
repelled at
at great
great cost.
cost. It
It is
possible that
vasion
power struggle
struggle was
was brewing
brewing in
in the
the capital.
capital. The
The papyrus
papyrus tells
tells us
us that
that
power
Egypt and
and its
its people,
left to
of fate,
fate, found
found themselves
under
Egypt
people, left
to the
the mercy
mercy of
themselves under
the
rule of
of "the
"the great"
great" and
and of
of "rulers
"rulers of
of the
cities"; the
consequence
the rule
the cities";
the consequence
was internecine
internecine wars
wars that
that devastated
devastated the
the country.
country. Murders
Murders were
comwas
were common. The
The victims
victims included
included people
people from
from all
all classes-"the
classes"the great"
great" as
as
mon.
well as
as commoners.
commoners.
well
A
A Syrian
Syrian named
named Irsu
Irsu managed
managed to
to assume
assume power
power in
in the
the country,
country, at
at
8.
8. At
At the
the end
end of
of his
his life
life Rameses
Rameses II
II married
married his
his own
own daughter.
daughter. It
It was
was customary
customary in
in
Egypt
Egypt (as
(as in
in Elam
Elam and
and in
in some
some other
other Oriental
Oriental states)
states) for
for kings
kings to
to marry
marry their
their sisters
sisters to
to
prevent the
the creation
creation of
of relatives
relatives by
marriage among
among the
the aristocracy,
aristocracy, who
who could
could pose
prevent
by marriage
pose aa
threat by
pretending to
to the
the throne
throne along
along the
the distaff
distaff line.
line. In
In his
latter years
years Rameses
Rameses II
II
threat
by pretending
his latter
apparently had
no living
living sisters.
apparently
had no
sisters.
9. Important
Important papyri
are traditionally
traditionally designated
designated by
by the
the name
name of
of the
first modern
modern
9.
papyri are
the first
owneras in
in this
this case-or
caseor by
by the
the name
name of
of the
publisher.
owner-as
the first
first publisher.

The
The New
New Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Egypt
Egypt

191
19 1

least for
is difficult
least
for aa time.
time. It
It is
difficult to
to know
know what
what forces
forces supported
supported him,
him, who
who
were
his adherents,
We
were his
adherents, and
and how
how large
large was
was the
the scale
scale of
of his
his activities.
activities. We
cannot
difficult conditions
by
cannot exclude
exclude the
the possibility
possibility that
that the
the difficult
conditions created
created by
the
the internal
internal struggle
struggle and
and the
the inevitable
inevitable economic
economic ruin
ruin caused
caused aa broadbroadbased
based uprising
uprising among
among the
the Egyptian
Egyptian lower
lower classes,
classes, with
with the
the participaparticipation of
foreigners. Someone
named Sethnekht
finally managed
tion
of foreigners.
Someone named
Sethnekht finally
managed to
to
suppress
to restore
restore the
suppress the
the rebellion
rebellion and
and to
the authority
authority of
of the
the central
central
government.
government.
DyRameses III,
Rameses
III, son
son of
of Sethnekht
Sethnekht and
and founder
founder of
of the
the Twentieth
Twentieth Dynasty
c~ntury B.C.),
to inherit
nasty (middle
(middle of
of the
the twelfth
twelfth c'entury
B.C.), was
was fortunate
fortunate to
inherit aa
pacified
pacified country;
country; otherwise,
otherwise, he may
may not
not have
have been
been able
able to
to face
face successfully
invasions of
western Delta
Delta by
cessfully two
two major
major invasions
of the
the western
by the
the Libyan
Libyan tribes
tribes
and,
time, by
and, for
for aa second
second time,
by the
the Sea
Sea Peoples.
Peoples. They
They were
were repelled
repelled in
in aa
series
series of
of bloody
bloody battles
battles on
on land
land and
and sea.
sea. Rameses
Rameses III
III also
also fought
fought in
in
Western Asia
with the
the intention
intention of
of consolidating
consolidating the
the weakened
weakened EgypWestern
Asia with
Egyptian positions
positions beyond
beyond the
the Sinai
Sinai Peninsula.
Peninsula. The
The Egyptian
Egyptian army
army now
now
tian
included
more foreigners
than before-Sherdens,
beforeSherdens, Libyans,
included many
many more
foreigners than
Libyans,
Philistines,
because the
Philistines, and
and others.
others. The
The need
need to
to recruit
recruit aliens
aliens arose
arose because
the
pharaoh,
to pressure
from the
the priesthood,
whose support
support was
pharaoh, yielding
yielding to
pressure from
priesthood, whose
was
the temple
essential
essential during
during these
these difficult
difficult times,
times, exempted
exempted the
temple workers
workers
from military
service (which
(which involved
involved the
the drafting
drafting of
of every
every tenth
tenth male).
male).
from
military service
The
the temples
The generous
generous gifts
gifts and
and privileges
privileges granted
granted to
to the
temples (which
(which
had
to the
power), the
had become
become increasingly
increasingly opposed
opposed to
the central
central power),
the maintemaintenance
nance of
of aa large,
large, though
though now
now less
less numerous,
numerous, army,
army, the
the exhausting
exhausting
wars,
wars, and
and the
the arbitrary
arbitrary actions
actions of
of local
local administrations
administrations resulted
resulted in
in aa
drastic deterioration
deterioration of
of the
the internal
condition of
of the
the country
country and
and
drastic
internal condition
sapped
royal treasury
treasury was
sapped the
the treasury.
treasury. On
On one
one occasion,
occasion, the
the royal
was so
so ininsolvent that
that it
it was
was unable
to distribute
distribute rations
rations on
on time
time to
to craftsmen
craftsmen
solvent
unable to
and employees
employees working
working in
in the
the royal
royal necropolis,
necropolis, and
and they
they went
went on
on
and
strike. Various
Various court
court cliques
cliques continued
continued their
their infighting;
infighting; eventually,
eventually,
strike.
Rameses III
III himself
himself became
their victim.
victim.
Rameses
became their
After
After the
the death
death of
of Rameses
Rameses III
III and
and during
during the
the rule
rule of
of the
the last
last eight
eight
kings
Rameses),
kings of
of the
the Twentieth
Twentieth Dynasty
Dynasty (all
(all of
of whom
whom were
were called
called Rameses),
the internal
internal stability
stability of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and the
the Egyptian
Egyptian position
position abroad
abroad finally
the
finally
collapsed.
collapsed. Under
Under Rameses
Rameses IV,
IV, Egypt
Egypt lost
lost all
all its
its foreign
foreign possessions,
possessions,
except for
for Ethiopia.
Ethiopia. The
The central
central administration
administration could
could not
not firmly
hold
except
firmly hold
the reins
The political
political separation
separation of
of Lower
Lower and
and Upper
Upper
the
reins of
of power.
power. The
Egypt (in
(in the
the latter
latter the
the Theban
Theban priesthood
priesthood began
to acquire
acquire absolute
absolute
Egypt
began to
power), which
which had
had appeared
appeared soon
soon after
after the
the reforms
reforms of
of AmenheAmenhepower),
tep IV,
IV, now
greatly intensified.
intensified. Rameses
Rameses IX
IX attempted,
attempted, without
without suctep
now greatly
success, to
to limit
limit somewhat
somewhat the
the rights
rights of
of the
the high
high priest
priest of
of Amon.
Amon. Finally,
Finally,
cess,
under Rameses
Rameses XI,
XI, the
the high
high priest
priest of
of Amon,
Amon, Herihor,
Herihor, assumed
assumed all
all the
the
under
highest
state offices.
offices. He
He became
became the
the supreme
supreme official
official (tchati)
(tchati)and
andcomcomhighest state
mander of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian army.
army. After
After the
the death
death of
of the
the last
last pharaoh
pharaoh of
of
mander

192

I. V.
V. Vinogradov

the Twentieth
passed to
the
Twentieth Dynasty,
Dynasty, royal
royal power
power passed
to Herihor
Herihor in
in the
the south.
south.
Lower Egypt,
Egypt, however,
however, did
did not
not recognize
recognize the
the supremacy
supremacy of
of the
the
Lower
Theban
Theban ruler.
ruler. The
The Delta
Delta eventually
eventually created
created its
its own
own dynasty,
dynasty, which
which
ruled from
from the
the city
city of
of Tanis
Tanis (Per-Rameses).
(Per-Rameses). By
By the
the middle
middle of
of the
the elevelevruled
enth century
century B.C.,
B.C., aa united
Egyptian kingdom
kingdom ceased
ceased to
exist.
enth
united Egyptian
to exist.

99
The
The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Ancient Egypt
Egypt
I.
A. LAPIS
LA.
LAPIS

Religion
Religion
Throughout
Throughout the
the development
development of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian state
state the
the significance
significance
and
religious cults
and character
character of
of its
its different
different religious
cults changed.
changed. The
The beliefs
beliefs
of
of ancient
ancient hunters
hunters and
and farmers
farmers intermingled
intermingled with
with ideas
ideas created
created by
by
struggles
struggles between
between the
the different
different emerging
emerging and
and declining
declining power
power centers
centers
of the
the country.
country. The
The Egyptian
Egyptian religion
religion preserved
concepts for
for
of
preserved primitive
primitive concepts
long time,
time, and
and many
many very
very ancient
ancient cults
cults remained
remained important
important throughthroughaa long
out the
the history
history of
of ancient
ancient Egypt.
Egypt.
out
The numerous
numerous deities
deities that
that were
were worshiped
worshiped in
in the
the different
different regions
regions
The
of Egypt
diverse natural
natural forces
forces and
and social
social phenomena.
phenomena.
of
Egypt personified
personified diverse
The
The sky
sky was
was represented
represented by
by aa woman
woman or
or aa cow;
cow; the
the earth
earth and
and air
air were
were
represented by
male gods.
gods. The
The ibis-headed
Thoth was
was the
the patron
patron
represented
by male
ibis-headed god
god Thoth
of writing
writing and
and sorcery.
sorcery. The
The goddess
goddess Maat
Maat personified
Truth. Natural
Natural
of
personified Truth.
phenomena were
were perceived
perceived as
as manifestations
manifestations of
of different
different deities.
deities.
phenomena
In ancient
ancient times
times the
the Egyptians
Egyptians worshiped
worshiped certain
certain gods
gods in
in the
the image
image
In
of animals
animals and
and birds.
birds. Since
Since very
very early
early on,
on, the
the falcon
falcon of
of Horus
Horus was
was asof
asnotion of
mighty god
sociated with
with the
the notion
of aa mighty
god of
of the
the sky.
sky. The
The falcon
falcon apapsociated
peared on
on tribal
tribal standards
standards and
and was
was also
also shown
shown bringing
bringing victory
victory over
over
peared
northern
Egypt to
Nar'mer on
northern Egypt
to Nar'mer
on his
his stone
stone relief
relief palette.
palette.
After the
the formation
After
formation of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian state,
state, Horus
Horus appeared
appeared as
as the
the
constant
began to
constant patron
patron of
of the
the pharaohs,
pharaohs, who
who began
to adopt
adopt the
the denominadenomination "Horus."
"Horus." The
The development
development of
of the
the cult
cult of
of Osiris
Osiris as
as that
that of
of the
the
tion
deceased
deceased pharaoh
pharaoh involved
involved Horus
Horus in
in the
the Osirian
Osirian myths
myths and,
and, thus,
thus,
contributed
contributed to
to the
the merging
merging of
of the
the cult
cult of
of Horus
Horus with
with the
the royal
royal cult.
cult. In
In
addition, falcons,
falcons, being
objects of
of worship
worship in
in different
different parts
of Egypt,
Egypt,
addition,
being objects
parts of
were involved
involved in
the emerging
emerging local
local cults
cults of
of solar
solar deities.
were
in the
deities.
Vestiges
Vestiges of
of the
the original
original worship
worship of
of animal
animal deities
deities can
can be
be observed
observed in
in
the
the animal
animal and
and bird
bird heads
heads of
of otherwise
otherwise anthropomorphic
anthropomorphic deities
deities and
and
in
in the
the headdresses
headdresses of
of some
some gods
gods (the
(the cow
cow horns
horns of
of Hathor,
Hathor, the
the gazelle
gazelle
horns of
of Satit,
Satit, the
the ram
ram horns
horns of
of Amon,
Amon, and
and so
so forth).
forth). Later,
Later, the
the anianihorns
mals
mals and
and birds
birds in
in question
question came
came to
to be
be regarded
regarded as
as the
the "souls"
"souls" of
of the
the
gods
were actually
actually kept
In order
for aa particular
gods and
and were
kept at
at the
the temples.
temples. In
order for
particular
animal to
to be
be recognized
recognized as
as the
the incarnation
incarnation of
of the
the corresponding
corresponding god,
god,
animal
certain
to be
certain signs
signs had
had to
be manifested:
manifested: for
for example,
example, the
the animal
animal had
had to
to

194
194

I. A. Lapis
Lapis
LA.

have
have aa certain
certain specific
specific color;
color; its
its spots
spots had
had to
to follow
follow aa definite
definite pattern;
pattern;
the
had to
be of
of aa particular
particular shape.
the horns
horns had
to be
shape.
The bull
bull was
the most
revered animals
The
was one
one of
of the
most revered
animals in
in Egypt.
Egypt. Since
Since early
early
times,
bull personified
reproductive force
times, the
the bull
personified the
the reproductive
force and
and fertility.
fertility. The
The
worship of
of the
the bull
bull was
was typical
typical of
of many
many localities;
localities; often
often it
it merged
merged with
with
worship
the worship
of the
main local
local deity.
deity. Thus,
Thus, in
in Memphis
Apis
the
worship of
the main
Memphis the
the bull
bull Apis
became the
soul of
of the
the local
local god
god PtaIJ,
Ptah, whose
whose cult
cult was
was connected
connected with
with
became
the soul
the worship
worship of
of Osiris.
Osiris. In
In Heliopolis
Heliopolis the
the bull
Mnevis was
was regarded
the
bull Mnevis
regarded as
as
the personification
of the
the Sun
Sun god
god Ra'.
Ra'. The
The bull
bull Bouchis
Bouchis became
became the
the
the
personification of
"living image"
image" of
of the
local god
god Mentu
Mentu of
of Hermontis.
Hermontis.
"living
the local
The
which for
The animal
animal representing
representing Amon
Amon was
was aa ram,
ram, which
for aa long
long time
time
had been
been worshiped
worshiped as
as the
the personification
personification of
of fertility,
fertility, like
like the
the bull.
Sahad
bull. Sacred rams
rams were
were kept
kept in
in temples
temples dedicated
dedicated to
to aa number
number of
of different
different
cred
gods. A
A ram
was regarded
regarded as
as the
of the
god Khnum
Khnum in
in
ram was
the personification
personification of
the god
gods.
Esneh, in
in Elephantine,
Elephantine, and
and in
in the
twenty-first nome;
nome; in
in Heradeopolis,
Heracleopolis,
Esneh,
the twenty-first
Herishaf. Mendes
Mendes was
was aa very
very important
important ramramit personified
personified the
the god
god Herishaf.
it
worshiping center;
center; here,
sacred ram
ram was
was called
called Banebjed,
Banebjed, "the
"the
worshiping
here, the
the sacred
Soul of
Lord of
of Djed"
Djed" (Mendes).
Soul
of the
the Lord
(Mendes).
The dung
dung beetle,
called scarab
scarab by
ancient writers,
writers, was
widely
The
beetle, called
by the
the ancient
was widely
worshiped.
to understand
understand natural
phenomena, the
the EgypIn trying
trying to
natural phenomena,
Egypworshiped. In
tians developed
developed the
the image
image of
of the
the disk
disk of
of the
the sun.
sun.
the beetle
beetle pushing
pushing the
tians
The
scarab was
also depicted
in flight,
carrying the
sun. It
It became
the
The scarab
was also
depicted in
flight, carrying
the sun.
became the
embodiment of
of the
sunKhepriand was
associated with
the
embodiment
the rising
rising sun-Khepri-and
was associated
with the
hope
for life
life and
and resurrection.
Beetles were
in temples
temples dehope for
resurrection. Beetles
were worshiped
worshiped in
devoted to
to the
the sun.
sun.
voted
The
the goddess
Hathor originated
in the
the worship
worship of
The cult
cult of
of the
goddess Hathor
originated in
of the
the
cow. Hathor
Hathor was
was usually
as aa woman,
in some
some cases
cases with
cow.
usually represented
represented as
woman, in
with aa
cow's ear
ear and
and horns
and, in
in others,
others, with
cow's head.
head. Deified
Deified cows
horns and,
with aa cow's
cows
cow's
by certain
Because the
the sky
were
kept by
certain temples.
temples. Because
sky was
was conceived,
conceived, accordaccordwere kept
ing to
some legends,
legends, in
in the
the form
form of
of aa cow,
cow, Hathor
came to
ing
to some
Hathor came
to be
be reregarded as
as the
cow. She
She was
as the
goddess giving
giving
garded
the heavenly
heavenly cow.
was revered
revered as
the goddess
birth
sun and
and granting
granting fertility.
fertility. In
In her
her role
role as
as fertility
fertility goddess,
goddess,
birth to
to the
the sun
Hathor
also aa tree
deity.
Hathor was
was also
tree deity.
Many gods
with an
saMany
gods were
were associated
associated with
an animal
animal form:
form: for
for example,
example, sacred
cats, monkeys,
snakes, ichneumons
ichneumons (mongooses),
(mongooses), ibises,
ibises, falfalcred cats,
monkeys, snakes,
cons. After
After death,
death, the
the bodies
bodies of
of these
sacred animals
animals and
and birds
were
these sacred
birds were
cons.
mummified, wrapped
wrapped in
in shrouds,
shrouds, and
and placed
placed in
in tombs
tombs bearing
bearing the
the
mummified,
representation of
of the
the dead
dead animal
animal on
on the
the funeral
funeral slab.
slab. Many
Many animal
animal
representation
cemeteries have
have been
been discovered
throughout Egypt,
Egypt, the
famous
discovered throughout
the most
most famous
cemeteries
being
the crocodile
crocodile tombs
tombs in
in the
Fayum, and
and those
of the
the Apis
Apis bulls
bulls in
in
the Fayum,
those of
being the
the Fayum
Fayum and
and of
of the
the Bouchis
Bouchis bulls
in Hermontis.
Hermontis.
bulls in
the
Solar cults
cults developed
developed in
in many
many centers
centers in
in very
very early
early times.
times. The
The solar
solar
Solar
deities were
were represented
images. In
In one
one region
image
represented by
by different
different images.
region the
the image
deities

The
The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Ancient Egypt
Egypt

195
195

was
beewas of
of aa winged
winged disk
disk soaring
soaring in
in the
the sky;
sky; in
in another,
another, an
an enormous
enormous beewas
tle
tle rolling
rolling the
the solar
solar disk
disk across
across the
the sky.
sky. Sometimes
Sometimes the
the solar
solar deity
deity was
depicted as
as aa falcon
falcon or
or as
as aa human
falcon's head.
head. The
The names
names of
of
human with
with aa falcon's
depicted
the deities
deities were
Ra', Atum,
Atum, Khepri,
Khepri, and
and Horus,
Horus, but
cults were
were dethe
were Ra',
but the
the cults
devoted to
same great
great heavenly
heavenly source
source of
of light.
light. Many
Many solar
solar deities
deities
voted
to the
the same
gradually merged
merged together.
Sometimes such
such mergers
were rationalrationaltogether. Sometimes
mergers were
gradually
ized;
for example,
example, it
argued that
was the
the morning
morning sun,
sun, Ra'
Ra'
it was
was argued
that Khepri
Khepri was
ized; for
the sun
sun during
during the
the day,
day, and
and Atum
sun.
the
Atum the
the setting
setting sun.
The
The Sun
Sun god
god Ra'
Ra' acquired
acquired special
special importance
importance from
from almost
almost the
the very
very
beginning. The
The periodic
disappearance of
of the
the sun
sun in
in the
the evening
evening and
and
periodic disappearance
beginning.
its emergence
emergence in
in the
the morning
were explained
explained by
by its
its being
being swallowed
swallowed
its
morning were
each evening
evening and
and being
being born
born each
each morning,
delivered by
by Heaven
Heaven in
in
each
morning, delivered
cow or
or in
in the
the guise
guise of
of aa woman,
woman, named
named Nut.
Other conconthe guise
guise of
of aa cow
the
Nut. Other
cepts coexisted.
coexisted. For
For example,
example, Ra'
Ra' voyaged
voyaged across
across the
sky in
in aa boat
boat
cepts
the sky
during
day toward
toward the
the western
western mountains,
mountains, where
where Ra'
Ra' changed
changed
during the
the day
boats and
and navigated
navigated throughout
throughout the
the night.
boats
night. Having
Having completed
completed his
his
nocturnal
voyage, Ra'
Ra' would
would transfer
transfer to
to his
his day
day boat,
boat, emerge
emerge from
from
nocturnal voyage,
passage in
in the
the eastern
eastern mountains,
mountains, and
and reappear
reappear in
in the
the sky.
sky. But
But
aa passage
in order
order to
to rise,
rise, the
the sun
sun had
had to
fight his
enemythe dragon
dragon Apep.
Apep.
in
to fight
his enemy-the
Once victorious,
victorious, Ra'
Ra' made
made his
his appearance.
appearance. Since
Since very
early times,
Once
very early
times,
the cult
cult of
of Ra'-the
Ra'the life-giving
life-giving and
and all-protecting
all-protecting god-was
godwas aa cult
cult
the
of the
pan-Egyptian state
state god,
god, especially
especially because
because of
of his
his connection
connection
of
the pan-Egyptian
with the
the worship
worship of
of the
the dead
dead king
king resurrecting
resurrecting as
as Horus.
Horus. Heliopolis
Heliopolis
with
and Edfu
were the
the principal
centers of
of sun
sun worship.
worship. In
one form
form
and
Edfu were
principal centers
In one
or another,
of the
sun remained
official state
state cult
cult until
until
or
another, the
the cult
cult of
the sun
remained the
the official
the end
end of
of ancient
when at
any time
history
the
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian history.
history. And
And when
at any
time in
in history
some
acquired aa pan-Egyptian
pan-Egyptian significance,
significance, he
he was
was immediately
immediately
god acquired
some god
associated with
with the
the principal
principal Sun
Sun god
Ra' (Amon-Ra',
(Amon-Ra', Sebek-Ra',
Sebek-Ra',
god Ra'
associated
Mentu-Ra').
Mentu-Ra').
During the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, when
when Egypt
Egypt was
was reunified
reunified under
under the
the
During
Theban nome,
nome, the
cult of
of Amon
Amon acquired
acquired paramount
importance.
Theban
the cult
paramount importance.
The
hand, the
The origin
origin of
of this
this cult
cult is
is not
not quite
quite clear.
clear. On
On the
the one
one hand,
the cult
cult of
of
Amon
was undoubtedly
undoubtedly connected
connected to
to that
that of
of the
the cult
god of
of the
the gengenAmon was
cult god
erating forces
forces of
of nature-Min
natureMin in
Coptos; on
on the
other, Amon
erating
in Coptos;
the other,
Amon is
is
found among
the most
ancient gods
the city
of Shmunu,
Shmunu, capital
capital of
of
found
among the
most ancient
gods of
of the
city of
the fifteenth
fifteenth Upper
Upper Egyptian
Egyptian nome.
The cult
cult of
of Amon
Amon was
was transtransthe
nome. The
ferred to
to Thebes
Thebes in
in order
order to
to strengthen
strengthen the
the new
dynasty and
the new
new
ferred
new dynasty
and the
capital. The
The local
local Theban
Theban deities,
deities, Mut
Mut and
and Khensu,
Khensu, were
were declared
declared
capital.
Amon's wife
and son.
son. Because
Because Thebes
Thebes remained
remained the
the Egyptian
Egyptian capital
capital
Amon's
wife and
for many
centuries, the
the cult
cult of
of Amon
Amon acquired
acquired aa pan-Egyptian
pan-Egyptian charcharfor
many centuries,
acter. To
To enhance
enhance the
the authority
authority of
of this
this god,
god, he
was associated
associated with
with
he was
acter.
Ra'. And
And as
as Amon-Ra',
Amon-Ra', he
he became
closely tied
tied to
to the
the pharaonic
cult
Ra'.
became closely
pharaonic cult
and was
was even
even endowed
endowed with
with the
the traits
traits of
of aa creator
creator god.
god. In
to
and
In response
response to

196
6
19

I.
A. Lapis
Lapis
LA.

the political
political situation
prevailing in
the country
country during
during the
the
situation prevailing
in the
the Middle
Middle
Kingdom
and the
of the
Kingdom, Amon
the beginning
beginning of
the New
New Kingdom,
Amon was
was imagimagKingdom and
ined as
as the
and patron
of the
common people.
main
ined
the protector
protector and
patron of
the common
people. But
But his
his main
traits were
of aa conqueror
conqueror and
and awesome
awesome lord-"King
lord"King of
of the
the
traits
were those
those of
Gods." Certain
Certain acts
acts of
of the
the king
as orders
orders issued
issued by
Gods."
king were
were treated
treated as
by
Amon; even
even judicial
sentences in
in court
court could
could be
pronounced in
in the
the
be pronounced
Amon;
judicial sentences
name of
of Amon.
Amon.
name
The cult
cult of
of the
the ruling
ruling king
and the
the official
official deification
deification of
of royal
royal
The
king and
power was
phenomenon and
power
was aa specific
specific phenomenon
and one
one of
of the
the most
most important
important
characteristics of
of Egyptian
Egyptian religion.
religion. Since
Since early
early times,
times, aa pharaoh
characteristics
pharaoh was
was
considered
to be
origin, being
the terrestrial
terrestrial incarnation
incarnation of
be of
of divine
divine origin,
being the
of
considered to
the royal
royal god
Horus. A
was part
part of
of the
the titles
of the
the
god Horus.
A "Horus
"Horus name"
name" was
titles of
the
pharaoh.
Already in
in the
Old Kingdom,
to be
pharaoh. Already
the Old
Kingdom, pharaohs
pharaohs began
began to
be reregarded as
as sons
sons of
of Ra',
and their
name became
enclosed in
in aa protective
protective
garded
Ra', and
their name
became enclosed
circle. When
When Thebes
had acquired
acquired the
the most
most important
important political
role
Thebes had
political role
circle.
and the
local god
god Amon
had acquired
acquired aa pan-Egyptian
pan-Egyptian character,
character, the
the
and
the local
Amon had
king
to be
likened to
to this
this god
god and
and was
even declared
declared the
son of
of
king began
began to
be likened
was even
the son
Amon.
The miraculous
conception and
and birth
birth of
of the
the pharaoh
pharaoh was
was repAmon. The
miraculous conception
represented
on temple
walls. The
The power
of the
the pharaoh
to
resented on
temple walls.
power of
pharaoh was
was thought
thought to
extend not
only to
country and
and subjects
subjects but
also to
to natural
extend
not only
to his
his country
but also
natural phephenomena.
central role
in the
the state
state agricultural
agricultural
The pharaoh
pharaoh played
played the
the central
role in
nomena. The
festivities: when
the Nile
about to
its banks,
he threw
threw
Nile was
was about
to overflow
overflow its
banks, he
festivities:
when the
into the
containing orders
inundation.
the river
river aa papyrus
papyrus containing
orders to
to begin
begin the
the inundation.
into
He also
also initiated
initiated the
of the
fields and
and cut
cut the
first sheaf
sheaf of
of aa
He
the plowing
plowing of
the fields
the first
new
harvest.
new harvest.
The worship
worship of
was most
The
of the
the deceased
deceased king
king was
most closely
closely connected
connected to
to the
the
pan-Egyptian cult
who represented
pan-Egyptian
cult of
of the
the dead
dead god,
god, Osiris,
Osiris, who
represented the
the anannually dying
dying vegetation.
vegetation. The
The myth
of Osiris,
Osiris, as
as re-created
from varimyth of
re-created from
varinually
ous sources,
sources, tells
tells the
the story
story about
about his
over Egypt
Egypt in
in some
some distant
distant
his rule
rule over
ous
how he
people how
past,
and how
he taught
taught people
how to
to cultivate
cultivate fields
fields and
and orchards.
orchards.
past, and
His brother,
god Seth,
Seth, who
murdered
brother, the
the god
who himself
himself wanted
wanted to
to rule,
rule, murdered
His
Osiris.
The wife
of Osiris,
Osiris, the
goddess Isis,
Isis, gave
gave birth
after his
death
Osiris. The
wife of
the goddess
birth after
his death
to
his son
son Horus,
Horus, who
who began
began the
the struggle
struggle for
for his
his succession.
succession. After
After
to his
lengthy
the gods
gods finally
finally recognized
Horus as
as the
legitimate
lengthy litigations,
litigations, the
recognized Horus
the legitimate
heir,
and Osiris
Osiris became
of the
Osiris personified
personified
became king
king of
the underworld.
underworld. Osiris
heir, and
the
of the
Nile and
and was
associated with
cultivated plants-barplantsbarthe waters
waters of
the Nile
was associated
with cultivated
ley, spelt,
spelt, and
and grapes.
grapes. The
connection of
of the
the living
living king
king with
with Horus
Horus
ley,
The connection
and of
of the
the dead
dead king
Osiris is
is traced
earliest period
and
king with
with Osiris
traced to
to the
the earliest
period of
of
Egyptian history.
history.
Egyptian
The principal
of worship
worship of
of Osiris
Osiris were
were Bousiris
Bousiris and
and
The
principal places
places of
Abydos,
the cult
the cults
Abydos, where
where the
cult of
of Osiris
Osiris completely
completely absorbed
absorbed the
cults of
of the
the
local
Here, at
period, splendid
local gods.
gods. Here,
at the
the end
end of
of the
the flood
flood period,
splendid festivals
festivals
were celebrated,
celebrated, re-creating
fate of
death, Isis's
Isis's search
search
of Osiris:
Osiris: his
his death,
were
re-creating the
the fate
for his
his mourning,
mourning, and
and his
his funeral.
funeral.
for
his body,
body, his

The
Ancient Egypt
The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Egypt

197
197

In
In death,
death, the
the pharaoh
pharaoh was
was likened
likened to
to Osiriseven
Osiris-even identified
identified with
with
himand
was granted
eternal life.
life. These
These beliefs
are expounded
expounded
him-and thus
thus was
granted eternal
beliefs are
in the
texts carved
carved inside
inside the
the pyramids;
they are
are records
records of
of the
the royal
royal
in
the texts
pyramids; they
funerary rituals.
These beliefs
beliefs were
also reflected
reflected in
in the
coronation
funerary
rituals. These
were also
the coronation
ritual, when
when the
the living
living king
king acted
as Horus,
and the
the mummy
mummy of
of the
the
ritual,
acted as
Horus, and
deceased king
king represented
Osiris. The
The worship
worship of
of Osiris
Osiris preserved
preserved
deceased
represented Osiris.
the character
character of
of aa specifically
specifically royal
cult for
for aa long
long time.
time. It
It was
was only
only
the
royal cult
after
end of
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, and
especially after
the Middle
Middle
after the
the end
of the
and especially
after the
Kingdom,
that participation
participation in
in the
the cult
cult of
of Osiris
Osiris was
extended to
to the
the
Kingdom, that
was extended
dead in
in general.
general. Not
Not only
only the
the king
king but
but any
any ordinary
ordinary person
person could
could bedead
become Osiris
Osiris and
and receive
receive eternal
eternal life
with the
help of
of special
special incantaincantalife with
the help
come
tions.
Faith in
in an
an afterlife
afterlife was
was also
also strongly
strongly intertwined
intertwined with
with the
the solar
solar
tions. Faith
cult, which,
which, similarly,
similarly, was
was originally
originally associated
associated exclusively
exclusively with
with the
the
cult,
king. Ra',
Ra', like
like Osiris,
Osiris, personified
the source
source of
of eternal
eternal life,
life, and
and aa deking.
personified the
deceased person,
person, who
who by
means of
of sorcery
sorcery became
became aa passenger
passenger in
in the
the
ceased
by means
boat of
of Ra',
Ra', shared
shared the
the god's
god's fate.
fate.
boat
The image
image of
of an
an afterlife
afterlife consisted
consisted of
of aa complex
complex combination
combination of
of
The
some very
very ancient
ancient and
and some
some more
more recent
beliefs that
that were
were often
often conconsome
recent beliefs
tradictory and,
and, at
at times,
times, even
even mutually
mutually exclusive.
exclusive. The
The Egyptians
Egyptians bebetradictory
lieved that
that aa person
person had
had several
several souls.
souls. One
One of
of these
these souls
souls was
was called
called
lieved
the Ka,
Ka, aa person's
double, who
lived in
in the
the tomb.
tomb. Another
Another was
the Ba,
Ba,
the
person's double,
who lived
was the
which was
was imagined
imagined as
as aa bird
with aa human
human head.
head. The
The Ba
Ba could
could rejoin
rejoin
which
bird with
the body
and revive
the deceased
deceased after
after the
the performance
performance of
of special
special ritritthe
body and
revive the
uals. This
This required
the preservation
of the
the body
and led
led to
to the
uals.
required the
preservation of
body and
the pracpractice
of mummification
and to
to the
the construction
construction of
of durable
durable tombs
tombs built
built
tice of
mummification and
of stone
stone or
or hewn
hewn in
in the
the rocks.
rocks. However,
However, it
it was
was not
not sufficient
sufficient to
to perperof
form the
the funeral
funeral rites
rites and
and to
to provide
provide the
the deceased
deceased with
with the
the provisions
provisions
form
and the
the implements
implements necessary
necessary in
in the
afterlife. Eternal
life depended
depended
and
the afterlife.
Eternal life
on continued
continued sacrificial
sacrificial offerings,
offerings, which
the responsibility
of the
the
on
which were
were the
responsibility of
heirs, especially
especially the
eldest son
son of
of the
the deceased,
deceased, who
who also
also had
had to
bear
heirs,
the eldest
to bear
the maintenance
expenses of
of the
the funerary
For
the
maintenance expenses
the tomb
tomb and
and the
funerary priests.
priests. For
this reason,
as well
as private
private persons,
persons, apportioned
apportioned the
income
the income
this
reason, kings,
kings, as
well as
from certain
certain lands
lands to
to cover
cover the
the maintenance
costs of
of the
afterlife cult.
cult.
from
maintenance costs
the afterlife
A person's
in Egyptian
Egyptian beliefs;
A
person's name
name had
had enormous
enormous importance
importance in
beliefs; the
the
destruction
person's written
name would
destruction of
of aa person's
written name
would cause
cause irreparable
irreparable harm
harm
to
that person
in the
afterlife. Necessarily,
Egyptians always
always attached
attached
to that
person in
the afterlife.
Necessarily, Egyptians
great significance
significance to
the preservation
preservation of
of names.
about Ra'
Ra'
great
to the
names. The
The myth
myth about
It tells
tells how
cunand the
dragon involves
precisely this
and
the dragon
involves precisely
this belief.
belief. It
how Isis
Isis cunningly discovered
discovered the
the true
true name
name of
of Ra'
Ra' and
and thus
thus attained
attained power
power
ningly
over him.
him.
over
The
of judgment
judgment in
hereafter took
The idea
idea of
in the
the hereafter
took its
its final
final form
form around
around
the time
of the
the New
Kingdom. This
This belief
existed earlier
earlier but
but in
in very
very
the
time of
New Kingdom.
belief existed
vague
terms. The
The concept
concept of
of aa posthumous
posthumous judgment
embraced ethiethivague terms.
judgment embraced
cal and
and magical
magical elements
elements in
typically Egyptian
A written
written recal
in aa typically
Egyptian fashion.
fashion. A
re-

ig8

I. A. Lapis
/.
Lapis

pudiation
pudiation of
of one's
one's sins
sins was
was regarded
regarded as
as actually
actually doing
doing away
away with
with them.
them.
When
dead person's
set the
scales in
in balance
during the
the judgjudgWhen aa dead
person's heart
heart set
the scales
balance during
ment
Osiris, it
it meant
that the
deceased was
and was
ment by
by Osiris,
meant that
the deceased
was righteous
righteous and
was
saved from
from being
devoured by
the monster
monster Amemet.
Amemet.
being devoured
by the
saved
The state
state after
after death
death was
as the
the continuation
continuation of
of earthly
earthly
The
was regarded
regarded as
life. This
interpreted so
so literally
literally that
used special
special ininThis was
was interpreted
that Egyptians
Egyptians used
life.
cantations
to protect
deceased person
from death
death in
in the
the hereafter.
hereafter.
person from
cantations to
protect aa deceased
The living
communicated with
with the
dead not
only by
sacrificial offerofferThe
living communicated
the dead
not only
by sacrificial
ings and
and prayers
prayers but
also by
written requests
and complaints
complaints preprebut also
by written
requests and
ings
sented to
the dead.
dead. The
The intervention
intervention of
of dead
dead people
people in
in the
affairs of
sented
to the
the affairs
of
the living
living was
was regarded
regarded as
as an
an everyday
everyday occurrence.
occurrence. It
It was
firmly bethe
was firmly
believed that
deceased person
person could
the living
living or,
or, conversely,
conversely,
that aa deceased
could help
help the
lieved
bring
about calamities.
calamities. The
The dead
dead were
were asked
asked to
to help
help in
in court
court cases,
cases, to
to
bring about
heal the
sick, and
and to
to grant
grant heirs.
heirs. This
was especially
especially important
for
the sick,
This last
last was
important for
heal
the
maintenance of
of the
afterlife cult.
cult. One
One wished
to be
able to
to visit
visit the
the
the maintenance
the afterlife
wished to
be able
earth after
after death
death and
and to
to spend
spend time
time among
among the
the living.
living. Special
Special texts
texts
earth
were
to help
help achieve
achieve this
this and
and to
ensure aa dead
dead person's
"exit
were thought
thought to
to ensure
person's "exit
by
day" from
from his
his tomb.
tomb.
by day"
In
hymns, in
records of
rituals, and
we sometimes
In hymns,
in records
of rituals,
and in
in similar
similar texts
texts we
sometimes
encounter notions
notions about
about the
of the
are very
conencounter
the creation
creation of
the world.
world. They
They are
very contradictory,
originate in
in different
and
tradictory, probably
probably because
because they
they originate
different times
times and
places.
Although one
doctrine could
could temporarily
over
places. Although
one doctrine
temporarily predominate
predominate over
another, there
canonic version
story. The
myth
another,
there was
was no
no canonic
version of
of the
the creation
creation story.
The myth
of Heliopolis
Heliopolis held
Atum created
created the
in Memphis
Memphis
of
held that
thatAtum
the world,
world, whereas
whereas in
this
attributed to
Ptah. One
One myth
mound rose
rose
myth tells
tells that
that aa mound
this role
role was
was attributed
to Ptall.
from the
ocean and
and that
lotus grew
grew on
on it
it and
and gave
gave life
life to
to
from
the primeval
primeval ocean
that aa lotus
the
Sun god.
god. Another
Another claims
claims that
sun appeared
in an
an egg
egg laid
laid by
that the
the sun
appeared in
by
the Sun
"The Great
Great Cackler"
Cackler" on
on the
same mound.
mound. The
The most
most widespread,
"The
the same
widespread,' howhowever, was
was the
the Heliopolitan
myth because
of this
this city's
city's special
special status
status as
as aa
Heliopolitan myth
because of
ever,
very ancient
ancient political
political and
and religious
center. According
this version,
version,
religious center.
According to
to this
very
Atum (identified
(identified with
the sun
sun as
as Atum-Ra')
Atum-Ra') came
came into
existence from
from
Atum
with the
into existence
the
primeval
chaos,
fecundated
himself
with
his
semen,
and
engenthe primeval chaos, fecundated himself with his semen, and engendered through
through his
mouth the
of gods:
gods: Shu,
Shu, the
the air,
air, and
and
dered
his mouth
the first
first pair
pair of
Tefnut,
the
moisture.
Thus,
Atum-Ra'
became
the
archancestor
of
Tefnut, the' moisture. Thus, Atum-Ra' became the archancestor of
the
universe,
because
Shu
and
Tefnut
engendered
Geb,
the
earth,
the universe, because Shu and Tefnut engendered Geb, the earth,
and Nut,
sky, who
who in
in turn
gave birth
birth to
to Osiris,
Osiris, Isis,
Isis, Seth,
Seth, and
and
and
Nut, the
the sky,
turn gave
Nephtys.
These
gods
formed
the
Heliopolitan
"Great
Nine,"
who
Nephtys. These gods formed the Heliopolitan "Great Nine," who ocoC
cupied
in the
pantheon.
cupied aa prominent
prominent place
place in
the pantheon.
A later
later legend
legend from
from Memphis
Memphis dating
dating from
from the
the state
state (i.e.,
(i.e., dynastic)
dynastic)
A
period of
history says
Ptall, created
period
of Egyptian
Egyptian history
says that
that the
the local
local god,
god, Ptah,
created the
the
world through
through his
(the Egyptians
Egyptians considered
considered the
the heart
heart to
be the
the
world
his heart
heart (the
to be
seat of
mind) and
word. Ptall
Ptah created
created all
all things
things in
in
seat
of thought,
thought, i.e.,
i.e., the
the mind)
and his
his word.
the
them.
the universe
universe by
by naming
naming them.
P

The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Ancient Egypt
Egypt
The

199
199

Architecture
Architecture
Very
of
Very little
little information
information is
is available
available about
about the
the domestic
domestic architecture
architecture of
ancient
ancient Egypt.
Egypt. Certain
Certain pictorial
pictorial and
and literary
literary representations
representations allow
allow us
us
to imagine
imagine aa type
type of
of residential
residential rural
rural home
home made
made of
of adobe
adobe brick
brick and
to
and
enclosed within
within aa fenced
fenced area.
area. The
The entrance
entrance to
to the
the house
house opened
opened
enclosed
onto aa courtyard
courtyard and
and was
was protected
by aa porch
porch with
with supporting
supporting colonto
protected by
columns.
Two or
or three
three doors
doors led
led from
from the
the porch
porch to
to the
the living
living rooms.
rooms.
umns. Two
The roof,
roof, which
which was
was either
either flat
or vaulted,
vaulted, was
was supported
supported by
by capitals
capitals
The
flat or
the form
form of
of plants.
plants. A
pavilion was
was sometimes
sometimes erected
erected on
on aa flat
flat roof,
roof,
in
in the
A pavilion
eventually developing
developing into
into aa second
second story;
story; some
some three-story
three-story houses
houses
eventually
were built
built with
with stairs
stairs attached
attached to
to the
the outside.
outside. The
The enclosed
enclosed courtyard
courtyard
were
often had
had aa small
small covered
covered pond.
pond. The
The houses
houses were
were ventilated
ventilated via
via winwinoften
dows or
or special
special cupola-type
cupola-type openings
openings in
the roof.
roof. The
The more
more complex
complex
dows
in the
central hall
hall with
with one
one to
to three
three columns.
columns, the
the hall
hall was
was
houses featured
featured aa central
houses
entered by
by way
way of
of aa porch
and was
was surrounded
surrounded by
by private
private rooms.
rooms. The
entered
porch and
The
stucco on
on the
the walls
walls of
of the
the houses,
well as
the columns,
columns, capitals,
capitals, and
stucco
houses, as
as well
as the
and
wooden doors,
doors, were
were painted
painted in
in bright
bright colors.
colors. Windows
Windows were
were framed
framed
wooden
with grills,
grills, usually
usually rectangular
rectangular but,
later, also
also ornamental.
ornamental.
with
but, later,
The
ruins of
pyramid of
The ruins
of aa settlement
settlement near
near the
the pyramid
of Senwesert
Senwesert II
II near
near
the
town of
of EI-Lahun
El-Lahun give
give us
us an
an idea
idea about
about the
the architectural
architectural
the modern
modern town
and social
social planning
planning of
of Egyptian
Egyptian towns.
towns. The
The settlement
settlement was
was surand
surrounded by
common wall,
wall, and
and aa second
second wall
wall divided
divided the
the town
town into
into
rounded
by aa common
two unequal
unequal portions.
portions. The
The houses
houses of
of the
the poor
quarter were
were clumped
clumped
two
poor quarter
together in
in the
the smaller
smaller of
of the
the two
two sectors.
sectors. The
The larger
larger sector
sector contained
contained
together
of the
the nobles,
nobles, and
and medium-sized
medium-sized houses:
houses.
palace, large
large residences
residences of
aa palace,
The largest
largest houses
houses contained
contained up
up to
to seventy
seventy rooms
rooms used
used for
for different
different
The
purposes and
and occupied
occupied an
an area
area of
of 60
60 XX 40
40 meters,
meters, which
equals appurposes
which equals
approximately fourteen
fourteen middle-sized
middle-sized or
or twenty-five
twenty-five small
small houses.
houses. There
There
proximately
was aa rectangular
grid of
of streets
streets and
alleys, bordered
bordered by
by the
the blank
blank
was
rectangular grid
and alleys,
of houses
and courtyards.
courtyards.
walls of
walls
houses and
A large
large house
house was
A
was usually
usually divided
divided into
into four
four sections:
sections: the
the rooms
rooms of
of
the owners;
the
owners; aa section
section for
for women;
women; servants'
servants' quarters;
quarters; and
and aa household
household
area.
area. Each
Each section
section was
was clustered
clustered around
around its
its own
own yard,
yard, which
which frefrequently
quently featured
featured aa colonnade.
colonnade. The
The living
living quarters
quarters faced
faced north.
north. From
From
in the
the heart
of the
the house,
one passed
passed
the main
main courtyard,
courtyard, located
located in
the
heart of
house, one
through
a
pillar-supported
veranda
into
a
reception
hall.
The
living
through a pillar-supported veranda into a reception hall. The living
quartersthe
dining
room,
the
masters'
and
mistresses'
bedrooms
quarters-the dining room, the masters' and mistresses' bedrooms
complete with
with lavatories
lavatories and
and dressing
dressing rooms,
rooms, and
and the
the children's
children's
complete
roomsflanked the
the hall.
hall. The
The larger
larger rooms
rooms had
columns. As
the exrooms-flanked
had columns.
As the
excavations at
at Tell-Amarna
Tell-Amarna (Akhet-Aton)
(Akhet-Aton) have
have shown,
shown, this
this layout
layout of
of aa
cavations
wealthy mansion
mansion was
was typical
typical throughout
throughout the
the New
New Kingdom.
Kingdom. The
The inwealthy
inside walls
walls of
of such
such residences
residences were
were decorated
decorated with
with geometric
geometric and
and floral
floral
side

200
200

I.
Lapis
LA.A. Lapis

designs;
ceilings, and
designs; floors,
floors, ceilings,
and columns,
columns, which
which were
were sometimes
sometimes crowned
crowned
the form
plants, were
were also
with capitals
with
capitals in
in the
form of
of plants,
also painted.
painted.
The
the short-lived
with its
The excavation
excavation site
site at
at the
short-lived city
city of
of Tell-Amarna,
Tell-Amarna, with
its
main
running parallel
parallel to
to the
Nile, constitutes
main avenues
avenues running
the Nile,
constitutes an
an important
important
source
source of
of information
information on
on Egyptian
Egyptian urban
urban architecture
architecture and
and planning.
planning.
But
large, centuries-old
centuries-old cities
cities that
that gradually
gradually expanded
expanded to
to include
include
But large,
royal palaces,
royal
palaces, temples,
temples, and
and residences
residences of
of the
the elite
elite and
and of
of the
the common
common
people could
could not
not preserve
such aa simple
simple and
and clear-cut
clear-cut layout.
layout.
people
preserve such
The design
design of
of royal
royal palaces
palaces can
can be
be reconstructed
reconstructed for
for the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth
The
Dynasty. The
The Theban
Theban palace
of Amenhetep
Amenhetep III,
III, located
located on
on the
the west
palace of
west
Dynasty.
bank
of the
the Nile,
Nile, covered
covered an
an enormous
enormous area
area and
and consisted
consisted of
of many
many
bank of
spacious one-story
at different
different times.
The private
private rooms
rooms
times. The
spacious
one-story rooms
rooms built
built at
of the
the king
king included
included aa reception
hall, aa banquet
hall with
with the
royal
of
reception hall,
banquet hall
the royal
throne, aa bedroom,
and aa lavatory.
lavatory. Similar
Similar rooms
rooms were
were built
built
throne,
bedroom, aa bath,
bath, and
for Queen
Queen Tiyi.
Tiyi. The
The palace
ensemble included
included the
the houses
of courcourfor
palace ensemble
nouses of
tiers,
workshops of
of craftsmen
craftsmen and
and their
their homes,
homes, and
and aa large
large hall
hall
tiers, the
the workshops
used
to celebrate
celebrate the
the Heb-Sed.!
Heb-Sed.1 The
The entire
entire palace
palace was
was richly
richly ornaornaused to
mented with
with wall
wall paintings.
paintings.
mented
first thing
More
More details
details are
are available
available about
about the
the Amarna
Amarna palaces.
palaces. The
The first
thing
that
that strikes
strikes the
the eye
eye is
is their
their enormous
enormous size.
size. It
It suffices
suffices to
to mention
mention that
that
the eastern
eastern facade
facade of
of the
the formal
formal part
of the
the main
main palace,
facing the
the
the
part of
palace, facing
street,
was almost
meters long.
huge ediedistreet, was
almost 700
700 meters
long. The
The longer
longer axis
axis of
of this
this huge
fice was
the Nile.
Nile. A
A gigantic
gigantic courtyard
courtyard was
was located
located beyond
beyond
fice
was parallel
parallel to
to the
the main
main entrance
entrance on
on the
the northern
northern side
side and
and was
followed by
other
the
was followed
by other
courts and
and halls
halls with
with columns
columns and
and statues
statues and
and stelae
stelae depicting
depicting the
the
courts
Aton. One
One of
of the
stone
royal
family's worship
of Aton.
royal family's
worship of
the yards
yards was
was paved
paved with
with stone
slabs that
displayed images
images of
of captured
captured enemies.
enemies. This
yard was
folthat displayed
This yard
was folslabs
lowed
by aa deep,
deep, columned
columned hall.
hall. This
This complex
complex was
was connected
connected to
the
to the
lowed by
royal
living quarters
quarters by
bridge that
spanned the
road. A
A "window
"window of
of
royal living
by aa bridge
that spanned
the road.
appearances" was
was built
at the
the center
center of
of the
the bridge.
The king
would
appearances"
built at
bridge. The
king would
stand at
at this
window to
subjects on
on certain
certain official
official
stand
this window
to be
be viewed
viewed by
by his
his subjects
occasions. In
In contrast
contrast to
of Amenhetep
built
occasions.
to the
the palace
palace of
Amenhetep III,
III, which
which was
was built
of adobe,
adobe, the
constructed partly
of stone.
stone. There
There
of
the Amarna
Amarna palace
palace was
was constructed
partly of
were
several palaces
at Amarna,
and all
all of
of them
splendidly
were several
palaces at
Amarna, and
them were
were splendidly
decorated. The
The walls
ornamental and
and figurative
figurative
walls were
were covered
covered with
with ornamental
decorated.
paintings
and finished
colored tiles.
Their floors,
ceilings, and
and
paintings and
finished with
with colored
tiles. Their
floors, ceilings,
staircases
were
likewise
brightly
painted.
Columns
with
elaborate
staircases were likewise brightly painted. Columns with elaborate
capitals were
were also
also painted
painted and
and inlaid
inlaid with
colored faience.
faience.
with colored
capitals
Rameses
and Rameses
their Theban
Theban palaces
their
II and
Rameses III
III built
built their
palaces near
near their
Rameses II
funerary temples.
temples. The
The temple
temple and
and palace
as aa whole,
funerary
palace were
were planned
planned as
whole,
1.
1. The
The Heb-Sed
Heb-Sed was
was aa feast
feast dedicated
dedicated to
to the
the twentieth,
twentieth, thirtieth,
thirtieth, etc.,
etc., anniversaries
anniversaries
of the
the pharaoh's
pharaoh's reign.
reign. It
It is
of
is assumed
assumed that
that the
the object
object of
of this
this feast
feast was
was the
the magical
magical renewal
renewal
of
belief, were
were necessary
necessary for
for the
the
of the
the pharaoh's
pharaoh's vital
vital forces,
forces, which,
which, according
according to
to Egyptian
Egyptian belief,
fertility
land and
fertility of
of the
the land
and the
the general
general well-being
well-being of
of the
the country.
country.

The
Ancient Egypt
The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Egypt

201
201

and the
the portico
portico of
of the
the temple
courtyard also
also served
served as
as the
the portico
portico of
of
and
temple courtyard
the
palace. Both
palaces essentially
the traditional
the palace.
Both palaces
essentially re-created
re-created the
traditional layout
layout of
of
residential house.
house.
aa residential
Structures
the funerary
the cult
Structures dedicated
dedicated to
to the
funerary cult,
cult, particularly
particularly to
to the
cult of
of
the
dead kings,
are better
they were
were built
of stone.
stone.
the dead
kings, are
better preserved
preserved because
because they
built of
tombs already
Stone
Stone was
was used
used for
for private
private tombs
already during
during the
the Old
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom.
The
funerary structure
today, built
The oldest
oldest funerary
structure surviving
surviving today,
built mainly
mainly of
of
stone,
Djeser of
stone, was
was the
the pyramid-tomb
pyramid-tomb of
of King
King Djeser
of the
the Third
Third Dynasty.
Dynasty.
This
This structure
structure was
was built
built by
by aa daring
daring architect,
architect, Imhetep.
Imhetep. Tradition
Tradition dedescribes
him not
not only
scribes him
only as
as aa builder
builder but
but also
also as
as aa sage.
sage. His
His memory
memory
reached the
times of
of the
Persians and
and the
the Greeks,
Greeks, who
who identified
identified him
him
reached
the times
the Persians
with
their god
god of
of healing,
healing, Aesculapius.
Aesculapius. Chapels
dedicated to
to him
him
with their
Chapels were
were dedicated
in numerous
throughout the
the country.
country.
in
numerous temples
temples throughout
The Djeser
Djeser pyramid
is surrounded
surrounded by
large group
group of
of cultic
cultic strucstrucThe
pyramid is
by aa large
tures whose
whose exact
exact purpose
is not
always dear.
clear. The
The pyramid
pyramid was
begun
tures
purpose is
not always
was begun
as aa mastaba.
But the
the plan
plan was
later changed,
changed, and
and new
new smaller
smaller storys
storys
as
mastaba.22 But
was later
added to
in aa pyramid
were
were added
to the
the tomb,
tomb, resulting
resulting in
pyramid with
with six
six steps.
steps. The
The
Egyptian architects
were still
still just
just beginning
beginning to
to learn
learn how
how to
to use
use stone
stone
Egyptian
architects were
for
building purposes
for building
purposes and
and had
had not
not yet
yet discovered
discovered the
the structural
structural forms
forms
suitable to
to this
this material.
material.
suitable
Many building
building details
details in
in the
the Djeser
complex mimic
mimic in
in stone
stone their
their
Many
Djeser complex
wooden-structure prototypes:
stone ceilings
were made
made in
in the
the form
form of
wooden-structure
prototypes: stone
ceilings were
of
wooden
colwooden beams;
beams; pilasters
pilasters re-created
re-created the
the proportions
proportions of
of wooden
wooden columns.
umns. In
In places,
places, walls
walls were
were faced
faced with
with colored
colored tiles
tiles that
that imitated
imitated the
the
woven
texture of
of reed
reed mats
mats that
that used
used to
to hang
hang on
on the
the walls
walls of
of homes.
homes.
woven texture
The majestic
majestic fluted
fluted trunks
trunks of
of columns
columns were
connected to
to the
the walls
The
were connected
walls
with partitions,
in halls
halls where
the columns
columns were
were free-standing,
free-standing,
with
partitions, and
and in
where the
was joined
joined by
by aa partition.
partition. The
The step
step pyramids
pyramids served
served as
as the
the
each pair
pair was
each
starting point
point in
in the
development of
of geometrically
geometrically regular
regular pyramids,
pyramids,
starting
the development
which for
for many
centuries constituted
constituted the
the principal
form of
of royal
royal fufumany centuries
principal form
which
nerary
structure. Such
Such are
are the
the Snefru
Snefru pyramids
pyramids and
and the
the most
famous
nerary structure.
most famous
pyramids of
of all-those
allthose of
Fourth Dynasty
(Cheops [Khufu],
[Khufu],
pyramids
of the
the Fourth
Dynasty (Cheops
Chephrenes [Kha'f-Ra'],
[Kha'f-Ra'], and
and Mycerinus
Mycerinus [Menkau-Ra']).
[Menkau-Ra']). These
These imimChephrenes
mense edifices
edifices and
and associated
associated complexes
complexes demonstrate
demonstrate that
the Egypmense
that the
Egyptian
architects had
the art
art of
of construction
construction in
in stone
stone and
and
tian architects
had mastered
mastered the
acquired
a
full
understanding
of
the
structural
and
decorative
potenacquired a full understanding of the structural and decorative potential of
of this
columns of
of rectangular
rectangular and
round
tial
this material.
material. Free-standing
Free-standing columns
and round
cross sections
sections supported
supported the
overhead covers,
covers, and
and different
different
cross
the heavy
heavy overhead
varieties of
of stone
stone were
decorate the
the interior
interior spaces
spaces of
of the
the
were used
used to
to decorate
varieties
pyramid-temples.
Since the
temples were
were lavishly
lavishly decopyramid-temples. Since
the Fifth
Fifth Dynasty,
Dynasty, temples
decorated
with reliefs
and columns
columns with
with capitals
capitals carved
carved to
resemble plants.
plants.
rated with
reliefs and
to resemble
The layout
of rooms
was determined
determined by
the requirements
requirements of
of the
the fufuThe
layout of
rooms was
by the
2.
Mastaba ("bench"
2. Mastaba
("bench"ininArabic)
Arabic)designates
designatesthe
themud-brick
mud-brickand
andstone
stonetombs
tombsof
ofnoblenoblewalls.
men of
of the
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. They
They are
are flat
and rectangular
in shape
shape and
and have
sloping walls.
men
the Old
flat and
rectangular in
have sloping

2O2
202

I. A. Lapis
/.

nerary
nerary cult.
cult. By
By the
the time
time of
of the
the Fourth
Fourth Dynasty,
Dynasty, the
the mastaba
mastaba became
became
the standard
standard design
design of
of private
private tombs
tombs surrounding
surrounding the
the pyramids.
pyramids. The
The
the
adobe bricks
bricks once
once commonly
commonly used
used in
in the
the construction
construction of
of private
private
adobe
tombs were
were replaced
replaced with
with sandstone
sandstone slabs.
slabs. The
The room
room of
of worship,
worship,
tombs
which used
used to
to be
be built
built of
of brick
brick and
and attached
attached externally
externally to
to the
the main
main
which
structure, developed
developed into
into aa complex
complex array
array of
of hallways
hallways and
and rooms.
rooms.
structure,
Their layout
layout and
and design
design were
were influenced
influenced by
by the
the royal
royal funerary
funerary strucstrucTheir
tures, and
and private
private persons
persons gradually
gradually adopted
adopted some
some aspects
aspects of
of the
the
tures,
royal funeral
funeral cult.
cult. The
The same
same trend
trend emerges
emerges in
in the
the tombs
tombs cut
cut in
in the
the
royal
Giza cliffs
cliffs at
at the
the sites
sites oflarge
of large quarries
quarries and
and in
in the
the mountains
mountains of
of Upper
Upper
Giza
Egypt.
Egypt.
Cliff
Cliff tombs
tombs soon
soon began
began to
to be
be used
used for
for royal
royal burials
burials as
as well.
well. Such
Such is
is
the
was
the burial
burial place
place of
of Mentuhetep
Mentuhetep III.
III. In
In front
front of
of his
his tomb,
tomb, which
which was
cut into
into aa cliff,
cut
cliff, aa large
large funerary
funerary temple
temple was
was built.
built. This
This temple
temple is
is noted
noted
for its
its generous
generous use
use of
of columns.
columns. Two-tiered
Two-tiered porticoes
porticoes graced
graced the
the
for
building, in
in the
the center
center of
of which
which there
there probably
stood aa pyramid.
A
building,
probably stood
pyramid. A
colonnade encircled
encircled the
the central
central court,
court, beyond
beyond which
which was
was aa hall
hall with
with
colonnade
columns. Trees
Trees of
of many
many varieties,
varieties, specially
specially brought
brought and
and
eight rows
of columns.
eight
rows of
planted within
within the
the perimeter
perimeter walls
walls of
of the
the structure,
structure, constituted
constituted an
an imimplanted
portant feature
feature in
in the
the overall
overall design.
design. A
A plan
plan of
of the
the layout
layout of
of this
this gargarportant
den drawn
drawn by
by the
the ancient
ancient architect
architect has
has been
been preserved.
preserved.
den
The
DyThe earlier
earlier form
form of
of royal
royal burial
burial was
was revived
revived during
during the
the Twelfth
Twelfth Dynasty.
nasty. But
But at
at that
that time,
time, the
the pyramids
pyramids were
were built
built of
of adobe
adobe bricks
bricks and
and
were simply
simply revetted
revetted with
with sandstone
sandstone slabs.
slabs. The
The main
main attention
attention was
were
was
now directed
directed to
to the
the internal
internal decoration
decoration of
of the
the funerary
funerary temples.
temples. RectRectnow
angular tombs
tombs of
of the
the nobility
nobility continued
continued to
to be
built around
around the
the royal
royal
angular
be built
pyramids, but
but the
the independent
independent elite,
elite, especially
especially the
the nomarchs
nomarchs of
of
pyramids,
Middle Egypt,
Egypt, preferred
preferred to
to construct
construct their
their burial
sites in
in their
their own
own
Middle
burial sites
districts. The
The rock
rock tombs
tombs of
of these
these nomarchs
nomarchs had
had several
several rooms,
rooms, many
many
districts.
of which
which were
were divided
divided by
by rows
rows of
of columns.
columns. The
The height
height of
of the
the aisles
aisles
of
was made
made lower
lower than
than the
the height
of the
the nave,
nave, and
and the
the ceiling
ceiling was
was often
often
height of
was
cut like
like aa vault.
vault. The
The entrance
entrance to
to the
the tomb
tomb had
had the
the form
form of
of aa porch,
porch,
cut
and the
the columns
columns used
used here
here eventually
eventually served
served as
as the
the model
model for
for the
the
and
Greek Doric
Doric order.
order. Of
Of special
special interest
interest are
are the
the tombs
tombs of
of the
the nomarchs
nomarchs
Greek
of the
the Tenth
Tenth nome.
nome. While
repeating the
the main
main outline
outline of
of the
the ancient
ancient
of
While repeating
layout,
they
introduced
a
new
architectural
elementthe
pylon,
which
layout, they introduced a new architectural element-the pylon, which
was
later
widely
used
by
architects
of
the
New
Kingdom.
It
is aa
was later widely used by architects of the New Kingdom. It is
double,
tower-like
structure
with
slightly
sloping
sides.
double, tower-like structure with slightly sloping sides.
In
began to
In the
the Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, funerary
funerary temples
temples began
to be
be built
built sepaseparately from
from the
the tombs,
tombs, which
which were
were cut
cut in
in cliffs
cliffs in
in remote
remote and
and hidden
hidden
rately
places. Memorial
Memorial temples
temples began
to play
play the
the central
central role
role in
in royal
royal mormorplaces.
began to
tuary complexes.
complexes. These
These temples
temples seem
seem to
to have
have had
had aa rectangular
rectangular
tuary
layout along
along one
one axis
axis and
and entrances
entrances shaped
shaped like
like pylons.
pylons.
layout

The
The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Ancient Egypt
Egypt

203

The temple
temple of
of Hatshepsut
Hatshepsut is
is the
the most
most prominent
prominent among
among such
such strucstrucThe
tures. It
It was
was designed
designed by
by Senmut,
Senmut, aa highly
highly placed
placed official
official who
who held
held
tures.
extremely important
important posts
posts at
at the
the court
court of
of this
this pharaoh.
pharaoh. Her
Her temple
temple
extremely
consisted of
of two
two portico-terraces,
portico-terraces, decorated
decorated with
with statues
statues and
and reliefs.
reliefs.
consisted
Elegant stairs
stairs gave
gave access
access to
to the
the terraces,
terraces, and
and aa covered
covered colonnade
colonnade
Elegant
rose in
in the
the center
center of
of the
the second
second terrace,
terrace, forming
forming aa small
small courtyard.
courtyard.
rose
This temple
temple was
was adorned
adorned with
with bright
bright paintings
paintings and
and ornaments,
ornaments, aa wide
wide
This
variety of
of wood,
wood, bronze,
bronze, carnelian,
carnelian, and
and gold
gold inlays,
inlays, as
as well
well as
as many
many
variety
statues and
and columns,
columns, creating
creating an
an impression
impression of
of luxuriance.
luxuriance. The
The sursurstatues
rounding landscape
landscape was
was decorated
decorated with
with trees
trees and
and ponds.
ponds.
rounding
The tradition
tradition of
of erecting
erecting separate
separate mortuary
mortuary temples
temples continued
continued
the
during the
the Nineteenth
Dynasty. The
The temple
temple of
of Rameses
Rameses II
II (the
(the
during
Nineteenth Dynasty.
Ramesseum), built
built by
by the
the architect
architect Penra,
Penra, was
was surrounded
surrounded by
by aa brick
brick
Ramesseum),
wall, behind
behind which
which storage
storage rooms,
rooms, domestic
domestic workrooms,
workrooms, and
and the
the
wall,
living quarters
quarters of
of priests
priests and
and servants
servants were
were located.
located. The
The entrance
entrance was
was
living
designed as
as aa double
double pylon
pylon with
with aa relief
relief depicting
depicting aa battle
battle with
with the
the
designed
Hittites.
Hittites. An
An entrance
entrance from
from the
the first
first court
court led
led into
into the
the palace
palace and
and into
into aa
second colonnaded
colonnaded court
court of
of the
the temple,
temple, and
and from
from here,
here, three
three doors
doors
second
gave access
access into
into aa colonnaded
colonnaded hall
hall with
with skylights.
skylights. This
This hall
hall extended
extended
gave
into aa smaller
smaller colonnaded
colonnaded hall
hall and
and rooms
rooms for
for worship
worship and
and household
household
into
use, as
as well
well as
as sanctuaries.
sanctuaries. The
The layout
layout of
of this
this temple
temple appears
appears complex
complex
use,
because of
of the
the great
great number
number of
of halls
halls and
and rooms,
rooms, but
but it
it was
was essentially
essentially
because
stone-built version
version of
of aa royal
royal palace,
palace, with
with its
its typical
typical rectangular
rectangular dedeaa stone-built
sign and
and sequence
sequence of
of aa colonnaded
colonnaded reception
reception hall,
hall, throne
throne room,
room, and
and
sign
private rooms,
rooms, where
where the
the spirit
spirit of
of the
the deceased
deceased pharaoh
pharaoh "resided."
"resided."
private
The
The temple
temple of
of Rameses
Rameses III
III in
in Medinet-Abu
Medinet-Abu is
is much
much better
better prepreserved.
served. The
The temple
temple and
and the
the surrounding
surrounding structures
structures were
were planned
planned in
in
the
the shape
shape of
of aa rectangle
rectangle enclosed
enclosed by
by aa thick,
thick, fortress-like
fortress-like wall
wall with
with an
an
elaborately fortified
fortified gate.
gate. A
A channel
channel was
was dug
dug from
from the
the Nile
Nile to
to aa pier
pier
elaborately
near
Penear the
the temple.
temple. The
The tombs
tombs of
of the
the Sais
Sais kings
kings of
of the
the Late
Late Dynastic
Dynastic Period
riod were
were located
located in
in the
the temple.
temple.
Private
Private tombs
tombs of
of that
that time
time were
were often
often distinguished
distinguished by
by their
their large
large
size and
and original
original layout.
layout. They
They usually
usually included
included one
one or
or two
two aboveabovesize
ground courts
courts surrounded
surrounded by
by walls
walls and
and an
an entrance
entrance in
in the
the form
form of
of aa
ground
pylon. The
The funerary
funerary rooms
rooms were
were carved
carved into
into the
the rock.
rock. Colonnaded
Colonnaded
pylon.
rooms, chapels,
chapels, and
and hallways
hallways were
were built
built at
at different
different levels
levels inside
inside the
the
rooms,
rock; some
some tombs
tombs had
had more
more than
than twenty
twenty rooms.
rooms.
rock;
The
The earliest
earliest urban
urban sanctuaries
sanctuaries were
were built
built of
of timber
timber and
and reeds
reeds and
and
were surrounded
surrounded by
by fences.
fences. Many
Many of
of the
the temples
temples of
of the
the Middle
Middle KingKingwere
dom
dom have
have been
been rebuilt
rebuilt beyond
beyond recognition.
recognition. Many
Many were
were taken
taken apart,
apart,
and the
the materials
materials used
used in
in other
other construction
construction projects.
projects. Later
Later temples
temples
and
were built
built of
of brick
brick and
and stone.
stone. The
The most
most important
important architectural
architectural elewere
elements were
were their
their symmetrical
symmetrical layout,
layout, pylon
pylon gates,
gates, gardens
gardens with
with ponds,
ponds,
ments

2044
20

I. A. Lapis
Lapis
LA.

faceted
faceted columns,
columns, stelae
stelae with
with reliefs,
reliefs, and
and not
not infrequently
infrequently terraces
terraces and
and
occasional
occasional obelisks
obelisks in
in front
front of
of the
the entrance.
entrance.
Toward the
the time
time of
of the
the New
Kingdom, Thebes
Thebes became
became the
the leading
leading
Toward
New Kingdom,
center of
of artistic
artistic life
life in
in Egypt.
Egypt. Gradually,
Gradually, aa city
city temple
temple style
style develdevelcenter
oped. The
The temple
laid out
out in
in aa long
long rectangle,
rectangle, usually
usually with
with aa
temple was
was laid
oped.
double pylon
pylon entrance
entrance facing
facing the
the Nile
Nile leading
leading into
into aa colonnaded
colonnaded
double
courtyard
and followed
followed by
by aa colonnaded
colonnaded hall
hall with
nave and
and
courtyard and
with aa raised
raised nave
skylights. There
There were
were numerous
numerous rooms
rooms for
for worship
worship and
and aa library.
library.
skylights.
Various
service structures
structures were
were built
and the
the entire
entire complex
complex
Various service
built nearby,
nearby, and
was enclosed
enclosed within
within aa wall.
wall. The
The main
main elements
elements of
of aa temple
temple re-created
re-created
was
the fundamental
fundamental elements
elements of
of aa residential
residential house.
house. This
This is
is reasonable,
reasonable,
the
since aa temple
temple was
was intended
intended as
as the
the residence
residence of
of the
the god,
god, to
to whom
whom it
it
since
was dedicated
dedicated and
and whose
whose cult
cult statue
statue stood
stood there.
there. Numerous
Numerous sculpsculpwas
tures, brightly
brightly painted
reliefs, gilded
gilded obelisks,
obelisks, and
and flags
flying from
from
tures,
painted reliefs,
flags flying
poles gave
gave the
the temple
temple aa festive
festive and
and rich
rich appearance.
appearance. The
The roads
roads leadleadpoles
ing to
the temple
were frequently
frequently flanked
by rows
rows of
of sphinxes.
sphinxes. Such
Such
ing
to the
temple were
flanked by
was the
the main
main Theban
Theban temple
temple to
to the
the god
god Amon:
Amon: Karnak.
Karnak. It
It was
was built
built
was
small
and rebuilt
rebuilt throughout
throughout the
the centuries
centuries on
on the
the old
old original
original site
site of
of aa small
and
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom sanctuary.
sanctuary. Many
Many pharaohs
pharaohs expanded
expanded this
this temple
temple
Middle
by adding
adding halls
halls and
and pylons.
pylons. The
The Karnak
Karnak complex,
complex, which
which included
included
by
temples dedicated
dedicated to
to aa number
number of
of different
different gods,
gods, was
was connected
connected by
temples
by
sphinx-lined roads
roads with
with the
the Luxor
Luxor temple
temple dedicated
dedicated to
to the
the Theban
Theban
sphinx-lined
triad of
of deities.
deities. The
latter was
also built
according to
to the
the aboveabovetriad
The latter
was also
built according
described scheme.
scheme. It
It featured
featured aa central
central hall
hall with
with elegant
elegant columns
columns dededescribed
signed as
as papyrus
papyrus bundles.
Architects of
of different
different times
participated
times participated
signed
bundles. Architects
in the
the construction
construction of
of these
these temples.
temples. (They
(They also
also worked
worked in
in places
places
in
other than
than Thebes.)
Thebes.) These
These architects
architects were
were Ineni,
Ineni, Hapuseneb,
Hapuseneb, AmenAmenother
hetep son
son of
of Hapu,
Hapu, the
the brothers
brothers Hori
Hori and
and Suti,
Suti, Amenhetep
Amenhetep (the
(the ararhetep
chitect of
of Luxor),
Luxor), and
and many
many others.
others.
chitect
The so-called
so-called peripteral
peripteral temple
temple became
became common
common during
during the
the New
The
New
Kingdom. It
It was
was aa small
small rectangular
rectangular building
building on
on aa stone
stone socle
socle sursurKingdom.
rounded by
by columns.
columns.
rounded
Cave temples
temples appeared
appeared during
during the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom and
and became
became
Cave
very
common throughout
throughout the
the country
country in
in the
Kingdom. OrigiOrigithe New
New Kingdom.
very common
nally, they
they were
were relatively
relatively small
small and
and resembled
resembled rock
rock tombs
tombs with
with
nally,
columned porches.
porches. During
During the
the time
time of
of Rameses
Rameses II,
such temples
temples accolumned
II, such
acquired enormous
enormous dimensions.
dimensions. Their
Their layout
layout became
became complex
complex and
and
quired
came to
to include
include hypostyles
hypostyles (roofs
(roofs resting
resting on
on rows
rows of
of columns),
columns), chapchapcame
els, columns,
columns, and
and statues
statues hewn
hewn within
within the
the cliff.
cliff. The
The entrance
entrance to
to the
the
els,
cave temple
temple at
at Abu-Simbel
Abu-Simbel above
above the
the Great
Great Cataract
Cataract is
is in
in the
the form
form of
of aa
cave
pylon and
and is
is embellished
embellished by
by four
four twenty-meter-tall
twenty-meter-tall statues
statues of
of Rameses
Rameses
pylon
II glorifying
glorifying the
the might
might of
of the
the pharaoh.
pharaoh. It
It has
has been
been moved
moved to
to aa new
new
II
location
due
to
the
flooding
of
the
valley
after
the
construction
of
the
location due to the flooding of the valley after the construction of the
Aswan
Dam.
Aswan Dam.

The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Ancient Egypt
Egypt
The

205

Sculpture
Sculpture

The appearance
appearance of
of sculpture
sculpture in
in Egypt
Egypt and
and its
its development
development are
are closely
closely
The
linked to
to religious
religious needs.
Cult requirements
dictated the
the creation
creation of
of
linked
needs. Cult
requirements dictated
various types
types of
of sculpture,
sculpture, aa certain
certain fixed
iconography, aa particular
particular
various
fixed iconography,
location, and
and often
often even
the selection
selection of
particular material.
material. The
The
location,
even the
of aa particular
fundamental rules
rules of
of sculpture
sculpture representing
representing deities
deities and
the deceased
deceased
fundamental
and the
attained their
their final
form during
during the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic Period.
Period. These
These
attained
final form
rules required
symmetrical and
and frontal
frontal representations,
representations, precise
rules
required symmetrical
precise pospostures, and
and aa tranquil
tranquil appearance-traits
appearancetraits which
which best
best suited
suited their
their relirelitures,
gious purpose.
purpose. These
These features
features were
were also
also dictated
dictated by
the placement
of
gious
by the
placement of
the statues
statues against
against walls
walls and
and in
niches. The
The most
most common
common attitudesattitudes
the
in niches.
aa sitting
sitting one
one with
with hands
hands resting
resting on
on the
the knees
knees or
or aa standing
standing one
one with
with
the left
left foot
foot slightly
slightly forward-were
forwardwere developed
developed quite
quite early.
early. The
The "scribe
"scribe
the
posture," appearing
appearing somewhat
somewhat later,
later, was
was that
that of
of aa person
person sitting
sitting with
with
posture,"
crossed legs
legs and
and was
was initially
initially used
used only
only to
to represent
represent sons
sons of
of the
the royal
royal
crossed
family. Sculptures
Sculptures of
of married
married couples
couples or
or family
family groups
groups also
also made
made an
an
family.
early appearance.
appearance. A
A series
series of
of rules
rules applied
applied to
to all
all sculpture:
sculpture: an
an erect
erect
early
head position,
position, certain
certain identifying
identifying attributes,
attributes, and
and aa specific
specific coloration.
coloration.
head
Male
bodies were
were painted
brick red,
red, and
and female
female bodies
bodies yellow.
yellow. The
The
Male bodies
painted brick
hair was
was black.
black. Eyes
Eyes were
were often
often inlaid
inlaid with
bronze and
and stones.
stones.
hair
with bronze
The bodies
bodies of
of the
the statues
statues exaggeratedly
exaggeratedly emphasized
emphasized power
power and
and
The
physical development,
development, endowing
endowing the
the figures
figures with
solemn nobility.
nobility.
physical
with aa solemn
The
however, were
were meant,
meant, in
in some
The faces,
faces, however,
some cases,
cases, to
to express
express the
the actual
actual
traits of
of the
the deceased.
deceased. This
This was
was the
the reason
reason why
why portrait
sculpture aptraits
portrait sculpture
appeared
so early
early in
in Egypt.
Egypt. The
The most
most remarkable
remarkable portraits,
portraits, now
now world
world
peared so
famous,
famous, were
were hidden
hidden in
in tombs
tombs where
where no
no one
one could
could see
see them.
them. But
But the
the
statues
statues themselves,
themselves, according
according to
to Egyptian
Egyptian beliefs,
beliefs, could
could observe
observe
earthly life
life through
through small
small openings
openings made
at the
the level
level of
of their
their eyes.
earthly
made at
eyes.
Egyptian
probably learned
Egyptian sculptors
sculptors probably
learned to
to master
master portraiture
portraiture with
with the
the
help
of one
one of
of the
methods used
used when
when trying
trying to
to save
save aa body
body from
from dedehelp of
the methods
composition. The
The body
of aa deceased
person would
would be
be covered
covered with
with
composition.
body of
deceased person
plaster, thereby
thereby forming
forming aa mask
mask over
over the
the face.
face. Since
Since the
the eyes
eyes of
of the
the
plaster,
corpse had
to remain
remain open
open in
in order
order to
to represent
the face
face of
of aa living
living
corpse
had to
represent the
person, the
the mask
mask required
required additional
additional work.
work. It
It seems
seems that
that the
the practice
practice
person,
of casting
casting masks
masks was
was also
also used
used by
by sculptors
sculptors in
in their
portrait work.
work. Two
Two
of
their portrait
kinds of
of statues
statues were
were discovered
discovered in
in the
the same
same tombs:
tombs: one
one type
type porporkinds
trayed the
the personal
personal traits
traits of
of the
the deceased,
who was
dressed in
in the
the curcurtrayed
deceased, who
was dressed
rent fashion
fashion of
of the
the period,
but without
without aa hairpiece;
hairpiece; the
the other
other type
type
rent
period, but
portrayed
the face
face in
in aa considerably
considerably more
more general,
idealized way,
way, and
and
portrayed the
general, idealized
the
figure
was
dressed
in
a
short
loincloth
and
wore
a
wig.
The
same
the figure was dressed in a short loincloth and wore a wig. The same
duality is
is observed
observed in
in reliefs.
reliefs. We
We do
do not
not yet
yet have
have aa reliable
reliable explanation
explanation
duality
for
this
custom.
All
we
can
say
with
confidence
is
that
these
statues
for this custom. All we can say with confidence is that these statues
represented
different
aspects
of
the
mortuary
cult.
Wooden
statues
represented different aspects of the mortuary cult. Wooden statues

206
206

LA.
I. A. Lapis
Lapis

were
were found
found in
in aa number
number of
of tombs;
tombs; these
these were
were used
used during
during an
an imporimportant stage
stage of
of the
the funeral
ceremony when
the statues
were raised
tant
funeral ceremony
when the
statues were
raised and
and
lowered
several times.
After the
the rite
of "opening
"opening the
the mouth
mouth and
and eyes"
lowered several
times. After
rite of
eyes"
of the
statue was
was performed,
the statue
statue was
was considered
considered alive,
of
the wooden
wooden statue
performed, the
alive,
capable of
of eating
eating and
and speaking.
speaking.
capable
workers were
placed in
with the
Figurines
of workers
were placed
in the
the tombs
tombs together
together with
the
Figurines of
statues of
of the
the deceased,
deceased, especially
especially during
during the
Middle Kingdom.
It was
statues
the Middle
Kingdom. It
was
believed
believed that
that the
the laborers
laborers were
were necessary
necessary to
ensure the
the existence
existence of
to ensure
of
the dead
dead person
in the
the next
life. This
This imposed
imposed other
other demands
demands on
on the
the
the
person in
next life.
sculptors; they
they had
had to
to represent
represent people
all sorts
sorts of
of work.
work.
sculptors;
people performing
performing all
In full
full compliance
compliance with
the overall
overall requirements
requirements of
of Egyptian
Egyptian art,
art, the
the
In
with the
most
typical moment
moment was
chosen for
for each
each occupation.
occupation. This
This moment
moment
was chosen
most typical
became
canonical. Other
Other general
general rules,
rules, such
such as
as the
frontal representarepresentabecame canonical.
the frontal
tion
and the
the conventional
conventional colors,
colors, were
were followed
followed here
as well.
here as
well.
tion and
Statues
played an
part in
in the
the temple
Statues played
an important
important part
temple complexes:
complexes: they
they
flanked the
leading to
to the
the temples
temples and
and stood
stood by
by pylons,
in
the roads
roads leading
pylons, in
flanked
courtyards, and
and in
in halls.
The statues
statues that
that were
for archiarchihalls. The
were used
used mainly
mainly for
courtyards,
tectural and
and decorative
decorative purposes
differed from
from the
the ones
ones created
created for
for
tectural
purposes differed
purely
Their subject
subject was
treated in
in aa generalized
generalized
purely religious
religious purposes.
purposes. Their
was treated
fashion, without
without much
detail; moreover,
moreover, they
they were
often quite
quite large.
large.
much detail;
were often
fashion,
The
task of
religious representations
representations of
of
The task
of the
the sculptors
sculptors working
working on
on religious
gods,
gods, kings,
kings, and
and private
private persons
persons was
was different.
different. Royal
Royal statues
statues made
made up
up
large group:
group: aa pharaoh
pharaoh would
would dedicate
dedicate his
his representation
representation to
to his
his fufuaa large
nerary temple
temple in
in order
order to
to remain
remain forever
forever under
under the
the protection
of the
the
nerary
protection of
temple's god.
god. Prayers
Prayers written
written on
on such
such statues
statues usually
usually contained
contained retemple'S
repolitical
quests for
for good
good health,
health, well-being,
well-being, and,
and, at
at times,
times, requests
requests of
of aa political
quests
nature. The
The ideological
ideological changes
changes that
that took
took place
after the
fall of
of the
the
nature.
place after
the fall
Old Kingdom
Kingdom brought
about changes
changes in
in the
the arts
arts as
as well.
well. The
The pharpharOld
brought about
aohs, seeking
seeking to
to glorify
their power,
began to
to place
statues not
not
aohs,
glorify their
power, began
place their
their statues
only in
in their
funerary shrines
shrines but
but also
also in
in temples
temples dedicated
dedicated to
to differdifferonly
their funerary
ent gods.
Such images
images served
served the
the purpose
of glorifying
glorifying the
living
ent
gods. Such
purpose of
the living
ruler and
and had
had to
to portray
him as
as faithfully
faithfully as
as possible.
ruler
portray him
possible.
As
pharaoh's special
As tokens
tokens of
of the
the pharaoh's
special favor,
favor, statues
statues of
of noblemen
noblemen were
were
also dedicated
dedicated to
to temples,
temples, especially
especially statues
statues of
of the
the temple
temple architects.
architects.
also
In
person could
his statue
In the
the beginning,
beginning, aa person
could dedicate
dedicate his
statue to
to aa temple
temple only
only
with the
the permission
of the
the king.
king. But
But religious
ideas changed.
changed. Some
Some
permission of
religious ideas
with
royal
rituals were
were extended
extended to
to the
nobility and
and eventually
eventually to
to the
the
the nobility
royal rituals
middle stratum
stratum of
of society,
society, and
and private
private persons
eventually won
won the
the
middle
persons eventually
privilege
of placing
their statues
statues in
in temples.
temples.
privilege of
placing their
Already toward
the latter
latter part
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, some
some regions
regions
part of
Already
toward the
developed
developed their
their own
own characteristic
characteristic styles
styles of
of sculpture.
sculpture. Several
Several artistic
artistic
centers (such
(such as
as the
of Middle
Middle Egypt)
Egypt) appeared
appeared during
during the
the
centers
the workshops
workshops of
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, each
each with
with its
its own
own distinguishing
distinguishing features
features and
and traditradiMiddle
tions. For
For example,
example, slender
slender figures
with elongated
elongated proportions
proportions were
were
tions.
figures with

The Culture of Ancient Egypt

207

typical of
Siut. The
The sculptures
sculptures created
created in
Meir were
were quite
quite different,
different,
typical
of Siut.
in Meir
with their
their short
short heads
heads and
and emphasis
emphasis on
on pectoral
pectoral muscles.
muscles. And
And the
the
with
statues
of
Abydos
were
softly
treated
and
lacked
sharp
lines.
statues of Abydos were softly treated and lacked sharp lines.
The
Egyptian arts
The Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty was
was the
the floruit
floruit of
of Egyptian
arts in
in general,
general,
and of
of sculpture
sculpture in
in particular.
particular. A
A new
new artistic
artistic style
style appeared
appeared during
during
and
the last
last years
years of
of this
this dynasty,
dynasty, under
under the
the influence
influence of
of the
the new
new religious
religious
the
philosophy
the new
philosophy and
and the
new state
state cult
cult created
created by
by Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
IV (Akhena(Akhenaton).
ton). The
The royal
royal sculptors
sculptors broke
broke away
away from
from the
the old
old canons
canons and
and began
began
to
to develop
develop new
new artistic
artistic principles.
principles. In
In their
their attempt
attempt to
to reflect
reflect the
the most
most
characteristic
characteristic individual
individual features
features of
of their
their model,
model, they
they tended
tended to
to exagexaggerate
A new
gerate and
and overemphasize
overemphasize these
these features.
features. A
new canon,
canon, based
based on
on the
the
iconography
himself, began
began to
to develop.
develop. The
The
iconography of
of the
the reformer-pharaoh
reformer-pharaoh himself,
latter part
part of
of the
the Amarna
Amarna period
has produced
produced much
finer and
and finlatter
period has
much finer
finished portrait
portrait images,
images, lacking
lacking the
the earlier
earlier exaggeration.
exaggeration. The
The most
most
ished
famous works
of this
this time
time are
are the
the sculptured
sculptured portraits
from the
the workworkportraits from
famous
works of
shop
shop of
of Djehutimes,
Djehutimes, sculptor
sculptor of
of Akhenaton
Akhenaton and
and his
his queen,
queen, Nefertiti.
Nefertiti.
The
of the
Nineteenth Dynasty
The time
time of
the Nineteenth
Dynasty saw
saw the
the return
return of
of old
old traditraditions,
tions, especially
especially in
in Thebes.
Thebes. The
The political
political situation
situation in
in the
the second
second half
half of
of
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom led
led to
to the
the preeminence
of the
the northern
northern art
art workworkthe
preeminence of
shops. Statues
Statues with
with mighty
mighty torsos
torsos and
and wide,
wide, flat
flat faces
faces offered
offered aa conconshops.
trast to
to the
the elegance
elegance and
and grace
of the
the elongated
elongated proportions
proportions of
trast
grace of
of
Theban sculpture;
sculpture; it
it was
was aa style
style that
that was
was greatly
greatly influenced
influenced by
by the
the patpatTheban
terns of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, which
which could
could be
be studied
studied in
the cemeteries
cemeteries
terns
in the
of
of that
that period.
period.
Reliefs
Reliefs
Many
pictorial representations,
representations, in
wall painting
painting and
Many pictorial
in wall
and in
in low
low relief,
relief, are
are
preserved in
in the
the tombs
tombs of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. At
At that
that time,
time, the
the ararpreserved
rangements of
of scenes
scenes and
and the
the basic
basic composition
composition of
of reliefs
reliefs acquired
acquired
rangements
their final
forms. The
The subjects
subjects of
of these
these works
works of
of art
art were
were determined
determined
their
final forms.
by religious
religious needs.
needs. For
For example,
example, aa representation
representation of
of the
the deceased
deceased in
in
by
front
front of
of aa table
table of
of sacrifices
sacrifices seemed
seemed to
to reinforce
reinforce and
and magnify
magnify the
the real
real
gifts placed
placed in
in the
the tomb.
tomb. With
With time,
time, reliefs
reliefs grew
importance. More
More
gifts
grew in
in importance.
space was
was allotted
allotted to
to them,
them, and
and the
the subject
subject matter
matter became
became more
more didispace
versified. Scenes
Scenes of
of people
people bearing
bearing gifts
gifts and
and sacrificing
sacrificing animals
animals are
are
versified.
ubiquitous. Eventually,
Eventually, probably
probably as
as an
an expansion
expansion of
of this
this theme,
theme, the
the
ubiquitous.
subjects began
began to
to include
include scenes
scenes of
of farming,
farming, hunting
hunting near
near the
the Nile
Nile
subjects
and in
in the
the desert,
desert, and
and people
people feasting.
feasting. As
As the
the political
political importance
importance of
of
and
the
nobility
began
to
increase
from
the
Fifth
Dynasty
on,
some
royal
the nobility began to increase from the Fifth Dynasty on, some royal
cult rituals
rituals were
were extended
extended to
to private
private persons.
persons. This
This resulted
resulted in
in the
the
cult
more complex
complex layout
layout of
of the
the tombs,
tombs, and
and the
the previous
previous range
range of
of topics
topics
more
developed into
into compositions
compositions that
that included
included aa multitude
multitude of
of figures.
figures.
developed
The main
main purpose
of such
such compositions
compositions was
was the
the immortalization
immortalization of
of
The
purpose of

208
2o8

/. A.
Lapis
I.
A. Lapis

all
all that
that was
was of
of value
value for
for eternal
eternal life.
life. However,
However, some
some details
details that
that do
do not
not
seem
to have
have any
direct connection
to this
this age-old
began appearseem to
any direct
connection to
age-old idea
idea began
appearing
example, aa scene
scene of
sacrificial offerings
offerings shows,
ing in
in the
the reliefs.
reliefs. For
For example,
of sacrificial
shows,
under
the list
list of
of sacrificial
sacrificial victims,
victims, farmers
farmers being
being punished
for failing
failing
under the
punished for
to bring
allotment of
of produce
for the
the funerary
funerary cult.
cult. During
During the
the
bring their
their allotment
produce for
to
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, the
the subject
subject matter
was further
further expanded
expanded to
to include
include
Middle
matter was
military
scenes and
and arrivals
arrivals of
of foreigners,
foreigners, as
as well
well as
as new
new religious
military scenes
religious toptopics called
called forth
forth by
the wide
wide propagation
of the
Osiris cult.
cult.
ics
by the
propagation of
the Osiris
In addition
addition to
to ensuring
ensuring the
the well-being
well-being of
of the
the pharaoh
pharaoh after
after death,
death,
In
the reliefs
of the
and the
city temples
served to
glorify him
him
the
reliefs of
the royal
royal and
the city
temples served
to glorify
and immortalize
immortalize his
deeds; consequently,
consequently, they
claimed to
real
and
his deeds;
they claimed
to depict
depict real
events that
his reign.
reign. This
This is
is particularly
typical
that took
took place
place during
during his
particularly typical
events
of the
Kingdom (the
(the annals
annals of
of Thutmosis
Thutmosis III,
III, the
the scene
scene of
of
the New
New Kingdom
of
the battle
battle of
of Kadesh
Kadesh under
Rameses II,
II, and
and the
the battle
with the
the Sea
Sea
the
under Rameses
battle with
Peoples under
III). Military
subjects were
depicted during
during
under Rameses
Rameses III).
Military subjects
were depicted
Peoples
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, but
but the
the New
Kingdom military
military reliefs
reliefs are
are much
much
the
New Kingdom
more spirited
spirited and
and richer
richer in
in detail.
detail.
more
Reliefs and
and wall
like sculpture,
sculpture, were
were closely
closely connected
connected
wall paintings,
paintings, like
Reliefs
with
the architecture
architecture of
of the
the tombs
and temples.
imitative decor
decor
tombs and
temples. The
The imitative
with the
was
selected to
to emphasize
emphasize the
of each
each particular
Even
was selected
the purpose
purpose of
particular room.
room. Even
the
scenes of
of sacrificial
sacrificial offerings,
offerings, which
at first
glance appear
appear so
so stethe scenes
which at
first glance
stereotyped,
depending on
on which
gods were
were being
being honored
honored with
reotyped, varied
varied depending
which gods
with
sacrificial gifts,
on their
their cult
cult names,
names, and
and on
on the
the types
types of
of offerings.
offerings.
sacrificial
gifts, on
Two
Two types
types of
of reliefs
reliefs existed
existed in
in ancient
ancient Egypt:
Egypt: convex
convex and
and carved
carved
within an
an outline
outline below
below the
the surface
surface of
of the
the wall.
wall. All
All figures
figures and
and their
their
within
backgrounds were
were usually
usually brightly
brightly painted,
painted, converting
the walls
walls into
backgrounds
converting the
into
the latter
part of
colorful
colorful tapestries
tapestries of
of images
images (especially
(especially since
since the
latter part
of the
the Old
Old
Kingdom). Artists
Artists also
also took
took advantage
advantage of
of the
the decorative
decorative value
of the
the
Kingdom).
value of
Egyptian script
script and
and filled
the empty
empty spaces
spaces in
in their
their compositions
compositions or
or
filled the
Egyptian
between
the different
scenes with
inscriptions. The
The owner
of the
tomb
between the
different scenes
with inscriptions.
owner of
the tomb
always occupied
dominant role
in the
scenes. A
comrole in
the represented
represented scenes.
A comalways
occupied aa dominant
position
was to
to be
be read
read rather
rather than
than viewed
as aa whole.
whole.
position was
viewed as
The
that applied
to wall
paintings developed
The rules
rules that
applied to
wall paintings
developed simultaneously
simultaneously
with those
those for
for sculpture
sculpture during
during the
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. The
The representarepresentathe Old
with
three-dimensional space
two-dimensional medium
tion
tion of
of three-dimensional
space in
in aa two-dimensional
medium is
is not
not
just
problemthe solution
solution depends
depends on
on aa certain
certain attitude
attitude
just aa technical
technical problem-the
toward reality.
Egyptian artists
artists reproduced
reproduced reality
as they
they knew
it. A
reality as
knew it.
A
toward
reality. Egyptian
body
or an
an object
object was
not represented
from aa specific
specific point
of obserobserbody or
was not
represented from
point of
vation
and at
at some
some fortuitous
fortuitous instant
instant but
showed each
each part
of the
but showed
part of
the dedevation and
The face,
of aa
picted
in its
its most
most typical
form. The
face, elbows,
elbows, and
and legs
legs of
picted object
object in
typical form.
person
were shown
shown in
in profile,
eyes and
and shoulders
shoulders were
person were
profile, whereas
whereas eyes
were reprepresented
from
a
frontal
view.
A
similar
principle
was
observed
in large
large
resented from a frontal view. A similar principle was observed in
compositions, where
where separate
separate scenes
scenes did
did not
all pertain
pertain to
to the
the same
same
not all
compositions,
point
in time.
time. Large
Large scenes
scenes depict
depict aa number
number of
of separate
separate episodes
episodes to
to
point in

The
Ancient Egypt
The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Egypt

209
20
9

communicate
communicate to
to the
the fullest
fullest degree
degree the
the idea
idea of
of aa represented
represented subject.
subject.
For example,
example, aa hunting
hunting scene
scene could
could include
include separate
separate topics
relating
For
topics relating
to the
the hunted
hunted animal's
animal's life
life in
in the
the desert;
desert; aa war
war theme
theme could
could include
include
to
scenes of
of life
life in
soldiers, battles,
battles, and
and so
so on.
on.
scenes
in aa military
military camp,
camp, marching
marching soldiers,
All depicted
imagined to
All
depicted people
people were
were imagined
to come
come alive
alive and
and all
all objects
objects to
to
be real;
hence, they
they required
required bodily
integrity. For
For this
reason, artists
artists
be
real; hence,
bodily integrity.
this reason,
main subsubgenerally
generally avoided
avoided any
any overlapping
overlapping of
of figures,
figures, at
at least
least of
of the
the main
jects of
were arranged
in strips,
jects
of aa composition.
composition. Separate
Separate scenes
scenes were
arranged in
strips, one
one
above
the time
above the
the other.
other. Since
Since the
time of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, artists
artists made
made
wider
of the
the artistic
artistic potential
potential of
of wall
and later,
later, in
in some
some
wider use
use of
wall painting,
painting, and
of contours
contours in
in order
achieve special
instances, would
instances,
would forego
forego the
the use
use of
order to
to achieve
special
effects.
effects.
The
was essential
the preservation
preservation of
The existence
existence of
of definite
definite rules
rules was
essential to
to the
of
artistic tradition,
which ancient
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian art
be unartistic
tradition, without
without which
art would
would be
unthinkable. Tastes
thinkable.
Tastes and
and notions
notions of
of what
what constituted
constituted an
an ideal
ideal changed
changed
with
time and
with time
and influenced
influenced the
the proportions
proportions of
of figures,
figures, the
the density
density of
of the
the
details,
so forth.
forth. Although
the overall
remained the
the same,
details, and
and so
Although the
overall scheme
scheme remained
same,
there
always enough
enough leeway
leeway to
to express
express the
there was
was always
the knowledge,
knowledge, the
the keenkeenness
imagination of
ness of
of observation,
observation, the
the creative
creative searching,
searching, and
and the
the imagination
of the
the
artist.
artist.
The
Writing System
The Writing
System
A writing
writing system
system existed
A
existed in
in Egypt
by the
the Early
Early Dynastic
Period, its
its
Egypt by
Dynastic Period,
creation probably
probably dictated
economic requirements.
requirements. The
creation
dictated by
by economic
The repertory
repertory
of
the stages
of signs
signs shows
shows the
stages in
in the
the development
development of
of this
this ancient
ancient writing.
writing.
The signs
signs used
used for
Egyptian writing
pictorial and
and phonetic,
exThe
for Egyptian
writing were
were pictorial
phonetic, expressing
or more
consonants. A
when it
it no
no
pressing one
one or
more consonants.
A sign
sign became
became phonetic
phonetic when
longer
conveyed only
only the
general meaning
meaning of
of aa sample
sample of
of notions,
notions, as
longer conveyed
the general
as
in aa rebus,
also used
the consonants
consonants correcorrein
rebus, but
but was
was also
used to
to convey
convey just
just the
sponding
the word
represented by
the pictorial
Although
sponding to
to the
word represented
by the
pictorial sign.
sign. Although
there
specific signs
signs for
each separate
separate phoneme
(consonants only,
only,
there were
were specific
for each
phoneme (consonants
because
vowels were
indicated in
in the
the Egyptian
system), the
the
because vowels
were not
not indicated
Egyptian writing
writing system),
Egyptians never
evolved an
an alphabetic
alphabetic writing
writing system.
system. As
rule, they
they
Egyptians
never evolved
As aa rule,
used
mixed logographic-phonetic
logographic-phonetic system;
system; that
that is,
is, aa word-sign
used aa mixed
word-sign (pic(pictorial sign)
sign) was
was followed
by signs
signs used
phonetically to
the
torial
followed by
used phonetically
to indicate
indicate the
consonants contained
contained in
in the
the word
word represented
by the
the word-sign.
At
consonants
represented by
word-sign. At
the end
end they
sign (called
(called aa determinative)
determinative) that
that was
was not
not
the
they attached
attached aa sign
meant to
be read
read but
expressed the
the general
general semantic
semantic sphere
sphere to
to
meant
to be
but that
that expressed
which
the
word
belonged.
Thus,
the
word
wn,
"to
open,"
was
written
which the word belonged. Thus, the word wn, "to open," was written
with the
drawing of
of aa hare
(wn in
sign for
for water
water (n),
with
the drawing
hare (wn
in Egyptian),
Egyptian), the
the sign
(n),
and
of an
These were
were followed
followed by
by aa picture
and aa picture
picture of
an opening
opening door.
door. These
picture of
of
papyrus scroll
scroll used
used as
as aa determinative
determinative to
to indicate
indicate abstract
abstract concepts.
concepts.
aa papyrus
Hieroglyphic writing
(as the
Greeks called
called it,
it, combining
combining the
the Greek
Greek
the Greeks
Hieroglyphic
writing (as

210
210

I. A. Lapis
Lapis
LA.

words
words for
for "sacred"
"sacred" and
and "carving")
"carving") was
was used
used mainly
mainly for
for monumental
monumental
inscriptions carved
carved in
in stone,
stone, although
although hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics are
are also
also found
found on
on
inscriptions
other materials.
materials. For
For everyday
everyday needs,
needs, for
for example,
example, for
for economic
economic docudocuother
ments, the
Egyptians used
cursive script,
script, the
so-called hieratic
script
ments,
the Egyptians
used aa cursive
the so-called
hieratic script
("priestly," as
as the
the Greeks
Greeks called
called it).
it). The
The hieratic
hieratic script
script was
was also
also used
used
("priestly,"
for works
of literature
and for
for scientific
scientific texts.
texts. The
The appearance
appearance of
of the
the
for
works of
literature and
cursive signs
signs changed
changed greatly
greatly with
time. During
During the
Late Dynastic
Dynastic Pecursive
with time.
the Late
Period, the
the demotic
demotic script
script came
came into
into use,
use, developing
developing from
from aa late,
late, simsimriod,
plified
form of
of the
the hieratic
script. It
It was
originally intended
intended for
for use
use by
hieratic script.
was originally
by
plified form
the bureaucracy
for administrative
administrative texts
texts but
eventually also
also was
was used
used
the
bureaucracy for
but eventually
for literary
literary and
and religious
religious papyri
papyri and
and was
was even
even carved
carved on
on stone.
stone.
for
Literature
Literature

No works
No
works of
of literature,
literature, in
in the
the strict
strict sense
sense of
of the
the word,
word, remain
remain from
from
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, save
save for
for "autobiographical"
"autobiographical" inscriptions
inscriptions found
found in
in
the
tombs
astombs from
from the
the end
end of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. Their
Their widespread
widespread use
use is
is associated with
with the
diffusion of
of the
Osiris cult
cult and
and with
with the
appearance
the Osiris
the appearance
sociated
the diffusion
of new
new ethical
ethical concepts.
concepts. These
These inscriptions
inscriptions became
more and
and more
more
of
became more
extensive
extensive and
and came
came to
to include
include descriptions
descriptions of
of the
the author's
author's meritorious
meritorious
services not
not only
only to
to the
the pharaoh
pharaoh but
but also
also to
to the
the people
people of
of his
his city.
city.
services
"The
which dates
the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
was
"The Story
Story of
of Sinuhe,"
Sinuhe," which
dates from
from the
Kingdom, was
its great
great literary
literary
written in
in this
autobiographical tradition.
tradition. Because
Because of
of its
written
this autobiographical
merit, this
this story
story was
was very
very popular
in its
its time
time and
and has
has reached
reached us
us in
in
popular in
merit,
many copies.
copies. The
The hero
hero of
of this
this story,
story, aa nobleman,
nobleman, lived
lived during
during the
the
many
reigns of
of Amenemhet
Amenemhet II and
and Senwesert
Senwesert I.
I. The
The story
story is
is told
told in
in the
the first
first
reigns
person by
by aa very
very well
well educated
educated man,
man, thoroughly
thoroughly familiar
familiar with
with the
the way
person
way
of life
life at
at court
court and
and in
in the
the army
army of
of his
time. After
After the
the death
death of
of
of
his time.
Amenemhet I,
I, Sinuhe,
Sinuhe, fearing
fearing civil
civil war,
war, fled
fled from
from the
the retinue
retinue of
of the
the
Amenemhet
king's daughter.
daughter. He
He eventually
eventually came
came to
to Syria,
Syria, where
where he
he acquired
acquired great
great
king's
wealth and
and gained
gained aa prominent
prominent position.
Life among
among the
the Syrian
Syrian paswealth
position. Life
pastoral tribes
tribes is
is vividly
vividly described.
described. Later,
Later, Sinuhe
Sinuhe returned
returned to
to Egypt
Egypt at
at the
the
toral
invitation of
of Senwesert
Senwesert II and
and received
received aa friendly
friendly reception
reception at
at the
the royal
royal
invitation
court. Some
Some scholars
scholars believe
believe that
that Sinuhe
Sinuhe was
was aa real
real historical
historical person,
person,
court.
because the
the structure
structure of
of the
the story
story is
is similar
similar to
to other
other "autobiographies"
"autobiographies"
because
and because
because it
it includes
includes copies
copies of
of documents
documents and
and is
is told
told in
in aa realistic
realistic
and
fashion.
fashion.
Egyptian
Egyptian fiction
fiction showed
showed great
great progress,
progress, especially
especially from
from the
the Middle
Middle
Kingdom on,
on, and
and produced
produced inter
interalia
aliaaanumber
numberof
oftales
talesabout
aboutall
allkinds
kinds
Kingdom
of subjects
subjects derived
derived from
from many
many different
different sources.
sources. "The
"The Tale
Tale of
of the
the
of
Shipwrecked Man"
Man" tells
tells the
the story
story of
of aa man
man cast
cast ashore
ashore on
on an
an unknown
unknown
Shipwrecked
island during
during aa fierce
fierce storm.
storm. There
There he
he meets
meets aa serpent
serpent who
who presents
presents
island
him with
with rich
rich gifts
gifts and
and foretells
foretells his
his return
return home.
home. Upon
his return,
return, the
the
him
Upon his
king
makes him
him his
his bodyguard.
bodyguard. This
This story
story reflected
reflected the
the frequent
frequent
king makes

The
Culture of
Ancient Egypt
The Culture
of Ancient
Egypt

211
211

travels
Egyptians. Historical
Historical persons
persons and
may also
also have
travels of
of Egyptians.
and events
events may
have ininspired
folktales. Such
is the
the story
the time
time of
the New
New
spired some
some folktales.
Such is
story from
from the
of the
Kingdom
the Theban
pharaoh Seq-ne-Ra'
Kingdom about
about the
the quarrel
quarrel between
between the
Theban pharaoh
Seq-ne-Ra'
and
Hyksos king
king Apepi,
Apepi, as
as that
that of
and the
the Hyksos
as well
well as
of the
the officer
officer Djehutiy,
Djehutiy, who
who
seized the
the Palestinian
Palestinian city
city of
of Jaffa
seized
Jaffa by
by ruse.
ruse. The
The cycle
cycle of
of tales
tales about
about the
the
sorcerers and
are described
by the
sorcerers
and the
the pharaoh
pharaoh Cheops,
Cheops, whose
whose feats
feats are
described by
the
sons of
of the
stems from
Old Kingdom
and may
sons
the pharaoh,
pharaoh, stems
from the
the Old
Kingdom and
may be
be reregarded as
as belonging
the same
same literary
literary genre.
Many tales
tales are
are concongarded
belonging to
to the
genre. Many
nected
"The Tale
of Two
Two Brothers"
echoes
nected with
with religious
religious conceptions.
conceptions. "The
Tale of
Brothers" echoes
the
about the
the god
god of
of the
the dying
and resurrecting
In
the myth
myth about
dying and
resurrecting vegetation.
vegetation. In
"The Tale
Tale of
of the
Truth and
and Falsehood"
we sense
sense the
the influence
of the
the
"The
the Truth
Falsehood" we
influence of
myth
of Osiris.
myth of
Osiris.
The
genre of
very widespread;
The genre
of didactic
didactic sermons
sermons was
was very
widespread; such
such sermons
sermons
school texts.
texts. They
were usually
usually written
written in
in the
the name
name of
of
were
were used
used as
as school
They were
some
Such admonitions
not only
some well-known
well-known nobleman
nobleman or
or sage.
sage. Such
admonitions not
only teach
teach
the rules
behavior but
the
rules of
of personal
personal behavior
but also
also explain
explain the
the advantages
advantages of
of the
the
position
an official
official scribe.
is often
position of
of an
scribe. The
The advice
advice is
often directed
directed at
at young
young
men
their careers
is based
based on
the everyday
men starting
starting their
careers as
as officials
officials and
and is
on the
everyday serservice and
and experience
high officials.
vice
experience of
of older
older high
officials.
in the
the name
name of
Occasionally, these
these precepts were
were written in
of aa king.
king.
Such
given by
Such are
are the
the instructions
instructions given
by the
the king
king of
of Heracleopolis
Heracleopolis to
to his
his son
son
of Amenemhet
Merika-Ra' and the
Merika-Ra'
the instruction of
Amenemhet I.
I. In the former,
former, the
the
father
to his
his son
his ideas
royal power.
power. The
tells of
father relates
relates to
son his
ideas about
about royal
The latter
latter tells
of
aa palace
palace conspiracy
conspiracy against
against the
the king
king and
and is
is permeated
permeated with
with disapdisappointment
and bitterness.
bitterness. The
appearance of
of such
literary works
works was
was
pointment and
The appearance
such literary
the result
of events
events that
that took
during the
end of
of the
the Old
Old Kingthe
result of
took place
place during
the end
Kingdom
and the
the beginning
and also
also as
as aa result
of
dom and
beginning of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom and
result of
changes in
the world
worldview
of the
the Egyptian
"The Song
Song of
of the
the
changes
in the
view of
Egyptian people.
people. "The
Harpist," which
which was
banquets, is
with aa
Harpist,"
was performed
performed during
during banquets,
is imbued
imbued with
sense of
of futility
toward the
author urges
sense
futility toward
the traditional
traditional worldview.
worldview. The
The author
urges
his listeners
listeners to
to enjoy
thinking about
his
enjoy life
life and
and to
to stop
stop thinking
about death
death and
and the
the fufunerary cult,
because the
nerary
cult, because
the ancient
ancient tombs
tombs are
are empty
empty and
and stand
stand in
in ruins,
ruins,
and
yet returned
returned from
from the
the other
to tell
tell about
and no
no one
one has
has yet
other world
world to
about the
the
owners of
of the
tombs, whose
fate remains
remains unknown.
unknown. This
This literary
literary proowners
the tombs,
whose fate
production
many traits
of aa Disillusioned
duction shares
shares many
traits with
with "The
"The Conversation
Conversation of
Disillusioned
Man
with His
Soul." A
man, disappointed
with his
death,
Man with
His Soul."
A man,
disappointed with
his life,
life, desires
desires death,
but his
dissuade him,
the spirit
spirit of
of "The
"The Song
Song of
of the
the
but
his soul
soul tries
tries to
to dissuade
him, in
in the
Harpist."
In the
end, however,
however, the
the author
author makes
makes the
"soul" agree
agree with
with
Harpist." In
the end,
the "soul"
the man's
man's desire
to die.
die.
the
desire to
Two
successful, but
but short-lived
Two compositions
compositions recount
recount aa successful,
short-lived rebellion:
rebellion:
"The
Admonitions of
Ipuwer" and
Prophecy of
(see
"The Admonitions
of Ipuwer"
and "The
"The Prophecy
of Neferti"
Neferti" (see
Lecture
were representatives
representatives of
Lecture 7).
7). The
The authors
authors of
of both
both works
works were
of the
the
elite
and were
elite and
were naturally
naturally opposed
opposed to
to the
the rebels.
rebels.
The
The social
social contradictions
contradictions during
during the
the agitated
agitated time
time of
of the
the Middle
Middle

212
212

I.
A. Lapis
Lapis
LA.

Kingdom are
Kingdom
are also
also expressed
expressed in
in "The
"The Tales
Tales of
of the
the Eloquent
Eloquent Peasant,"
Peasant/'
the
most interesting
interesting part
of which
which are
are the
accusatory speeches
speeches in
in dethe most
part of
the accusatory
deby the
the unjustly
unjustly mistreated
hero of
the story.
fense of
of truth,
truth, delivered
delivered by
mistreated hero
of the
story.
fense
Historical literature
literature flourished
flourished during
during the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom and
and is
is
Historical
represented
by royal
by "autobiographies"
"autobiographies" of
noblerepresented by
royal chronicles
chronicles and
and by
of noblemen,
often written
in aa vivid
and descriptive
descriptive style.
written in
vivid and
style.
men, often
not unknown
were repDramatic arts
were not
Dramatic
arts were
unknown in
in ancient
ancient Egypt.
Egypt. They
They were
represented
by dramatized
rites and
resented by
dramatized funeral
funeral and
and temple
temple rites
and religious
religious dramas
dramas
on mythological
subjects. At
At times,
times, such
such performances
transcended
on
mythological subjects.
performances transcended
merely cultic
cultic limits
limits and
and showed
showed distinct
distinct propagandistic
and political
political
propagandistic and
merely
tendencies.
tendencies.
Among the
the rich
Egyptian poetic
literature we
gods
Among
rich Egyptian
poetic literature
we find
find hymns
hymns to
to gods
and
kings, songs
praise, and
the time
the New
New KingKingand kings,
songs of
of praise,
and also,
also, since
since the
time of
of the
dom, love
love poems.
of the
on the
counting
dom,
poems. The
The rhythm
rhythm of
the verse
verse was
was based
based on
the counting
of
stressed syllables,
syllables, whereas
syllables apof stressed
whereas the
the number
number of
of unstressed
unstressed syllables
apparently had
significance.
parently
had little
little significance.
The
poetic devices
used were
parallelism (each
verse or
The favorite
favorite poetic
devices used
were parallelism
(each verse
or
couple of
verses consisting
consisting of
of two
two sentences
sentences with
with aa parallel
parallel structure)
couple
of verses
structure)
and alliteration,
alliteration, which
was characteristic
characteristic of
of prose
as well.
Literary
and
which was
prose as
well. Literary
works of
all types
types were
were often
often ascribed
ascribed to
to individual
individual narrators
narrators and
and prepreworks
of all
sented in
in aa framework
framework that
that included
included aa prologue
and epilogue.
epilogue. The
The
sented
prologue and
Egyptians loved
loved an
an elegant
elegant play
on words,
appreciate this
deEgyptians
play on
words, but
but to
to appreciate
this device
in mind
mind that
special value
must keep
keep in
that words
words had
had aa special
value to
to the
the EgypEgypvice we
we must
tians. According
to legend,
Atum-Ra' created
created people
from his
his tears,
tears,
tians.
According to
legend, Atum-Ra'
people from
but
not just
on words
("tears" and
and "people"
"people" sounded
sounded
but this
this was
was not
just aa play
play on
words ("tears"
alike in
in Egyptian)
Egyptian) but
of the
and the
the
alike
but aa manifestation
manifestation of
the belief
belief that
that aa word
word and
named
object are
are closely
closely interdependent.
interdependent.
named object
Science
Science
The ancient
valuable contribution
by
The
ancient Egyptians
Egyptians made
made aa valuable
contribution to
to astronomy
astronomy by
creating
was so
creating the
the solar
solar calendar.
calendar. It
It was
so accurate
accurate that
that we
we still
still use
use it
it today,
today,
minor modifications.
modifications. The
year was
was divided
three seasons
of
with
with minor
The year
divided into
into three
seasons of
four months
months each.
each. A
days and
and was
into defour
A month
month had
had thirty
thirty days
was divided
divided into
dehad thirty-six
cades. A
A year
year had
cades.
thirty-six decades,
decades, each
each dedicated
dedicated to
to aa special
special deity
deity
the end
year. This
(constellations).
(constellations). Five
Five days
days were
were added
added at
at the
end of
of each
each year.
This
calendar was
was devised
devised in
response to
needs, which
which rerecalendar
in response
to agricultural
agricultural needs,
quired the
Nile. The
Nile overquired
the calculation
calculation of
of the
the flood
flood stages
stages of
of the
the Nile.
The Nile
overflowed
its banks
bright star
star Sirius
Sirius appeared
appeared just
before
just before
flowed its
banks when
when the
the bright
dawn. This
This coincidence
coincidence was
was noticed
noticed by
However,
by Egyptian
Egyptian observers.
observers. However,
dawn.
the Egyptians
Egyptians never
never brought
the calendar
calendar year
into concordance
concordance with
with
the
brought the
year into
the astronomical
astronomical year,
they did
did not
introduce leap
years. For
the
year, because
because they
not introduce
leap years.
For
this
reason, every
every four
four years
years the
the morning
morning rise
rise of
of Sirius
Sirius diverged
diverged from
from
this reason,
new year
year by
by one
one day.
day. After
After 120
120 years,
years, this
this error
error amounted
amounted to
to one
one
aa new

The
Egypt
The Culture
Culture of
of Ancient
Ancient Egypt

213

month.
month. The
The Egyptians
Egyptians had
had several
several projects
projects for
for eliminating
eliminating this
this disdiscrepancy but
but never
never implemented
implemented them.
them.
crepancy
Another
contribution to
astronomy was
was the
the division
division of
of
Another important
important contribution
to astronomy
day and
night into
into twelve
twelve segments
segments each.
each. Sundials
Sundials and
and devices
for
day
and night
devices for
measuring
flow of
New
measuring time
time by
by the
the flow
of water
water were
were used
used as
as early
early as
as the
the New
Kingdom. The
The Egyptians
the sky
sky and
the stars
stars into
into
Egyptians mapped
mapped the
and grouped
grouped the
Kingdom.
constellations. They
also observed
observed the
the planets.
planets.
They also
constellations.
Egyptian mathematics
to satisfy
satisfy the
the needs
Egyptian
mathematics was
was developed
developed to
needs of
of the
the adadministration
Egyptians used
used aa decideciministration and
and economic
economic management.
management. The
The Egyptians
mal,
system that
that had
special symbols
symbols for
for the
the
had special
mal, nonpositional
nonpositional notation
notation system
numbers
used only
fractions (fractions
numbers 1,
1, 10,
10, 100,
100, etc.
etc. They
They used
only unit
unit fractions
(fractions with
with
numerator of
of 1).
1). We
We know
know that
that already
already during
during the
the Middle
Middle KingKingaa numerator
dom,
arithmetical problems
problems and
dom, the
the Egyptians
Egyptians had
had school
school texts
texts with
with arithmetical
and
their solutions.
solutions. Most
Most problems
stemmed from
from practical
practical needs.
their
problems stemmed
needs. EgypEgyptian mathematicians
mathematicians were
were able
to calculate
calculate the
the length
length of
of aa circumcircumtian
able to
ference and
and the
the volume
volume of
of aa truncated
truncated pyramid;
pyramid; some
some scholars
scholars believe
believe
ference
that they
they could
could also
calculate the
the area
area of
of aa sphere.
sphere. The
The Egyptian
Egyptian
that
also calculate
method of
of calculating
calculating the
area of
of aa circle
circle gives
gives 3.16
3.16 as
as the
value for
for
method
the area
the value
the ratio
ratio pi,
although the
the specific
specific concept
concept of
of this
this number
number did
did not
not exist
exist
the
pi, although
in Egypt.
Egypt. Calculations
Calculations involving
involving fractions
fractions were
were carried
carried out
with the
the
in
out with
help of
of special
special tables.
tables. The
The Egyptians
Egyptians were
were also
also familiar
familiar with
with aritharithhelp
An unknown
unknown quantity
quantity was
was designated
with the
metical progression.
designated with
the
metical
progression. An
word
word "heap."
"heap."
Considerable
Considerable knowledge
knowledge of
of anatomy
anatomy started
started to
to accumulate
accumulate as
as early
early
as the
Old Kingdom
Kingdom (in
(in part,
part, because
because of
of the
the practice
of mummificamummificaas
the Old
practice of
tion)
tion) and
and contributed
contributed to
to the
the appearance
appearance of
of physicians
physicians of
of different
different
and so
specialties-specialists
eyes, teeth,
specialtiesspecialists in
in eyes,
teeth, surgery,
surgery, and
so forth.
forth. Practical
Practical
guides for
for physicians
physicians from
from later
later times
times have
have been
found, but
but they
they frefrebeen found,
guides
quently
quently mixed
mixed science
science with
with magic.
magic. The
The greatest
greatest achievement
achievement of
of EgypEgyptian medicine
medicine was
was their
their excellent
excellent knowledge
of anatomy;
anatomy; they
they may
may
knowledge of
tian
have
discovered blood
circulation and
and had
had some
some knowledge
the
knowledge about
about the
have discovered
blood circulation
functions
of the
the brain.
brain. (They
(They related
related paralysis
paralysis of
of the
the legs
with head
head
functions of
legs with
injury.) Manuals
for veterinarians
veterinarians were
were also
also available.
Mummification
injury.)
Manuals for
available. Mummification
techniques
and especially
especially recipes
recipes demonstrate
demonstrate aa considerable
considerable knowlknowltechniques and
edge of
of chemistry.
chemistry.
edge
The
most significant
significant achievements
achievements of
The most
of the
the social
social sciences
sciences were
were made
made
in
history. Chronicles
in the
the field
field of
of history.
Chronicles listing
listing the
the sequence
sequence of
of rulers
rulers and
and
recording
important events
have been
been preserved.
preserved. The
Egyprecording the
the most
most important
events have
The Egyptians compiled
compiled dictionaries,
dictionaries, as
as well
well as
as aids
aids used
the scribes
scribes to
to learn
learn
used by
by the
tians
the Akkadian
language.
the
Akkadian language.
Egypt-the so-called
Special
were established
in Egyptthe
Special schools
schools were
established in
so-called Houses
Houses of
of
Life-where
Lifewhere sacred
sacred books
books were
were written
written and
and where
where medical
medical research
research
was apparently
apparently carried
carried out.
out.
was

10
10
The
First States
The First
States in
in India
India
and
Pre-Urban Cultures
and the
the Pre-Urban
Cultures
of Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and Iran
of
Iran
G.
F. IL'YIN
AND I.
M. DIAKONOFF
G. F.
IL'YIN +t AND
I. M.
DIAKONOFF

The
The Indian
Indian Peninsula
Peninsula in
in Ancient
Ancient Times
Times
Civilization
Indian Peninsula
Peninsula later
than it
in Egypt
Civilization arose
arose in
in the
the Indian
later than
it did
did in
Egypt
and Sumer,
Sumer, but
it predated
China by
one thousand
thousand
and
but it
predated that
that of
of China
by nearly
nearly one
years.1I The
The modern
the word
word India
India are
years.
modern and
and the
the ancient
ancient meanings
meanings of
of the
are
different. Today,
Today, India
India (more
(more accurately,
accurately, the
the Republic
Republic of
of India;
India;
different.
Bharat
in Hindi)
Hindi) is
is one
of the
states of
Indian subcontinent.
subcontinent. In
In
Bharat in
one of
the states
of the
the Indian
antiquity, the
the word
was the
the name
name given
given to
to all
all territories
territories east
east of
of
antiquity,
word India
India was
the Indus
Indus River
(Sindhu to
Indians, Hindu
to the
the Persians,
Persians, and
and
the
River (Sindhu
to the
the Indians,
Hindu to
Indos
Greeks), which
are now
now divided
divided among
among the
states of
of
Indos to
to the
the Greeks),
which are
the states
Pakistan, India,
India, Nepal,
and Bangladesh.
Bangladesh.
Pakistan,
Nepal, and
The approximate
was equal
to the
the combined
The
approximate size
size of
of ancient
ancient India
India was
equal to
combined
area of
of the
the territory
territory of
of Egypt,
Egypt, Mesopotamia,
Asia Minor,
Iran, Syria,
Syria,
area
Mesopotamia, Asia
Minor, Iran,
vast territory
territory offered
Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine.
Palestine. Such
Such aa vast
offered aa great
great variety
variety
of geographic
geographic zones.
zones. The
country can
can be
divided into
into three
principal
of
The country
be divided
three principal
regions,
geographical differences
differences have
have left
regions, whose
whose geographical
left an
an imprint
imprint on
on the
the
history
of their
inhabitants.
history of
their inhabitants.
l.
The Indus
region (northwest):
the lowland
1. The
Indus region
(northwest): It
It includes
includes the
lowland of
of the
the
Indus River
River and
and its
its tributaries
tributaries and
and the
the adjoining
adjoining mountainous
mountainous rereIndus
gions. The
climate here
here is
is hot
and dry.
the
The climate
hot and
dry. In
In the
the northern
northern part
part the
gions.
annual precipitation
1,000 millimeters,
it gradually
gradually
annual
precipitation reaches
reaches 1,000
millimeters, but
but it
decreases
toward
the
southwest.
The
lower
course
of
the
Indus
redecreases toward the southwest. The lower course of the Indus receives
only about
about 250
250 millimeters,
farming based
solely on
on
millimeters, making
making farming
based solely
ceives only
rainfall impossible.
impossible. In
In ancient
ancient times
was apparently
apparently
rainfall
times precipitation
precipitation was
more
abundant.
more abundant.
2.
2. The
The Ganges
Ganges region
region (northeast):
(northeast): It
It comprises
comprises the
the valley
valley of
of the
the
Ganges River
River and
and its
its tributaries,
tributaries, the
the adjoining
adjoining Himalayan
Himalayan foothills,
foothills,
Ganges
and
mountainous region
region of
The climate
and the
the mountainous
of central
central India.
India. The
climate here
here is
is hot
hot
1.
1. In
In this
this book
book the
the term
term Central
CentralAsia
Asiaisisapplied
appliedtotothe
thecountries
countriesbetween
betweenthe
theCaspian
Caspian
Asiaisisapplied
applied toto regions
regions between
between the
the Tien
Tien
Sea and
and the
Tien Shan;
Shan; the
term Middle
Sea
the Tien
the term
Middle Asia
Shan and
and Mongolia.
Mongolia.
Shan
The
first five
five sections
by G.
The first
sections were
were written
written by
G. F.
F. I1'yin.
Il'yin.

of

First
Pre-Urban Cultures
First States
States in
in India,
India, and
and Pre-Urban
Cultures of Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and Iran
Iran

215
215

and humid.
humid. The
The annual
annual precipitation
precipitation amounts
amounts to
to about
about 700
700 milliand
millimeters
meters in
in the
the west
west and
and up
up to
to 2,000-3,000
2,000-3,000 millimeters,
millimeters, or
or even
even more,
more,
in the
the east.
east. Before
Before and
and during
during the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
in
B.C., this
this region
region
was covered
covered with
with dense
dense jungle.
was
jungle.
3.
3. The
The Deccan
Deccan region
region (south):
(south): The
The term
term is
is derived
derived from
from Sanskrit
Sanskrit
dak,sina
daksina("southern").
("southern").ItItincludes
includesthe
thepeninsular
peninsularportion
portionof
ofthe
thecountry
country
and is
is characterized
characterized by
by aa complex
complex topography.
topography. The
The climate
climate is
is hot
and
and
hot and
the precipitation
precipitation irregular,
irregular, but
but it
it does
does not
not drop
drop below
below 700
700 millimeters
millimeters
the
per year,
year, even
even in
in the
the dry
dry interior.
interior.
per
Indian territory
Most
Most of
of the
the Indian
territory receives
receives over
over 500
500 millimeters
millimeters of
of preprecipitation
cipitation annually,
annually, mainly
mainly during
during the
the summer,
summer, aa total
total that
that is
is adeadequate for
for dry
dry farming.
farming. A
A considerable
considerable portion
portion of
of the
the country
country enjoys
enjoys
quate
at least
least 700
700 millimeters
millimeters of
of rain,
rain, allowing
allowing the
the growth
growth of
of cotton
cotton without
without
at
artificial irrigation
irrigation and,
and, in
in many
many parts
parts of
of the
the Ganges
Ganges and
and Deccan
Deccan rereartificial
gions,
gions, even
even of
of water-loving
water-loving crops
crops such
such as
as rice,
rice, sugarcane,
sugarcane, and
and jute.
jute.
The water
problem is
is clearly
clearly far
far from
from being
as critical
critical in
in India
India as
as it
it is
The
water problem
being as
is
in
and in
in some
some other
other Near
Near Eastern
Eastern countries.
countries. Although
ancient
in Egypt
Egypt and
Although ancient
Indians
were familiar
familiar with
with irrigation
irrigation techniques,
irrigation cannot
cannot be
be
Indians were
techniques, irrigation
regarded as
as the
the cornerstone
cornerstone of
of ancient
ancient Indian
Indian agriculture.
agriculture.
regarded
The
always aa blessing.
blessing. For
people using
The abundance
abundance of
of water
water was
was not
not always
For people
using
stone or
or even
even copper
axes, the
the dense
tropical vegetation
vegetation presented
presented aa
stone
copper axes,
dense tropical
serious
improvement of
serious obstacle
obstacle to
to the
the occupation
occupation and
and improvement
of agricultural
agricultural
lands. The
The early
early Indian
Indian farming
farming centers
centers therefore
therefore appeared
appeared in
in the
the
lands.
less wooded
northwest. The
region offered
another important
less
wooded northwest.
The Indus
Indus region
offered another
important
advantage: it
it was
was more
more accessible
accessible to
external communications
communications and,
and, in
in
advantage:
to external
particular, closer
particular,
closer to
to the
the most
most ancient
ancient agricultural
agricultural regions
regions of
of the
the Near
Near
East. Its
facilitated the
the exchange
exchange of
of cultural
cultural achievements
achievements
East.
Its location
location facilitated
with other
countries and
and contributed
contributed to
to more
rapid technological
technological
other countries
more rapid
with
progress.
progress.
The
The Indus
Indus Civilization
Civilization
The
The oldest
oldest farming
farming settlements
settlements in
in India
India date
date from
from the
the fourth
fourth millenmillennium
B.c.-the Late
Late Neolithic-and
noticenium B.C.the
Neolithicand their
their number
number increased
increased noticeably during
transition to
Age (end
of the
fourth,
during the
the transition
to the
the Copper
Copper Age
(end of
the fourth,
ably
beginning of
of the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.).2
B.C.).2 These
These settlements
settlements were
were
beginning
located
at the
the western
western edge
edge of
of the
the Indus
Valley in
in aa hilly
hilly region.
region. Here,
Here,
located at
Indus Valley
the climate
is more
Small streams
served as
as sources
for
the
climate is
more temperate.
temperate. Small
streams served
sources for
economic and
and household
household needs,
needs, without
without presenting
presenting any
any danger
of
economic
danger of
flooding.
This
region
also
offered
protection
against
enemies.
The
flooding. This region also offered protection against enemies. The
2.
2. The
The excavations
excavations presently
presently being
being conducted
conducted at
at the
the settlement
settlement of
of Mehrgarh
Mehrgarh at
at the
the
Bolan Pass
in Pakistan
have pushed
pushed the
foot
foot of
of the
the Bolan
Pass in
Pakistan have
the origins
origins of
of South
South Asian
Asian agriculture
agriculture
back at
least to
millennium B.C.
B.C. Editor's
Editor's note
note (PLK).
(PLK).
back
at least
to the
the sixth,
sixth, if
if not
not seventh,
seventh, millennium

216
216

F. ITyin
and I.
G. F.
Il'yin and
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

first settlements
settlements were
were small.
small. Permanent
Permanent dwellings
dwellings were
were built
built of
of mud
mud
first
brick; copper
copper was
was rare;
agricultural crops
was limited
limited
brick;
rare; the
the variety
variety of
of agricultural
crops was
(barley and
and millet,
for the
most part);
part); and
and artificial
artificial irrigation
irrigation was
was ocmillet, for
the most
oc(barley
casionally employed.
casionallyemployed.
With
advent of
of the
the Age
Age of
of Metal,
Metal, the
the agriculturalists,
agriculturalists, who
who settled
settled
the advent
With the
originally in
in the
the hilly
regions to
to the
west of
of the
the Indus,
Indus, acquired
acquired the
the
hilly regions
the west
originally
ability to
improve larger
larger areas
areas of
of land
land and
and expanded
expanded onto
onto the
ability
to improve
the plains.
plains.
Agriculture appeared
appeared in
in the
the valleys
valleys of
of large
large riversthe
Indus and
and its
rivers-the Indus
its
Agriculture
tributarieson lands
lands that
that were
were irrigated
irrigated by
by floodwaters.
floodwaters. The
The rivers
rivers
tributaries-on
also .offered
offered aa convenient
convenient means
means of
of transportation
transportation for
for the
exchange of
of
the exchange
also
material and
and cultural
cultural goods
and helped
helped to
to fuse
fuse the
the communities
communities into
into
material
goods and
larger social
social aggregates.
aggregates. Although
Although no
no permanent
settlement from
from the
the
larger
permanent settlement
first half
half of
of the
the third
B.C. has
has been
found in
in the
the northnorthfirst
third millennium
millennium B.C.
been found
western lowlands,
lowlands, aa complete
complete transformation
transformation occurred
occurred in
in this
this region
region
western
by
the second
second half
of the
the same
same millennium.
millennium. The
The cultural-historical
cultural-historical
by the
half of
complex that
that scholars
scholars call
call the
the Indus
Indus civilization,
civilization, emerged
emerged toward
toward the
the
complex
middle
This civilization
civilization spread
spread beyond
the
middle of
of the
the third
third millennium.
millennium. This
beyond the
boundaries of
of the
the Indus
Indus Valley
east, almost
almost as
as far
far as
as Delhi,
Delhi, and
and
boundaries
Valley to
to the
the east,
to the
the south,
south, extending
extending to
to the
the lower
lower reaches
reaches of
of the
the Tapti
Tapti River.
River. ArArto
chaeologically, the
golden age
age of
of this
civilization is
is associated
associated with
with the
the
this civilization
chaeologically,
the golden
Harappan culture,
culture, named
named after
after the
the first
discovered site
site and
and one
one of
of
Harappan
first discovered
the largest
largest urban
centers of
of this
this civilization.
civilization. Hundreds
Hundreds of
of settlements
settlements
the
urban centers
of this
this culture
culture are
are now
now known,
known, although
although most
most of
of them
them have
not yet
yet
of
have not
been studied.
studied.33
been
Certain
became quite
quite large;
population in
Certain Indus
Indus cities
cities became
large; the
the population
in Harappa
Harappa
and Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro may
may have
reached several
several tens
tens of
of thousands.
thousands. The
The
and
have reached
cities
probably were
built according
plan. The
cities probably
were built
according to
to aa general
general urban
urban plan.
The
streets
parallel to
to one
streets were
were straight
straight and
and ran
ran parallel
one another,
another, intersecting
intersecting at
at
right
by strong
walls, some
some of
of the
the cities
cities contained
contained
right angles.
angles. Surrounded
Surrounded by
strong walls,
citadel that
that towered
towered above
above the
the walls
walls from
from its
its raised
raised elevation.
elevation. The
The
aa citadel
citadel
citadel of
of Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro included
included aa structure
structure originally
originally identified
identified as
as
as well
well as
as administrative
administrative and
and commercial
commercial establishments.
establishments.
granary,44 as
aa granary,
One
One of
of the
the largest
largest and
and most
most elaborate
elaborate buildings
buildings (230
(230 Xx 170
170 meters)
meters)
was probably
the palace
palace of
of the
the ruler.
ruler. Another
Another served
served as
as aa covered
covered
was
probably the
3.
3. The
The absolute
absolute dates
dates of
of the
the "mature"
"mature" Harappan
Harappan civilization
civilization are
are debated
debated by
by spespecialists.
cialists. Current
Current excavations
excavations at
at Nausharo,
Pakistan, will
will help
help clarify
clarify this
Nausharo, Pakistan,
this problem.
problem. For
For
the
it is
is safe
safe to
say that
at least
least part
of the
mature Harappan
Harappan was
contempoto say
that at
part of
the mature
was contempothe present,
present, it
raneous with
with the
the Akkadian
Akkadian Period
Period (twenty-fourth
(twenty-fourth to
to twenty-first
twenty-first centuries
centuries B.C.)
B.C.) in
raneous
in
Mesopotamia. Editor's
Editor's note
note (PLK).
Mesopotamia.
(PLK).
traditional identification
4.
4. The
The traditional
identification of
of many
many of
of the
the public
public structures
structures of
of Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro
and
Harappa, such
such as
as granaries,
granaries, has
has recently
questioned. Ongoing
Ongoing work
by GerGerand Harappa,
recently been
been questioned.
work by
man scholars
scholars at
at Mohel1io-daro,
Mohenjo-daro, in
in particular,
particular, has
has revised
of this
man
revised our
our understanding
understanding of
this site,
site,
showing how
how many
many of
of its
its major
their purposewere
on
showing
major buildingswhatever
buildings-whatever their
purpose-were built
built on
elaborately prepared
prepared brick
platforms. Major
Major portions
portions of
of the
the site
site effectively
effectively were
were pedpedelaborately
brick platforms.
estaled in
in advance
advance above
above the
the level
level of
of the
Editor's note
note (PLK).
estaled
the floodplain.
floodplain. Editor's
(PLK).

First
India, and
rhan Cultures
Asia and
and Iran
First States
States in
in India,
and Pre-U
Pre-Urban
Cultures of
of Central
Central Asia
Iran

217
217

market.
complex included
included aa pool
bath (a
market. The
The complex
pool or
or bath
(a watertight,
watertight, sunken
sunken
structure) that
that may
may have
have been
been used
used for
for religious
religious ablutions.
ablutions. The
The adadstructure)
joining
structures also
also were
were probably
probably for
for cult-related
cult-related activities.
activities.
joining structures
The
granary at
Harappa was
located on
on the
The granary
at Harappa
was located
the bank
bank of
of the
the Ravi
Ravi River.
River.
It was
huge building,
designed to
hundreds of
It
was aa huge
building, possibly
possibly designed
to hold
hold many
many hundreds
of
tons (metric)
(metric) of
of grain
grain at
at one
one time.
time. It
It measured
measured 61
61 XX 46
meters and
and
tons
46 meters
was built
built on
on aa brick
brick platform
platform to
to protect
protect the
the grain
grain from
waters.
was
from flood
floodwaters.
Floors for
for grinding
grinding grain
grain were
found next
next to
to the
the structure,
structure, as
as were
were
Floors
were found
the living
living quarters
quarters of
of the
the workers
workers who
who serviced
serviced the
the harbor,
the gragrathe
harbor, the
nary, and
the grinding
of grain.
grain.
nary,
and the
grinding of
The
or fired
The principal
principal construction
construction material
material was
was mud
mud brick
brick or
fired brick.
brick.
All
two- and
and three-story
three-story residences
residences in
in the
the central
central part
part of
of the
the city
were
All twocity were
built
built of
of brick
brick and
and often
often formed
formed residential
residential complexes.
The buildings
buildings
complexes. The
quite comfortable:
were
were quite
quite simple
simple architecturally
architecturally but
but were
were quite
comfortable: they
they
contained
were cut
cut in
contained rooms
rooms for
for bathing;
bathing; narrow
narrow slits
slits were
in the
the upper
upper porportion
tion of
of the
the walls
walls for
for ventilation;
ventilation; and
and staircases
staircases connected
connected the
the upper
upper
and
were flat
flat and
and lower
lower levels.
levels. The
The roofs
roofs were
and covered
covered with
with compressed
compressed
earth; very
during hot
summer nights,
nights, the
the inhabitants
inhabitants slept
slept on
on
earth;
very likely,
likely, during
hot summer
the roofs.
roofs. There
There were
were patios
patios or
or courtyards
courtyards within
within the
the houses
houses that
that had
had
the
fireplaces for
for preparing
preparing food
food and
and that
that provided
provided space
space for
for children
children
fireplaces
to play.
play.
to
The city
city sewage
sewage system
system in
in Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro seems
seems to
to have
have been
been the
the
The
most advanced
advanced in
in the
houses had
had settling
settling pits
pits for
for
most
the ancient
ancient East.
East. Many
Many houses
wastewater, from
from where
where it
it was
was directed
directed out
out of
of the
the city
city through
through special
special
wastewater,
brick-lined channels.
channels.
brick-lined
Archaeological data
within the
Archaeological
data suggest
suggest that
that people
people living
living within
the walls
walls of
of
the central
central portion
of the
the city
city enjoyed
enjoyed quite
quite aa high
high standard
standard of
of living,
the
portion of
living,
although differences
differences in
in wealth
can easily
easily be
be discovered.
discovered. The
The city's
city's
although
wealth can
poor
poor apparently
apparently lived
lived outside
outside the
the city
city walls,
walls, and
and due
due to
to the
the frequent
frequent
inundations that
Indus Valley,
inundations
that plagued
plagued the
the cities
cities of
of the
the Indus
Valley, their
their modest
modest
mud
huts have
time.
mud huts
have not
not survived
survived to
to our
our time.
The
agriculture. We
The economy
economy of
of the
the Indus
Indus society
society was
was based
based on
on agriculture.
We do
do
know that
that they
they cultivated
cultivated wheat,
wheat, barley,
barley, peas,
peas, and
and melons.
melons. Rice
Rice was
know
was
planted
outside the
the Indus
Valley (in
(in Gujarat)
Gujarat) during
during the
the Late
Harapplanted outside
Indus Valley
Late Harappan
Cotton was
as well;
well; it
it was
was initially
initially domesticated
domesticated in
in
pan Period.
Period. Cotton
was grown
grown as
the hilly
hilly region
region west
west of
of the
the Indus
(e.g., at
at Mehrgarh)
Mehrgarh) during
during Neolithic
Neolithic
the
Indus (e.g.,
times, which
which represents
represents the
the earliest
earliest use
use of
of cotton
cotton in
in the
the history
history of
of the
the
times,
world. We
We also
also know
that water-lifting
water-lifting wheels
wheels were
were in
in use,
use, although
although
world.
know that
there are
are no
no available
available data
data about
about irrigation
irrigation structures
structures on
on aa large
large scale.
scale.
there
The fields,
located along
along the
the riverbanks,
riverbanks, were
were most
most likely
likely irrigated
irrigated by
The
fields, located
by
the natural
natural flooding
flooding of
of the
the river.
river.
the
The
husbandry can
be traced
traced from
The development
development of
of animal
animal husbandry
can be
from faunal
faunal
remains. Domesticated
Domesticated animals
animals included
included cows,
cows, buffalo,
sheep, goats,
remains.
buffalo, sheep,
goats,
horse appeared
pigs,
pigs, donkeys,
donkeys, and
and fowl.
fowl. The
The horse
appeared only
only during
during the
the second
second

218
218

C.
Diakonoff
G. F.
F. Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff

millennium B.C.;
toward the
the end
end of
this civilization.
millennium
B.C.; that
that is,
is, toward
of this
civilization. Hunting
Hunting
and fishing
fishing apparently
apparently no
longer played
an important
important role
in the
the
and
no longer
played an
role in
economy.
economy.
We know
know aa little
little more
more about
about urban
urban crafts.
crafts. At
At its
its peak
(end of
of the
the
We
peak (end
third,
of the
second millennium),
millennium), the
the Harappan
Harappan culture
culture bethird, beginning
beginning of
the second
bebronze, lead
used, as
longed to
the Bronze
Bronze Age.
Age. In
In addition
addition to
to bronze,
lead was
was used,
as
longed
to the
well as
as gold
gold and
and silver
silver for
for ornamental
ornamental objects.
objects. The
The urban
dwellers reurban dwellers
rewell
ceived most
of their
and copper
artifacts from
from abroad,
abroad, apparappartheir copper
copper and
copper artifacts
ceived
most of
ently from
from Rajasthan
Rajasthan (the
(the neighboring
neighboring region
region to
to the
east). The
The local
local
ently
the east).
nonferrous
metallurgy was
also highly
developed. The
The melting
melting and
and
nonferrous metallurgy
was also
highly developed.
soldering of
of copper
copper and
and its
its alloys
alloys was
and practiced;
swords,
soldering
was known
known and
practiced; swords,
knives,
spearheads, arrowheads,
arrowheads, axes,
axes, and
and other
other tools
manufactools were
were manufacknives, spearheads,
tured. The
The craftsmen
craftsmen of
of the
the Indus
Indus civilization
civilization also
also engaged
engaged in
in artistic
artistic
tured.
casting, as
as demonstrated
demonstrated by
such finds
finds as
as that
of aa bronze
bronze statuette
statuette of
of
by such
that of
casting,
dancing woman.
woman. Stone
Stone continued
continued to
to be
be used
used for
for the
the production
production of
of
aa dancing
grinding stones,
stones, weights,
and weapons
such as
as maces.
grinding
weights, plowshares,
plowshares, and
weapons such
maces.
Spinning and
and weaving
weaving were
were equally
equally important;
important; India
was probably
probably
Spinning
India was
the
first country
to master
master cotton
during this
early
the first
country to
cotton weaving.
weaving. Already
Already during
this early
time,
exported cotton
cotton fabrics
fabrics and
and continued
continued to
do so
so during
during the
the
India exported
to do
time, India
next
four thousand
next four
thousand years.
years.
Pottery
Pottery was
was another
another important
important industry.
industry. All
All sorts
sorts of
of vessels
and
vessels and
housewares
were skillfully
skillfully molded
molded on
on potter's
potter's wheels,
wheels, fired,
fired, and
and decodecohouse
wares were
rated
is aa great
great variety
of elaborate
elaborate derated with
with black
black pigment.
pigment. There
There is
variety of
designs. Since
Since cities
cities and
and settlements
settlements were
were built
built mainly
mainly of
of brick,
brick, the
the
signs.
production of
brick must
have been
an important
important branch
of
production
of brick
must certainly
certainly have
been an
branch of
the economy.
economy.
the
Jewelers,
Jewelers, who
who were
were particularly
particularly skillful,
skillful, made
made various
various personal
personal orornaments: bracelets,
bracelets, necklaces,
necklaces, rings,
rings, and
and beads.
They used
used precious
precious
naments:
beads. They
and
precious and
and other
other metals,
metals, precious
and semiprecious
semiprecious stones,
stones, faience,
faience, bone,
bone,
and shell.
shell. Toy
Toy making,
making, stone
stone and
and bone
carving, and
and the
the crafting
crafting of
of
and
bone carving,
seal-amulets we're
were among
among the
the artistic
artistic endeavors.
endeavors.
seal-amulets
Trade must
have played
role in
the economy
Trade
must have
played an
an important
important role
in the
economy of
of the
the
Indus
weights testify
to this
Indus cities.
cities. The
The discovery
discovery of
of large
large numbers
numbers of
of weights
testify to
this
fact,
handicrafts, which
which resulted,
resulted, no
fact, as
as does
does the
the high
high development
development of
of handicrafts,
no
doubt, in
in large
large quantities
of items
items for
for sale.
sale. Another
Another indication
indication of
of
doubt,
quantities of
trade is
is that
raw materials
materials that
that were
not available
available locally
locally were
were
trade
that many
many raw
were not
used
by the
used by
the crafts.
crafts. For
For example,
example, copper,
copper, lead,
lead, gold,
gold, and
and precious
precious and
and
semiprecious stones
stones had
had to
to have
have been
been !mported
imported from
from beyond
beyond the
the
semiprecious
Indus Valley
Valley itself.
itself. Though
Though some
some materials
materials could
could have
have been
acquired
Indus
been acquired
as war
spoils or
or as
as tribute,
tribute, trade
was the
most secure
secure and
and
trade probably
probably was
the most
as
war spoils
constant supplier.
supplier. The
The cities
cities of
of the
the Indus
Indus Valley
acquired what
they
constant
Valley acquired
what they
lacked in
in raw
raw materials
southern India,
lacked
materials through
through trade
trade with
with southern
India, BaluchisBaluchistan,
and Afghanistan.
Afghanistan. A
Harappan colony
colony was
discovered on
on the
the
A Harappan
was discovered
tan, and
banks
of
the
Amu
Darya
River
at
the
site
of
Shortughai
(ca.
2300banks of the Amu Darya River at the site of Shortughai (ca. 2300-

First
Pre-Urban Cultures
Asia and
First States
States in
in India,
India, and
and Pre-Urban
Cultures of
of Central
Central Asia
and Iran
Iran

219
219

2000
Evidence of
2000 B.C.}.
B.C.). Evidence
of trade
trade with
with Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia is
is found
found in
in
various
various archaeological
archaeological and
and cuneiform
cuneiform sources.
sources. The
The transshipment
transshipment
point
point for
for the
the maritime
maritime trade
trade between
between India
India and
and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia was
was the
the
Bahrain Islands,
Bahrain
Islands, called
called Dilmun
Dilmun in
in Sumerian
Sumerian and
and Telmun
Telmun in
in Akkadian
Akkadian
sources.
sources. India
India exported
exported cotton
cotton fabrics,
fabrics, ivory,
ivory, semiprecious
semiprecious stones,
stones,
gold,
gold, and
and certain
certain kinds
kinds of
of wood.
wood. We
We have
have less
less information
information about
about InIndian
dian imports,
imports, although
although some
some curious
curious discoveries
discoveries have
have been
been made;
made; for
for
B.C.
example, beads
beads from
from Crete
Crete dating
dating to
to about
about the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century
century B.C.
example,
were found
found in
in Harappa.
Harappa.
were

Culture
Culture and
and Religion
Religion of
of the
the Indus
Indus Civilization
Civilization

The existence
existence of
of literacy
literacy in
in the
the Indus
Indus civilization
civilization is
is an
an important
important ininThe
dicator
dicator of
of the
the level
level of
of cultural
cultural development.
development. No
No less
less than
than 2,500
2,500 ininscriptions,
scriptions, preserved
preserved on
on pottery,
pottery, on
on metal
metal objects,
objects, and,
and, especially,
especially, on
on
seals,
seals, have
have been
been discovered.
discovered. Some
Some seals
seals had
had holes
holes drilled
drilled through
through
them,
suggesting that
that they
may have
have been
been used
used as
as amulets
amulets or
or as
as tags
tags
them, suggesting
they may
of the
the seals
attached to
to merchandise.
merchandise. Many
attached
Many of
seals were
were carved
carved by
by gifted
gifted artartists
ists and
and occasionally
occasionally depict
depict complex
complex mythological
mythological scenes,
scenes, with
with short
short
inscriptions
signs.
inscriptions or
or simply
simply aa few
few signs.
Proto-Indus
Proto-Indus writing
writing has
has attracted
attracted the
the attention
attention of
of scholars
scholars for
for many
many
years
but has
has not,
not, as
as yet,
yet, been
However, it
posyears but
been deciphered.
deciphered. However,
it has
has been
been possible to
to establish
establish that
that the
the writing
writing consisted
consisted of
of up
up to
to 400
400 pictorial
pictorial signs
signs
sible
that were
were read
read from
from right
to left.
left. In
In addition
addition to
to the
the ideograms,
ideograms, ProtoProtothat
right to
Indus
phonetic signs.
Indus writing
writing also
also included
included phonetic
signs. The
The main
main difficulty
difficulty is
is that
that
we do
do not
not know
know what
what language
language was
was written
written with
this script.
script. Some
Some InInwe
with this
dian scholars
scholars speculate
speculate that
that this
this language
language was
was an
an archaic
archaic form
form of
dian
of
Sanskrit, aa well-known
well-known but
but much
much younger
younger Indian
Indian literary
literary language
language
Sanskrit,
belonging to
to the
the Indo-European
Indo-European family.
family. Most
Most contemporary
contemporary scholars,
scholars,
belonging
however, believe
believe it
it more
more probable
probable that
that this
this script
script represents
represents one
one of
however,
of
the earliest
earliest Dravidian
Dravidian languages,
languages, which
which today
today are
are spoken
spoken mainly
mainly in
in
the
the south
south of
of the
the Indian
Indian Peninsula
Peninsula and
and in
parts of
of Sri
Sri Lanka.
Lanka. A
A few
few
the
in parts
Dravidian-speaking population
population groups,
groups, the
the Brahui
are today
today
Dravidian-speaking
Brahui people,
people, are
dispersed in
in the
area where
where the
the borders
borders of
of Pakistan,
and
dispersed
the area
Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, and
Iran
Elamite, probably
related to
was spoken
spoken in
in ananIran meet.
meet. Elamite,
probably related
to Dravidian,
Dravidian, was
tiquity in
southern Iran.
Iran.
tiquity
in southern
Sculpting
of development;
Sculpting and
and carving
carving reached
reached aa high
high level
level of
development; bronze
bronze
and
Pieces of
jewelry and
and stone
stone statuettes
statuettes have
have been
been discovered.
discovered. Pieces
of jewelry
and toys
toys
made with
with exquisite
exquisite artistic
artistic taste
taste provide
provide evidence
evidence not
not only
only of
of the
the skill
made
skill
of the
the artists
artists but
but also
also of
of the
the high
aesthetic standard
standard demanded
demanded by
by the
the
of
high aesthetic
population.
population.
Relatively few
few data
data are
are available
available about
about religious
On the
the basis
basis
Relatively
religious beliefs.
beliefs. On
of
figurines, one
of the
the large
large number
number of
of female
female terra-cotta
terra-cotta figurines,
one could
could conconclude
clude that
that there
there probably
probably existed
existed aa mother-goddess
mother-goddess cult.
cult. This
This seems
seems

220
220

G. F.
F. Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

very
very likely,
likely, because
because such
such cults
cults are
are still
still widespread
widespread throughout
throughout
present-day
India. A
A three-faced
three-faced deity
deity surrounded
surrounded by
by animals,
animals, shown
shown
present-day India.
on
on some
some Indus
Indus seals,
seals, reminds
reminds us
us of
of the
the later
later god
god Shiva
Shiva in
in his
his image
image of
of
Cattle" and
and may
may indeed
indeed have
have been
been that
that deity,
deity,
Pashupati, "The
"The Lord
Lord of
of Cattle"
Pashupati,
perhaps with
with another
another name.
name. Mythological
Mythological scenes
scenes suggest
suggest that
that certain
certain
perhaps
plants and
and animals
animals also
also considered
considered sacred
sacred today
today (e.g.,
(e.g., the
the pipal,
pipal, the
the
plants
bull) were
were deified.
deified. All
All this
this points
points to
to aa certain
certain affinity
affinity between
between modern
modern
bull)
Hinduism and
and beliefs
beliefs that
that existed
existed in
in India
India four
four thousand
thousand years
years ago.
ago.
Hinduism
Excavations of
of burial
burial sites
sites offer
offer some
some information
information about
about funeral
funeral rites.
Excavations
rites.
There was
was no
no strict
strict uniformity;
uniformity; the
the deceased
deceased were
were usually
usually buried
buried
There
directly in
in the
the ground
ground and,
and, in
in some
some cases,
cases, together
together with
with household
household
directly
implements.
implements.
This is
is the
the extent
extent of
of the
the available
available information.
information. No
No funerary
funerary strucstrucThis
tures even
even closely
closely resembling
resembling those
those found
found in
in ancient
ancient Egypt
Egypt have
have been
been
tures
preserved.
Nor is
is there
there any
any extant
extant structure
structure that
that we
we can
can confidently
confidently
preserved. Nor
identify as
as aa temple
temple or
or chapel.
chapel. This
This distinguishes
distinguishes the
the Indus
Indus civilizacivilizaidentify
tion from
from its
its contemporaries-the
contemporariesthe great
great civilizations
civilizations of
of Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
tion
and the
the Nile
Nile Valley,
Valley, where
where structures
structures for
for worship
worship were
were the
the central
central feafeaand
tures of
of cities.
cities.
tures
The Social
Social Structure
Structure of
of the
the Indus
Indus Civilization
Civilization
The
When
When comparing
comparing the
the developmental
developmental level
level and
and the
the character
character of
of the
the
Indus
Indus Valley
Valley civilization
civilization with
with that
that of
of the
the slave-owning
slave-owning cultures
cultures that
that
existed simultaneously
simultaneously in
in Egypt
Egypt and
and in
in the
the Euphrates
Euphrates Valley,
Valley, we
we find
find
existed
many similarities.
similarities. For
For this
this reason,
reason, scholars
scholars usually
usually assume
assume that
that the
the sosomany
cial structure
structure of
of these
these civilizations
civilizations must
must have
have been
been similar.
similar. Weighty
Weighty ararcial
guments can
can be
be cited
cited in
in favor
favor of
of such
such aa viewpoint.
viewpoint.
guments
The
The highly
highly developed
developed production
production forces,
forces, the
the large
large cities,
cities, and
and the
the
existence
existence of
of writing
writing demonstrate
demonstrate that
that the
the society
society had
had progressed
progressed far
far
from
primitive community
level. The
of
from the
the primitive
community level.
The differences
differences in
in the
the wealth
wealth of
residential
residential houses
houses and
and between
between the
the burial
burial sites
sites of
of the
the wealthy
wealthy and
and the
the
poor
attest to
to significant
significant differences
differences in
in property
property status.
status. The
The producproducpoor attest
tion
tion of
of enormous
enormous quantities
quantities of
of brick,
brick, the
the construction
construction of
of large
large buildbuildings, the
the installation
installation of
of sewage
sewage systems
systems and
and their
their maintenance,
maintenance, and
and
ings,
the work
work performed
performed in
in the
the enormous
enormous granaries
granaries and
and on
on the
the quays
quays rerethe
quired aa large
large labor
labor force,
force, part
part of
of which
which was
was certain
certain to
to have
have been
been
quired
forced labor.
labor. It
It is
is not
not possible,
possible, however,
however, to
to establish
establish the
the composition
composition
forced
of this
this labor
labor force
force or
or the
the actual
actual conditions
conditions of
of their
their dependence
dependence solely
solely
of
on the
the basis
basis of
of archaeological
archaeological remains.
remains.
on
The well-organized
well-organized life
life of
of the
the city,
city, which
which must
must have
have been
been controlled
controlled
The
by
by aa strong
strong administration,
administration, and
and the
the existence
existence of
of fortified
fortified citadels
citadels
dominating the
the cities
cities suggest
suggest aa fully
fully developed
developed state
state with
with an
an effective
effective
dominating
social stratum
stratum of
of managers.
managers. The
The wide
wide distribution
distribution of
of aa uniform
uniform matematesocial

First
First States
States in
in India,
India, and
and Pre-Urban
Pre-Urban Cultures
Cultures of
of Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and Iran
Iran

221
221

rial
believe that
rial culture
culture over
over such
such aa vast
vast territory
territory leads
leads us
us to
to believe
that the
the Indus
Indus
Valley
with one
another, and
it is
is
Valley settlements
settlements were
were in
in communication
communication with
one another,
and it
quite
possible that
that during
during some
some periods
in their
their history
they may
may have
have
quite possible
periods in
history they
constituted aa single
single political
unit.
constituted
political unit.
However probable
probable all
may be,
remains speculative.
However
all this
this may
be, it
it remains
speculative. We
We must
must
wait for
for new
new discoveries,
discoveries, especially
especially for
for the
the deciphering
deciphering of
of the
the writing,
writing,
wait
in order
order to
prove or
or disprove
disprove the
the above
above hypotheses.
hypotheses.
to prove
in
Decline
Decline of
of the
the Indus
Indus Civilization
Civilization

After the
end of
culture, aa certain
certain regression
After
the end
of the
the Harappan
Harappan culture,
regression becomes
becomes
manifest.
Achievements of
Indus civilization,
manifest. Achievements
of the
the Indus
civilization, such
such as
as the
the building
building
of
cities, progress
progress in
in the
the arts,
arts, and
and writing,
writing, were
were almost,
almost, if
if not
not entirely,
entirely,
of cities,
lost. The
The reasons
reasons for
for this
this decline
decline are
are still
still unclear,
unclear, and
and different
different explaexplalost.
first one
nations
nations have
have been
been proposed.
proposed. The
The first
one is
is the
the hypothesis
hypothesis (which
(which
still
still has
has adherents)
adherents) about
about the
the destruction
destruction of
of the
the cities
cities (and
(and therefore
therefore
of
of the
the civilization
civilization as
as aa whole,
whole, because
because the
the cities
cities were
were its
its mainstay)
mainstay) by
by an
an
invasion perpetrated
perpetrated by
by inimical
inimical Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan tribes.
tribes. The
The proponents
proponents
invasion
of this
hypothesis refer
refer to
to the
discovery in
in the
the upper
upper archaeological
archaeological
of
this hypothesis
the discovery
stratum at
at Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro of
of aa few
few dozen
dozen skeletons
skeletons of
of people
people who
who had
had
stratum
been slain.
slain. Supporting
Supporting evidence
evidence has
has been
sought in
in the
the frequent
frequent menmenbeen
been sought
Veda, the
themost
mostancient
ancient Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan collection
collectionof
ofrelirelition in
in the
the Rig
Rig Veda,
tion
gious
of wars
wars between
between Aryans
and the
the Dasyu,
identified with
with
Aryans and
Dasyu, identified
gious hymns,
hymns, of
the local
local aborigines
(not always
with satisfactory
satisfactory proof).
Subsequent
the
aborigines (not
always with
proof). Subsequent
archaeological
findings have
have not
not confirmed
confirmed this
this hypothesis.
hypothesis.
archaeological findings
Today,
Today, the
the appearance
appearance of
of Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan tribes
tribes in
in India
India is
is usually
usually
dated to
to the
half of
millennium B.C.
A significant
dated
the second
second half
of the
the second
second millennium
B.C. A
significant
time
gap therefore
exists between
between the
the final
decline of
of Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro
time gap
therefore exists
final decline
and the
arrival of
of the
the Indo-Aryans,
because the
stratum of
of this
this
and
the arrival
Indo-Aryans, because
the top
top stratum
city, where
where the
the skeletons
skeletons were
were discovered,
discovered, cannot
cannot be
be dated
dated later
later than
than
city,
1750 B.C.
1750
B.C.
Archaeological data
Archaeological
data also
also point
point to
to the
the fact
fact that
that the
the Indus
Indus cities
cities were
were
not all
all destroyed
destroyed at
at the
same time.
time. Thus,
Thus, if
of Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro
not
the same
if the
the fall
fall of
the eighteenth
occurred,
occurred, as
as mentioned,
mentioned, in
in the
eighteenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., then
then Lothal
Lothal
fell
fell during
during the
the sixteenth
sixteenth to
to fifteenth
fifteenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., and
and Kalibangan
Kalibangan
even aa few
few centuries
centuries later.
later. Still
Still later
later Indus
Indus culture
culture sites
sites seem
seem to
have
to have
even
existed. This
This gap
of five
to six
six centuries
centuries is
is so
so wide
wide that
that it
it makes
makes it
it comcomgap of
five to
existed.
pletely
these cities
cities should
should have
been victims
victims of
of one
one
that all
all these
have been
pletely impossible
impossible that
and the
the same
same invasion.
invasion. Moreover,
the Indus
cities been
been dedeand
Moreover, had
had all
all the
Indus cities
stroyed by
by one
one ethnic
ethnic group,
group, the
the Harappan
Harappan culture
culture strata
strata would
would have
have
stroyed
been
superimposed by
single archaeological
archaeological cultural
cultural layer.
layer. Actually,
Actually,
been superimposed
by aa single
we
find
several
such
cultures;
they
are
dissimilar
and
usually
related
we find several such cultures; they are dissimilar and usually related
to the
the cultures
cultures of
of Baluchistan,
Baluchistan, which
which cannot
cannot be
be classified
classified as
as IndoIndoto
Aryan.
several cases,
cases, these
these cultures
cultures seem
seem to
to represent
represent aa "degraded
"degraded
Aryan. In
In several

222
222

G. F.
Diakonoff
F. Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff

Harappan
Harappan culture"
culture" rather
rather than
than one
one significantly
significantly different
different foreign
foreign culculture (e.g.,
(e.g., at
at Rangpur
Rangpur and
and Lothal).
Lothal).
ture
Recent years
years have
seen aa sharpening
sharpening attention
attention to
to the
the environmental
environmental
Recent
have seen
conditions of
of northwest
northwest India
India during
during the
the third
third and
and second
second millenmillenconditions
B.C. in
in order
order to
to determine
determine whether
whether climatic
climatic changes
changes could
could have
have
nium B.C.
nium
brought
about the
the demise
demise of
ancient society,
society, which
may have
have
brought about
of the
the ancient
which may
lacked the
resources to
to cope
cope with
the new
new situation.
situation. There
There
lacked
the technical
technical resources
with the
is good
good reason
reason to
to expect
expect new
new discoveries
discoveries in
in this
this field.
field. The
The ancient
ancient
is
A.D.) quotes
quotes Aristobulus,
Aristobulus, aa
Greek geographer
geographer Strabo
Strabo (first
(first century
century A.D.)
Greek
participant
in Alexander
Alexander the
the Great's
Great's expedition
expedition to
to India
India (fourth
(fourth cencenparticipant in
tury
B.C), as
as follows:
follows:
tury B.C.),

He
says that,
that, having
having been
been commissioned
commissioned with
with aa certain
certain assignassignHe says
ment,
ment, he
he saw
saw aa land
land with
with more
more than
than aa thousand
thousand cities
cities with
with
their
the inhabitants,
their villages
villages abandoned
abandoned by
by the
inhabitants, because
because the
the
Indus, having
having left
left its
its previous
previous riverbed,
shifted to
the left
left into
into
Indus,
riverbed, shifted
to the
flows swiftly,
aa new,
new, deeper
deeper one,
one, where
where itit flows
swiftly, dropping
dropping like
like aa
cataract.
cataract.
All
All scholars
scholars have
have noted
noted that
that the
the Harappan
Harappan culture
culture (at
(at MohenjoMohenjodaro, e.g.)
e.g.) did
did not
not suddenly
suddenly vanish.
vanish. The
The disappearance
disappearance was
was preceded
preceded
daro,
by
lengthy period
period of
of stagnation
stagnation and
and decline,
decline, which
may have
begun
by aa lengthy
which may
have begun
as early
early as
as the
the twentieth
twentieth to
to nineteenth
nineteenth centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. At
At Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro
as
this
be seen
seen from
from the
the desolation
and impoverishment
impoverishment of
of the
desolation and
the city
city
this can
can be
and the
the decline
decline of
of its
its economy.
economy. The
The city
city must
must also
also have
have weakened
weakened milmiland
itarily, giving
giving rise
rise to
to internecine
internecine wars
wars and
and uprisings
uprisings of
of previously
previously
itarily,
dependent tribes,
as well
as to
incursions by
independent foreign
foreign
dependent
tribes, as
well as
to incursions
by independent
groups. However,
However, we
we can
can only
only speculate
speculate about
about the
the character
character of
of the
the
groups.
possible political
and economic
economic changes.
changes.
possible
political and
Which
Which of
of the
the factors
factors outlined
outlined here
here constituted
constituted the
the main
main reason
reason for
for
the collapse
yet be
be deduced
with certhe
collapse of
of the
the Indus
Indus civilization
civilization cannot
cannot yet
deduced with
certainty. However,
However, the
the Harappan
Harappan civilization
civilization was
was the
the only
only early
early civilizacivilizatainty.
tion to
to have
have declined
declined and
and disappeared.
disappeared.
tion
Prerequisites for
Prerequisites
for the
the Creation
Creation of
of Pre-Urban
Pre-Urban Society
Society
in
Iran and
and Central
Central Asia
Asia
in Iran

The Iranian
Iranian highlandthat
is, the
the lands
lands occupied
occupied today
today mainly
mainly by
The
highland-that is,
by
the
and Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, west
west of
of the
the Indian
Indian PeninsulaPeninsula
the states
states of
of Iran
Iran55 and
5.
modern times
5. In
In modern
times (before
(before 1935),
1935), this
this state
state was
was called
called Persia.
Persia. The
The change
change of
of name
name
introduced
introduced some
some degree
degree of
of confusion
confusion into
into scientific
scientific terminology.
terminology. The
The official
official language
language
of the
state of
of Iran
Iran (which
(which does
not occupy
entire area
area of
of the
Iranian plateau)
plateau) is
of
the state
does not
occupy the
the entire
the Iranian
is
Iranian languages
languagesincludes
includesmany
manyIndo-European
Indo-EuropeanlanlanPersian, not
not "Iranian."
"Iranian." The
The term
term Iranian
Persian,
guages spoken
spoken outside
outside Iran,
Iran, as
as well
as beyond
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau (thus,
(thus, e.g.,
e.g., the
guages
well as
beyond the
the OsOssetic, Tajik,
Tajik, and
and Pamir
Pamir languages).
languages). In
In antiquity,
antiquity, the
the Scythians,
Scythians, Sacae,
Sacae, and
and other
other tribes
tribes
setic,
from the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea region
region to
to Central
Central Asia
Asia spoke
spoke "Eastern
"Eastern Iranian"
Iranian" languages.
languages.
from

First States in India, and Pre-Urban Cultures of Central Asia and Iran

223
223

was part
part of
of the
the region
region where
where agriculture
agriculture and
and animal
animal domestication
domestication
was
originated. The
The same
same may
be said
said about
about the
the narrow
southern strip
strip of
of
originated.
may be
narrow southern
land in
in present-day
present-day Soviet
Soviet Turkmenia.
Turkmenia. However,
the conditions
conditions for
for
land
However, the
the development
development of
of farming
farming (based
(based mainly
mainly on
on mountain
stream and
and
the
mountain stream
pluvial irrigation)
irrigation) were
were less
favorable in
in this
this region
region than
than in
in the
the Lower
Lower
pluvial
less favorable
Euphrates
Valley. While
While Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad
had long
long since
since achieved
achieved
Euphrates Valley.
Akkad had
the
status of
of civilization
civilization and
and had
had become
become involved
involved in
passions that
that
the status
in the
the passions
the contradictions
contradictions of
of aa class
class society
society generate,
generate, aa primitive
primitive society
society sursurthe
vived on
on the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau throughout
throughout the
the Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic Age.
Age. It
It was
vived
was
only in
in the
the southwestern
southwestern corner
corner of
of today's
today's Iran,
Iran, in
in the
the arid
arid plain
plain
only
created by
by the
the sediments
sediments of
of the
the Karun
Karun and
and Kerkheh
Kerkheh rivers,
that
created
rivers, that
city-states (or
(or nome
nome states)
states) appeared
appeared in
in the
the first
first half
half of
of the
the third
third milcity-states
milThey were
were probably
probably of
of the
the same
same type
type as
as those
those of
of Sumer.
Sumer.
lennium B.C.
lennium
B.C. They
The principal
principal city
city was
Susa. Here
Here aa specific
specific hieroglyphic
writing, simiThe
was Susa.
hieroglyphic writing,
similar
many aspects
aspects to
to the
the Sumerian
Sumerian script,
script, developed.
developed. Although
Although it
it has
has
lar in
in many
not yet
yet been
been deciphered,
it is
is clear
that it
in large
temple
not
deciphered, it
clear that
it was
was used
used in
large temple
economies, as
was the
the writing
writing of
of the
the Sumerian
Sumerian Proto
Protoliterate
Period.
economies,
as was
literate Period.
The Karun
Karun and
and Kerkheh
valleys were
were called
called Elam
Elam or,
or, in
the local
local
The
Kerkheh valleys
in the
idiom, Haltamti
Haltamti (Hatamti).
(Hatamti). Originally,
Originally, it
it was
was the
the name
name of
of just
one
idiom,
just one
nome in
in this
this region,
region, and
and not
not even
even the
the most
most important
important one.
one. (Sumeri(Sumerinome
ans called
called this
this area
area Adamdu.)
Adamdu.) Only
Onlylater
later was
wasthe
the name
name applied
applied toto the
the
ans
entire territory
territory (Sumerians
(Sumerians called
called it
it Nim,
meaning "upland,
"upland, highhighentire
Nim, meaning
land"), which
which was
was united
united with
with Elam
Elam proper
by aa common
common language.
language.
land"),
proper by
Until the
the twenty-second
twenty-second century
century B.C.,
B.C., aa locally
locally developed
developed hieroUntil
hieroglyphic script
Proto-Elamite; it
glyphic
script was
was used
used for
for writing
writing Proto-Elamite;
it remains
remains unundeciphered. Texts
Texts in
in this
this script
script have
now been
been found
found at
at several
several sites
sites in
in
deciphered.
have now
southern Iran
Iran up
up to
to the
the borders
borders of
of Baluchistan.
Baluchistan. After
the twentytwentysouthern
After the
third century,
century, Elam
Elam began
began to
Akkadian cuneiform
cuneiform script
script for
for
third
to use
use the
the Akkadian
writing in
in their
their own
own language,
language, as
as well
well as
as in
in Sumerian
Sumerian and,
and, especially,
especially,
writing
in
Akkadian.
in Akkadian.
Recent investigations
investigations by
an American
American scholar,
scholar, David
David McAlpin,
McAlpin, apapRecent
by an
pear to
to show
show that
that the
the Elamite
Elamite language
language was
was relatively
relatively closely
closely related
related to
to
pear
Proto-Dravidianan ancestor
ancestor of
of the
the Dravidian
Dravidian languages.
languages. We
We can
can asProto-Dravidian-an
assume that
that in
in very
very ancient
ancient times
times the
the Dravidian
Dravidian and
and Elamite
Elamite languages
languages
sume
were spoken
spoken in
adjoining territories.
territories. This
This means
means that
that the
the Elamitewere
in adjoining
ElamiteDravidian
population must
must have
have occupied
occupied the
the entire
entire region
region extending
extending
Dravidian population
from India
India to
to the
the Karun
Karun and
Kerkheh valleys.
valleys. Except
Except for
for the
the inhabiinhabifrom
and Kerkheh
tants of
of the
the Karun
Karun and
and Kerkheh
Kerkheh valleys,
the people
people in
in this
this region
region had.
had
tants
valleys, the
not reached
reached the
level of
of civilization
civilization by
by the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. The
The
not
the level
archaeological objects
objects found
at the
sites show
show that
that the
the culture
culture
archaeological
found at
the various
various sites
was
not
homogeneous,
although
isolated
centers
of
Elamite
was not homogeneous, although isolated centers of Elamite civilicivilization proper
proper did
did exist.
exist. One
One of
of the
the most
most important
important Elamite
Elamite centers
centers
zation
in the
the western
western part
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau was
was the
the city
city of
of Anshan
Anshan
in
part of
(45
kilometers
west
of
today's
Shiraz),
which
had
close
relations
with
(45 kilometers west of today's Shiraz), which had close relations with

224
224

G. F.
Diakonoff
F. Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff

Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. In
In the
the east
east written
written sources
sources reveal
reveal the
the existence
existence of
of the
the
city
with certainty.
city of
of Aratta.
Aratta. This
This site
site has
has not
not been
been located
located with
certainty.66 Other
Other
Elamite centers
centers were
even further
further away
away from
from Susa.
Susa. The
The creation
creation of
Elamite
were even
of
such
may have
have been
been facilitated
between the
such centers
centers may
facilitated by
by affinity
affinity between
the lanlanthe language
language (or
by the
the local
guage
guage of
of Susa
Susa and
and the
(or languages)
languages) spoken
spoken by
local
populations.
cities do
do not
seem to
the result
of indigenous
indigenous
These cities
not seem
to be
be the
result of
populations. These
development.
Rather, they
development. Rather,
they appear
appear to
to be
be trading
trading or
or military
military outposts
outposts
of Susa
Susa or
or Anshan.
Anshan. Discoveries
Discoveries of
of tablets
tablets with
with Elamite
Elamite hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics
of
indicate that
Elamite temple
economies had
here.
that Elamite
temple economies
had been
been established
established here.
indicate
The ancient
ancient names
names of
of these
these city-fortresses,
city-fortresses, which
surrounded by
The
which were
were surrounded
by
primitive livestock-raising
livestock-raising population,
population, are
are unknown,
unknown, and
and we
we have
have to
to
aa primitive
use the
the modern
modern names
names of
of their
archaeological sites:
sites: Tepe-Sialk,
Tepe-Sialk, on
on the
the
their archaeological
use
road
from Teheran
Shiraz (closer
(closer to
former); and
and Tepe-Yahya,
Tepe-Yahya,
road from
Teheran to
to Shiraz
to the
the former);
near the
Dravidian Brahui
Brahui people.
people.
near
the region
region inhabited
inhabited today
today by
by the
the Dravidian
Documents discovered
at both
sites date
date from
from the
the first
first half
of the
the
Documents
discovered at
both sites
half of
third millennium
millennium B.C.
third
B.C.
The
the inhabitants
bases outside
The ethnic
ethnic affiliation
affiliation of
of the
inhabitants of
of Iranian
Iranian bases
outside the
the
Elamite-Dravidian region
is unknown.
entire Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic Age
Age
Elamite-Dravidian
region is
unknown. The
The entire
(and,
periods) was
was characterized
(and, to
to some
some extent,
extent, even
even later
later periods)
characterized throughthroughout the
the Iranian
plateau by
with highly
artistic, multicolored
multicolored
out
Iranian plateau
by pottery
pottery with
highly artistic,
pottery was
was not
not produced
produced by
by aa single
ornamentation. This
This pottery
single culture;
culture;
ornamentation.
nevertheless,
all the
archaeological sites
sites on
Iranian plateau
were
the archaeological
on the
the Iranian
plateau were
nevertheless, all
traditionally classified
classified under
traditionally
general term
"Painted Ware"
under the
the general
term "Painted
Ware" culculture, despite
despite the
the significant
significant differences
differences in
in archaeological
archaeological detail.
detail. Simiture,
Similar pottery
pottery is
is also
also found
found from
from the
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period
Period in
in Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor,
lar
in Transcaucasia,
Transcaucasia, in
in parts
of Middle
Middle Asia,
Asia, and
and in
in China.
We believe
believe
in
parts of
China. We
that the
the reason
reason for
for the
the similarity
similarity in
in pottery
pottery is
is similarity
similarity in
in socioculsocioculthat
tural development
development in
in the
the highland
highland regions
regions rather
rather than
than ethnic
ethnic kinship
kinship
tural
among the
the pottery
makers.
among
pottery makers.
Cuneiform
Cuneiform sources
sources suggest
suggest that
that Hurrian
Hurrian dialects
dialects and
and Qutian
Qutian were
were
spoken in
in the
the northwestern
northwestern parts
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau.
plateau. Very
Very little
parts of
little is
is
spoken
known
about the
the Quti
Quti language,
it is
is not
not improbable
improbable that,
that, toknown about
language, but
but it
together with
with Hurrian,
Hurrian, it
it was
was closely
closely related
related to
to the
the Eastern
Eastern Caucasian
Caucasian
gether
language
family. The
The classification
classification of
of the
the Kassite
Kassite language
language is
is also
also
language family.
The Quti
Quti and
and the
in earlier
earlier
unclear.7 The
the Kassites
Kassites have
have been
been mentioned
mentioned in
unclear.7
lectures,
lectures, and
and more
more will
will be
said about
about them
them later.
later.
be said
Fortified cities
cities began
began to
to appear
appear on
on the
the western
western slopes
slopes of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian
Fortified
B.C. They
They seem
seem to
to
plateau
toward the
the end
of the
the third
millennium B.C.
plateau toward
end of
third millennium
6.
6. Lately
Lately there
there have
have been
been suggestions,
suggestions, based
based on
on philological
philological data,
data, that
that Aratta
Aratta may
may
have been
have
located in
in the
the northern
northern continental
continental part
of the
Indus civilization.
civilization. Another
Another
been located
part of
the Indus
suggestion identifies
identifies Aratta
Aratta with
archaeological site
site of
of Shahr-i
Shahr-i Sokhta
Sokhta in
in DranDransuggestion
with the
the rich
rich archaeological
giana. Ancient
Ancient Drangiana
in the
frontier zone
zone between
Iran and
and
giana.
Drangiana lay
lay in
the present-day
present-day frontier
between Iran
Afghanistan, around
around the
Darache-yi Seistan
Seistan and
and in
in the
the valleys
valleys northwest
northwest of
of it.
it.
Afghanistan,
the Darache-yi
7. The
The Kassites
may have
have originated
originated in
in the
Elamite-Dravidian region.
region.
7.
Kassites may
the Elamite-Dravidian

First
Asia and
First States
States in
in India,
India, and
and Pre-Urban
Pre-Urban Cultures
Cultures of
of Central
Central Asia
and Iran
Iran

225
225

have been
centers of
of small
small mountain
mountain states.
states. Large,
Large, but
but not
fortihave
been centers
not yet
yet fortified, settlements
settlements of
of agriculturalists
agriculturalists also
also existed
existed during
during that
that time
along
fied,
time along
the northern
northern foothills
of the
the mountain
range between
today's Iran
Iran
the
foothills of
mountain range
between today's
and Turkmenia
Turkmenia (the
(the archaeological
archaeological sites
sites of
of Altyn-depe,
Altyn-depe, Namazga,
Namazga,
and
Anau,
Anau, and
and others).
others).
Typical
the agricultural
agricultural settlements
Iran and
Typical of
of the
settlements of
of Iran
and southern
southern Middle
Middle
the fourth
B.C. were
were houses
houses with
with many
many
Asia during
during the
fourth to
to third
third millennia
millennia B.C.
Asia
rooms, probably
probably serving
rooms,
serving as
as dwellings
dwellings for
for extended-family
extended-family household
household
communes. The
western edge
edge of
Iranian plateau
communes.
The Hurrians
Hurrians on
on the
the western
of the
the Iranian
plateau
lived in
in fortified
fortified towers.
towers.
lived
Trade routes
that passed
through the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau in
in the
the third
third
Trade
routes that
passed through
millennium
is today
millennium carried
carried to
to what
what is
today northeastern
northeastern Iran
Iran and
and southern
southern
Turkmenia samples
samples of
of Sumerian
Sumerian and
and Elamite
Elamite crafts,
crafts, which
which served
served as
as
Turkmenia
models for
for locally
locally made
made clay
clay and
and gold
gold statuettes
statuettes and
and other
other small
small obmodels
obreligious character.
jects of
jects
of religious
character. Blue
Blue lapis
lapis lazuli
lazuli from
from northern
northern AfghanAfghanistan,
various centers
istan, Indian
Indian carnelian,
carnelian, and
and gold
gold reached
reached the
the various
centers of
of Iran
Iran
and
Asia via
routes. But
But the
and Western
Western Asia
via the
the same
same trade
trade routes.
the most
most important
important
merchandise
was, from
merchandise (and,
(and, at
at the
the same
same time,
time, the
the most
most enigmatic)
enigmatic) was,
from
the
the end
end of
of the
the third
third millennium,
millennium, tin.
tin.
Tin
the most
raw material
for the
the advent
Tin was
was probably
probably the
most important
important raw
material for
advent of
of
the
Age. For
the Bronze
Bronze Age.
For quite
quite some
some time,
time, people
people had
had known
known that
that copper
copper
was
work (so
be used)
was too
too soft
soft for
for many
many kinds
kinds of
of work
(so that
that stone
stone had
had to
to be
used) and
and
that alloys
alloys (particularly
(particularly arsenic
arsenic alloys)
alloys) were
were required
required to
to improve
improve the
the
that
working properties
properties of
of tools
and weapons.
weapons. But
But no
no metal
metal other
other than
tin
working
tools and
than tin
was able
able to
greatly improve
improve the
strength of
of copper.
copper. Therefore,
Therefore, in
in
was
to greatly
the strength
order
to make
make bronze
bronze implements
implements and
weapons, tin
to be
imorder to
and weapons,
tin had
had to
be imported from
from far
far away,
away, regardless
regardless of
of the
the danger
danger and
and expense.
expense. Bronze
Bronze
ported
tools were
much more
more durable
durable than
than copper
copper tools;
tools; working
working edges
edges
tools
were much
could be
suffered less
less wear.
razors could
could be
be
could
be made
made sharper
sharper and
and suffered
wear. Even
Even razors
made of
of bronze,
whereas, in
in the
the past,
they could
could only
only be
be fashioned
fashioned
made
bronze, whereas,
past, they
from
obsidian (volcanic
glass). Bronze
began to
to be
used for
for the
the proprofrom obsidian
(volcanic glass).
Bronze began
be used
duction of
of daggers
daggers and
and swords,
swords, helmets
helmets and
and coats
coats of
of mail.
mail. This
This sigduction
significantly increased
increased the
the fighting
fighting ability
ability of
of armies
armies and
and increased
increased the
the
nificantly
exploitability
of
slave
labor.
exploitability of slave labor.
The
the third
third and
beginning of
saw
The end
end of
of the
and beginning
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium saw
the
Asia. However,
the coming
coming of
of the
the Bronze
Bronze Age
Age in
in Western
Western Asia.
However, we
we still
still do
do
not know
the tin
tin came
came from
from during
time. In
In the
the second
not
know where
where the
during this
this time.
second
half of
of the
the second
second millennium,
millennium, when
when the
the trade
trade routes
changed, we
half
routes changed,
we
know that
that tin
tin began
began to
to arrive
arrive in
in Western
Western Asia
Asia from
from the
the west;
west; for
for exexknow
ample,
from Spain.
Spain.8s Other
Other deposits
sufficient for
for industrial
exploiample, from
deposits sufficient
industrial exploitation were
were known
known to
to have
have existed
existed not
not closer
closer than
than Malaysia
Malaysia and
and
tation
8.
8. A
A sunken
sunken Bronze
Bronze Age
Age ship
ship laden
laden with
with copper
copper and
and tin
tin has
has been
been discovered
discovered near
near
the port
of Haifa,
Haifa, Israel.
Israel.
the
port of

226

Diakonoff
G. F.
F. IVyin
Il'yin and
and I.
I. M. Diakonoff

southern China.
China. Strabo,
Strabo, the
the Greek
Greek geographer
geographer of
of the
first century
century
southern
the first
A.D.,
source of
of tin
tin in
in Drangiana,
Drangiana, aa country
country in
in the
southA.D., mentioned
mentioned aa source
the southwest of
of what
is today
today Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, but
modern geologists
geologists rejected
this
west
what is
but modern
rejected this
possibility.
It was
was only
only in
in the
the early
early 1970s
1970s that
that Soviet
Soviet geologists
geologists discovdiscovpossibility. It
ered large
large tin
mining sites
sites in
in this
area that
had been
exhausted at
at least
least
ered
tin mining
this area
that had
been exhausted
thousand years
years ago.
ago. (Archaeologists
(Archaeologists have
have not
not yet
yet visited
visited this
this area,
area, so
so
aa thousand
its absolute
absolute date
date has
has not
not been
established.) One
One ofthe
of the deposits,
deposits, apparapparbeen established.)
its
ently quite
quite ancient,
ancient, was
located north
north of
of Hamun
Hamun Lake
Lake (Daryache-yi
(Daryache-yi
ently
was located
Seistan). Since
Since copper
copper was
was also
also found
found there,
it is
is possible
that finished
finished
there, it
possible that
Seistan).
bronze
ingots were
were shipped
shipped from
from this
source. Another
Another very
ancient
bronze ingots
this source.
very ancient
deposit was
found in
in the
This secret
secret of
of the
the
deposit
was found
the Hilmand
Hilmand River
River basin.
basin. This
Bronze Age
Age may
thus prove
be uncovered.
uncovered.99
Bronze
may thus
prove to
to be
In
In the
the third
third millennium,
millennium, an
an important
important new
new draft
draft animal
animal was
was dodomesticated
in Central
Central Asia-the
Asiathe two-humped
camel. It
It was,
among
mesticated in
two-humped camel.
was, among
other
four-wheel vehicles.
time
other uses,
uses, harnessed
harnessed to
to pull
pull four-wheel
vehicles. This
This was
was aa time
when there
there arose
arose in
in this
area aa comparatively
comparatively well-developed
well-developed farming
farming
when
this area
culture, although
although it
it was
was still
still based
based on
on smaller
smaller and
and shallower
shallower rivers
rivers
culture,
than, for
for example,
example, the
the Amu
Amu Darya.
Darya. The
The irrigation
irrigation canals
canals found
found here
here
than,
(up to
long) resemble
dug in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia be(up
to three
three kilometers
kilometers long)
resemble those
those dug
before the
Period.
fore
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period.
Toward
sevToward the
the middle
middle of
of the
the third
third millennium,
millennium, large
large settlements
settlements several
hectares in
hectare = 2.47
2.47 acres)
eral dozens
dozens of
of hectares
in area
area (1
(1 hectare
acres) appeared
appeared in
in
southwestern Central
Central Asia,
in the
the Murghab
and Zeravshan
river valsouthwestern
Asia, in
Murghab and
Zeravshan river
valleys. They
They had
had an
an irregular,
irregular, urban-type
houses for
for extended
extended
leys.
urban-type plan,
plan, houses
families,
and large
large cultic
cultic structures
structures that
that were
enclosed in
adobe
families, and
were enclosed
in thick
thick adobe
walls.
walls apparently
were built
built at
at least
walls. City
City walls
apparently were
least as
as early
early as
as the
the second
second
millennium.
Mention has
already been
made of
Harappan colony
colony
millennium. Mention
has already
been made
of aa Harappan
on the
southern banks
of the
on
the southern
banks of
the Amu
Amu Darya.
Darya. Around
Around the
the bigger
bigger towns,
towns,
there
small villages
consisting of
of one
one or
or aa few
few extended-family
extended-family
there were
were small
villages consisting
dwellings.
Such farmsteads
had already
already disappeared
disappeared in
dwellings. Such
farmsteads had
in Lower
Lower MesoMesopotamia
at the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
A pre-urban
(or
potamia at
the Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period.
Period. A
pre-urban (or
even early
early urban)
urban) culture
culture is
is also
also observed
observed in
in Drangiana
Drangiana (the
(the sites
sites of
even
of
Shahr-i Sokhta
Sokhta and
and Mundigak).
Mundigak).
Shahr-i
However, the
the process
process of
which was
was
However,
of formation
formation of
of aa class
class society,
society, which
clearly taking
place over
over the
the entire
Iranian plateau
plateau (in
(in Iran
well
clearly
taking place
entire Iranian
Iran as
as well
as Afghanistan)
Afghanistan) and
and in
in southern
southern Turkmenia,
was not
not accomplished
accomplished
as
Turkmenia, was
during the
the Bronze
decline ensued.
ensued. The
The causes
causes are
are
during
Bronze Age;
Age; aa period
period of
of decline
not
clear. In
this region
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
not clear.
In this
region the
B.C. was
was aa time
time of
of
droughts and
and ethnic
Indo-Iranian tribes
appeared in
Iran
droughts
ethnic migrations.
migrations. Indo-Iranian
tribes appeared
in Iran
around this
this time,
time, if
if not
not earlier
earlier (more
(more will
be said
said about
about this
around
will be
this in
in LecLecture
18).
Archaeological
evidence
of
ethnic
migrations,
however,
ture 18). Archaeological evidence of ethnic migrations, however, is
is
difficult to
find, unless
the migrations
migrations were
were accomplished
accomplished by
difficult
to find,
unless the
by mass
mass
slaughter and
and fires;
fires; there
there are
are no
It also
also remains
remains ununslaughter
no written
written records.
records. It
known
migrations hindered
development of
urban
known whether
whether these
these migrations
hindered the
the development
of urban

First
First States
States in
in India,
India, and
and Pre-Urban
Pre-Urban Cultures
Cultures of
of Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and Iran
Iran

227
227

civilizations
whether some
difficulties in
in the
civilizations or,
or, conversely,
conversely, whether
some internal
internal difficulties
the
development
development of
of local
local societies
societies contributed
contributed to
to the
the ethnic
ethnic migrations.
migrations.
The
mysThe early
early cultures
cultures of
of Iran
Iran and
and Central
Central Asia
Asia are
are still
still obscured
obscured in
in mystery; archaeological
archaeological data
data remain
remain insufficient.
insufficient. Our
Our only
only information
information
tery;
about the
the western
western edge
edge of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau comes
comes from
from inscripinscripabout
history we
now about
tions of
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian kings,
kings, to
to whose
whose history
we are
are now
about to
to
tions
return.
return.
9.
production is
uncertain, the
of
9. While
While the
the scale
scale arid
and significance
significance of
of its
its production
is still
still uncertain,
the mining
mining of
tin
tin in
in ancient
ancient times
times has
has now
now been
been documented
documented for
for the
the central
central Taurus
Taurus mountains
mountains of
of
southern Anatolia.
Anatolia. Editor's
Editor's note
note (PLK).
southern
(PLK).

11
11
Asshur,
Mitanni, and
Asshur, Mitanni,
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe
N.
N.

B.
JANKOWSKA
B.JANKOWSKA

The
The General
General Character
Character of
of the
the Region
Region

Settlements along
along the
the middle
middle reaches
of the
the Tigris
an imporimporSettlements
reaches of
Tigris played
played an
tant
role.!1 In
this region
region the
the inclement
conditions for
tant historical
historical role.
In this
inclement conditions
for which
which
Lower Mesopotamia
famous did
not exist;
none of
of its
exist; there
there were
were none
its
Lower
Mesopotamia was
was famous
did not
deserts
and none
none of
its salty
salty rivers
and sea
overgrown with
of its
rivers and
sea lagoons
lagoons overgrown
with
deserts and
hand, the
by the
giant reed
reed forests.
forests. On
On the
the other
other hand,
the region
region defined
defined by
the
giant
middle reaches
reaches of
of the
the Tigris
Tigris did
did not
not yield
the inordinately
inordinately rich
rich crops
crops
middle
yield the
that
were so
floods of
that were
so characteristic
characteristic of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (once
(once the
the floods
of
the Euphrates
Euphrates had
had been
been curbed).
curbed).
the
For aa long
long stretch
stretch the
the Tigris
Tigris runs
runs between
between steep
steep rocky
rocky shores,
shores, aa conconFor
dition impeding
impeding human
human movement
movement along
along the
the river.
river. Nearly
as inconveinconvedition
Nearly as
nient for
for travel
are the
the valleys
valleys of
of the
the small
small rivers
rivers that
into the
the
nient
travel are
that flow
flow into
Tigris from
from the
the northeast:
northeast: the
the Bohtan
Bohtan Su,
Su, the
the eastern
eastern Khabur,
the
Tigris
Khabur, the
Greater (Upper)
(Upper) Zab,
Zab, and
and the
the Lesser
Lesser (Lower)
(Lower) Zab.
Greater
Zab.
Two fertile
fertile agrarian
agrarian districts
districts lie
lie along
along the
the Tigris.
Tigris. The
The northern
northern
Two
forms
historical Assyria,
bordered on
by
forms the
the triangle
triangle of
of historical
Assyria, bordered
on the
the north
north by
the valleys
valleys of
the Eastern
mountains
mountains cutting
cutting it
it off
off from
from the
of the
Eastern Khabur
Khabur and
and
the Greater
Greater Zab
(in that
the latter
latter flows
from northwest
northwest to
to
the
Zab (in
that part
part where
where the
flows from
southeast) and
and on
on the
the east
east by
foothills of
of the
the Zagros
Zagros Mountains
Mountains
southeast)
by the
the foothills
and the
the valley
valley of
of the
the Lesser
Lesser Zab.
Zab. This
This district
district is
is watered
watered by
by rainfall
rainfall
and
and
western boundary
boundary is
the Tigris,
and subterranean
subterranean sources.
sources. Its
Its western
is the
Tigris, which
which
for aa long
long stretch
stretch is
is bordered
on the
steep mountain
ridge
for
bordered on
the west
west by
by aa steep
mountain ridge
(continuing the
the Hamrin
range to
to the
southeast of
of the
the Tigris).
Hamrin range
the southeast
Tigris). BeBe(continuing
tween this
this ridge
and the
the western
western bank
bank of
of the
the Tigris
Tigris there
there is
is hardly
hardly
tween
ridge and
even aa footpath.
footpath. It
It is
is upstream
upstream from
from this
this ridge
ridge that,
that, in
in some
some places,
even
places,
possible
routes open
open over
over the
the Tigris,
Tigris, connecting
connecting the
the hilly
part of
of
hilly part
possible routes
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia with
the east.
east.
Upper
with the
South of
of the
the Lower
Lower Zab
Zab the
the second
second trans-Tigride
trans-Tigride agrarian
agrarian district
district
South
begins. It
It is
is watered
watered by
by two
two additional
additional tributaries
of the
the Tigris:
Tigris: the
the
tributaries of
begins.
Adhaim and
and the
the Diyala.
Diyala. The
The district
district is
is subdivided
subdivided into
into two
two by
by the
the
Adhaim
Hamrin ridge;
ridge; north
of the
the ridge
ridge lie
lie heavily
hilled territories,
territories, similar
similar
Hamrin
north of
heavily hilled
to those
those of
of historical
historical Assyria,
Assyria, although
although stock
stock raising
and agricultur~
agriculture
raising and
to
1.
The first
M. Diakonoff;
1. The
first section
section was
was written
written by
by I.
I. M.
Diakonoff; some
some of
of his
his materials
materials were
were used
used
in
the third
well.
in the
third and
and fourth
fourth s.ections
sections as
as well.

Asshur,
Asshur, Mitanni,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe

229
229

were somewhat
somewhat less
here. The
The center
center of
of these
territories
were
less developed
developed here.
these territories
was originally
originally Gasur,
Gasur, renamed
renamed Nuzi
after the
Hurrian conquest
conquest in
in the
the
was
Nuzi after
the Hurrian
eighteenth or
or seventeenth
seventeenth century
century B.C.;
B.C.; the
center (modern
(modern
eighteenth
the new
new center
Kirkuk) became
became Arrapkhe.
Arrapkhe.
Kirkuk)
The
through the
the Hamrin
Hamrin ridge,
ridge, forming
The Tigris
Tigris cuts
cuts through
forming an
an almost
almost
natural
gate, at
known as
of the
ancient
natural gate,
at aa place
place now
now known
as Fatha.
Fatha. One
One of
the most
most ancient
regions
of irrigation
irrigation agriculture,
agriculture, where
of the
the Diyala
River
regions of
where the
the waters
waters of
Diyala River
are
over the
plain in
in aa network
canals, is
is situated
situated to
to the
the south
south of
are led
led over
the plain
network of
of canals,
of
this ridge.
the third
millennium B.C.
B.C. this
this land
land was
Warium
this
ridge. In
In the
third millennium
was called
called Warium
or
Ki-Uri. (This
(This name
name was
was also
also extended
to cover
cover the
northern part
part
or Ki-Uri.
extended to
the northern
of Lower
Mesopotamia.) In
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. its
central
of
Lower Mesopotamia.)
In the
its central
part was
Nawar and
its southern
southern part
was called
Tupliash (in
part
was called
called Nawar
and its
part was
called Tupliash
(in
Kassite).
Kassite).
The importance
importance of
the regions
the Tigris
Tigris lay
lay not
so much
much in
in
The
of the
regions along
along the
not so
their
agricultural potential,
their agricultural
potential, which
which already
already in
in the
the fourth
fourth millennium
millennium
B.C. lagged
lagged behind
behind the
watered by
by canals
canals
B.C.
the Lower
Lower Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian plains,
plains, watered
and the
the Euphrates,
in their
fords over
over the
the Tigris
and its
and
Euphrates, but
but in
their fords
Tigris and
its tributributaries.
taries. Here
Here lay
lay the
the trade
trade routes
routes into
into Iran
Iran and
and even
even farther
farther east-to
eastto
the
of western
western and
Afghanistan, to
the tin
tin mines
mines of
and southern
southern Afghanistan,
to the
the lapis
lapis lazuli
lazuli
quarries of
Badakhshan, to
the gold
gold of
of India,
the regions
regions of
quarries
of Badakhshan,
to the
India, and
and to
to the
of
the proto-urban
Central Asia
and to
the land
the early
early
the
proto-urban cultures
cultures of
of Central
Asia and
to the
land of
of the
Indus
civilization.
Indus civilization.
There
for trade
trade and
over the
There were
were five
five fords
fords for
and military
military expeditions
expeditions over
the
Tigris. The
The first
first was
was situated
situated near
near present-day
present-day Mosul.
Mosul. (This
(This city
city lies
Tigris.
lies
on the
the western
of the
river; in
in antiquity
antiquity the
the ford
ford was
was guarded
guarded by
on
western bank
bank of
the river;
by
aa city
city on
on the
the eastern
eastern bank-Nineveh.)
bankNineveh.) From
From here
here the
the road
road coming
coming out
out
of Upper
continued to
to Arbela
(now Erbil)
and, over
over the
the
of
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia continued
Arbela (now
Erbil) and,
Zagros
passes, to
Urmia.
Zagros passes,
to Lake
Lake Urmia.
The second
second ford
ford was
located below
below Mosul,
where the
the road
leading
The
was located
Mosul, where
road leading
west to
from the
Khabur with
the EuEuwest
to east
east from
the confluence
confluence of
of the
the western
western Khabur
with the
phrates and
through Karana
Kantna (now
phrates
and through
(now Tell
Tell Rimah)
Rimah) crossed
crossed the
the Tigris
Tigris at
at
Kalkhu (Calah,
now Nimrud)
Nimrud) and
and from
there led
Kalkhu
(Calah, now
from there
led to
to Arbela.
Arbela.
Before
reaching the
the Tigris
Kalkhu, this
this road
split, and
Before reaching
Tigris at
at Kalkhu,
road split,
and one
one
branch
city of
Asshur (now
branch turned
turned northeastward
northeastward to
to the
the city
of Asshur
(now Qal'at
Qal'at SherSherqat). This
This city
city lay
on the
Tigris in
important placewhere
the
qat).
lay on
the Tigris
in aa very
very important
place-where the
northwestern
continuation of
the Hamrin
ends, and
and the
road
northwestern continuation
of the
Hamrin ridge
ridge ends,
the road
from Lower
Mesopotamia could
could again
turn toward
toward the
the river.
river. Being
Being
from
Lower Mesopotamia
again turn
politically
and naturally
of Assyria,
city of
of Asshur
was actuactupolitically and
naturally aa part
part of
Assyria, the
the city
Asshur was
ally aa bridgehead
bridgehead before
the main,
third ford,
ford, where
the road
led
ally
before the
main, third
where the
road led
from the
the west
over the
the river
river and
and eastward
eastward to
the passes
over the
the
from
west over
to the
passes over
Zagros.
This road
road went
went through
the center
center of
of the
the Arrapkhe
district
Zagros. This
through the
Arrapkhe district
(present-day Kirkuk)
Kirkuk) and
and into
into the
the valley
of Sulaimaniyeh
Sulaimaniyeh and
and over
over the
the
(present-day
valley of
Zagros
passes to
of the
the passes
passes that
that were
along the
the
Zagros passes
to the
the south
south of
were reached
reached along
first and
second routes.
routes.
first
and second

230

N. B.
B.Jankowska
Jankowska

A fourth,
the roads
roads of
of
A
fourth, less
less convenient
convenient route
route served
served as
as an
an exit
exit from
from the
western Arrapkhe.
Arrapkhe. It
through the
the "Gate"
Fatha and,
crosswestern
It led
led through
"Gate" of
of Fatha
and, after
after crossing the
continued toward
toward Mari
on the
Euphrates.22
ing
the Tigris,
Tigris, continued
Mari on
the Euphrates.
Finally,
have been
places where
Finally, the
the fifth
fifth ford
ford could
could have
been in
in several
several places
where the
the
fertile valley
of Tupliash-Nawar
opened toward
here
Tupliash-Nawar opened
toward the
the Tigris.
Tigris. From
From here
fertile
valley of
the road could
could lead
lead either
either to the
the southwest
southwest from the mountain
mountain ridges
ridges
Der (now
Bedre) and
toward
toward the
the city
city of
of Der
(now Bedre)
and farther
farther on
on into
into Elam;
Elam; or
or
through
present-day Khaneqin
Zagros passes
through present-day
Khaneqin and
and over
over the
the southern
southern Zagros
passes
to
modern Kirmanshah
Kirmanshah and
and from
from there
there either
either to
to the
the south
south toward
toward
to modern
Elam or
or to
to the
southeast toward
Anshan; or,
or, finally,
the road
could
the southeast
toward Anshan;
finally, the
road could
Elam
turn to
to the
the north
South of
of the
the confluence
confluence of
of the
the
turn
north toward
toward Arrapkhe.
Arrapkhe. South
Diyala with
with the
Tigris, the
the latter
latter probably
entered, in
in antiquity,
antiquity, aa reDiyala
the Tigris,
probably entered,
region
of swamps
swamps and
and lagoons,
lagoons, of
of little
little economic
economic value.
value.
gion of
Besides the
main west-east
west-east roads,
roads, there
there also
Besides
the main
also existed
existed south-north
south-north
roads,
roads, parallel
parallel to
to the
the mountains.
mountains. One
One led
led from
from Kish,
Kish, Babylon,
Babylon, and
and
Sippar to
the north
along the
the Tigris,
Tigris, skirted
skirted the
Hamrin ridge,
and
Sippar
to the
north along
the Hamrin
ridge, and
then returned
returned to
at Asshur.
Asshur. A
traveler could
could either
either cross
cross
then
to the
the Tigris
Tigris at
A traveler
the
here or
or continue
continue to
the
the river
river here
to the
the north
north until
until Nineveh,
Nineveh, joining
joining the
roads
across Upper
from west
to east.
east. This
This
roads running
running across
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia from
west to
road was
was usually
open to
to raids
raids of
of pastoral
in the
the
road
usually open
pastoral nomads;
nomads; moreover,
moreover, in
south, the
the traveler
to pass
over the
Gypsum Desert
and aa series
series of
of
south,
traveler had
had to
pass over
the Gypsum
Desert and
other inhospitable
stretches. Therefore,
Therefore, aa preferred
the
other
inhospitable arid
arid stretches.
preferred road
road was
was the
one aa long
long way
east of
of the
across the
Diyala
one
way to
to the
the east
the Tigris,
Tigris, which
which led
led across
the Diyala
Valley,
present-day Tuz-Humatli
Tuz-Humatli (ancient
(ancient Kissuk?),
Kissuk?), across
across
through present-day
Valley, through
the
of Arrapkhe,
and fording
fording the
the Lesser
at the
site of
the kingdom
kingdom of
Arrapkhe, and
Lesser Zab
Zab at
the site
of
Tell Mahuz
Tursha).
Tell
Mahuz (ancient
(ancient Tursha).
The Tigris
Tigris Valley
Valley forms
the western
western boundary
boundary of
the foothills
of
The
forms the
of the
foothills of
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
and was
was in
in antiquity
antiquity the
the eastern
eastern boundary
of the
the
the
plateau and
boundary of
historical
region of
Upper Mesopotamia
now is
historical region
of Upper
Mesopotamia that
that now
is divided
divided between
between
Turkey, Syria,
and Iraq.
Iraq. On
On the
is bordered
the
Turkey,
Syria, and
the east
east this
this region
regio~ is
bordered by
by the
Middle
Euphrates, from
from its
its "Great
"Great Bend,"
Bend," where
it flows
Middle Euphrates,
where it
flows nearest
nearest to
to
the
and southward
southward until,
after crossing
crossing the
Gypsum
the Mediterranean,
Mediterranean, and
until, after
the Gypsum
Desert,
it enters
enters Lower
According to
the physical
topogDesert, it
Lower Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. According
to the
physical topography,
Mesopotamia can
subdivided into
into three
east-west
raphy, Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
can be
be subdivided
three east-west
zones: (1)
(1) A
A northern
mountainous and
and hilly
zone, which
in antiquity
antiquity
zones:
northern mountainous
hilly zone,
which in
was covered
covered by
evergreen underbrush
underbrush (maquis),
(maquis), is
is located
located south
south of
of
was
by evergreen
the
Tigris. (2)
(2) A
A middle
which was
crossed from
from north
to
the Upper
Upper Tigris.
middle zone,
zone, which
was crossed
north to
south by
by the
Balikh and
and the
western Khabur,
Khabur, tributaries
of the
the EuEusouth
the Balikh
the western
tributaries of
phrates,
is relatively
until the
Sinjar Mountain
(Jebel
relatively well
well watered
watered until
the Sinjar
Mountain (Jebel
phrates, is
Sinjar) ridge;
ridge; along
along the
the southern
southern slopes
slopes of
of this
this ridge,
there is
is aa belt
Sinjar)
ridge, there
belt
2.
Perhaps it
the town
should be
be sought
on the
2. Perhaps
it is
is near
near Fatha
Fatha that
that the
town of
of Sugage
Sugage should
sought on
the western
western
bank of
of the
Tigris; we
also suggest
suggest that
that the
town of
of Unabshe
Unabshe might
be located
located inside
inside
bank
the Tigris;
we also
the town
might be
the
the pass.
pass.

Asshur, Mitanni,
Arrapkhe
Asshur,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe

231

still suitable,
suitable, to
to aa certain
certain extent,
and primitive
primitive agriagristill
extent, for
for sheep
sheep raising
raising and
culture.
culture. (3)
(3) A
southern desert
desert zone
stretches from
from the
southern slopes
slopes
A southern
zone stretches
the southern
of the
Sinjar to
of Babylonia.
Babylonia.33
of
the Jebel
Jebel Sinjar
to the
the borders
borders of
The ethnic
ethnic structure
structure of
of the
the most
ancient population
of these
zones
The
most ancient
population of
these zones
is not
well known.
known. We
We have
the sequence
is
not well
have information
information on
on the
sequence of
of archaeoarchaeological cultures
but much
much less
less on
sequence of
logical
cultures but
on the
the sequence
of languages
languages spoken
spoken
here,
here, although
although some
some hypotheses
hypotheses have
have been
been suggested.
suggested.44 It
It is
is certain,
certain,
however,
that as
as late
late as
as the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. in
in
however, that
the
region of
of the
the future
Arrapkhe, there
the city
of
the region
future Arrapkhe,
there still
still existed
existed in
in the
city of
Gasur
Nuzi, now
now Yorghan-tepe)
Proto-Tigridian, or
or "BananaGasur (later
(later Nuzi,
Yorghan-tepe) aa Proto-Tigridian,
"Bananalanguage," population
population (the
(the name
is conventional).
conventional). And
And about
language,"
name is
about the
the
same
time aa Hurrian
population is
northern zone
of
same time
Hurrian population
is attested
attested in
in the
the northern
zone of
Upper Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. (It
(It has
that the
Hurrians, toUpper
has lately
lately been
been proved
proved that
the Hurrians,
together
with the
the related
related Urartians,
of the
branches of
the
gether with
Urartians, formed
formed one
one of
the branches
of the
Eastern
Caucasian family
speakers of
of the
lanEastern Caucasian
family of
of languages.
languages. Other
Other speakers
the languages
Soviet Autonomous
Republics
guages of
of this
this family
family today
today inhabit
inhabit the
the Soviet
Autonomous Republics
of Daghestan
and Checheno-Ingushetia.)
Checheno-Ingushetia.) There
There is
to
of
Daghestan and
is good
good reason
reason to
believe
of the
speakers of
of Hurro-Urartian
believe that
that the
the homeland
homeland of
the speakers
Hurro-Urartian was
was
situated
in central
than
situated in
central or
or eastern
eastern Transcaucasia,
Transcaucasia, probably
probably no
no later
later than
the fifth
millennium B.C.
Upper
the
fifth millennium
B.C. After
After entering
entering the
the territories
territories of
of Upper
Mesopotamia, the
the Hurrians
naturally mixed
mixed with
with the
aboriginal
Mesopotamia,
Hurrians naturally
the aboriginal
population..
population
.Archaeological
Archaeological data
the fourth
data also
also attest
attest that
that during
during the
fourth and
and early
early
third millennia,
millennia, the
Sumerians had
colonies or
or factories
not only
only
third
the Sumerians
had their
their colonies
factories not
in
the north
the valleys
valleys of
the western
western
in Mari
Mari but
but also
also far
far to
to the
north along
along the
of the
Khabur (Tell
(Tell Brak)
Brak) and
and the
at least
as far
far as
as the
the confluence
confluence
Khabur
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, at
least as
of the
the Upper
Upper Euphrates
Euphrates (Karasu)
Arsanias (Muradsu).5
of
(Karasu) with
with the
the Arsanias
(Muradsu).5
3.
3. There
There are
are two
two main
main west-east
west-east routes
routes across
across Upper
Upper Mesopotamia:
Mesopotamia: one
one extends
extends
from the
the city
city of
of Mari
Mari on
on the
the Euphrates
Euphrates (now
(now Abu-Kemal,
the frontier
between
from
Abu-Kemal, at
at the
frontier between
present-day
Syria and
to Asshur
to Fatha
Fatha on
on the
the Tigris;
Tigris; and
the other
other stretches
stretches
and Iraq)
Iraq) to
Asshur or
or to
and the
present-day Syria
from
the crossing
crossing of
of the
the Euphrates
at the
the Great
Great Bend
Bend near
near ancient
ancient Carchemish
Carchemish easteastfrom the
Euphrates at
ward through
(or more
more to
to the
the south
south through
through ancient
ancient Harran),
Harran), up
to
through present-day
present-day Urfa
Urfa (or
up to
ward
Mardin and
(Mcbin, Nisibis)
toward Nineveh
and Asshur.
There were
Mardin
and Nusaibin
Nusaibin (Mcbin,
Nisibis) toward
Nineveh and
Asshur. There
were also
also
two
major south-north
south-north roads:
roads: the
went upstream
upstream along
along the
the Euphrates
Euphrates (not
(not necestwo major
the first
first went
necessarily following
following the
the river
itself) over
over to
Mari, which
to western
western Syria,
Syria, and
and
river itself)
to Mari,
which was
was aa gateway
gateway to
sarily
to Emar
(another gateway
gateway to
to western
western Syria
Syria and
and to
to Ebla
Ebla and
Haleb) and
and Carchemish,
Carchemish,
to
Emar (another
and Haleb)
where
the road
road turned
turned to
to Asia
Minor or
or led
led farther
farther north
north onto
the Armenian
highland;
Asia Minor
onto the
Armenian highland;
where the
the second
second road,
road, which
discussed above,
above, led
along the
the Tigris.
the
which has
has been
been discussed
led along
Tigris.
4. Among
Among others,
others, there
there is
is aa hypothesis
hypothesis ascribing
ascribing the
the Tell
Tell Halaf
Halaf culture
culture (fifth
(fifth millenmillen4.
nium
to the
bearers of
of Proto-Indo-European
dialects. However,
traces of
of an
nium B.C.)
B.C.) to
the bearers
Proto-Indo-European dialects.
However, no
no traces
an
Indo-European
linguistic substratum
substratum have
disclosed in
the region;
region; unimportant
unimportant
Indo-European linguistic
have been
been disclosed
in the
traces of
of Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian influence
influence on
on the
(from the
East) appear
appear only
only in
in the
the
traces
the Hurrians
Hurrians (from
the East)
second millennium
B.C.
second
millennium B.C.
5.
5. The
The archaic
archaic Sumerian
Sumerian writing,
writing, which
which was
was invented
invented about
about 3000
3000 B.C.,
B.C., isis still
still poorly
poorly
attested
attested in
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, although
although recently
archaic Sumerian
Sumerian
in Upper
recently fragments
fragments of
of archaic
documents were
were discovered
discovered at
at Tell
Tell Brak.
note (PLK).
Brak. Editor's
Editor's note
(PLK).
documents

232

N. B.Jankowska
B. Jankowska

Lately it
it has
has been
been shown
shown that
during the
millennium, aa culture
culture
Lately
that during
the third
third millennium,
defined
most characteristically
characteristically by
its distinctive
ceramic goblets
goblets ocdefined most
by its
distinctive ceramic
occupied the
the eastern
eastern zone
zone of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. And
And we
we have
have good
good
cupied
reason
culture originated
originated with
group of
of Semitic
Semitic
that this
this culture
with aa group
reason to
to believe
believe that
tribes occupying
occupying an
an intermediate
intermediate position
between the
Western and
and
tribes
position between
the Western
the Eastern
Eastern Semites
Semites and
and having
having their
their most
most important
important center
center in
in the
the city
city
the
of Ebla.
Ebla. The
The sheep-herding
sheep-herding population,
in western
western Syria
Syria and
and in
in
of
population, both
both in
Upper Mesopotamia,
belonged to
to the
the group
group of
of the
Western
Upper
Mesopotamia, probably
probably belonged
the Western
Semitic tribes
tribes conventionally
conventionally called
called Amorites.
Amorites.
Semitic
was
A considerable
considerable part
part of
of the
the population
population in
in Mari
Mari on
on the
the Euphrates
Euphrates was
A
Eastern
Eastern Semitic
Semitic speaking,
speaking, as
as was
was virtually
virtually all
all the
the population
population in
in Asshur
Asshur
on the
the Tigris,
Tigris, although
although it
it may
may have
have been
been preceded
Sumerian
on
preceded by
by Sumerian
colonies.
colonies.
To
To the
the east
east of
of the
the Tigris,
Tigris, in
in places
places that
that are
are mostly
mostly still
still unidentified,
unidentified,
Hurrians are
are attested
attested at
at least
least from
from the
the middle
middle of
of the
the third
third millenmillenHurrians
know the
the names
by name
nium.
nium. We
We know
names of
of certain
certain mountain
mountain tribes
tribes by
name (the
(the
Turukki,6
But it
is
Turukki,6 the
the Qutians,
Qutians, the
the Lullubeans,
Lullubeans, the
the Kassites,
Kassites, etc.).
etc.). But
it is
hardly
possible to
hardly possible
to connect
connect these
these tribal
tribal denominations
denominations with
with individual
individual
ethnic entities.
entities. It
It has
has so
so often
often happened,
happened, not
not only
only in
in antiquity,
antiquity, that
the
that the
ethnic
same tribal
tribal denominations,
denominations, when
when they
they are
are not
not self-denominations,
self-denominations, are
are
same
applied to
to completely
completely different
different ethnic
ethnic groups
groups by
neighboring groups
groups
applied
by neighboring
who
believe they
they all
all have
have something
something in
in common.
common. Thus,
Thus, for
for the
the dedewho believe
nomination Lullubeans
Lullubeans we
we know
know for
for certain
certain that
that the
the term
term meant
meant
nomination
simply "neighbors,
"neighbors, strangers"
strangers" or
or "of
"of an
an unintelligible
unintelligible language."
language." It
It is
simply
is
quite probable
probable that
that most
most of
of these
these tribes
tribes belonged
belonged to
to the
the Eastern
Eastern CauCauquite
casian linguistic
family, while
while others
others may
have belonged
Elamcasian
linguistic family,
may have
belonged to
to the
the Elamite-Dravidian one.
one. But
But all
all this
in the
the sphere
sphere of
of guesswork.
guesswork.
ite-Dravidian
this belongs
belongs in
Agriculture throughout
throughout the
the regions
regions in
in question
question was
was mainly
mainly based
based
Agriculture
on
warm humid
winds from
on rainfall
rainfall due
due to
to warm
humid winds
from the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean Sea.
Sea.
When
they did
When artificial
artificial irrigation
irrigation systems
systems appeared,
appeared, they
did so
so only
only on
on aa local
local
scale. In
In the
the social
social field
field this
this meant
meant that
that here
here there
there was
was little
little need
need for
for
scale.
strong state
state centralization.
centralization. The
The main
main economic
economic role
role was
was played
played by
strong
by
family or
or clan
clan communities
communities (the
(the communal-cum-private
communal-cum-private sector);
sector); royal
royal
family
economies, and
and big
big economies
economies in
in general,
general, if
if existent,
existent, were
were not
not strucstruceconomies,
turally dissimilar.
dissimilar.
turally
Seen from
from the
the point
of view
view of
of the
the entire
entire economy
economy of
of the
the Near
East,
point of
Near East,
Seen
was through
these regions
regions played
played aa very
very important
important role,
role, because
because it
it was
through
these
them that
that the
leading agricultural
agricultural societies-Lower
societiesLower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
them
the leading
6.
naive connection
the Turukki
Turukki with
with the
6. The
The naive
connection of
of the
the Turks
Turks should
should be
be ignored.
ignored. Turkic
Turkic
A.D. in
in Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and does
does
ethnic domination
domination appears
appears only
only in
in the
the first
millennium A.D.
ethnic
first millennium
not reach
East before
before the
of the
the Middle
Ages. The
The similarity
similarity of
of the
the
not
reach the
the Near
Near East
theflorescence
florescence of
Middle Ages.
Turkic isis simply
simply fortuitous.
fortuitous. There
There has
has been
been some
some searching
searching for
for
words
Turukki and
and Turkic
words Turukki
Turkic toponyms
toponyms in
in the
the ancient
ancient Near
Near East
East for
for political
political reasons.
reasons.
Turkic

Asshur, Mitanni, and Arrapkhe

233
233

first of
of all-were
allwere supplied
supplied with
with necessary
necessary raw
most espefirst
raw materials,
materials, most
espeIt is
is therefore
therefore only
only natural
natural that
that interintercially metals
metals and
and timber.'
timber.7 It
cially
national exchange
exchange played
played the
the leading
leading economic
economic and,
and, in
the final
final
in the
national
analysis,
the leading
leading political
Thus, the
the early,
early, shortshortpolitical role
role here.
here. Thus,
analysis, also
also the
lived political
political federations
federations were
were connected
with the
the trade
trade routes.
routes. The
The
lived
connected with
these, dating
dating from
late third
millennium B.C.,
was the
the state
state
first of
first
of these,
from the
the late
third millennium
B.C., was
created by
by the
the Hurrian
ruler Arizhen
Arizhen (or
Adalzhen). It
It included
included
Hurrian ruler
(or Adalzhen).
created
Urkesh, not
not far
far from
from modern
modern Mardin,
Mardin, on
on the
the northern
northern road
road through
through
Urkesh,
Upper Mesopotamia;
Mesopotamia; Hawal,
on the
the Zagros
northsouth road,
probaUpper
Hawal, on
Zagros north-south
road, probably
connected with
with the
the third
third route
route discussed
discussed above;
above; and
and the
the Nawar
Nawar
bly connected
region
in the
the Diyala
Diyala Valley.
Valley. Characteristically
Characteristically it
it bypassed
bypassed the
the territory
territory
region in
of the
the Ur
Ur III
III police
state, which
which would
would not
not permit
permit any
any trade
trade not
not cencenof
police state,
trally controlled
controlled by
by itself.
itself.
trally
We
We have
have more
more information
information on
on international
international trade
trade from
from Asshur.
Asshur.
Early
Early Asshur
Asshur
The
oldest political
political history
of Asshur
Asshur is
The oldest
history of
is quite
quite obscure.
obscure. The
The only
only thing
thing
we
that in
in the
the twenty-third
twenty-third century
B.C. the
the town
town was
was dependepenwe know
know is
is that
century B.C.
dent for
for aa short
short time
time on
on the
the kingdom
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad
Akkad (Ur
(Ur III),
III),
dent
kingdom of
which had
had its
its governor
governor installed
installed here;
here; he
he left
left an
an inscription
inscription that
that has
has
which
been preserved.
preserved. Much
Much later
later aa list
list of
of the
the kings
kings of
of Asshur
Asshur was
was compiled,
compiled,
been
but it
it is
is quite
quite untrustworthy
untrustworthy in
in its
its initial
initial part;
it begins
begins with
with "kings
"kings
but
part; it
who lived
lived in
in tents,"
tents," but
but this
this is
is simply
simply aa part
part of
of the
the genealogy
genealogy of
of aa line
line
who
of Amorite
Amorite tribal
tribal chiefs,
chiefs, to
to which
which the
the ancestors
ancestors of
of Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad II
of
were supposed
supposed to
to belong.
belong. However,
However, Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad II ruled
ruled (in
(in the
the
were
nineteenth century
century B.C.)
B.C.) not
over Asshur
alone, but
but over
over the
the whole
whole of
of
nineteenth
not over
Asshur alone,
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, as
as will
will be
be related
related below.
below.
Upper
The
Asshur88 was
was II11The first
first historically
historically attested
attested indigenous
indigenous ruler
ruler of
of Asshur
ushuma,
lived in
in the
the twentieth
century B.C.
ushuma, who
who lived
twentieth century
B.C. He
He had
had no
no royal
royal title.
title.
As
the ruling
he was
called isshiakkum,
isshiakkum,which
whichisisananAkkaAkkaAs the
ruling high
high priest
priest he
was called
ensi(ak);
andasasthe
thechairman
chairman inin
dian transcription
transcription of
of the
the Sumerian
Sumerian ensi(
dian
ak); and
the city
city council
council he
he was
was called
called ukullum,
ukullum, or
or waklum.
waklum.AAshort
shortinscription
inscription
the
of his
that has
has been
been preserved
preserved long
long defied
defied interpretation;
interpretation; aa few
few years
years
of
his that
ago II translated
translated it
it as
as follows:
follows:
ago

Ilushuma
the isshiakkum
isshiakkumofof[the
[thecity
cityof]
of]Asshur,
Asshur,for
for[the
[the
l1ushuma the
goddess] Ishtar,
his lady,
lady, and
and for
for his
his own
own life,
life, built
built aa temple;
temple;
goddess]
Ishtar, his
the old
old wall
wall which
which had
had leaned
on one
one side(?)
side(?) he
he restored;
restored; for
for
the
leaned on
the [citizens
[citizens of]
of] my
my city
city II distributed
distributed houses.
houses.
the
7.
city of
Asshur probably
probably had
had wool
wool supplied
supplied from
7. The
The city
of Asshur
from the
the east
east for
for its
its important
important
textile industry.
textile
industry.
8. Its
local deity
deity was
was called
called Asshur
after the
the town.
town. The
The name
name means
means "the
"the holy"
holy" or
or
8.
Its local
Asshur after
"the hallowed"
in the
the Assyrian
dialect of
of Akkadian.
Akkadian.
"the
hallowed" in
Assyrian dialect

234
234

B.Jankowska
Jankowska
N.
N.B.

The
The inscription
inscription goes
goes on
on to
to mention
mention new
new sources
sources of
of water
water discovered
discovered
in the
town; then
then follows:
follows:
in
the town;

A liberation
liberation [andurarum]
[andurarum]ofofthe
theAkkadians
Akkadiansand
andalso
alsoofoftheir
their
A
sons II established,
established, and
and II made
made clean
clean their
their copper.
copper. From
From the
the
sons
[pi.], [namely]
[namely] from
from Or,
Ur, Nippur,
Nippur,
borders
of the
the midru
midru [pl.],
borders of
(H)awal,
(H)awal, Kismar,
Kismar, Der
Der unto
unto the
the city
city [of
[of Asshur]
Asshur] II established
established
their
liberation.
their liberation.
This has
has formerly
formerly been
been interpreted
as the
the description
description of
This
interpreted as
of aa supsupposed
of Ilushuma
into Lower
Lower Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. (It
(It could
could
posed military
military raid
raid of
Ilushuma into
not
durable conquest,
conquest, because
the documents
documents from
from Mesonot have
have been
been aa durable
because the
Mesopotamia of
of this
this period
are numerous
and contain
contain no
no traces
of an
an Asperiod are
numerous and
traces of
Aspotamia
syrian invasion,
invasion, however
however short-lived.)
short-lived.) This
assumption is
is erroneous.
erroneous.
syrian
This assumption
andurarumdoes
doesnot
notmean
mean"political
"politicalliberation."
liberation."ItIt
Moreover, the
the word
word andurarum
Moreover,
is aa translation
translation of
of Sumerian
Sumerian ama-r-qi
ama-r-qi"returning
"returningtotomother,"
mother,"that
thatis,is,"to
"to
is
the original
original situation."
situation." It
It does
does not
not mean
mean liberation
liberation from
from some
some susuthe
preme
authority but
but the
canceling of
of debts,
debts, duties,
duties, and
and the
like. Also,
preme authority
the canceling
the like.
Also,
"cleaning" is
is aa terminus
terminustechnicus
technicus
"release
frompayments."
payments."
Then,
forfor
"release
from
Then,
"cleaning"
the "liberation"
"liberation" established
established by
by Ilushuma
Ilushuma does
does not
apply to
to the
the citizens
citizens
the
not apply
of his
his own
own city-state,
city-state, Asshur.
Asshur. It
It is
is more
more probable
the "liberation
"liberation
of
probable that
that the
of the
the Akkadians
Akkadians and
and their
their sons"
sons" means
means aa release
release from
from some
some duties,
duties,
of
for example,
example, custom
custom duties.
duties. When
When the
the inscription
inscription says
says "Akkadian,"
"Akkadian," it
it
for
does not,
not, of
of course,
course, mean
mean aa linguistic
linguistic entity.
entity. (Such
(Such use
use of
of the
the term
term
does
would lack
sense, because
because in
in early
early antiquity,
antiquity, if
if aa body
of men
men
would
lack political
political sense,
body of
was contrasted
contrasted to
to another,
another, it
it was
was by
reason of
of their
their different
different political
political
was
by reason
or religious
religious loyalties
loyalties but
never because
of aa difference
difference in
in language.)
language.)
or
but never
because of
Neither
can the
the "Akkadians"
"Akkadians" be
be the
citizens of
of Akkade,
Akkade, the
the capital
capital of
of
Neither can
the citizens
Sargon the
the Ancient;
Ancient; this
this city
city had
had long
ceased to
to exist.
exist. The
The "Akka"AkkaSargon
long ceased
dians" of
of this
this inscription
inscription presumably
presumably are
are the
the citizens
citizens of
of the
the cities
cities listed
listed
dians"
immediately after,
after, and
and the
the "sons
"sons of
of the
the Akkadians"
Akkadians" must
must be
underbe underimmediately
stood as
as persons
persons who
who politically
politically belong
same cities
cities but
who
stood
belong to
to these
these same
but who
are
not
dwelling
in
them.
are not dwelling in them.
The
The word
word midru
midruisisaacrux;
crux; ititisisnowhere
nowhere else
else mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the AkkaAkkadian
Nearly all
dian texts.
texts. Nearly
all scholars
scholars translate
translate it
it as
as "swamp,
"swamp, lagoon,"
lagoon," connectconnecting
mitir-t-, "rain
"rainditch,"
ditch,"aaderivative
derivativeofof matar-,
matar-,
ing it
it with
with Arabic
Arabic mitr-,
mitr-, mitir-t-,
"rain."
"rain." We
We suggest
suggest its
its connection
connection with
with the
the Aramaic
Aramaic midr-,
midr-,"earth,
"earth,soil,
soil,
clay (as
(as material),
the Arabic
madar-, "silt,
clay
material), silt,"
silt," and
and with
with the
Arabic madar-,
"silt,soil,
soil,clay,
clay,
adobe (hut)."
(hut)." Especially
Especially interesting
interesting for
for the
interpretation is
is the
the Arabic
Arabic
adobe
the interpretation
c
expression ccahl
expression
ahl al-madar
al-madar wawa-cahl
ahlal-wabar,
al-wabar,"townsmen
"townsmenand
andnomads,"
nomads,"
literally
"people of
of the
adobe and
and people
of the
the [tents
[tents of]
of] skin/felt."
skin/felt."
the adobe
people of
literally "people
Also, in
in Akkadian
Akkadian wab(a)rum
means"stranger,
"stranger,noncitizen,"
noncitizen,"wabar-twabar-twab(a)rum means
Also,
"trading station
station (factory)
(factory) outside
outside the
the city
city walls."
"trading
walls."
We propose
to interpret
interpret midru
midru as
as "zone,
"zone, belt
belt of
of sedentary
sedentary (town)
(town)
We
propose to
population." Then
Then the
the enumerated
enumerated towns
towns would
would be
main points
points
be the
the main
population."

Asshur,
Asshur, Mitanni,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe

235
235

outlining
outlining the
the border
border of
of aa certain
certain zone:
zone: Ur
Ur and
and Nippur
Nippur in
in the
the south
south
and
in
and southwest;9
southwest;9 Der,
Der, aa transit
transit station
station of
of Babylonian-Elamite
Babylonian-Elamite trade,
trade, in
the
Awal and
passes, in
the southeast;
southeast; Awal
and Kismar
Kismar1010 near
near the
the Zagros
Zagros passes,
in the
the east;
east;
and
well known
too, was
and Asshur
Asshur itself,
itself, in
in the
the north.
north. It
It is
is well
known that
that Asshur,
Asshur, too,
was
an
an Akkadian
Akkadian city.
city. Note
Note that
that the
the zone
zone in
in question
question is
is not
not aa political
political enentity
in
tity but
but should
should be
be understood
understood as
as purely
purely geographical;
geographical; it
it stands
stands in
connection
connection with
with trade
trade routes,
routes, ignoring
ignoring the
the existing
existing frontiers
frontiers of
of concontemporary states.
states. This
This duty-free
duty-free zone
zone corresponds
corresponds to
to the
the territory
territory
temporary
where "Akkadian"
"Akkadian" merchants
merchants might
might have
have been
been active,
active, being
being citizens
citizens of
where
of
the towns
towns of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and
and of
of Asshur
Asshur itself;
itself; beyond
beyond that
that
the
belt the
the merchandise
merchandise would
would probably
probably be
passed to
to traders
traders from
from "outbelt
be passed
"outside" towns,
towns, those
those not
not included
included in
the free-trade
free-trade zone
zone created
created by
side"
in the
by
Ilushuma.
Ilushuma.
In other
Akkadians" were
In
other words,
words, the
the "sons
"sons of
of the
the Akkadians"
were citizens
citizens of
of AkkaAkkadian towns
towns acting
acting as
as trading
trading agents
agents or
dian
or representatives
representatives of
of their
their respecrespective trading
tive
trading societies
societies on
on all
all the
the main
main trade
trade routes,
routes, especially
especially the
the south
south
road
the Zagros
to Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and
and the
the eastern
eastern route
route over
over the
Zagros
road to
Mountains,
Mountains, and
and were
were admitted
admitted by
by Ilushuma
Ilushuma to
to duty-free
duty-free trade;
trade; what
what
Asshur sent
sent to
Asshur
to these
these agents
agents was
was probably
probably wool,
wool, as
as attested
attested later.
later. That
That
there
between Asshur
Asshur and
of this
there was
was trade
trade between
and the
the towns
towns of
this zone
zone (e.g.,
(e.g.,
Gasur) is
Gasur)
is also
also attested
attested by
by documentary
documentary evidence.
evidence.
About
the same
same time
time the
the merchants
merchants of
of Asshur
Asshur started
started en
en masse
masse for
for
About the
Asia
Minor in
in order
order to
to take
take part
part in
in the
the trade
trade there-at
thereat first,
first, perhaps,
perhaps,
Asia Minor
selling textiles,
textiles, but
but then
then for
for the
the most
most part
making profit
profit from
from the
the difdifselling
part making
ference in
the prices
prices of
of metal
metal (which
(which were
were cheap
cheap in
in Asia
Minor but
ference
in the
Asia Minor
but
expensive in
in the
the Lower
Lower Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian markets).
markets). Although
Although most
most of
expensive
of
the documents
documents that
that have
have come
come down
down to
us from
from the
the traders
traders in
in Asia
Asia
the
to us
Minor of
of the
the twentieth
twentieth to
to nineteenth
nineteenth centuries
centuries B.C.
(see Lecture
Lecture 13)
Minor
B.C. (see
13)
refer to
to business
business matters
matters in
in Asia
Minor and
and only
only sometimes
sometimes to
to those
those in
refer
Asia Minor
in
Syria and
and Asshur,
Asshur, more
more distant
distant connections
connections can
can sometimes
sometimes be
be traced
traced
Syria
(through Asshur
Asshur to
to be
be sure).
sure). Among
Among the
the persons
persons mentioned
mentioned in
in this
this
(through
are
some
from
Gasur
and
Hawal.
connection
connection are some from Gasur and Hawal.
The
measures taken
were continued
by Erishum
The measures
taken by
by Ilushuma
Ilushuma were
continued by
Erishum I;
I; it
it is
is
probable that
that the
probable
the first
first written
written deeds
deeds originating
originating from
from the
the trading
trading
colony
(karum) Kanish
KanishininAsia
AsiaMinor
Minorcan
canbe
bedated
dated totohis
hisreign.
reign. HowHowcolony (karum)
9. About
that time
time Nippur,
Nippur, the
the ancient
center of
of the
the Sumerian
Sumerian religious
religious federation,
federation,
9.
About that
ancient center
received certain
certain privileges
privileges from
from the
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Issin
Issin and
and was
was possibly
possibly the
the center
center
received
for
trade in
in the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Issin,
Issin, as
as was
was Ur
Ur for
for the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Larsa.
Larsa.
for transit
transit trade
10.
which lay
the
10. Awal,
Awal, or
or Hawalum
Hawalum (not
(not to
to be
be confused
confused with
with Awan
Awan in
in Elam,
Elam, which
lay far
far to
to the
east in
in the
the direction
direction of
of Anshan),
Anshan), was
was probably
probably situated
situated on
on the
the middle
middle route
over the
east
route over
the
Zagros. It
It is
is mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the inscription
inscription of
of the
the Hurrian
Hurrian king
king Arizhen
Arizhen and
and in
in letters
letters
Zagros.
in the
the Sulaymaniyah
Sulaymaniyah Valley).
Valley). Kismar
Kismar may
may be
idenfrom Shusshara
Shusshara (now
(now Tell
Tell Shemshar
Shemshar in
from
be identified
with Hashmar,
Hashmar, the
the "Falcon
"Falcon Pass,"
Pass," on
on the
the modern
modern route
route from
from the
the Diyala
Diyala Valley
Valley to
tified with
to
Kirmanshah, not
not far
far from
from the
the Hurrian
Hurrian city
city of
of Karahar,
Karahar, or
or Harhar.
Harhar.
Kirmanshah,

236

Jankowska
N. B.
B.Jankowska

ever,
ever, in
in my
my opinion
opinion this
this was
was the
the moment
moment when
when the
the trade
trade of
of the
the AsAsshurites at
at Kanish
Kanish came
came under
under the
the control
control of
of the
the rulers
rulers of
of Asshur;
Asshur; the
the
shurites
trade itself
itself must
must have
have existed
existed before
before that.
that. The
The traders
traders of
of Asshur
Asshur took
took
trade
their obligatory
obligatory oath
oath in
in the
the name
of Erishum.
Erishum. Like
Like his
his father,
father,
their
name of
Erishum left
left an
an inscription
inscription at
at Asshur.
Asshur. It
It was
was written
written "for
"for my
my life
life and
and
Erishum
the life
life of
of my
my city."
city." It
It states
states that
that in
in connection
connection with
extensive building
building
the
with extensive
activities in
in the
the temple
of Asshur,
Asshur, "my
"my city
city sat
sat [in
[in council]
council] at
at my
my call;
call; II
activities
temple of
established [a]
[a] "liberation"
"liberation" [for]
[for] silver,
silver, gold,
gold, copper,
copper, lead(?),
lead(?), barley,
barley,
established
wool, and
and [everything
[everything else]
else] unto
unto the
the scrapings(?)
scrapings(?) of
of the
the pot
and chaff."
chaff."
pot and
wool,
Thus the
the liberation
liberation was
was now
now extended
extended not
not only
only to
to specific
specific groups
groups of
of
Thus
merchants but
to the
the entire
entire turnover
turnover on
on the
the market.
market.
merchants
but to
City
be heads
City rulers
rulers of
of the
the line
line of
of Ilushuma
Ilushuma continued
continued to
to be
heads of
of the
the govgovernment
until the
the late
when great
ernment at
at Asshur
Asshur until
late nineteenth
nineteenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., when
great
changed occurred
occurred in
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia due
due to
of the
the
changed
to the
the conquests
conquests of
Amorite tribal
tribal chief
chief Shamshi-Adad,
Shamshi-Adad, son
son of
of Ilahkabkabuhu.
Ilahkabkabuhu.
Amorite

Shamshi-Adad II
Shamshi-Adad
By
beginning of
no traces
traces were
were left
of
B.C. no
left of
By the
the beginning
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
Sumerian or
or substratum
substratum ethnic
ethnic groups
groups in
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and
and
Sumerian
the regions
regions adjoining
adjoining the
the valley
valley of
of the
the Tigris
Tigris from
from the
the east.
east. The
The
the
northern zone
zone of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia proper,
proper, as
as well
well as
as certain
certain renorthern
regions
gions of
of Syria
Syria in
in the
the direction
direction of
of the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean Sea,
Sea, were,
were, to
to aa
certain degree,
degree, populated
populated by
by Hurrians;
Hurrians; the
the regions
regions east
east of
of the
the Tigris
Tigris
certain
were predominantly
Hurrian. The
The rest
rest of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, ininwere
predominantly Hurrian.
cluding the
the city
city of
of Asshur
Asshur on
on the
bank of
of the
Tigris, was
inhabthe west
west bank
the Tigris,
was inhabcluding
ited by
by Semites;
Semites; the
the sedentary
sedentary Semitic
Semitic population
spoke Akkadian
Akkadian in
in
population spoke
ited
the following
following dialect
dialect forms:
forms: in
in Mari
Mari and
and the
the neighboring
neighboring townships,
townships,
the
Middle Euphratian
Euphratian (close
(close to
to Babylonian);
Babylonian); and
and in
in Asshur,
Asshur, Assyrian.
Assyrian.
Middle
Correspondingly, there
there existed
existed two
two varieties
varieties of
of Akkadian
Akkadian cuneiform
cuneiform
Correspondingly,
writing, the
the Middle
Middle Euphratian
Euphratian and
and the
the Old
Old Assyrian;
Assyrian; the
the former,
former,
writing,
with
minor derivations,
derivations, was
in all
all smaller
smaller towns
of Upper
was used
used in
towns of
Upper MesoMesowith minor
potamia
and also
also by
by Hurrians;
Hurrians; the
the latter
latter was
was used
used in
in Asshur,
Asshur, in
in the
the
potamia and
trade colonies,
colonies, and
and the
the eastern
eastern city-states
city-states of
of Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor.
trade
These
These were
were the
the languages
languages and
and the
the writing
writing systems
systems of
of the
the urban
urban
population, including
including royal
royal and
and community
community offices
offices and
and the
the traders.
traders.
population,
But
But there
there existed
existed aa Western
Western Semitic
Semitic group
group of
of dialects
dialects conventionally
conventionally
called Amorite;
Amorite; it
it was
spoken by
by some
some of
of the
the sedentary
sedentary population
population
was spoken
called
but
but mostly
mostly by
by the
the seminomadic
seminomadic shepherd
shepherd tribes
tribes in
in the
the inner
inner regions
regions of
of
Syria and
and Upper
Upper Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia.
Syria
Both
Both the
the Hurrians
Hurrians of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and
and Syria
Syria and
and the
the
Amorites of
of these
these regions
regions probably
probably did
did not
not at
at first
first control
control any
any citycityAmorites
states. But
it seems
seems likely
likely that
that they
they were
often taken
taken on
on by
the city
city
states.
But it
were often
by the
rulers
as hired
hired warriors;
lessen the
military service
service burden
burden
warriors; this
this would
would lessen
the military
rulers as

Asshur, Mitanni,
Arrapkhe
Asshur,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe

237
237

on
part of
the Semitic
on the
the sedentary
sedentary part
of the
Semitic population.
population. But
But the
the result
result was
was
that
Amorite military
that Amorite
military chieftains
chieftains with
with their
their consolidated
consolidated detachments
detachments
of
of warriors
warriors began
began to
to acquire
acquire power
power over
over the
the cities.
cities. (We
(We have
have already
already
seen in
in Lecture
Lecture 44 what
what happened
happened in
in Babylonia.)
Babylonia.)
seen
One
One such
such chieftain
chieftain was
was Ilahkabkabuhu,
Ilahkabkabuhu, aa leader
leader whose
whose origins
origins are
are
not
historical role
not known.
known. But
But aa much
much more
more important
important historical
role was
was played
played by
by
his
first acachis son,
son, Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad II (1813-1781
(1813-1781 B.C.).
B.C.). Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad first
quired
Mesoquired aa territorial
territorial nucleus
nucleus somewhere
somewhere in
in the
the center
center of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia;
potamia; then,
then, in
in aa number
number of
of successful
successful campaigns,
campaigns, he
he was
was able
able to
to
conquer
conquer aa number
number of
of towns
towns on
on the
the Middle
Middle Tigris
Tigris and
and also
also Asshur.
Asshur.
After
before that),
After that
that (or
(or possibly
possibly already
already before
that), he
he conquered
conquered aa city
city of
of no
no
less
less importance,
importance, namely,
namely, Mari,
Mari, on
on the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, expelling
expelling the
the local
local
dynasty. Apparently,
Apparently, Ekallatum,
Ekallatum, 40
40 kilometers
kilometers southeast
southeast of
of Asshur,
Asshur,
dynasty.
was
as
was one
one of
of his
his residences,
residences, although
although later
later tradition
tradition spoke
spoke of
of him
him as
11
He kept
kept his
his two
two sons
sons as
as governors
governors in
in the
the crucial
crucial ecoking of
of Asshur.
king
Asshur.ll
He
economic and
and political
political centers
centers of
of Asshur
Asshur and
and Mari
Mari but
but kept
kept aa rigorous
rigorous
nomic
control over
over both.
both. At
the height
height of
of his
power he
also seized
seized the
imporAt the
his power
he also
the imporcontrol
tant
center of
in southern
southern Syria.
Syria. His
ambitions resulted
resulted
tant trading
trading center
of Qatna
Qatna in
His ambitions
in confrontation
confrontation with
with three
three rival
rival kingdoms:
kingdoms: that
that of
of Yamkhad,
Yamkhad, in
in the
the
in
Great Bend
Bend of
of the
the Euphrates;
Euphrates; that
that of
of Babylonia;
Babylonia; and
and that
that of
of
Great
Eshnunna,
on the
the Diyala.
Diyala. With
With the
the last
last two,
two, Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad managed
managed
Eshnunna, on
to establish
establish satisfactory
satisfactory diplomatic
diplomatic relations;
relations; only
only Yamkhad,
Yamkhad, giving
giving
to
refuge to
to the
the exiled
exiled representatives
representatives of
of the
the old
old Mari
Mari dynasty,
dynasty, remained
remained
refuge
inveterately inimical.
inimical.
inveterately
Probably
Probably no
no one
one among
among his
his contemporaries
contemporaries so
so consciously
consciously atattempted
tempted to
to create
create such
such aa centralized
centralized empire
empire as
as Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad I.
I. Until
Until
his
his time
time the
the city
city councils
councils of
of elders
elders and
and even
even popular
popular assemblies
assemblies played
played
considerable political
political role
role in
in the
the nomes
nomes of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia and
and
aa considerable
in
in Asshur.
Asshur. Under
Under Shamshi-Adad,
Shamshi-Adad, the
the councils
councils and
and assemblies
assemblies were
were no
no
longer summoned
summoned and
and lost
lost all
all importance.
importance. Instead,
Instead, an
an orderly
orderly system
system
longer
(haltsu)was
wasconsolidated,
consolidated,and
andthe
thecommanders
commandersof
of
of military
military districts
districts (haltsu)
of
these were
were entrusted
entrusted with
with efficient
efficient power.
power. The
The army
army was
was reorganized
reorganized
these
and strengthened.
strengthened. All
All the
the economic,
economic, political,
political, military,
military, and
and temple
temple
and
systems were
were under
under constant
constant control
control and
and supervision.
supervision. What
What was
was desystems
dewas personal
loyalty to
to the
king. Local
Local
sired of
of the
the administrative
administrative staff
staff was
sired
personal loyalty
the king.
offices were
were unified
unified by
by Shamshi-Adad;
Shamshi-Adad; in
in Asshur,
Asshur, the
the local
local variety
variety of
of
offices
the official
official language
language and
and writing
writing was
was supplanted
supplanted by
by literary
literary Babylothe
Babylonian, in
in its
Middle Euphratian
Euphratian variant,
variant, and
and with
with the
the corresponding
corresponding
nian,
its Middle
Babylonian form
form of
of cuneiform
cuneiform writing.
writing.
Babylonian
Of
Of course,
course, no
no independent
independent trade
trade organization,
organization, weakly
weakly controlled
controlled
he seized
by
by the
the state,
state, could
could be
be tolerated
tolerated by
by Shamshi-Adad.
Shamshi-Adad. When
When he
seized aa
11.
northern Syria
11. Recently,
Recently, Tell
Tell LeHan
Leilan in
in northern
Syria has
has been
been identified
identified as
as Shamsi-Adad's
Shamsi-Adad's
capital
(PLK).
capital of
of Shubat-Enlil.
Shubat-Enlil. Editor's
Editor's note
note (PLK).

238

B. Jankowska
N. B.Jankowska

trade
trade center,
center, this
this meant
meant that
that the
the trading
trading capital
capital and
and the
the stock
stock of
of mermerchandise became
became the
the king's.
king's. However,
However, he
he was
was not
not able-or
ableor did
did not
not
chandise
wantto organize
organize aa state-run
state-run international
international trade.
trade. The
The lively
lively exexwant-to
change of
of goods
goods with
with Asia
Asia Minor
Minor and
and the
the East
East stopped.
stopped. In
In Asia
Asia Minor
Minor
change
the leading
leading role
role was
was taken
taken over
over by
by the
the local
local merchants,
merchants, and
and in
in the
the
the
East, probably,
by Hurrian
Hurrian ones,
ones, although
although we
we also
also have
have information
information
East,
probably, by
on Amorite
Amorite trade
trade groups.
groups.
on
The empire
empire of
of Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad I,
I, powerful
powerful as
as it
it seemed,
seemed, did
did not
not sursurThe
vive its
its founder.
founder. Apparently,
Apparently, in
in Asshur
Asshur his
his son
son Ishme-Dagan
Ishme-Dagan recogrecogvive
nized after
after his
his father's
father's death
death the
the supremacy
supremacy of
of Hammurapi
Hammurapi in
in
nized
Babylon. In
In Mari,
Mari, the
the same
same Hammurapi
Hammurapi expelled
expelled Ishme-Dagan's
Ishme-Dagan's
Babylon.
brother and
and set
set Zimri-Lim,
Zimri-Lim, aa scion
scion of
of the
the old
old dynasty,
dynasty, upon
upon the
the
brother
throneonly to
to overthrow
overthrow him
him aa few
few years
later and
and raze
raze the
the city
city of
throne-only
years later
of
Mari to
to the
the ground.
ground.
Mari
It is
is likely
likely that
that the
the last
last attested
attested period
period of
of the
the existence
existence of
of the
the ararIt
chives belonging
belonging to
to Asshurite
Asshurite traders
traders at
at Kanish
Kanish in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor dates
dates
chives
from aa period
after Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad I.
I. Their
Their activities
activities now
now continued
continued
from
period after
on aa much
much smaller
smaller scale,
scale, and
and soon
soon the
the rise
rise of
of the
the local
local Hittite
Hittite kingkingon
doms put
put an
an end
end to
to any
any possibility
possibility for
for the
the Asshurites
Asshurites to
to trade
trade in
in Asia
Asia
doms
Minor.
Minor.
Unlike Mari,
Mari, Asshur
Asshur did
did not
not suffer
suffer quite
so much
much from
from the
the vicisquite so
vicisUnlike
situdes of
of the
the epoch;
epoch; the
the citizens
citizens had
had amassed
amassed considerable
considerable riches
riches
situdes
during the
the preceding
preceding period;
the city
city was
was intact
intact and
and lay
lay as
as before
before on
on
during
period; the
the crossroads
crossroads to
to all
all directions.
directions. As
As aa result
result of
of the
the Kassite
Kassite invasion
invasion into
into
the
Lower and
and Middle
Middle Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia then
then under
under Samsuiluna
Samsuiluna in
in the
the middle
middle
Lower
of the
the eighteenth
eighteenth century,
century, Asshur
Asshur was
was cut
cut off
off from
from Babylon
Babylon and
and no
no
of
longer exposed
exposed to
to Babylonian
Babylonian political
political encroachments.
encroachments. Therefore,
Therefore, allonger
although the
the city
city was
was governed
governed by
by weak
weak rulers
rulers and
and retained
retained an
an archaic
archaic
though
semirepublican political
political structure,
structure, the
the prerequisites
prerequisites for
for aa future
future rise
rise
semirepublican
in prosperity
were already
already in
in place.
in
prosperity were
place.

The Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Mitanni
Mitanni
The
We
beWe do
do not
not know
know precisely
precisely when
when the
the movement
movement of
of Hurrian
Hurrian tribes
tribes began toward
toward the
the south
south and
and southwest
southwest from
from their
their supposed
supposed original
original
gan
homeland in
in the
the northeastern
northeastern part
part of
of Transcausia.
Transcausia.1212 (The
(The word
word HurHurhomeland
rians itself
itself seems
seems toto.mean
mean "those
"those of
of the
the east"
east" or
or "of
"of the
the northeast.")
northeast.")
rians
The Hurrian
Hurrian tribes
tribes may
may have
have already
already been
been living
living in
in Lower
Lower MesoThe
Mesopotamia in
in the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. This
This would
would explain
explain the
the great
great
potamia
number of
of names
names referring
referring to
to nonsteppe
nonsteppe plants
plants borrowed
borrowed into
into AkkaAkkanumber
dian from
from Hurrian
Hurrian (such
(such as
as "apple
"apple tree,"
tree," "plum,"
"plum," "mint,"
"mint," and
and "wild
"wild
dian
rose").
The
first
reliable
information
on
the
Hurrians
as
such
is
rose"). The first reliable information on the Hurrians as such is
12. Some
Some of
of H.
H. M.
M. Avetisyan's
Avetisyan's materials
materials have
have been
used in
in this
this section.
section.
12.
been used

Asshur, Mitanni, and Arrapkhe

239
239

gleaned
B.C.:
gleaned from
from inscriptions
inscriptions dating
dating from
from the
the late
late third
third millennium
millennium B.C.:
inscriptions on
on stone
stone tablets
tablets (e.g.,
(e.g., those
those of
of Tishadal,
Tishadal, the
the enda
of
inscriptions
enda of
Urkesh; of
of Arizhen,
Arizhen, the
the king
king of
of Urkesh,
Urkesh, Hawal,
Hawal, and
and Nawar)
Nawar) and
and on
on
Urkesh;
seals (that
(that of
of Arizhen,
king of
of Karahar).
Karahar). Then,
Then, beginning
beginning with
with the
the
seals
Arizhen, king
early second
second millennium,
millennium, we
we have
various personal
personal names,
names, ranging
ranging
early
have various
from rulers
rulers to
to helot
workers; they
they originate
originate from
from the
the Taurus
Taurus MounMounfrom
helot workers;
tains near
near their
their eastern
eastern passes
passes (the
(the country
country which
which later
later was
was named
named
tains
Kizzuwadna), from
from the
the northern
northern zone
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (the
(the
Kizzuwadna),
zone of
site ofChaghar-Bazar
of Chaghar-Bazar in
in the
the upper
upper valley
valley of
of the
the western
western Khabur),
Khabur), and
and
site
from Alalakh
near the
the mouth
of the
the Orontes
Orontes in
in Syria.
Syria. But
But in
in the
the time
time
from
Alalakh near
mouth of
of Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad II (nineteenth
(nineteenth century)
century) all
all the
the names
names of
of nomes
and
of
nomes and
places and
and rulers
rulers in
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia were
were still
still Semitic.
Semitic.
places
According
According to
to the
the linguistic
linguistic data
data brought
brought forward
forward by
by Margaret
Margaret
Khachikyan,
Khachikyan, it
it seems
seems possible
possible that
that the
the migration
migration of
of the
the Hurrians
Hurrians to
to
Western
waves. They
They first
first got
got as
as far
far as
as northnorthWestern Asia
Asia occurred
occurred in
in several
several waves.
ern
millennium. AnAnern Palestine,
Palestine, most
most likely
likely in
in the
the middle
middle of
of the
the third
third millennium.
other
other wave
wave was
was responsible
responsible for
for the
the creation
creation of
of aa Hurrian
Hurrian population
population
at
just mentioned
at the
the geographical
geographical points
points just
mentioned above.
above. The
The movement
movement concontinued in
in the
the next
next centuries;
centuries; thus,
thus, in
in the
the twentieth
twentieth to
to nineteenth
nineteenth cencentinued
its
turies
turies the
the center
center of
of the
the region
region north
north of
of the
the Hamrin
Hamrin ridge
ridge still
still bore
bore its
ancient name
name of
of Gasur,
Gasur, but
but in
in the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century
century this
this land
land was
was ocancient
occupied by
by Hurrians,
Hurrians, who
who gave
gave it
it aa new
new name,
name, Arrapkhe,
after its
its new
new
cupied
Arrapkhe, after
13
and the
the city
city of
of Gasur
Gasur was
was renamed
renamed Nuzi.
Nuzi. The
The
capital (now
(now Kirkuk),
capital
Kirkuk),13
and
Hurrian population
population of
of Alalakh,
Alalakh, Syria,
Syria, increased
increased greatly
greatly between
between the
the
Hurrian
eighteenth and
and the
the fourteenth
fourteenth centuries
centuries (but
(but it
it is
not clear
clear whether
whether
eighteenth
is not
this was
was due
due to
to the
the influx
influx of
of new
new Hurrian
Hurrian groups
groups or
or to
to assimilation
assimilation of
of
this
the original
original Semitic
Semitic population).
population). Toward
Toward the
the middle
middle of
of the
the second
second
the
millennium the
the population
population of
of U
Ugarit,
on the
the Syrian
Syrian coast,
coast, was
was bimillennium
garit, on
bilingual-Semitic
lingualSemitic and
and Hurrian.
Hurrian.
It
It does
does not
not seem
seem likely
likely that
that the
the Hurrians
Hurrians annihilated
annihilated or
or expelled
expelled
the former
former population;
population; clear
clear evidence
evidence of
of the
the latter's
latter's continued
continued existhe
exisextence
tence can
can be
be found
found in
in all
all Hurrian
Hurrian regions,
regions, with
with the
the only
only possible
possible exception of
of Arrapkhe,
Arrapkhe, where
where the
the Akkadian
Akkadian population,
population, if
if any,
any, was
ception
was
small
small and
and in
in some
some instances
instances obviously
obviously of
of late
late origin.
origin. No
No changes
changes of
of
appreciable
importance
can
be
shown
to
have
taken
place
in
the
mateappreciable importance can be shown to have taken place in the material culture.
culture. It
It is
is probable
probable that
that the
the mountain-dwelling
mountain-dwelling Hurrians,
Hurrians, like
like
rial
the Amorite
Amorite steppe-dwellers,
steppe-dwellers, were
were first
first hired
hired as
as warriors
warriors by
by the
the local
local
the
kinglets and
and later
later seized
seized power
power in
in the
the nomes
nomes and
and merged
merged or
or coexisted
coexisted
kinglets
with the
the local
local population.
population.
with
The
political predominance
MesoThe political
predominance of
of the
the Hurrians
Hurrians in
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia is
is usually
usually dated
dated to
to the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century
century B.C.;
B.C.; however,
however, aa
potamia
13.
Ar(i)nakhewe, means
13. Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe [Arrafkhe],
[Arrafkhe], from
from an
an older
older Hurrian
Hurrian Ar(i)nakhewe,
means"(the
"(thecity)
city)ofof
the
the Givers";
Givers"; in
in Akkadian
Akkadian the
the city
city was
was called
called Al-ilani,
Al-ilani,"City
"Cityof
ofthe
theGods."
Gods."

240

Jankowska
N. B. Jankowska

short time
time ago
ago H.
H. M.
M. Avetisyan
Avetisyan seems
seems to
to have
have proved
proved that
that the
the Hurrian
Hurrian
short
kingdom of
of Hanigalbat
Hanigalbat already
already existed
existed in
in the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century.
century. To
To
kingdom
the
the end
end of
of that
that century
century is
is dated
dated aa big
big raid
raid of
of the
the Hurrians
Hurrians of
of HaniHanigalbat into
into Asia
Asia Minor
Minor during
during the
of the
the Hittite
Hittite king
king Hattusilis
Hattusilis II
the reign
reign of
galbat
that moment
was engaged
west(who
(who at
at that
moment was
engaged in
in aa military
military expedition
expedition to
to the
the western
ern part
part of
of the
the peninsula).
peninsula). Obviously,
Obviously, this
this Hurrian
Hurrian kingdom
kingdom must
must
14
have consolidated
consolidated at
at an
an earlier
earlier date.
have
date.14
The
but not
The Hurrian
Hurrian raid
raid was
was beaten
beaten off
off by
by the
the Hittite
Hittite potentate,
potentate, but
not
without
difficulty. However,
However, he
he secured
secured for
for himself
himself the
the territory
territory bewithout difficulty.
between the
the Taurus
Taurus Mountains
Mountains and
and the
the Euphrates.
Euphrates.
tween
In the
the later
later texts
texts Hanigalbat
Hanigalbat is
is always
always another
another name
name for
for Mitanni
Mitanni
In
and
and is
is never
never attested
attested in
in any
any other
other sense.
sense. Therefore,
Therefore, one
one may
may assume
assume
that
that Hanigalbat,
Hanigalbat, originating
originating not
not later
later than
than the
the middle
middle of
of the
the sevenseventeenth
century, was
the same
same kingdom
that became
known in
in the
the
teenth century,
was the
kingdom that
became well
well known
middle
second millennium
millennium under
under the
the names
names of
of Maittni
Maiteni (the
(the earlier
earlier
middle second
form) and
and Mitanni.
Mitanni. One
One may
may col1iecture
conjecture that
that Hanigalbat
Hanigalbat was
was the
the
form)
name of
of the
the country,
country, and
and Mitanni
Mitanni was
was the
the name
name of
of aa particular
particular HurHurname
rian tribe
tribe and
and its
its dynasty.
dynasty.
rian
Mursilis
Mursilis I,
I, son
son of
of Hattusilis
Hattusilis I,
I, made
made himself
himself famous
famous through
through his
his
1595
B.C. campaign
campaign against
against Haleb,
Haleb, Syria,
Syria, and
and Babylon.
Babylon. He
He put
put an
an end
end
1595 B.C.
to
state founded
founded by
Hammurapi and
and left
it to
conquered by
to the
the state
by Hammurapi
left it
to be
be conquered
by
the
Kassites. (Having
before that
the Kassites.
(Having settled
settled before
that in
in Hana
Hana on
on the
the Middle
Middle EuEuphrates, they
they must
must have
have been
been allies
allies of
of Mursilis.)
Mursilis.) It
It seems
seems that
that Mursilis
Mursilis
phrates,
led his
his army
army only
only along
along the
the river,
not entering
entering Hanigalbat;
Hanigalbat; that
that is,
is, into
into
led
river, not
inner Upper
Upper Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. There
were only
only unimportant
unimportant skirmishes
skirmishes
inner
There were
between Hittite
Hittite and
and Hurrian
Hurrian forces.
forces. The
The Hittite
Hittite kingdom
after MurMurkingdom after
between
silis experienced
experienced aa deep
deep inner
inner unrest,
unrest, and
and this
this favored
favored the
the upsurge
upsurge of
of
silis
Mitanni.
Mitanni.
We
We have
have already
already mentioned
mentioned that
that the
the Hurrian
Hurrian tribes
tribes moved
moved toward
toward
Upper
Mesopotamia and
and Syria
Syria in
in waves;
their approximate
approximate sequence
sequence
Upper Mesopotamia
waves; their
can
be established
by the
can be
established by
the spread
spread of
of their
their dialects
dialects and
and the
the peculiarities
peculiarities
of
Not counting
of the
the local
local pantheons.
pantheons. Not
counting the
the wave
wave that
that may
may have
have reached
reached
Syria
Palestine in
Syria and
and Palestine
in the
the third
third millennium,B.c.,
millennium B.C., the
the earliest
earliest was
was that
that
represented
rkesh; it
represented by
by the
the inscription
inscription of
of Tishadal
Tishadal of
of U
Urkesh;
it still
still has
has much
much
in
linguistically with
the related
related language
rartians,
in common
common linguistically
with the
language of
of the
the U
Urartians,
who never
wave is
who
never left
left the
the Armenian
Armenian highland.
highland. The
The last
last wave
is represented
represented
by
the language
Mitanni, preserved
preserved in
by the
language of
of Mitanni,
in an
an extensive
extensive letter
letter from
from DuDushratta, king
of Mitanni,
to the
the pharaoh
pharaoh of
of Egypt.
Egypt.
Mitanni, to
shratta,
king of
The
The most
most interesting
interesting feature
feature of
of this
this wave
wave is
is the
the fact
fact that
that the
the MitanMitannian kings
kings bore
bore Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian first
first names
names (and
(and Hurrian
Hurrian second
second
nian
number of
names)
names) and
and worshiped,
worshiped, among
among aa number
of others,
others, aa few
few IndoIndo14.
14. The
The Akkadian
Akkadian text
text that
that discusses
discusses this
this war
war is
is in
in late
late Old
Old Babylonian,
Babylonian, not
not in
in
Middle
Middle Babylonian,
Babylonian, which
which was
was used
used for
for all
all later
later Akkadian
Akkadian texts
texts from
from the
the Hittite
Hittite
Kingdom.
Kingdom.

Asshur, Mitanni,
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe
Asshur,
Mitanni, and

241

Iranian deities.
the widely
use of
Iranian
deities. Also,
Also, the
widely spread
spread use
of Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian forms
forms of
of
horse breeding
no doubt
doubt goes
to the
horse
breeding no
goes back
back to
the Mitannian
Mitannian tradition.
tradition. The
The
German
has shown
shown that
that all
all IndoGerman scholar
scholar Annelies
Annelies Kammenhuber
Kammenhuber has
IndoIranian terms
names preserved
the Mitannian
Iranian
terms and
and proper
proper names
preserved by
by the
Mitannian traditradition
tion reflect
reflect their
their Hurrian,
Hurrian, not
not the
the original
original Indo-Iranian,
Indo-Iranian, pronunciapronunciation;
the dynasty
preserved the
tion; the
dynasty and
and its
its adherents
adherents preserved
the Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian
tradition but
but could
the dydytradition
could themselves
themselves speak
speak only
only in
in Hurrian.
Hurrian. Thus,
Thus, the
nasty originated
in aa region
where actual
Hurrian-Indo-Iranian linlinnasty
originated in
region where
actual HurrianIndo-Iranian
guistic contacts
of the
the dynasty
were
guistic
contacts were
were possible:
possible: the
the founders
founders of
dynasty were
most probable
probable region
region of
probably of
probably
of Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian origin.
origin. The
The most
of such
such
contacts
be the
near Lake
contacts seems
seems to
to be
the country
country near
Lake Urmia
Urmia in
in northwestern
northwestern
Iran, still
Matiane (Mantiane)
Matiene by
by the
histoIran,
still called
called Matiane
(Mantiane) or
or Matiene
the Greek
Greek historians and
and geographers
the first
rians
geographers of
of the
first millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C.
Attribution of
the Indo-Iranian
Attribution
of "Mitannian-Aryan"
"Mitannian-Aryan" to
to the
Indo-Iranian linguistic
linguistic
group
is open
open to
doubt. The
little material
material that
that has
has been
been preserved
group is
to doubt.
The little
preserved
does
contain features
specifically typical
typical of
of Iranian
Iranian languages;
languages;
does not
not contain
features specifically
thus Mitannian-Aryan
is usually
Indian. Yet
has feathus
Mitannian-Aryan is
usually described
described as
as Indian.
Yet it
it has
features that
appeared in
Indian languages
languages only
only in
the first
first millennium
millennium
tures
that appeared
in Indian
in the
B.C.
that are
are absent
absent from
from Sanskrit.
Sanskrit. Several
Several conclusions
conclusions may
may be
be
B.C. and
and that
drawn from
this: (1)
(1) Mitannian-Aryan
is aa very
very ancient
Indian landrawn
from this:
Mitannian-Aryan is
ancient Indian
language that
developed certain
certain features
features not
appearing in
in
guage
that has,
has, however,
however, developed
not appearing
other
Indian languages
until very
very much
much later;
later; (2)
other Indian
languages until
(2) Mitannian-Aryan
Mitannian-Aryan is
is
dialect spoken
spoken by
by tribes
tribes who
who later
later spoke
spoke aa dialect
dialect containing
containing features
features
aa dialect
specific to
to the
the Iranian
dialect, which,
which, however,
not yet
yet despecific
Iranian group
group dialect,
however, had
had not
developed at
at that
(3) Mitannian-Aryan
dialect belonging
belonging to
to aa
veloped
that time;
time; (3)
Mitannian-Aryan is
is aa dialect
linguistic group
Indian and
linguistic
group intermediate
intermediate between
between Indian
and Iranianthe
Iranian-the KaKafir.
This branch,
branch, now
preserved only
only in
in the
high mountain
mountain valleys
valleys of
now preserved
the high
of
fir. This
northeastern
and in
in Kashmir,
Kashmir, is
thought by
by experts
experts to
to
northeastern Afghanistan
Afghanistan and
is thought
have been
been the
the first
to have
separated from
the Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian
have
first group
group to
have separated
from the
linguistic entity,
entity, and
and the
the first
enter the
the Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian region
region ofhabiof habilinguistic
first to
to enter
tation (this
(this hypothesis
may be
be attributed
attributed to
to the
scholar
tation
hypothesis may
the Norwegian
Norwegian scholar
Georg
is quite
quite possible
possible that
that their
their dialect
dialect
Georg Morgenstierne).
Morgenstierne). Therefore,
Therefore, it
it is
had been
been widely
widely spread
all over
over Iran
they were
were superseded
superseded by
had
spread all
Iran before
before they
by
later waves
waves of
of Iranian
tribes proper.
The latter
latter appeared
appeared here
here not
not
later
Iranian tribes
proper. The
It is
later than
than the
the last
last centuries
centuries of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
later
B.C. It
is this
this last
last
solution that
explains all
all the
specific features
of Mitannian-Aryan.
Mitannian-Aryan.
solution
that explains
the specific
features of
Note
the important
important fact
that Indo-Iranian
Note the
fact that
Indo-Iranian features
features in
in the
the culture,
culture, in
in
the
language, and
in the
the proper
proper names
names are
only among
the language,
and in
are attested
attested only
among the
the
Hurrians of
the Mitannian
Mitannian group;
group; they
they are
not attested
Hurrians
of the
are not
attested in
in Alalakh,
Alalakh,
Kizzuwadna,
(except in
treaties with
Kizzuwadna, Boghazkoy
Boghazkoy (except
in the
the diplomatic
diplomatic treaties
with MiMitanni),
or Arrapkhe
in the
the names
names of
of Mitannian
Mitannian envoys).
tanni), or
Arrapkhe (except
(except in
envoys).
The
first king
king of
known by
by name
is Shuttarna
The first
of "Maiteni"
"Maiteni" known
name is
Shuttarna I,
I, son
son of
of
Kirta.
He
is
known
by
an
impression
of
his
seal
on
a
document
Kirta. He is known by an impression of his seal on a document from
from
the
Alalakh. He
B.C. from
from Alalakh.
He was
was succeeded
succeeded by
by ParatParatthe sixteenth
sixteenth century
century B.C.

242

N. B. Jankowska

tarna
tarna (or
(or Barattarna),
Barattarna), known
known from
from the
the long
long inscription
inscription of
of Idri-mi,
Idri-mi,
king of
had to
his enemies
king
of Alalakh.
Alalakh. Idri-mi
Idri-mi had
to flee
flee from
from his
enemies to
to Emar
Emar on
on the
the
Euphrates (which
(which perhaps
to Mitanni)
Mitanni) and
and was
was later
later reEuphrates
perhaps belonged
belonged to
reinstalled in
in Alalakh
Alalakh by
this time,
time, one
one may
may reckon
reckon the
the
installed
by Parattarna.
Parattarna. From
From this
beginning
beginning of
of the
the Mitannian
Mitannian influence
influence in
in Syria.
Syria.
The
powerful king
The most
most powerful
king of
of Mitanni
Mitanni was
was Sausattar
Sausattar (or
(or Sausadattar).
Sausadattar).
He
bore the
Maiteni (or
king of
He bore
the title
title of
of "king
"king of
of Maiteni
(or of
of Hanigalbat),
Hanigalbat), king
of the
the
Hurri-warriors." In
his reign
Hurri-warriors."
In his
reign Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe east
east of
of the
the Tigris
Tigris was
was either
either in
in
the power
of Mitanni
Mitanni or,
or, at
at least,
least, under
under Mitannian
Mitannian influence;
influence; it
it was
the
power of
was
the
who concluded
with the
the same
same king
king who
concluded aa treaty
treaty with
the king
king of
of Kizzuwadna,
Kizzuwadna,
south
south of
of the
the Taurus
Taurus Mountains
Mountains in
in Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. Self-governed
Self-governed Alalakh
Alalakh
was
he who
who managed
to seize
was dependent
dependent on
on him.
him. It
It was
was also
also he
managed to
seize and
and plunplunder
this city
was not
of
der Asshur.
Asshur. However,
However, this
city was
not included
included in
in the
the kingdom
kingdom of
Mitanni,
but the
envoy (sukkallu)
(sukkallu)had
hadaaplace
placeininthe
thecouncil
council
Mitanni, but
the Mitannian
Mitannian envoy
of elders
elders at
at Asshur,
Asshur, and,
and, like
the other
other elders,
elders, became
in his
turn aa
of
like the
became in
his turn
limmu-eponym of
of Asshur.
Asshur. A
A number
number of
of towns
towns in
in eastern
eastern Asia
Asia Minor
Minor
limmu-eponym
were
dependents of
Sausattar in
in the
same way
way as
as Alalakh.
Alalakh. The
The region
region
of Sausattar
the same
were dependents
of Kadmukhi
Kadmukhi on
on the
Tigris and
possibly some
some districts
districts along
along its
of
the Upper
Upper Tigris
and possibly
its
northern tributaries
tributaries were
were parts
of the
the Mitannian
realm.
northern
parts of
Mitannian realm.
During
Palestine and
the sixteenth
During their
their campaigns
campaigns to
to Palestine
and Syria
Syria in
in the
sixteenth and
and
later centuries,
centuries, the
the pharaohs
of Egypt
Egypt came
came into
into contact
contact with
with local
local
later
pharaohs of
rulers
bearing Indo-Iranian
rulers bearing
Indo-Iranian names,
names, obviously
obviously kinsmen
kinsmen and
and proteges
proteges
of the
the Mitannian
ruling dynasty.
dynasty. The
The Egyptian
Egyptian inscriptions
inscriptions denote
denote
of
Mitannian ruling
Mitanni by
Nahraina, "The
Mitanni
by the
the term
term Nahraina,
"The Two
Two Rivers,"
Rivers,"which
which shows
showsthat
that
they regarded
it as
as stretching
stretching from
from the
the Euphrates
Euphrates to
to the
Tigris (Mesothey
regarded it
the Tigris
(Mesopotamia,
potamia, "The
"The Land
Land between
between the
the Rivers"
Rivers" of
of the
the Greeks).
Greeks). The
The clash
clash
between Egypt
Egypt and
and Mitanni
Mitanni happened
happened during
during the
the reigns
reigns of
of the
the phaphabetween
raohs Amenhetep
raohs
Amenhetep II
II (fifteenth
(fifteenth century)
century) and
and Thutmosis
Thutmosis IV
IV (early
(early in
in
the fourteenth
fourteenth century);
century); however,
the latter
latter pharaoh
later entered
entered
the
however, the
pharaoh later
into friendly
friendly relations
relations with
with Artadama
Artadama I,
I, king
king of
of Mitanni,
Mitanni, and,
and, after
after
into
long negotiations,
negotiations, received
received aa Mitannian
Mitannian princess
into his
his harem.
(The '
long
princess into
harem. (The
transaction was
was probably
in Mitanni
Mitanni as
as if
if the
the princess
became
princess became
transaction
probably treated
treated in
the queen
queen of
of Egypt,
Egypt, which
was not
not the
the case.)
case.) The
The reason
for the
conthe
which was
reason for
the conclusion of
of peace
Mitanni and
and Egypt
Egypt has
thought to
to lay
peace between
between Mitanni
has been
been thought
lay
clusion
in their
their common
common enmity
enmity against
against the
the Hittite
Hittite kingdom,
which soon
soon bekingdom, which
bein
gan its
its advance
advance south
south of
of the
the Taurus
Taurus and
and into
into Syria,
Syria, but
internal condicondigan
but internal
tions
in
both
countries
may
also
have
played
a
role.
The
frontier
tions in both countries may also have played a role. The frontier
between
the spheres
spheres of
of interest
interest of
of Mitanni
Mitanni and
and Egypt
Egypt lay
lay south
south of
of
between the
Tunip
and
Qatna
in
the
Orontes
Valley
and
north
of
Ugarit
on
the
Tunip and Qatna in the Orontes Valley and north of Ugarit on the
coast.
coast.
The
The next
next two
two kings
kings of
of Mitanni,
Mitanni, Shuttarna
Shuttarna II
II and
and Dushratta,
Dushratta, also
also
their
daughters
to
the
next
pharaoh,
Amenhetep
sent
sent their daughters to the next pharaoh, Amenhetep III.
III. Dushratta
Dushratta
the throne
through aa bloody
which the
acquired
acquired the
throne through
bloody coup
coup (in
(in which
the son
son of
of ShutShuttarna
tarna was
was killed).
killed). He
He was
was especially
especially interested
interested in
in friendship
friendship with
with

Asshur, Mitanni,
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe
Asshur,
Mitanni, and

243
243

Egypt because
because during
during his
his reign
reign there
appeared another
another pretender
pretender to
to
Egypt
there appeared
the
was allied
the Hittites.
sent
the throne,
throne, Artadama
Artadama II,
II, who
who was
allied to
to the
Hittites. Dushratta
Dushratta sent
an image
image of
of the
the revered
goddess Ishtar-Shawaushka
Ishtar-Shawaushka of
of Ninean
revered Hurrian
Hurrian goddess
Nineveh
cult in
in virtually
virtually all
all Hurrian
Hurrian communities),
which was
veh (enjoying
(enjoying aa cult
communities), which
was
supposed to
to heal
the sick
sick Egyptian
king. A
long diplomatic
diplomatic letter
letter
supposed
heal the
Egyptian king.
A very
very long
in
Hurrian, the
the longest
longest known
text in
that language,
language, is
is concerned
concerned
in Hurrian,
known text
in that
with
negotiations about
about the
the marriage
marriage of
of Dushratta's
Dushratta's daughter
daughter to
to
with the
the negotiations
the pharaoh.
pharaoh. The
The relations
with Egypt
Egypt deteriorated
deteriorated under
under the
next
the
relations with
the next
pharaoh, Amenhetep
IV (Akhenaton).
(Akhenaton).
pharaoh,
Amenhetep IV
About the
the same
same time
time or
or somewhat
somewhat later
later the
the new
new Hittite
Hittite king,
About
king,
Suppiluliumas II (probably
(probably in
in agreement
agreement with
with Asshur,
Asshur, whose
Suppiluliumas
whose ruler,
ruler,
Asshuruballit I,
I, now
now aspired
aspired to
the title
title of
of king
and to
to total
total indepenindepenAsshuruballit
to the
king and
dence
began aa major
offensive against
against Mitanni,
dence from
from other
other powers),
powers), began
major offensive
Mitanni,
capturing Carchemish
on the
the Great
of the
the Euphrates
and sevcapturing
Carchemish on
Great Bend
Bend of
Euphrates and
several other
other formerly
formerly Mitannian
Mitannian regions.
regions.
eral
Dushratta was
murdered by
by one
the followDushratta
was murdered
one of
of his
his sons,
sons, and
and during
during the
following affray,
Artadama II
(whom we
we always
find inactive-he
ing
affray, the
the son
son of
of Artadama
II (whom
always find
inactivehe
was probably
probably aa sick
sick man),
take posseswas
man), one
one Shuttarna
Shuttarna (III)
(III) managed
managed to
to take
possesMitanni. Dushratta's
(or Shatsion
sion of
of Mitanni.
Dushratta's surviving
surviving son,
son, Shattiwasa
Shattiwasa (or
Shattiwazza), fled
with aa detachment
detachment of
Arrapkhe (as
we
tiwazza),
fled with
of charioteers
charioteers to
to Arrapkhe
(as we
know
from economic
economic documents
there of
know from
documents referring
referring to
to provisioning
provisioning there
of
Shattiwasa
men); from
from there
there he
tried to
to go
to Kassite
Kassite
Shattiwasa and
and his
his men);
he tried
go to
Babylonia,
received him
him as
as an
an enemy.
enemy. Losing
warBabylonia, but
but the
the Kassites
Kassites received
Losing his
his warriors, he
he fled
back to
to Arrapkhe
and from
from thence
thence was
sent off
off through
through
riors,
fled back
Arrapkhe and
was sent
the empty
empty steppe
steppe to
to the
which at
at that
had
the
the Hittite
Hittite frontier,
frontier, which
that time
time had
reached the
the Middle
Middle Euphrates.
Euphrates. At
At last
last he
he appeared
appeared before
before SupSupreached
piluliumas with
with one
single chariot
chariot and
and two
two men.
men. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, he
got
one single
he got
piluliumas
royal reception;
reception; king
king Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas gave
gave his
his daughter
daughter in
in marriage
marriage
aa royal
(after having
having found
found out
out what
what kind
of social
position she
she would
would have
have in
in
(after
kind of
social position
Mitanni).
also sent
sent an
an army
army headed
by his
his own
own son
son to
to Shattiwasa's
Shattiwasa's
Mitanni). He
He also
headed by
aid. After
the Mitannian
were routed,
routed, the
the Hittite
Hittite king,
at ShatShataid.
After the
Mitannian forces
forces were
king, at
tiwasa's
request,
made
him
heir
apparent
but
left
his
sick
uncle,
tiwasa's request, made him heir apparent but left his sick uncle,
Artadama,
on the
the throne.
throne. The
The events
events brought
about the
the end
end of
of MiArtadama, on
brought about
Mitannian
hegemony;
in
the
west,
domination
belonged
to
the
Hittites;
tannian hegemony; in the west, domination belonged to the Hittites;
in the
the east,
east, Assyria
Assyria rose,
to the
the greatest
greatest detriment
detriment of
of Arrapkhe.
Arrapkhe.
in
rose, to
We
know hardly
hardly anything
anything about
about the
inner political
political and
strucWe know
the inner
and social
social structure of
of Mitanni.
Mitanni. The
The only
only thing
thing certain
certain is
is that
that it
it was
was not
not aa monolithic
monolithic
ture
empire
but aa loose
federation of
nomes united
united around
around Wasshukanne,
empire but
loose federation
of nomes
Wasshukanne,
the
capital of
of Hanigalbat-Mitanni
(the city's
city's location
location is
still uncertain).
uncertain).
the capital
Hanigalbat-Mitanni (the
is still
The
the king
aided him
him by
by sendThe nomes
nomes paid
paid tribute
tribute to
to the
king of
of Mitanni
Mitanni and
and aided
sending military
We also
also know
know that
the "Men
"Men of
of Hurri"
Hurri" (miliing
military detachments.
detachments. We
that the
(military
an important
in the
the king's
king's entourage
entourage and
and
tary nobility?)
nobility?) played
played an
important role
role in
were
together with
with the
the king
in state
and
were sometimes
sometimes mentioned
mentioned together
king in
state treaties
treaties and
that in
in the
the army-perhaps
armyperhaps also
also in
in the
the administration-a
administrationa certain
certain role
role
that

244
244

N. B.Jankowska
B. Jankowska

was
was played
played by
by charioteers,
charioteers, the
the marianna.
marianna.Although
Althoughthe
thechariot
chariotdetachdetachments and
and the
the chariot
chariot battle
no doubt,
doubt, borrowed
the
ments
battle tactics
tactics were,
were, no
borrowed by
by the
Mitannians from
from the
Indo-Iranians, their
their charioteers,
charioteers, to
Mitannians
the Indo-Iranians,
to judge
judge by
by
their names,
The term
their
names, were
were exclusively
exclusively Hurrians.
Hurrians. The
term marianna,
marianna,contrary
contrary
to aa very
very widely
widely held
held opinion,
opinion, is
is not
not aa derivation
derivation of
of Old
Old Indian
Indian marya
to
marya
"young man"
is purely
Hurro-Urartian. This
This is
is proved
not only
only by
"young
man" but
but is
purely Hurro-Urartian.
proved not
by
the
Eastern Caucasian
Caucasian etymology
etymology of
of the
also because
because the
the
the Eastern
the word
word but
but also
marianna as
as an
an institution
institution existed
existed not
not only
only among
among the
the Mitannians,
Mitannians,
marianna
who
influenced by
by Indo-Iranians,
Indo-Iranians, but
but also
also among
among all
all HurroHurrowho were
were influenced
Urartians,
including Alalakh,
Alalakh, Arrapkhe,
Arrapkhe, and
and even
even Urartu,
where no
no
Urartians, including
Urartu, where
such influence
influence can
can be
observed. Note
also that
that the
the marianna
mariannawere
werenot
notaa
such
be observed.
Note also
"feudal aristocracy";
aristocracy"; they
they were
palace personnel,
personnel, and
and even
even their
their
"feudal
were palace
chariots
delivered to
from palace
storehouses. (The
(The actual
actual
chariots were
were delivered
to them
them from
palace storehouses.
term was
was mari,
mari, but
it is
is encountered
encountered with
with various
various Hurro-Urartian
Hurro-Urartian
term
but it
suffixes: mari-anna,
mari-anna, mari-a(h)he,
mari-a(h)he, mari-he.)
suffixes:
mari-he.)

The Hurrian
Hurrian Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe
The
The
be described
The state
state Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe will
will be
described in
in some
some detail
detail because
because it
it serves
serves
as
as aa good
good example
example of
of the
the peripheral
peripheral nomes
nomes of
of the
the epoch,
epoch, which
which usuusually did
did not
not leave
leave any
any documentation
documentation at
at all.
ally
all.
When scholars
scholars first
first had
had the
the opportunity
opportunity to
read the
the archives
archives of
of this
this
When
to read
kingdom
Kirkuk) and
kingdom from
from Al-ilani
Al-ilani (modern
(modern Kirkuk)
and later
later from
from Nuzi
Nuzi (third(thirdmillennium
Gasur, modern
modern Yorghan-tepe),
Yorghan-tepe), they
they at
at once
once noted
noted the
the spemillennium Gasur,
specific legal
features of
of deeds
deeds of
of immovable
immovable property
transfers. Along
Along
cific
legal features
property transfers.
with the
the usual
usual Akkadian
Akkadian alu
alu ("town,
("town, village,
village, community")
community") there
there were
were
with
constant references
references to
to another
another type
type of
of community
community called
called dimtu,
dimtu, the
the
constant
sole Akkadian
Akkadian meaning
meaning of
of the
the word
being "tower,
"tower, pillar."
Instead of
of
sole
word being
pillar." Instead
the usual
usual documents
documents of
of sale
sale and
and purchase,
purchase, they
they encountered
encountered aa great
great
the
number of
of deeds
deeds transferring
transferring immovables
immovables by
means of
of the
the adoption
adoption
number
by means
of adult
adult independent
independent persons
(up to
deeds of
of nearly
nearly simultanesimultaneof
persons (up
to fifty
fifty deeds
ous adoption
adoption by
by different
different persons
of one
one and
and the
the same
same man
are atatpersons of
man are
ous
tested). Such
Such adoptions
adoptions were
were being
questioned in
in court
court by
next
tested).
being questioned
by the
the next
generation. The
The claims
claims of
of the
the descendants
descendants of
of the
the adopters
adopters to
the
generation.
to the
property
were not
not recognized
courts, but
in the
future aa new
property were
recognized by
by the
the courts,
but in
the future
new
form of
of transfer
transfer of
of property
property was
was introduced,
introduced, which
which has
has no
no ready
ready
form
didennutu,"apportioning"
"apportioning"(from
(from Hurrian
Hurrian did,
did,
analogies; it
it was
called didennutu,
analogies;
was called
"to divide")
divide") and
and has
has been
identified as
as aa form
form of
of mortgage
mortgage with
right
"to
been identified
with right
for kinsmen
kinsmen of
of the
the debtor
debtor to
to get
get back
back the
the property
property after
after taking
taking care
care of
of
for
the debt.
debt.
the
These phenomena
phenomena were
at first
explained in
in the
the following
following way:
way:
These
were at
first explained
dimtu was
was supposed
supposed to
to mean
mean not
not "tower"
"tower" but
but "district";
"district"; this
this isis aa usage
usage
dimtu
unattested in
unattested
in the
the whole
whole corpus
corpus of
of Akkadian
Akkadian texts,
anything was
texts, but
but anything
was
thought
to be
be possible
when Hurrian
Hurrian aborigines
aborigines were
were involved!
involved! As
As to
to
thought to
possible when

Asshur,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe
Asshur, Mitanni,

245
245

the adoption,
adoption, it
it was
was suggested
suggested that
that this
this was
was aa way
way to
to circumvent
the
circumvent aa
royal
prohibition against
against selling
selling fiefs.
Since the
the party
party acquiring
acquiring land
land
royal prohibition
fiefs. Since
through
most influential
have been
through adoption
adoption (the
(the most
influential one)
one) appeared
appeared to
to have
been an
an
official, it
it was
was suggested
suggested that
this was
was aa way
way to
return the
alienated
official,
that this
to return
the alienated
fiefs to
to the
the crown.
crown.
fiefs
key term
dimtu makes
possible to
Analysis of
of the
the key
term dimtu
makes it
it possible
to avoid
avoid all
all these
these
Analysis
complications. Such
Such tower
tower complexes
complexes from
from all
all over
over the
the world
have
complications.
world have
been studied
studied in
in detail
detail by
by M.
M. I.
I. Djandieri
and are
are well
well known
known as
as exbeen
Djandieri and
extended family
family dwellings;
dwellings; it
it seems
seems that
that the
the land
land pertaining
pertaining to
to the
the exextended
tended family
family living
living in
in aa dwelling
dwelling tower
tower could
could also
also be
be designated
designated as
tended
as
dimtu of
Note that
was always
disthat ownership
ownership based
based on
on adoption
adoption was
always disdimtu
of X.I5
X.15 Note
puted
by the
the kinsmen
kinsmen of
of the
the vendors
vendors ("adopters"),
("adopters"), and
and the
city-state
puted by
the city-state
authorities held
held aloof
aloof from
from these
these suits.
suits.
authorities
Arrapkhe had
archives like
any other
other city-state
city-state of
of the
the
Arrapkhe
had its
its palace
palace archives
like any
epoch;
private archives,
epoch; but
but it
it also
also has
has left
left us
us two
two private
archives, among
among the
the largest
largest
written in
written
in cuneiform.
cuneiform. One
One of
of them
them extends
extends to
to five
five generations;
generations; the
the
other
first, belonging
clan of
was,
other to
to three.
three. The
The first,
belonging to
to the
the clan
of one
one Tehib-Tilla,
Tehib-Tilla, was,
from the
the beginning,
the main
main object
object of
of study.
study. The
The rise
rise of
of the
the clan
clan befrom
beginning, the
began when
hectares of
gan
when Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's father
father acquired
acquired hundreds
hundreds of
of hectares
of gargarden land
land in
village of
of Nadmani
Nadmani (now
(now Tell-Ali),
Tell-Ali), near
near the
the town
town of
den
in the
the village
of
Tursha (now
(now Tel-Mahuz)
Tel-Mahuz) and
and the
the ford
ford over
over the
the Lesser
Lesser Zab,
on the
the
Tursha
Zab, on
main
northern road
road of
country. Tursha
Tursha lay
the rear
rear of
of Asshur,
Asshur,
main northern
of the
the country.
lay in
in the
whose role
role in
in international
international trade
is well
well known.
known. In
In aa district
district like
like this
this
trade is
whose
aa commercial
commercial orientation
orientation toward
toward gardening
gardening could
could be
be of
of importance;
importance;
the gardeners
gardeners paid
paid the
the state
state treasury
treasury in
in metals
(i.e., in
in money)
money) insofar
insofar
the
metals (i.e.,
as their
their production
production was
was not
food provision
for
as
not considered
considered necessary
necessary food
provision for
the palace
palace personnel.
personnel. In
the next
next generation,
generation, Tehib-Tilla
Tehib-Tilla was
was able
able to
to
the
In the
acquire,
through
"adoption,"
no
less
than
a
thousand
hectares
of
land
acquire, through "adoption," no less than a thousand hectares of land
in
seven different
different districts
districts of
of the
the country
country (( M.
M. P.
P. Maidman).
prein seven
Maidman). He
He preferred parcels
situated along
along the
the roads;
roads; roads
roads are
are the
backbone of
of
ferred
parcels situated
the backbone
commerce,
the control
of which
the usage
usage
commerce, the
control of
which gives
gives power.
power. According
According to
to the
in Arrapkhe,
Arrapkhe, an
an able-bodied
able-bodied worker
had aa claim
claim to
about one
one hectare
hectare
in
worker had
to about
of land;
this was
was enough
enough to
to sustain
sustain aa nuclear
family. This
This means
means that
that
of
land; this
nuclear family.
Tehib-Tilla
could equip
equip about
about aa thousand
thousand warriors.
warTehib-Tilla could
warriors. A
A thousand
thousand warmilitary district
district (haltsu).
(haltsu).Apparently
Apparentlythis
this
riors was
the usual
usual quota
quota of
of aa military
riors
was the
is
why Tehib-Tilla
Tehib-Tilla could
could be
be appointed
appointed district
district commander
commander (haltsuhlu).
is why
(haltsuhlu).
15. These
These archaic
archaic tower
tower dwellings,
often grouped
grouped k^ide
one village
village (as
(as in
in Unabshe,
Unabshe,
15.
dwellings, often
ih~ide one
which
which lay
lay near
near modern
modern Fatha),
Fatha), must
must not
not be
be confused
confused with
with "feudal
"feudal castles"
castles" that
that have
have
another structure
structure and
and another
another social
social function.
function. Archaic
Archaic towers
towers are
are usually
usually subdivided
subdivided
another
into dwelling
dwelling and
and defensive
defensive towers.
towers. The
The latter
latter could
could not
as aa rule
rule be
be alienated
alienated because
because
into
not as
they were
were part
part of
of the
the community's
community's defenses,
defenses, something
something like
like the
the state's
state's fortresses,
fortresses, which
which
they
is not
not true
true of
of the
the dwelling
dwelling towers.
towers. The
The same
same system
system was
was well
well attested
attested in
in the
the preconquest
preconquest
is
Caucasus, where
where the
the towers,
towers, alone
alone and
and in
in groups,
groups, as
as well
well as
as stone
stone rings
rings for
for the
the elders,
elders,
Caucasus,
etc., are
are still
still to
to be
be seen.
seen.
etc.,

246

N.
N.B.Jankowska
B.Jankowska

The
parcels were
by the
the owners
mainly for
The parcels
were alienated
alienated by
owners mainly
for aa miserable
miserable
period of
compensation
compensation because
because this
this happened
happened during
during aa period
of drought
drought (at
(at
least three
bear the
the names
names of
least
three new
new canals
canals bear
of members
members of
of Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's
family).
family). All
All Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's deeds
deeds of
of acquisition
acquisition of
of immovables
immovables took
took the
the
form
form of
of adoption
adoption "as
"as son"
son" into
into the
the family
family of
of the
the former
former owner
owner of
of the
the
parcel.
the family
brother" (as
parcel. One
One could
could also
also be
be taken
taken into
into the
family "as
"as brother"
(as known
known
from
but this
from other
other archives),
archives), but
this form
form was
was not
not used
used by
by Tehib-Tilla.
Tehib-Tilla. The
The
reason
their rights
reason is
is that
that the
the two
two levels
levels of
of kinship
kinship differed
differed not
not only
only in
in their
rights
but
Tehib-Tilla, acquiring
but also
also in
in their
their duties.
duties. Thus,
Thus, aa brother
brother of
of Tehib-Tilla,
acquiring aa
the price
hundred shekels,
shekels, divides
divides the
the paypayhorse for
horse
for the
the family
family at
at the
price of
of aa hundred
ments as
as follows:
follows: half
of it
it he
he pays
pays himself,
himself, and
and two
two sons
sons of
of TehibTehibhalf of
ments
Tilla pay
pay twenty-five
twenty-five shekels
shekels each.
each. This
This means
that coevals
coevals are
are equal,
equal,
means that
Tilla
16
but
men belonging
an elder
elder and
and aa younger
generation are
are not.
but men
belonging to
to an
younger generation
not. 16 As
As
to Tehib-Tilla
Tehib-Tilla himself,
himself, in
in practically
practically all
all cases
cases of
of acquisition
acquisition of
of land
land
to
through
adoption, he
he was
was not
liable to
and duties,
duties, if
if such
such
through adoption,
not liable
to pay
pay taxes
taxes and
were
connected with
the land
land in
in question.
question. The
The liabilities
liabilities were
were his
his rerewere connected
with the
sponsibility only
if he
acquired the
the whole
estate, not
not aa single
single parcel.
parcel.
sponsibility
only if
he acquired
whole estate,
The privilege
privilege may
may have
been connected
connected with
The
have been
with Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's position
position as
as
quasi son;
son; that
is, aa person
of diminished
diminished or
or no
of participation
participation
quasi
that is,
person of
no rights
rights of
in the
the family
family businesses.
businesses.
in
The price
of the
the land
land in
in cases
cases of
of land
land transfer
transfer was
was called
called aa
The
price of
law, aa
"present."
"present." This
This is
is because
because according
according to
to cuneiform
cuneiform customary
customary law,
present
became private
property; thus,
present became
private property;
thus, for
for the
the transfer
transfer of
of the
the parcel,
parcel,
not the
family, but
but only
only the
holder of
of that
particular parcel
parcel renot
the whole
whole family,
the holder
that particular
received
ceived aa remuneration.
remuneration. The
The attempt
attempt has
has been
made to
to graph
the
been made
graph the
"prices of
of land"
land" according
according to
to the
size or
or supposed
supposed quality
quality of
of the
the parpar"prices
the size
cel, but
the points
points fell
fell in
in complete
complete disorder.
disorder. The
market situation
situation can
can
but the
The market
cel,
be
only in
in that
that the
the "present"
"present" for
for aa house
is, on
on the
the whole,
whole,
be traced
traced only
house is,
higher than
that for
for aa garden
garden and
and still
still higher
for aa field.
field.
higher
than that
higher than
than that
that for
Inside the
the communal-clan
communal-clan structures,
structures, and
and groups
groups of
of coevals,
coevals, what
what
Inside
counted was
not market
market value
value but
but aa duty
duty of
of mutual
mutual help.
This is
is aa socounted
was not
help. This
social relation
relation that
that is
is at
at once
once voluntary
voluntary and
and obligatory.
obligatory. Mutual
does
cial
Mutual help
help does
not
mean delivery
delivery of
of equivalents
equivalents but
but only
whenever
not mean
only readiness
readiness to
to help
help whenever
needed and
and in
in whatever
whatever way
way is
is needed
needed at
at the
the moment.
moment. If
If we
we try
try to
to
needed
understand aa system
system that
is not
not based
commercial account
account but
on
understand
that is
based on
on commercial
but on
completely different
different values,
can also
also understand
understand the
transactions
completely
values, we
we can
the transactions
where no
no "present"
"present" at
at all
all is
is implicated.
implicated. To
To get
get aa remuneration
remuneration equivaequivawhere
lent to
one crop
crop and
and aa half
half for
for one's
one's parcel
of land
land is
is aa good
good price
in aa
parcel of
price in
lent
to one
period
of
drought,
so
common
in
the
Near
East
of
the
second
millenperiod of drought, so common in the Near East of the second millennium;
to deprive
deprive the
inactive generation
generation of
of aa parcel
of land
land
parcel of
nium; to
the younger,
younger, inactive
16.
Tehib-Tilla had
had aa third
but he
he is
16. Tehib-Tilla
third son,
son, but
is not
not mentioned
mentioned when
when the
the family'S
family's expenses
expenses
are distributed.
distributed. He
He must
must have
have belonged
belonged to
to yet
yet another,
another, still
still younger
younger age-group.
age-group.
are

Asshur,
Asshur, Mitanni,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe

247
247

still
useless to
feasible way
still useless
to them
them could
could be
be the
the only
only feasible
way out
out for
for the
the elder,
elder,
active generation
generation in
certain situations.
situations.
active
in certain
The community
community court,
court, above
above which
which stood
stood in
each town
of Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe
The
in each
town of
only
the king
was made
only its
its popular
popular assembly,
assembly, was
was independent
independent of
of the
king and
and was
made
up
of elders
elders (former
(former charioteers
This court
court was
typically
up of
charioteers especially).
especially). This
was typically
the palace
was the
real power
power of
the comruthless.
Outside the
ruthless. Outside
palace sector,
sector, this
this was
the real
of the
communal-clan structures.
munal-clan
structures.
Having become
district military
military commander
commander (haltsuhlu),
(haltsuhlu) , TehibHaving
become aa district
TehibTilla could
could register
withTilla
register at
at once
once fifty
fifty deeds
deeds of
of transfer
transfer of
of immovables
immovables without applying
applying to
for cuneiform
out
to the
the elders.
elders. Contrary
Contrary to
to what
what was
was usual
usual for
cuneiform
legal documents,
documents, these
were attested
of
legal
these deeds
deeds were
attested by
by three
three seals
seals only:
only: that
that of
Tehib-Tilla
himself, that
king's brother,
the head
head of
that of
of the
the king's
brother, and
and that
that of
of the
of
Tehib-Tilla himself,
shepherd clan.
clan. Chronologically,
Chronologically, Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's land
land acquisitions
acquisitions were
were
aa shepherd
contemporary
the mayors'
mayors' most
contemporary with
with the
the period
period of
of some
some of
of the
most reckless,
reckless,
arbitrary
One mayor
mayor was
was tried
tried (or
(or at
least interrogated)
interrogated) at
at the
the
arbitrary actions.
actions. One
at least
palace office;
office; aa series
series of
of records
records of
of confrontations
confrontations with
with witnesses
has
palace
witnesses has
been
been preserved.
preserved. But
But the
the complaints
complaints of
of Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's sons
sons were
were lodged
lodged
at
the community
community court,
not aa court
court of
palace judges.
In aa few
few points,
points,
at the
court, not
of palace
judges. In
the community
community members
got their
their own
own from
from them.
them. The
The wave
wave of
of litigalitigathe
members got
tion
coincided with
the period
period when
when the
the younger
detion coincided
with the
younger generation,
generation, deprived
of their
the mainstay
of society.
society. To
To this
this period
period
prived of
their land,
land, became
became the
mainstay of
should
should also
also be
be dated
dated aa royal
royal decree
decree on
on the
the annulment
annulment of
of debts
debts (no
(no
doubt intended
intended to
to lessen
lessen the
the social
social strain).
strain).
doubt
Tehib-Tilla's mighty
clan was
was not
youngest son,
son,
Tehib-Tilla's
mighty clan
not unanimous;
unanimous; his
his youngest
Agibtazhenni, was
was as
his coevals.
Agibtazhenni,
as unfortunate
unfortunate as
as his
coevals. The
The two
two elder
elder brothbrothers oppressed
oppressed him,
the son
son of
of the
the second
second brought
Agibtazhenni's
ers
him, and
and the
brought Agibtazhenni's
sons to
ruin. This
This influential
influential grandson
grandson of
of Tehib-Tilla,
Tehib-Tilla, named
named TarmiTarmisons
to ruin.
Tilla, became
military district
district commander,
commander, like
like his
He
his grandfather.
grandfather. He
Tilla,
became aa military
separated himself
his kinsmen
kinsmen by
double wall,
wall, and
and he
also sepseparated
himself from
from his
by aa double
he also
separated his
his land.
land. He
to reap
his harvest
harvest and
and paid
paid them
them
arated
He used
used hired
hired men
men to
reap his
aa miserable
miserable amount
amount of
of barley,
barley, but
but assessed
assessed considerable
considerable fines
fines if
if aa
worker
was absent
absent from
work. Perhaps
this kind
kind of
of activity
activity led
led to
worker was
from work.
Perhaps this
to disodisobedience in
in his
district; not
single person
person appeared
appeared when
when called
called up
up
bedience
his district;
not aa single
by him
him to
clean aa silted
silted canal.
canal. The
The king
punished Tarmi-Tilla
Tarmi-Tilla by
by conconby
to clean
king punished
fiscation of
of an
an ox,
ox, but
Tarmi-Tilla complained
complained in
in community
community court
court
fiscation
but Tarmi-Tilla
against
inspector and
the herald,
they had
had
against the
the irrigation
irrigation inspector
and the
herald, claiming
claiming that
that they
failed
to call
call in
the men.
The elders
elders found
the explanations
explanations of
of the
two
failed to
in the
men. The
found the
the two
officials unconvincing
unconvincing and
and delivered
delivered them
them both
to Tarmi-Tilla
Tarmi-Tilla until
until
officials
both to
that
when they
they should
should have
have restituted
restituted his
loss of
of an
an ox.
ox. It
It is
that time
time when
his loss
is
not
impossible that
that the
the disobedience
disobedience of
of the
the men
men was
was intended
intended as
as
not impossible
obstruction.
obstruction.
One
One of
of Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's great-grandsons,
great-grandsons, aa descendant
descendant of
of his
his eldest
eldest
son,
mayor, then
shakin mati-the
matithemost
mostimportant
important official
official
son, was
was first
first aa mayor,
then aa shakin

248

N. B.Jankowska
B. Jankowska

in the
country after
after the
and head
head of
of community
community self-governself-governin
the country
the king
king and
ment.
international
ment. He
He rose
rose to
to that
that dignity
dignity at
at aa moment
moment when
when the
the international
situation of
of Arrapkhe
had worsened
sharply, when
the Assyrians
Assyrians adadsituation
Arrapkhe had
worsened sharply,
when the
vanced
and the
the route
connecting Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe with
her ally
ally Mitanni
vanced and
route connecting
with her
Mitanni was
was
cut. Mitanni
Mitanni had
the leading
state for
for aa long
long time.
The possescut.
had been
been the
leading state
time. The
possessions of
of Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's clan
clan by
now extended
extended beyond
over the
the
sions
by now
beyond the
the ford
ford over
Lesser Zab
at Tursha
Tursha and
and even
even to
Karana (now
Tell-Rimah in
in Upper
Upper
Lesser
Zab at
to Karana
(now Tell-Rimah
Mesopotamia).
lost during
during the
enemy advance.
advance.
Mesopotamia). All
All this
this was
was lost
the enemy
One
of the
the wings
wings of
the garrison
of Nuzi,
Nuzi, which
which originally
One of
of the
garrison fortress
fortress of
originally
was
by the
Tehib-Tilla clan,
was now
now occupied
by aa new
new
was owned
owned by
the Tehib-Tilla
clan, was
occupied by
haltsuhlu, Kel-Tesshub,
Kel-Tesshub, who
another clan.
The border
border
haltsuhlu,
who belonged
belonged to
to another
clan. The
fortress of
of Kissuk
came under
authority, neighboring
neighboring villages
and
fortress
Kissuk came
under his
his authority,
villages and
towers
sworn an
an oath
oath of
of allegiance
allegiance to
They denied
denied recogtowers having
having sworn
to him.
him. They
recognition
son of
and the
the king
ordered
the son
of their
their former
former commander,
commander, and
king ordered
nition to
to the
the
matitotoquestion
questionallallneighboring
neighboringvillages
villagesand
andtotoappoint
appointthe
the
the shakin
shakin mati
person
selected, which
After the
loss of
of Tursha,
Tursha,
person they
they selected,
which was
was Kel-Tesshub.
Kel-Tesshub. After
the loss
the
ford leading
leading to
Kassite territory
territory became
especially important;
important; this
this
the ford
to Kassite
became especially
was
Shattiwasa tried
contact the
was where
where the
the Mitannian
Mitannian prince
prince Shattiwasa
tried to
to contact
the KasKassite king.
"new liberation"
liberation" of
of Arrapkhe
from debts
debts
site
king. The
The "new
of the
the citizens
citizens of
Arrapkhe from
is mentioned
mentioned in
in aa number
of Kel-Tesshub's documents.
documents.
is
number ofKel-Tesshub's
The
private archive
N uzi belonged
belonged to
to the
The second
second large
large private
archive found
found in
in Nuzi
the
clan of
of the
the princes.
The subject
subject of
of the
the documents
documents is
different;
clan
princes. The
is quite
quite different;
mostly documents
they are
they
are mostly
documents of
of accountancy.
accountancy. Prince
Prince Shilwi-Tesshub,
Shilwi-Tesshub, the
the
most active
barley, but
but usually
usually not
not to
private persons,
most
active of
of the
the clan,
clan, lent
lent barley,
to private
persons,
as
Tehib-Tilla did,
but to
big rural
without interest.
as Tehib-Tilla
did, but
to big
rural communities,
communities, without
interest.
When
small sums,
sums, he
he usually
immovables as
as security,
security,
When he
he lent
lent small
usually took
took immovables
preferred to
as
which
Tehib-Tilla never
which Tehib-Tilla
never did.
did. (He
(He preferred
to take
take debtor-slaves
debtor-slaves as
security
The result
result was
was that
the beginning
beginning of
his activsecurity for
for the
the debt.)
debt.) The
that at
at the
of his
activities,
prince himself
himself had
had to
borrow barley
barley for
ities, the
the prince
to borrow
for the
the sustenance
sustenance of
of
his
of the
sort ever
ever happened
Tehib-Tilla. The
The
his personnel.
personnel. Nothing
Nothing of
the sort
happened to
to Tehib-Tilla.
prince
confiscated the
immovables of
through
prince confiscated
the immovables
of his
his insolvent
insolvent debtors
debtors through
the
office; Tehib-Tilla
Tehib-Tilla did
did it
it openly
openly and
and publicly,
the
the palace
palace office;
publicly, through
through the
community court.
Apparently, aa reserve
moral credit
credit was
community
court. Apparently,
reserve of
of moral
was indisindispensable
for the
the ruling
ruling clan.
clan. It
It is
change in
in the
form
pensable for
is possible
possible that
that the
the change
the form
of loan
loan deeds
deeds is
is to
numerous cases
cases of
of litigation
litigation
of
to be
be connected
connected with
with the
the numerous
with
with Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's heirs
heirs as
as aa result
result of
of Tehib-Tilla's
Tehib-Tilla's activities:
activities: ShilwiShilwiTesshub
younger contemporary
contemporary of
of Tehib-Tilla.
Tehib-Tilla.
Tesshub was
was aa younger
Extended-family communes
only were
state
Extended-family
communes not
not only
were the
the mainstay
mainstay of
of the
the state
structure of
of Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe but
were also
also the
structure in
in the
the
structure
but were
the principal
principal structure
field
of production;
the professional
family communes
communes of
of the
field of
production; the
professional family
the weavers,
weavers,
the
potters, and
the merchants
had their
their own
prestigious towers.
towers. The
the potters,
and the
merchants had
own prestigious
The
prince
of the
about
prince was
was aa patron
patron of
the potters;
potters; therefore,
therefore, we
we know
know more
more about
this
community than
others. A
A list
list of
of the
enumerates
this community
than the
the others.
the potters
potters enumerates

Asshur, Mitanni,
Asshur,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe

249
249

forty-six
population of
forty-six able-bodied
able-bodied men,
men, which
which means
means that
that the
the entire
entire population
of
the community
community was
at least
least one
one hundred
hundred and
and fifty.
That was
also
the
was at
fifty. That
was also
about the
the number
number of
of members
members in
in the
the community
community of
of Shelwikhe,
Shelwikhe, which
which
about
was incorporated
incorporated into
into the
the princes'
princes' economy.
economy. There
There were
were about
about aa
was
dozen palace
palace economies
economies in
in the
the different
different cultic
cultic centers
centers of
of the
the country;
country;
dozen
these ensured
ensured the
the sustenance
sustenance of
of the
the escort
escort during
during royal
royal visits
visits and
and
these
also the
the sustenance
sustenance of
of impoverished
impoverished families.
families. During
During aa critical
critical period
period
also
caused by
by military
military activities,
activities, when
when all
all the
the personnel
of the
the palace
palace in
in
caused
personnel of
Nuzi received
received "siege-time
"siege-time rations"
rations" (all
(all men
men received
received the
the amount
amount nornorNuzi
mally received
received by
by women),
women), the
the king
king ordered
ordered the
the richer
richer houses
houses to
mally
to give
give
refuge to
to poor
families and
and strictly
strictly prohibited
prohibited misuse
of their
their power
power
refuge
poor families
misuse of
over them.
them.
over
Arrapkhe was
was drawn
Arrapkhe
drawn into
into the
the struggle
struggle between
between the
the two
two rival
rival powers
powers
of
Assyria; the
lay claim
to the
of Kassite
Kassite Babylonia
Babylonia and
and Assyria;
the latter
latter began
began to
to lay
claim to
the
status
world power
power under
under Asshuruballit
Asshuruballit 1.
I. Asshuruballit
Asshuruballit meddled
meddled
status of
of aa world
twice
twice in
in Kassite
Kassite internal
internal affairs,
affairs, but
but in
in the
the end
end the
the Kassite
Kassite kings
kings
Kurigalzu
his successor,
Kurigalzu the
the Younger
Younger and
and his
successor, Nazi-Maruttash
Nazi-Maruttash (fourteenth
(fourteenth
century), not
not only
only threw
threw the
the Assyrians
Assyrians back
back but
but led
led campaigns
campaigns deep
deep
century),
into Assyrian
territory. This
This means
that military
military activities
activities must
must have
have
into
Assyrian territory.
means that
occurred more
than once
once in
in the
the territory
territory of
of Arapkhe.
Arapkhe.
occurred
more than
The
The Culture
Culture of
of the
the Hurrians
Hurrians
It
hundred years
It took
took nearly
nearly aa hundred
years to
to define
define the
the characteristic
characteristic features
features of
of

Hurrian culture,
finally we
have aa certain
Hurrian
culture, but
but finally
we have
certain picture.
picture. Settled
Settled in
in the
the
Zagros foothills,
foothills, in
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, and
and in
Syria, the
the Hurrians
Hurrians
Zagros
in Syria,
first
between the
first and
and foremost
foremost functioned
functioned as
as intermediaries
intermediaries between
the more
more anancient cultures;
cultures; this
this has
has been
been clear
clear from
from the
the beginning.
beginning. But
But the
the conconcient
clusion
clusion that
that their
their culture
culture was
was secondary
secondary in
in relation
relation to
to Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
cannot be
be upheld.
upheld. The
The originality
originality and
and grace
grace of
of the
the forms
forms and
and decoradecoracannot
tions of
of Hurrian
Hurrian pottery
pottery found
found in
in considerable
considerable numbers
numbers at
at YorghanYorghantions
tepe (Nuzi)
(Nuzi) and
and at
at the
the mouth
mouth ofthe
of the Orontes
Orontes at
at Tell-Atchana
Tell-Atchana (Alalakh)
(Alalakh)
tepe
remind one
one of
of Crete,
Crete, the
the elaborate
elaborate style
style of
of the
the Hurrian
Hurrian carved
carved cylincylinremind
der seals,
seals, the
the invention
invention of
of colored
colored rolled
rolled glass
glass for
for making
making small
small
der
vessels and
and beads-all
beadsall this
this distinguishes
distinguishes Hurrian
Hurrian artistic
artistic craft
craft as
as bevessels
belonging to
to the
the highest
highest level
of creativeness
creativeness relative
relative to
to other
other contempocontempolonging
level of
rary cultures.
cultures. Later
the Assyrians
Assyrians borrowed
borrowed much
from Hurrian
Hurrian art.
art.
rary
Later the
much from
To the
the later
later period
period of
of Hurrian
art belongs
belongs aa fine
fine gold
gold vessel
vessel from
from
To
Hurrian art
Hasanlu
Lake Urmia,
Urmia, depicting
depicting scenes
scenes from
from Hurrian
Hurrian mythology.
mythology.
Hasanlu near
near Lake
For
crafts practiced
by extended
extended families,
families, aa high
high level
level of
of artistry
artistry is
For crafts
practiced by
is
typical. (In
(In craft
craft shops
shops of
of other
other types
types of
of organization,
as, e.g.,
e.g., in
in the
the
typical.
organization, as,
Late
Sumerian ones,
callous uniformity
uniformity and
and lower
lower level
level of
of craftscraftsLate Sumerian
ones, aa callous
manship are
are more
more characteristic.)
characteristic.) In
contrast to
to the
the traditional
traditional Mesomanship
In contrast
Meso-

250

N. B.Jankowska
B. Jankowska

potamian compositions,
Hurrian artists
preferred curved
potamian
compositions, Hurrian
artists preferred
curved lines
lines both
both
in pottery
pottery decoration
decoration and
and in
in glyptic
glyptic art;
art; the
figures are
are placed
placed freely
freely
in
the figures
and unconstrainedly.
The subject
subject matter
matter also
also often
often differs
differs from
from that
that
and
unconstrainedly. The
in Mesopotamia:
appear, for
for example,
example, all
all sorts
sorts of
of "carnival
"carnival
in
Mesopotamia: there
there appear,
masks"
glyptic art
art of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia.
masks" unknown
unknown to
to the
the glyptic
The
poorly preserved,
preserved, and
The literature
literature of
of the
the Hurrians
Hurrians is
is poorly
and it
it is
is mostly
mostly
in Hittite
Hittite translations
translations (see
13); some
some original
Hurrian poetry
poetry
in
(see Lecture
Lecture 13);
original Hurrian
is preserved
in school
school texts
in Amarna,
Egypt, and
and in
in
is
preserved in
texts unearthed
unearthed in
Amarna, Egypt,
copies from
from Emar
Emar (now
(now Meskeneh,
Meskeneh, on
on the
the Euphrates),
Euphrates), Ugarit,
and escopies
Ugarit, and
especially
in Hattusas
Hattusas (now
(now Boghazkoy).
Boghazkoy). The
The texts
texts from
from Hattusas
Hattusas are
are
pecially in
mostly liturgical
liturgical or
or incantational.
incantational. A
short time
time ago
ago aa long
long bilingual
bilingual
mostly
A short
(Hurrian and
and Hittite)
Hittite) incantation
incantation was
was found.
found. Also
Also from
from Hattusas
Hattusas
(Hurrian
comes aa fragment
fragment of
of an
an epic
epic tale
tale about
about the
the heroes
heroes Gilgamesh
Gilgamesh and
and EnEncomes
kidu journeying
fight Huwawa,
Huwawa, the
the keeper
keeper of
Cedar Grove.
Grove.
kidu
journeying to
to fight
of the
the Cedar
The
episode seems
seems to
related in
in more
more complexity
complexity than
in
The episode
to have
have been
been related
than in
the Akkadian
and its
its sense
sense has
not yet
yet been
fully interpreted.
interpreted.
the
Akkadian version,
version, and
has not
been fully
We have
some proverbs
and aa unique
unique lyric-religious
lyric-religious text,
text, with
with musical
musical
We
have some
proverbs and
notation added,
added, from
from Ugarit;
charms against
against snakes
snakes and
and the
the like
from
notation
U garit; charms
like from
Babylonia; and
and aa fragment
fragment of
of what
what apparently
apparently was
didactic diadiaBabylonia;
was aa didactic
logue. These
These are
are only
only poor
remnants of
of what
must have
been an
an imimpoor remnants
what must
have been
logue.
pressively
literature.
pressively rich
rich literature.
Central
to the
the Hurrian
to be
be aa concept
Central to
Hurrian mythology
mythology and
and cults
cults seems
seems to
concept
of the
the gods'
gods' wrath
wrath bringing
about ritual
ritual impurity,
impurity, which
can be
puof
bringing about
which can
be purified
by sacrifice.
sacrifice. There
There are
are traces
of primitive
communal feasts;
feasts;
rified by
traces of
primitive communal
individualization had
started but
not developed
developed very
far.
individualization
had started
but had
had not
very far.
The head
head of
of the
the pantheon
was the
the Thunderer
Thunderer god,
god, Tesshub
(an ananThe
pantheon was
Tesshub (an
northern Syria
alogue
alogue of
of Zeus).
Zeus). In
In the
the heart
heart of
of northern
Syria (in
(in Haleb),
Haleb), his
his spouse
spouse
was Hebat
been suggested
that she
to be
be connected
connected with
with the
was
Hebat (it
(it has
has been
suggested that
she is
is to
the
biblical Eve);
their child
was Sharruma.
Arrapkhe, Tesshub's
Tesshub's spouse
Eve); their
child was
Sharruma. In
In Arrapkhe,
spouse
biblical
was also
also Hebat
Hebat (although
(although she
she appears
appears only
only in
the proper
names of
was
in the
proper names
of
17
princesses);17
their child
was Tilla,
Hurrian Kizzuwadna,
Kizzuwadna, aa
princesses);
their
child was
Tilla, the
the Calf.
Calf. In
In Hurrian
state adjoining
adjoining the
Hittite kingdom,
supreme triad
composed
state
the Hittite
kingdom, the
the supreme
triad was
was composed
of
Tesshub, his
his spouse
of Tesshub,
spouse Hebat,
Hebat, and
and his
his sister
sister Shawushka.
Shawushka. Shawushka
Shawushka
was
very popular
popular elsewhere.
two chief
was also
also very
elsewhere. The
The two
chief goddesses
goddesses differ
differ not
not
only
in their
their kinship
kinship relation
relation to
to the
supreme deity
(the one
one his
spouse,
only in
the supreme
deity (the
his spouse,
the
the other
other his
his sister)
sister) but
but also
also in
in their
their attributes
attributes (the
(the Throne
Throne for
for Hebat,
Hebat,
the Bed
Bed for
for Shawushka).
Shawushka). Their
Their respective
were accommoaccommothe
respective priestesses
priestesses were
dated in
parts of
the palace
palace at
N uzi.
dated
in different
different parts
of the
at Nuzi.
Opposite
Nuzi is
the palace
palace entrance.
To the
Opposite the
the temple
temple of
of Ishtar
Ishtar of
of Nuzi
is the
entrance. To
the
right
new display
palace; it
right is
is the
the comparatively
comparatively new
display section
section of
of the
the palace;
it belongs
belongs
to the
the reigning
reigning queen
queen (or,
(or, more
accurately, the
the "lady
"lady king,"
Sumerian
to
more accurately,
king," Sumerian
17.
17. No
No names
names commemorating
commemorating aa goddess
goddess were
were ever
ever given
given in
in ancient
ancient Western
Western Asia
Asia to
to
boys,
boys, except
except for
for goddesses
goddesses of
of the
the Ishtar
Ishtar type.
type. The
The great
great majority
majority of
of the
the proper
proper names
names
mentioned in
in the
the legal
legal and
and economic
economic documents
documents are
are those
those of
of men.
men.
mentioned

Asshur,
Asshur, Mitanni,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe

251

mi-lugal).18
mi-lugal).18Here
Herewas
wassituated
situatedthe
theharem,
harem,with
withchildren
childrenand
andwet
wetnurses.
nurses.

One
One of
of the
the hills
hills was
was decorated
decorated with
with masks
masks of
of aa bull,
bull, aa cow,
cow, and
and aa calf,
calf,
symbolizing
symbolizing Tesshub,
Tesshub, Hebat,
Hebat, and
and Tilla.
Tilla.
To the
To
the left
left is
is the
the utility
utility section
section of
of the
the palace.
palace. It
It includes
includes an
an archive
archive
of the
army commissariat
commissariat and
archive of
of the
^nftz-priestess,
of
the army
and the
the private
private archive
the entu-priestess,
the
It is
is possible
possible that
that the
the entu
entu was
was connected
connected with
with the
the
the "god's
"god's spouse."
spouse." It
cult of
of Ishtar-Shawushka,
Ishtar-Shawushka, the
the deity
deity of
of strife
strife and
and love.
cult
love.
The
The Hurrian
Hurrian ancestor
ancestor god
god was
was Kumarwe
Kumarwe (corresponding
(corresponding to
to Kronos
Kronos
of
is aa metonymic
metonymic designation,
designation, meaning
meaning "the
"the one
one of
of
of the
the Greeks).
Greeks). This
This is
Kumme," so
so he
is actually
actually aa nameless
nameless deity.
deity. Kumme
Kumme was
was an
an important
important
Kumme,"
he is
Hurrian cultic
cultic center
center situated
situated in
Hurrian
in the
the Kurdistan
Kurdistan Mountains
Mountains at
at presentpresentday Zaho
Zaho near
near the
the Turkish-Iraqi
Turkish-Iraqi border.
border. He
He is
is the
the evil
evil father
father of
of beday
beneficent Tesshub
Tesshub and
and was
was dethroned
dethroned by
by all
all the
the gods
gods in
in concert,
concert, as
neficent
as
related in
in the
"Song of
of Ullikumme,"
Ullikumme," preserved
preserved to
in aa Hittite
Hittite transtransrelated
the "Song
to us
us in
lation. The
The action
action of
of this
this dramatized
dramatized version
version of
of the
the myth
myth is
is set
set on
on the
the
lation.
seacoast, and
and it
it was
was no
no doubt
doubt compiled
compiled in
in Kizzuwadna.
Kizzuwadna. Ullikumme
Ullikumme is
seacoast,
is
the
the "destroyer
"destroyer of
of Kumme."
Kumme." He
He is
is aa child,
child, analogous
analogous to
to the
the Greek
Greek Eros,
Eros,
son
He
son of
of Chaos.
Chaos. He
He was
was created
created in
in the
the form
form of
of aa phallus
phallus and
and aa sword.
sword. He
grows
grows swiftly
swiftly and
and threatens
threatens to
to destroy
destroy the
the entire
entire world.
world. He
He is
is blind
blind
and deaf
like passion
passion itself,
itself, and
and even
even Ishtar-Shawushka;
Ishtar-Shawushka; sent
sent by
and
deaf like
by the
the
gods to
gods
to seduce
seduce him,
him, is
is powerless
powerless against
against him.
him. He
He proves
proves invincible
invincible
against the
the warrior
warrior Tesshub
Tesshub and
and all
all his
his host,
root is
is deep
deep
against
host, because
because his
his root
under water.
water. Only
Only Eia,
under
Eia, the
the master
master of
of wisdom,
wisdom, manages
manages to
to overcome
overcome
he cuts
cuts off
off his
his root
the instrument
instrument that
that had
had been
been used
used
him;
him; he
root with
with the
to separate
separate the
the sky
sky from
from the
the rock.
rock. This
This cycle
cycle of
myths, passed
passed on
to
of myths,
on
through unknown
unknown intermediaries,
intermediaries, reached
reached the
Greek poet
poet Hesiod
Hesiod in
through
the Greek
in
the seventh
seventh century
century B.C.
B.C.
the
The city
city of
of Urkesh
mentioned in
the Kumarwe
epic as
as being
being
The
U rkesh is
is mentioned
in the
Kumarwe epic
Kumarwe's city
city of
Kumarwe's
of origin.
origin. But
But in
in historical
historical times
times Urkesh
Urkesh was
was the
the cencenter
ter of
of the
the cult
cult of
of another
another god,
god, probably
probably connected
connected with
with the
the underunderworld
by
world (identified
(identified with
with the
the Babylonian
Babylonian Nergal).
Nergal). He
He was
was symbolized
symbolized by
aa sword.
of
sword. In
In Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe this
this god
god was
was worshiped
worshiped under
under the
the name
name of
Ugur
his nw-priestess.
entu-priestess.
Ugur in
in the
the town
town of
of Kuruhanni,
Kuruhanni, where
where he
he had
had his
Nergal's
Nergal's spouse
spouse (and
(and sister)
sister) was
was Shala.
Shala. In
In aa Hittite-Hurrian
Hittite-Hurrian offering
offering
list, Nergal
Nergal is
list,
is identified
identified with
with the
the grain
grain offered
offered to
to Tesshub.
Tesshub. In
In the
the calcalendar
half-year are
endar of
of Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe the
the first
first two
two months
months of
of the
the winter
winter half-year
are the
the
shekhli of
shekhli
of Tesshub
Tesshub and
and the
the shekhli
shekhliofofNergal,
Nergal,corresponding
correspondingtotothe
the
month of
of rain
rain and
and the
of sowing.
sowing. The
The last
last month
month of
of this
this halfhalfmonth
the month
month of
year is
is that
that "of
"of the
the sheaf"
sheaf" (kurilli,
(kurilli, probably
probably the
thelast
lastsheaf
sheaf of
ofthe
theharharyear
vest hiding
the "mother
"mother of
of the
the grain"?).
grain"?). The
The Hurrians
Hurrians of
of Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe
vest
hiding the
began their
their year
year with
with the
the month
of the
the fires
fires in
in the
the braziers
braziers (kinunu).
(kinunu).
began
month of
18.
18. There
There were
were mi-Iugals
mi-lugah inindifferent
different towns
townsof
ofArrapkhe,
Arrapkhe, and
and they,
they, like
like the
the entus,
entus,
also
also had
had religious
religious functions.
functions.

252

Jankowska
N. B.
B.Jankowska

These
probably commemorative
These fires
fires were
were probably
commemorative of
of the
the dead,
dead, exorcising
exorcising
their possible
harmful influence
influence before
before the
the hungry
hungry and
and dry
dry summer
summer
their
possible harmful
season. The
The gods
gods of
of the
the luminaries
luminaries were
were more
more judging
and punishpunishseason.
judging and
ing
ing than
than beneficent
beneficent deities:
deities: Shimike,
Shimike, the
the Sun,
Sun, is
is aa god
god of
of oracles;
oracles;
Kushukh, the
the Moon,
Moon, the
the Light
Light of
of the
the Underworld,
Underworld, is
is the
the guarantor
guarantor of
of
Kushukh,
oaths.
oaths. Ancestors
Ancestors were
were worshiped
worshiped in
in the
the sanctuaries
sanctuaries of
of the
the extended
extended
families; aa month
month was
was set
set aside
aside for
for the
the paternal
paternal gods
gods (attanashwe);
(attanashwe);the
the
families;
offerings
offerings to
to them
them were
were probably
probably made
made simultaneously
simultaneously by
by all
all families.
families.
Mantic
as
Mantic practices
practices were
were as
as widely
widely in
in use
use among
among the
the Hurrians
Hurrians as
among other
other ancient
ancient Oriental
Oriental peoples.
peoples. But
But besides
besides the
the usual
usual extispicy
extispicy
among
of
of the
the Babylonians
Babylonians (fortune-telling
(fortune-telling using
using aa lamb's
lamb's liver),
liver), the
the Hurrians
Hurrians
also practiced
practiced augury
augury (fortune-telling
(fortune-telling by
by the
the flight
of birds).
birds).
also
flight of
The
The malevolent
malevolent character
character of
of the
the natural
natural forces
forces is
is apparent
apparent in
in the
the
selection of
of the
the subject
subject matter
matter in
in Hurrian
Hurrian myths.
myths. In
In order
order not
not to
to die
die
selection
prematurely, one
one should
should never
never forget
forget the
the offerings
offerings to
to the
the gods.
gods. The
The
prematurely,
idea of
of sacrifice
sacrifice is
is central
central to
to the
the Hurrian
Hurrian cult.
cult.
idea

The City-State
City-State of
of Asshur
Asshur and
and the
the Emergence
Emergence
The
of
the Kingdom
of the
Kingdom of
of Assyria
Assyria
The
The cities
cities that
that later
later formed
formed the
the nucleus
nucleus of
of the
the Assyrian
Assyrian Empire
Empire
(Nineveh, Asshur,
Asshur, Arbela,
Arbela, etc.)
etc.) did
did not
not constitute
constitute aa single
single political
political or
or
(Nineveh,
even
Moreover, the
the very
very
even ethnic
ethnic entity
entity until
until the
the fifteenth
fifteenth century
century B.C.
B.C.1919 Moreover,
term Assyria
Assyriawas
wasnonexistent
nonexistentininthe
thefifteenth
fifteenthcentury
centuryB.C.
B.C.Therefore,
Therefore,
term
the appellation
appellation Old
Old Assyrian
Assyrian used
used to
to refer
refer to
to the
the empire
empire of
of ShamshiShamshithe
Adad II is
is erroneous;
erroneous; Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad II (1813-1783)
(18131783) never
never regarded
regarded
Adad
himself as
as aa king
king of
of Asshur,
although later
later Assyrian
Assyrian king
lists dating
dating
himself
Asshur, although
king lists
from the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. include
include him
him among
among the
the Old
Old Assyrian
Assyrian
from
kings.
kings.
At an
an early
early period
period Nineveh
Nineveh was
was aa Hurrian
Hurrian city.
city. As
As for
for Asshur,
Asshur, its
its
At
name is
is probably
probably Semitic,
Semitic, and
and the
the population
population of
of the
the city
city was
was mainly
mainly
name
Akkadian. In
In the
the sixteenth
sixteenth to
to fifteenth
fifteenth centuries
centuries these
these cities
cities were
were dedeAkkadian.
pendent (sometimes
(sometimes nominally)
nominally) on
on Mitanni
Mitanni or
or Kassite
Kassite Babylonia,
Babylonia, but
but
pendent
already in
in the
the late
late fifteenth
fifteenth century
century the
the rulers
rulers of
of Asshur
Asshur regarded
regarded
already
themselves as
as independent.
independent. Both
Both the
the rulers
rulers and
and the
the city
city elite
elite generally
generally
themselves
were very
very rich
rich for
for these
these times.
times. The
The source
source of
of their
their wealth
wealth was
was the
the memewere
diation
in
trade
between
the
south
of
Mesopotamia
and
the
lands
of
diation in trade between the south of Mesopotamia and the lands of
the Zagros,
Zagros, the
the Armenian
Armenian highland,
highland, Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, and
and Syria.
Syria.
the
Asshur
Asshur was
was the
the center
center of
of aa comparatively
comparatively small
small city-state.
city-state. Although
Although
after the
the conquest
conquest of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia by
by Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad and
and of
of
after
eastern Asia
Asia Minor
Minor by
the Hittite
Hittite kings,
Asshur's trading
trading posts
posts in
in Asia
Asia
eastern
by the
kings, Asshur's
19.
19. The
The sixth
sixth and
and seventh
seventh sections
sections are
are by
by V.
V. A.
A.Jakobson.
Jakobson.

Asshur, Mitanni,
Asshur,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe

253
253

Minor ceased
ceased to
exist, Asshur
Asshur preserved
its great
great economic
economic and
and politiMinor
to exist,
preserved its
politiIts ruler
ruler bore
bore the
the title
title isshiakkum
isshiakkum(an
(anAkkadianized
Akkadianized
cal importance.
importance. Its
cal
version of
of Sumerian
Sumerian ens);
ensi); his
hisauthority
authority was
waspractically
practically hereditary.
hereditary. He
He
version
was
was aa priest,
priest, an
an administrator,
administrator, and
and aa military
military chief;
chief; in
in his
his position
position as
as
ukullum, he
hewas
was probably
probably also
alsothe
thechief
chief distributor
distributor of
of land
land and
and head
head of
of
ukullum,
the city
were elected
the
city council.
council. The
The limmu
limmu were
elected for
for aa one-year
one-year term
term from
from
among
were the
of
the members
members of
of the
the city
city council;
council; these
these were
the eponyms
eponyms of
among the
the
the year
year and
and possibly
possibly also
also the
the city
city treasurers.
treasurers. With
With time,
time, the
the council
council
consisted
more and
consisted more
and more
more of
of men
men from
from the
the ruler's
ruler's entourage.
entourage. We
We have
have
no information
information on
no
on the
the existence
existence of
of aa popular
popular assembly
assembly in
in Asshur.
Asshur. The
The
more
the rulers
rulers grew,
the importance
of
more the
the power
power of
of the
grew, the
the less
less became
became the
importance of
the city
the
city magistrates.
magistrates.
The territory
of the
the city-state
city-state of
of Asshur
included smaller
smaller settlesettleThe
territory of
Asshur included
mentsrural
communities, each
each headed
headed by
ments-rural communities,
by aa hazannu.
hazannu. The
Theland
land was
was
the property
property of
of the
the community
community and
was apparently
apparently periodically
the
and was
periodically reredistributed between
between family
family communes,
communes, that
that is,
is, extended
extended families.
families. The
distributed
The
center of
of the
the extended-family
extended-family estate
estate was
was aa fortified
fortified farmstead,
center
farmstead, or
or
dunnu. A
A member
of aa rural
community and
and aa family
family commune
commune was
dunnu.
member of
rural community
was
entitled to
sell his
which thus
lost to
to the
family commune
commune and
entitled
to sell
his plot,
plot, which
thus was
was lost
the family
and
became the
the private
private property
property of
However, such
such transbecame
of the
the purchaser.
purchaser. However,
transactions were
were controlled
controlled by
the rural
community, which
which could
could prohibit
prohibit
actions
by the
rural community,
of that
that particular
particular plot
and instead
instead allot
allot another
another from
from the
the sale
sale of
the
plot and
the
reserve
fund to
the purchaser.
purchaser. Moreover,
Moreover, the
transactions had
to be
reserve fund
to the
the transactions
had to
be
permitted
permitted by
by the
the ruler.
ruler. This
This shows
shows that
that the
the commodity-money
commodity-money relarelations
more developed
developed than
than in
in neighboring
alientions were
were here
here more
neighboring Babylonia;
Babylonia; alienation of
of land
land was
no longer
longer reversible.
reversible. This
This was
was probably
probably the
the result
ation
was no
result of
of
the
having long
long been
been involved
involved in
in international
international trade
trade and
the Asshurites'
Asshurites' having
and
having accumulated
accumulated considerable
considerable financial
resources.
having
financial resources.
Sometimes whole
estates were
soldnot only
only the
the field
field but
but also
also the
the
Sometimes
whole estates
were sold-not
farmstead house,
garden, threshing
floor, and
farmstead
house, garden,
threshing floor,
and well,
well, with
with an
an area
area from
from
three to
thirty hectares.
The land
land was
up by
by moneymoneythree
to thirty
hectares. The
was mostly
mostly bought
bought up
lenders and
and traders.
traders. Note
Note that
was not
not silver
silver but
but lead
lead (or
lenders
that the
the money
money was
(or
tin?), paid
out in
of kilograms.
kilograms. The
The labor
labor force
force seems
seems to
tin?),
paid out
in hundreds
hundreds of
to
have been
been supplied
supplied mainly
mainly through
through debtor-slavery.
debtor-slavery. There
There were
were also
also
have
other
of acquiring
acquiring dependent
dependent labor;
labor; for
for example,
example, the
the "revival
"revival
other means
means of
in grief"
grief" (ballutu
(ballutuina
inalumne).
lumne).The
The"revived"
"revived"was
wassubjected
subjectedtotothe
thepatripatriin
archal authority
authority of
of the
"benefactor" or
or to
"adoption together
with the
archal
the "benefactor"
to "adoption
together with
the
field and
and home."
home." Thus
Thus aa few
few rich
rich families
families concentrated
concentrated more
more and
field
and
more land
land for
for themselves,
the community
community fields
dwindled. Howmore
themselves, while
while the
fields dwindled.
However, the
the community
community labor
labor obligations
obligations were
were not
not taken
taken over
over by
by the
the purever,
purchasers of
of land
land but
but rested,
rested, as
as before,
before, on
on the
the very
very much
impoverished
chasers
much impoverished
extended
The owners
owners of
of the
newly acquired
acquired lands
lands seem
seem to
extended families.
families. The
the newly
to
have lived
lived in
in the
the city,
city, and
and their
their labor
labor obligations
obligations as
as community
community memhave
mem-

254
254

N. B. Jankowska
Jankowska

bers
bers (alaiu)
(alaiu) were
were borne
borne by
by the
the dependent
dependent inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the villages.
villages.
Asshur was
called "the
"the community
community among
among the
the communities,"
communities," and
and
Asshur
was now
now called
the
privileged status
status of
of its
its citizens
citizens was
officially recognized
grantthe privileged
was officially
recognized by
by granting them
immunity from
from taxes
taxes and
and labor
labor obligations.
obligations. (The
(The date
date of
of this
this
ing
them immunity
decree is
is unknown.)
unknown.) The
The alaiu
alaiu in
in the
continued to
the
decree
the villages
villages continued
to pay
pay the
taxes and
and to
to fulfill
fulfill the
the labor
labor and,
and, especially,
especially, the
the military
military obligations.
obligations.
taxes
Thus,
became aa small
Thus, Asshur
Asshur became
small but
but very
very rich
rich state.
state. Its
Its riches
riches helped
helped
to make
make Asshur
Asshur economically
economically strong,
strong, but
but in
in order
order to
to become
become really
really
to
strong
became weak,
strong politically,
politically, Asshur
Asshur had
had to
to wait
wait until
until its
its neighbors
neighbors became
weak,
else they
they could
could stifle
stifle all
all its
its expansion
expansion attempts.
attempts. The
The Asshur
Asshur elite
elite beelse
began preparing
preparing for
for further
further strengthening
strengthening of
of the
the state
state by
by augmenting
augmenting
gan
the
the authority
authority of
of the
the ruler,
ruler, who
who was
was also
also the
the military
military chief.
chief. In
In the
the late
late
fifteenth
fifteenth century
century the
the wall
wall of
of the
the "New
"New Town"
Town" of
of Asshur,
Asshur, which
which had
had
been destroyed
destroyed by
by the
the Mitannians,
Mitannians, was
was restored,
restored, and
and Mitanni
Mitanni could
could
been
do nothing
nothing about
about it.
it.
do
Although both
both the
the Mitannian
Mitannian and
and Kassite
Kassite kings
kings continued
continued to
to rereAlthough
gard the
the Asshurites
Asshurites as
as their
their tributaries,
tributaries, the
the ruler
ruler of
of Asshur
Asshur estabestabgard
As early
early as
as the
the fourteenth
fourteenth
lished direct
direct diplomatic
diplomatic relations
relations with
with Egypt.
Egypt. As
lished
century the
the ruler
ruler of
of Asshur
Asshur titled
titled himself
himself "king,"
"king," though
though so
so far
far only
only in
in
century
private
Asshur-uballit II (1365-1330)
to
private documents;
documents; however,
however, Asshur-uballit
(1365-1330) began
began to
use
"King of
of the
of Asshur"
Asshur" (Assyria)
also in
in his
official
use the
the title
title "King
the Land
Land of
(Assyria) also
his official
correspondence and
and on
seals (although
not in
in his
inscriptions) and
and
correspondence
on seals
(although not
his inscriptions)
called himself
"brother" of
like the
the kings
of Kassite
Kassite
called
himself "brother"
of the
the pharaoh,
pharaoh, like
kings of
Babylonia, Mitanni,
Mitanni, and
and the
the Hittites.
Hittites. He
He took
active part
in the
the
Babylonia,
took an
an active
part in
events that
led to
downfall of
of Mitanni
Mitanni as
as aa major
and time
time
events
that led
to the
the downfall
major power,
power, and
and again
again involved
involved himself
himself in
in the
dynastic struggle
struggle in
in Kassite
Kassite
and
the dynastic
Babylonia.
Babylonia.
Later
relations between
between Assyria
Later on,
on, in
in the
the relations
Assyria and
and Kassite
Kassite Babylonia,
Babylonia,
periods of
of peace
peace alternated
alternated with
with periods
of war,
and sometimes
sometimes Asperiods
periods of
war, and
Asthe late
syria
syria suffered
suffered serious
serious defeats,
defeats, especially
especially in
in the
late fourteenth
fourteenth cencentury. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the
the Assyrian
Assyrian territory
territory in
west (the
tury.
in the
the west
(the valley
valley of
of the
the
Upper
and in
in the
east (the
(the Zagros
Zagros Mountains)
continually
Upper Tigris)
Tigris) and
the east
Mountains) continually
grew. The
The authority
authority of
of the
the king
king as
as military
chief was
was steadily
steadily on
the
grew.
military chief
on the
rise, while
while the
the role
role of
of the
the city
city council
council waned;
waned; now
now the
the king
virtually
rise,
king virtually
became an
an absolute
absolute monarch.
monarch.
became
Adad-nerari II (1308-1275)
(1308-1275) added
added to
to his
his other
other titles
titles that
that of
of the
the
Adad-nerari
limmu (the
(the eponym-treasurer)
eponym-treasurer) of
of the
the first
year of
of his
his reign.
reign. He
He also
also
limmu
first year
was the
the first
first to
to use
use the
the title
title "King
"King of
of Multitudes"
Multitudes" and
and can
can thus
thus be
be rewas
regarded as
as the
the real
real founder
founder of
of the
the Assyrian
Assyrian (Middle
(Middle Assyrian)
Assyrian) Empire.
Empire.
garded
He had
had at
at his
his disposal
disposal aa strong
strong army,
army, whose
whose mainstay
mainstay consisted
consisted of
of the
the
He
king's men,
men, who
who received
received as
as their
their remuneration
remuneration either
either rations
rations or
or spespeking's
land. In
In case
case of
of need,
community militia
could be
added
cial plots
plots of
of land.
cial
need, aa community
militia could
be added
to the
the army.
Adad-nerari's wars
wars with
with Babylonia
Babylonia were
were successful,
successful, and
and
to
army. Adad-nerari's

Asshur,
Asshur, Mitanni,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe

255
255

the frontier
frontier of
of Assyria
was moved
moved aa good
good distance
distance to
to the
the south.
south. A
A spespethe
Assyria was
king's accomplishments,
cial
cial poem
poem was
was written
written extolling
extolling the
the king's
accomplishments, although
although
in
in the
the end
end his
his successes
successes in
in the
the south
south proved
proved to
to be
be unstable.
unstable. AdadAdadnerari also
also campaigned
campaigned twice
twice against
against Mitanni,
Mitanni, with
with success.
success. The
The
nerari
second
second campaign
campaign ended
ended in
in the
the deposition
deposition of
of the
the Mitannian
Mitannian king
king
Wasashatta; the
the Assyrian
Assyrian protege
protege Shattuara
Shattuara II
II was
was enthroned;
enthroned; the
the
Wasashatta;
whole territory
territory of
of Mitanni
Mitanni as
as far
far as
as Carchemish
Carchemish at
at the
the Great
Great Bend
Bend of
of
whole
the Euphrates
Euphrates was
was now
now controlled
controlled by
by Assyria.
Assyria. Adad-nerari's
Adad-nerari's sucthe
successor, Shalmaneser
Shalmaneser II (1274-1245),
(1274-1245), however,
however, also
also had
had to
to wage
wage war
war
cessor,
with the
the Mitannians
Mitannians and
and their
their allies-the
alliesthe Hittites
Hittites and
and the
the new
new group
group
with
of Western
Western Semitic
Semitic shepherd
shepherd tribes,
tribes, the
the Aramaeans.
Aramaeans. Although
Although the
the Asof
Assyrian army
army was
was surrounded
surrounded by
by their
their enemies
enemies somewhere
somewhere in
in aa desert
desert
syrian
and was
was inadequately
inadequately supplied
supplied with
with water,
water, they
they managed
managed to
to break
break
and
through and
and gain
gain aa victory.
victory. All
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
was included
included
through
All of
Mesopotamia was
in
Assyrian Empire,
ceased to
in the
the Assyrian
Empire, and
and Mitanni
Mitanni ceased
to exist.
exist. In
In his
his inscripinscription, Shalmaneser
Shalmaneser recounts
recounts how
he captured
captured 14,400
14,400 enemy
enemy warriors
warriors
tion,
how he
and
Asand blinded
blinded them
them (14,400
(14,400 is
is 44 xx 3,600,
3,600, aa round
round number
number for
for the
the Assyrians, whose
whose number
number system
system used
used base
base 6).
6). Here
Here for
for the
the first
first time
time we
syrians,
we
meet with
with the
the savage
savage reprisals
reprisals that
that with
with terrible
terrible monotony
monotony are
are remeet
repeated in
in later
later Assyrian
Assyrian royal
royal inscriptions.
inscriptions. (The
(The first
first to
to make
make such
such rerepeated
prisals were,
were, however,
however, the
the Hittites.)
Hittites.) Shalmaneser
Shalmaneser also
also waged
waged war
war
prisals
against the
the Uruatri
Uruatri mountain
mountain dwellers
dwellers in
in the
the north
north (the
(the first
first mention
mention
against
of the
the Urartians,
Urartians, aa people
people related
related to
to the
the Hurrians).
Hurrians).
of
In
In all
all cases
cases the
the Assyrians
Assyrians destroyed
destroyed the
the towns
towns and
and villages,
villages, killed
killed or
or
mutilated
mutilated the
the inhabitants,
inhabitants, and
and looted
looted and
and exacted
exacted aa "heavy
"heavy tribute"
tribute"
from
from the
the survivors.
survivors. The
The captives
captives (mostly
(mostly qualified
qualified craftsmen)
craftsmen) were
were
seldom
blinded. It
seldom taken
taken to
to Assyria.
Assyria. Some
Some captives
captives were
were blinded.
It seems
seems that
that
the
Assyrian elite
the Assyrian
elite could
could satisfy
satisfy their
their need
need for
for aa labor
labor force
force with
with ininternal
ternal sources.
sources. The
The main
main aim
aim of
of the
the Assyrian
Assyrian conquests
conquests was
was at
at that
that
period
to lay
hold of
the international
international trade
to enrich
period to
lay hold
of the
trade routes
routes and
and to
enrich
themselves,
themselves, partly
partly by
by exacting
exacting customs
customs dues
dues from
from the
the trade
trade but
but probprobably much
ably
much more
more often
often by
by looting
looting the
the trading
trading centers.
centers.
Under
Assyrian king,
AsUnder the
the next
next Assyrian
king, Tukulti-Ninurta
Tukulti-Ninurta II (1224-1208),
(1224-1208), Assyria
syria was
was already
already aa great
great political
political power,
power, encompassing
encompassing all
all of
of Upper
Upper
Mesopotamia.
new king
Mesopotamia. The
The new
king was
was even
even bold
bold enough
enough to
to invade
invade Hittite
Hittite
territory,
home no
no less
less than
3,600(28,800)
(28,800)
territory, from
from which
which he
he brought
brought home
than 88 xX 3,600
prisoners. He
He also
also waged
waged war
war with
with the
the nomads
nomads of
of the
the steppes
steppes and
and
prisoners.
the mountain
mountain dwellers
dwellers of
of the
the north
north and
and east,
east, for
for example,
example, with
with the
the
the
"43 kings
kings [tribal
[tribal chiefs]
chiefs] of
of Nairi"
Nairi" (the
(the Armenian
Armenian highland).
highland). CamCam"43
paigns were
were now
now conducted
conducted yearly,
yearly, not
not for
for extension
extension of
of the
the empire's
empire's
paigns
territory but
but for
for sheer
sheer plundering.
plundering. But
But in
in the
the south
south Tukulti-Ninurta
Tukulti-Ninurta
territory
achieved aa great
great feat,
feat, conquering
conquering the
the Babylonian
Babylonian kingdom
kingdom of
of the
the Kasachieved
KasB.C.) and
and ruling
ruling over
over it
it for
for seven
seven years.
years. The
The statue
statue of
of
sites (about
(about 1223
1223 B.C.)
sites

256

N. B.Jankowska
B. Jankowska

Babylon's
Babylon's tutelary
tutelary deity,
deity, Marduk,
Marduk, was
was brought
brought to
to Assyria,
Assyria, and
and concontinued to
be aa cult
cult object
A poem
composed to
commemotinued
to be
object there.
there. A
poem was
was composed
to commemorate these
these deeds
deeds of
of the
Assyrian king;
king; his
his title
title now
was as
as follows:
follows:
rate
the Assyrian
now was

Mighty
king, king
of Assyria,
Assyria, king
king of
of Kar-Duniash
Kar-Duniash [Baby[BabyMighty king,
king of
lonia],
Akkad, king
lonia], king
king of
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad,
king of
of Sippar
Sippar and
and Babylon,
Babylon,
king of
of Telmun
Telmun and
and Melakha
Melakha [Bahrain
[Bahrain and
and India],
India], king
king of
of the
the
king
Upper
and Lower
Lower Sea,
Sea, king
king of
and the
broad
Upper and
of the
the mountains
mountains and
the broad
steppes,
king of
the Subarians
Hurrians] and
the Qutians
steppes, king
of the
Subarians [the
[the Hurrians]
and the
Qutians
[the eastern
eastern mountain
dwellers] and
and of
of the
the lands
lands of
of Nairi,
[the
mountain dwellers]
Nairi, aa
receiving the
the tribute
tribute of
king obedient
king
obedient to
to his
his gods
gods and
and receiving
of the
the four
four
quarters of
of the
the world.
world.
quarters
not at
reflect the
but it
it
As we
we can
As
can see,
see, the
the title
title does
does not
at all
all reflect
the real
real situation,
situation, but
does
program. First
First of
of all,
Tukulti-Ninurta
does contain
contain aa whole
whole political
political program.
all, Tukulti-Ninurta
leaves
traditional title
title of
leaves out
out the
the traditional
of "isshiakku
"isshiakkuofofAsshur,"
Asshur,"but
butatatthe
thesame
same
time
time he
he assumes
assumes the
the ancient
ancient title
title of
of "king
"king of
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad"
Akkad" and
and
refers
refers to
to the
the heavy
heavy tribute
tribute of
of the
the four
four quarters
quarters of
of the
the world
world like
like
Naram-Su'en
and Shulgi.
Shulgi. He
He pretends
pretends to
to rule
rule territories
that were
were
Naram-Su'en and
territories that
never
his empire,
trading centers
par
never part
part of
of his
empire, including
including the
the main
main trading
centers of
of Sip
Sippar
and Babylon,
Babylon, as
as well
well as
as the
the trade
trade routes
routes to
to Bahrain
Bahrain and
and India.
India. In
In
and
order
himself finally
possible influence
city
order to
to liberate
liberate himself
finally from
from all
all possible
influence of
of the
the city
council of
of Asshur,
Asshur, he
he transferred
transferred his
capital to
to aa specially
specially built
built new
cOllncil
his capital
new
residence
called Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta,
Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta, "the
"the trading
trading center
center of
residence town,
town, called
of
Tukulti-Ninurta," which
which probably
probably shows
shows his
his intention
intention to
establish aa
Tukulti-Ninurta,"
to establish
center for
for international
international and
and internal
internal trade
trade there.
there. Here
Here was
was erected
erected aa
center
new palace
palace on
on aa grand
grand scale,
scale, where
where the
the king
king entertained
entertained even
even gods
gods as
as
new
his guests
guests (that
(that is,
is, of
course, their
their statues).
statues). To
To appear
appear before
the perperhis
of course,
before the
son of
of the
the king
was now
now the
of aa few
few of
of the
the highest
dignison
king was
the privilege
privilege of
highest dignitaries (mainly
(mainly eunuchs).
eunuchs). Very
strict rules
were introduced
introduced to
to govern
govern
taries
Very strict
rules were
daily life
life in
in the
the royal
royal apartments,
apartments, including
including rules
rules for
for magic
magic rituals
rituals to
to
daily
avert evil
evil from
from the
king and
and the
the like.
avert
the king
like.
However,
the time
time for
had not
However, the
for creating
creating enduring
enduring empires
empires had
not yet
yet ararrived.
rived. The
The traditional
traditional elite
elite of
of Asshur
Asshur were
were strong
strong enough
enough to
to declare
declare
the
the king
king aa madman
madman and
and to
to depose
depose and
and then
then kill
kill him.
him. The
The new
new royal
royal
residence was
was left
to ruin.
residence
left to
ruin.
the inner
Babylonian rulers
rulers were
wise enough
Babylonian
were wise
enough to
to make
make use
use of
of the
inner turturmoil in
in Assyria,
Assyria, and
and all
all the
the following
following Assyrian
Assyrian kings
(except one)
one) were
were
moil
kings (except
no more
more than
than henchmen
henchmen of
of the
the Babylonian
Babylonian kings.
kings. One
One of
of them
them had
had to
to
no
return
the statue
statue of
of Marduk
to Babylon.
Babylon.
return the
Marduk to
However, Assyria
Assyria did
did not
not lose
lose her
her sway
sway over
over all
all of
of Upper
However,
Upper MesoMesopotamia,
and when
when King
King Tiglath-pileser
ascended the
the throne,
throne, aa new
new
potamia, and
Tiglath-pileser II ascended
political
situation, most
most favorable
favorable to
to Assyria,
Assyria, had
had developed
developed in
in the
the
political situation,
Near
East. The
The Hittite
Hittite kingdom
had fallen,
fallen, Egypt
Egypt was
in decay,
decay, and
and
Near East.
kingdom had
was in

Asshur, Mitanni, and Arrapkhe

257
257

Babylonia
invaded by
Babylonia was
was invaded
by aa group
group of
of southern
southern Aramaean
Aramaean nomads,
nomads,
the
the Chaldeans.
Chaldeans. Thus,
Thus, Assyria
Assyria was
was actually
actually the
the only
only great
great power
power left.
left. It
It
had
had only
only to
to hold
hold out
out against
against the
the general
general chaos
chaos and
and then
then to
to begin
begin new
new
conquests.
conquests. This
This was,
was, however,
however, aa more
more difficult
difficult task
task than
than may
may have
have
been
been thought.
thought. The
The tribes
tribes that
that had
had appeared
appeared in
in Western
Western Asia
Asia as
as the
the
result
result of
of the
the ethnic
ethnic movements
movements at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium
B.C. were
were numerous
numerous and
and warlike.
warlike. These
These were
were the
the Proto-Armenians
Proto-Armenians
B.C.
(the
(the Mushki
Mushki of
of the
the Assyrian
Assyrian sources),
sources), the
the Phrygians,
Phrygians, the
the western
western
Georgian tribes,
tribes, the
the Apeshlaians
Apeshlaians (probably
(probably the
the modern
modern Abkhasians),
Abkhasians),
Georgian
the Aramaeans,
Aramaeans, the
the Chaldeans,
Chaldeans, and
and others.
others. They
They even
even invaded
invaded Asthe
Assyrian territory,
territory, so
so that
that one
one had
had to
to begin
with defense.
defense. But
But TiglathTiglathbegin with
syrian
pileser II seems
seems to
to have
have been
been aa good
good general.
general. Very
Very soon
soon he
he turned
turned to
to
pileser
the offensive,
offensive, moving
moving farther
farther and
and farther
farther to
to the
the north.
north. Some
Some of
of the
the
the
tribes submitted
submitted without
without battle
battle and
and were
were "reckoned
"reckoned among
among the
the men
men
tribes
of Assyria."
Assyria." In
In 1112
1112 Tiglath-pileser
Tiglath-pileser started
started aa campaign
campaign north
north from
from
of
Mesopotamia, to
to the
the west
west of
of the
the Upper
Upper Euphrates.
Euphrates. The
The exact
exact route
route
Mesopotamia,
is unknown,
unknown, but
but it
it must
must have
followed the
the ancient
ancient trade
trade route.
route. The
The
is
have followed
annals
annals mention
mention victories
victories over
over dozens
dozens of
of "kings."
"kings." It
It may
may be
be surmised
surmised
that following
following the
the retreat
retreat of
of "60
"60 kings
kings of
of Nairi,"
Nairi," the
the Assyrian
Assyrian army
army
that
reached
reached the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea somewhere
somewhere near
near modern
modern Batumi.
Batumi. The
The vanvanquished were
were looted
and had
had to
to pay
pay tribute;
tribute; in
order to
to secure
secure its
its
quished
looted and
in order
regular delivery,
delivery, hostages
hostages were
were taken.
taken. This
This was
was not
not the
the last
last campaign
campaign
regular
of the
the king
king to
to the
the north.
north. One
One campaign
campaign is
is commemorated
commemorated on
on aa rock
rock to
to
of
the north
north of
of Lake
Lake Van.
Van.
the
Tiglath-pileser
Tiglath-pileser twice
twice invaded
invaded Babylonia.
Babylonia. In
In the
the second
second campaign
campaign
the
the Assyrians
Assyrians managed
managed to
to conquer
conquer and
and plunder
plunder aa number
number of
of imporimportant
Dur-Kurigalzu and
However, in
tant cities,
cities, among
among them
them Dur-Kurigalzu
and Babylon.
Babylon. However,
in
B.C. the
the Babylonians
Babylonians managed
managed to
to throw
throw the
the Assyrians
Assyrians back
back
about 1089
1089 B.C.
about
to their
their own
own territory.
territory. But,
But, as
as early
early as
as 1111
1111 B.C.,
B.C., the
the main
main attention
attention of
of
to
the
the Assyrians
Assyrians was
was fixed
fixed on
on the
the Aramaeans,
Aramaeans, who
who had
had become
become aa major
major
threat. Slowly
Slowly but
but inexorably
inexorably they
they moved
into Upper
Upper Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia.
threat.
moved into
Tiglath-pileser
Tiglath-pileser campaigned
campaigned against
against them
them many
many times,
times, and
and he
he even
even
managed to
to proceed
proceed west
west of
of the
the Euphrates.
Euphrates. Gaining
Gaining aa victory
victory over
over the
the
managed
nomads in
in the
the oasis
oasis of
of Tadmor
Tadmor (Palmyra),
(Palmyra), he
he crossed
crossed the
the Lebanon
Lebanon
nomads
and passed
passed down
down Phoenicia
Phoenicia as
as far
far as
as Sidon.
Sidon. He
He even
even made
made aa sailing
sailing
and
tour along
along the
the coast
coast hunting
hunting dolphins.
dolphins. His
His military
military glory
glory was
was great,
great,
tour
his
campaigns
were
paltry.
Even
the
land
to
but
the
practical
results
of
but the practical results of his campaigns were paltry. Even the land to
the east
east of
of the
the Euphrates
Euphrates could
could not
not be
be kept,
kept, much
much less
less the
the territory
territory to
to
the
the west
west of
of the
the Euphrates.
Euphrates.
the
Although
Although there
there still
still were
were Assyrian
Assyrian garrisons
garrisons in
in cities
cities and
and fortresses
fortresses
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, the
the steppes
steppes were
were in
in the
the hands
hands of
of the
the nomads,
nomads,
of
who cut
cut the
the communications
communications with
with Assyria
Assyria proper.
proper. Later
Later attempts
attempts of
of
who
the Assyrian
kings to
to ally
ally themselves
themselves against
against the
the nomads
nomads with
with the
the
the
Assyrian kings

258

N. B.
B. Jankowska
Jankowska

kings of
kings
of Babylonia
Babylonia brought
brought little
little success.
success. Assyria
Assyria was
was thrown
thrown back
back to
to
its original
original land,
and its
its economic
economic and
and political
life decayed,
decayed, aa situasituaits
land, and
political life
tion
exacerbated by
centuries of
of prolonged
prolonged drought
drought in
in Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia.
tion exacerbated
by centuries
Between
the late
late eleventh
eleventh and
and the
the late
late tenth
tenth centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., nearly
nearly no
no
Between the
Assyrian documents
documents or
or inscriptions
inscriptions have
have come
come down
down to
to us.
A new
new peAssyrian
us. A
period in
in the
the history
of Assyria
Assyria began
only after
after it
it had
had overcome
overcome the
the
riod
history of
began only
threat of
of the
the nomads.
nomads.
threat

The
Middle Assyrian
Laws
The Middle
Assyrian Laws
The
Assyrian Laws
the culculThe Middle
Middle Assyrian
Laws (abbreviated
(abbreviated MAL)
MAL) throw
throw light
light on
on the
tural
history and
and the
everyday life
life of
of the
epoch. They
are probably
probably
tural history
the everyday
the epoch.
They are
not actual
actual laws
laws of
of the
state but
kind of
of scholarly
scholarly compilacompilanot
the Assyrian
Assyrian state
but aa kind
norms of
tion, aa codification
codification of
of different
different legislative
legislative acts
acts and
and norms
of customcustomtion,
ary law
of the
the Asshur
to be
and
ary
law of
Asshur community,
community, meant
meant to
be used
used in
in education
education and
for practical
needs. During
During the
the excavations
excavations in
in Asshur
Asshur fourteen
fourteen tablets
tablets
for
practical needs.
and tablet
tablet fragments
fragments of
of laws
laws were
were discovered.
discovered. They
They are
are usually
deand
usually denoted
the letters
A to
to 0.
O. Some
Some are
are in
in an
an excellent
excellent state
state of
of preservapreservanoted by
by the
letters A
one. Some
Some fragments
fragments (e.g.,
(e.g., Band
B and C)
C) belong
belong
tion;
others in
in aa very
tion; others
very poor
poor one.
to one
one original
original tablet.
tablet. The
The copies
copies date
date from
from the
fourteenth to
to thirthirto
the fourteenth
teenth centuries;
centuries; the
the original
original texts
texts probably
date to
to before
the creacreateenth
probably date
before the
tion of
Assyrian Empire.
Empire.
tion
of the
the Assyrian
The MAL
very archaic
with important
The
MAL combine
combine very
archaic features
features with
important innovainnovations. One
One innovation
innovation is
is the
the method
method of
of systematization
systematization of
of the
the legal
legal
tions.
statutes.
statutes. They
They are
are grouped
grouped by
subject into
into very
separate
by subject
very big
big blocks;
blocks; aa separate
tablet is
is devoted
devoted to
each subject.
subject. The
The subdivisions
subdivisions in
in the
the Laws
Laws of
of
tablet
to each
Hammurapi (LH)
(LH) are
are smaller;
smaller; in
in the
the MAL
MAL subjects
subjects are
are defined
defined more
more
Hammurapi
broadly. Thus,
Thus, tablet
tablet A
A (fifty-nine
is devoted
devoted to
to different
different
broadly.
(fifty-nine paragraphs)
paragraphs) is
aspects of
of the
the legal
legal status
status of
of free
free women
women ("the
("the daughter
daughter of
of aa freefreeaspects
man," "the
"the wife
wife of
of aa freeman,"
freeman," "the
"the widow
widow of
of aa freeman"),
freeman"), harlots,
harlots,
man,"
and the
the slave
slave women.
women. These
These aspects
aspects include
include the
the different
different offences
offences
and
committed
or against
against aa woman,
woman, marriage,
marriage, property
of the
the
committed by
by or
property relations
relations of
spouses, and
and rights
children. In
In other
other words,
the woman
woman apapspouses,
rights toward
toward children.
words, the
pears here
here both
as the
the subject
subject of
of rights
rights and
and as
as their
their object,
object, both
as aa
pears
both as
both as
criminal and
and as
as aa victim
victim of
of aa crime.
crime. Acts
Acts are
are treated
treated that
that can
can be
be comcomcriminal
mitted not
not only
only by
but also
also by
man (lO,
(10, murder
in ananby aa woman
woman but
by aa man
murder in
mitted
other
person's
house;
47,
sorcery).
Also
included
in
this
tablet
is
the
other person's house; 47, sorcery). Also included in this tablet is the
crime of
of pederasty
(19-20). Such
Such aa grouping
grouping is,
is, of
of course,
course, more
more
crime
pederasty (19-20).
practical
than that
of the
the LH,
LH, but
it has
has its
its drawbacks.
drawbacks. For
instance,
practical than
that of
but it
For instance,
theft is
is treated
in two
different tablets
tablets (A,
(A,
1,
3-6; C+G,
C+G, 8);
8); the
the
theft
treated in
two different
1, 3-6;
same happens
to false
false accusations
accusations and
and false
false denunciations
denunciations (A
(A and
and N)
same
happens to
N)
and to
to the
the statutes
statutes relating
relating to
inheritance (A,
(A, 25-26;
25-26; 0,
O, 1-3).
1-3).
and
to inheritance
However, it
it is
is only
only from
from our
our modern
modern point
of view
view that
that this
this can
can be
be
However,
point of
regarded as
as aa drawback.
drawback.
regarded

Asshur, Mitanni,
Asshur,
Mitanni, and
and Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe

259
259

An innovation
Laws of
is the
An
innovation in
in comparison
comparison with
with the
the Laws
of Hammurapi
Hammurapi is
the
very
wide application
and "royal
lavery wide
application of
of public
public punishment-flogging
punishmentflogging and
"royal labor" (i.e.,
(i.e., forced
forced labor)-apart
labor)apart from
from money
money compensation
compensation to
bor"
to the
the vicvictim.
punishment is
unique for
for so
so early
early aa period.
period. It
It can
can be
be
tim. This
This punishment
is unique
either as
as aa result
result of
of aa very
very high
high development
development of
explained in
in two
two ways:
explained
ways: either
of
legal thought
thought or
or as
as the
the result
of the
the retention
of community
community solidarity.
solidarity.
legal
result of
retention of
The
latter would
mean that
many offences,
offences, especially
sphere of
The latter
would mean
that many
especially in
in the
the sphere
of
agrarian
relations or
against the
honor and
and dignity
citizens,
agrarian relations
or against
the honor
dignity of
of free
free citizens,
were
regarded as
the interests
interests of
of the
the whole
were regarded
as touching
touching the
whole community.
community.
The
contain archaic
features. Such
are A,
A, lO,
The MAL
MAL also
also contain
archaic features.
Such are
10, and
and B+O,
B+O,
2.
According to
these, aa murderer
to be
be delivered
delivered up
to the
2. According
to these,
murderer is
is to
up to
the "lord
"lord
of
that is,
the head
of the
the house";
house"; that
is, to
to the
head of
of the
the victim's
victim's family.
family. "The
"The lord
lord of
of
the
house" was
the house"
was entitled,
entitled, at
at his
his discretion,
discretion, either
either to
to kill
kill the
the culprit
culprit or
or to
to
let
received aa ransom.
let him
him loose
loose after
after having
having received
ransom. In
In more
more developed
developed legal
legal
systems
murder is
systems ransom
ransom for
for murder
is not
not allowed.
allowed.
So
judge from
mixture of
archaic and
So far
far as
as we
we can
can judge
from the
the MAL,
MAL, the
the mixture
of archaic
and
innovative
Assyrian society
itself. AsAsinnovative features
features is
is typical
typical also
also of
of Middle
Middle Assyrian
society itself.
shur
devleopment of
of
shur was
was aa rich
rich trading
trading city.
city. The
The considerable
considerable level
level of
of devleopment
commodity-money relations
relations allowed
allowed the
the legislator
legislator to
to use
use money
money comcomcommodity-money
pensations widely
(involving dozens
dozens of
of kilograms
of aa metal,
metal, which
which
pensations
widely (involving
kilograms of
might have
have been
been lead
lead or
or tin).
But at
at the
the same
same time
time bondage
bondage for
for debt
debt
might
tin). But
existed, and
conditions were
were very
very severe:
severe: after
after expiration
expiration of
of the
the
existed,
and its
its conditions
term
term for
for payment,
payment, the
the hostage
hostage pledged
pledged as
as security
security for
for debt
debt was
was to
to be
be
regarded as
as received
received for
"full price";
price"; that
that is,
is, as
as bought.
He could
could be
be
regarded
for "full
bought. He
treated as
as aa slave,
slave, corporal
corporal punishment
punishment could
could be
inflicted on
on him,
him, and
and
treated
be inflicted
he
be sold
he could
could even
even be
sold "into
"into another
another country"
country" (A,
(A, 44;
44; C+G,
C+G, 3).
3). Land
Land
could be
be bought
and sold
sold unreservedly
(B + O, 6),
6), although
although under
under
could
bought and
unreservedly (B+O,
control of
of the
the authorities.
authorities. From
From business
business documents
documents it
it can
can be
be seen
seen
control
that the
the community
community had
had aa right
right to
substitute another
another plot
plot for
for the
one
that
to substitute
the one
selected by
by the
the parties
parties for
for sale.
sale. This
This means
that private
property
selected
means that
private property
coexisted with
with the
the retention
of certain
certain rights
rights of
of the
the community
community to
to
coexisted
retention of
the
land.
the land.
The
family relations
The patriarchal
patriarchal character
character of
of family
relations is
is obvious
obvious already
already
from the
above-mentioned types
types of
of punishment
punishment for
for murder.
murder. It
It is
from
the above-mentioned
is
made still
still clearer
clearer in
in the
the statutes
statutes regarding
regarding family
family law.
law. The
The extended
extended
made
family still
still existed,
existed, and
and the
the power
of the
the paterfamilias
paterfamilias was
was very
very conconfamily
power of
away his
as security
siderable.
siderable. He
He could
could pledge
pledge away
his wife
wife and
and children
children as
security for
for
debt, could
inflict corporal
corporal punishment
punishment on
on his
and even
even mutilate
debt,
could inflict
his wife,
wife, and
mutilate
her. He
his unmarried
unmarried daughter
daughter "as
he wished"
her.
He could
could treat
treat his
"as he
wished" for
for her
her
having
"sinned" (A,
(A, S6).
56). Adultery
Adultery was
was punished
punished by
death for
for both
both
having "sinned"
by death
partners; having
having caught
caught them
in flagrante
flagrante delicto,
delicto, the
the wronged
wronged huspartners;
them in
husband
could kill
kill both.
If the
the case
case was
was brought
brought to
to court,
court, the
the corresponcorresponband could
both. If
dent received
the same
same punishment
punishment that
that the
the husband
husband chose
chose for
for his
his
dent
received the
adulterous
(A, lS).
15). A
legally competent
competent
adulterous wife
wife (A,
A woman
woman could
could become
become aa legally

260

N. B.Jankowska
N.
B.Jankowska

person only
person
only if
if she
she was
was widowed
widowed and
and had
had neither
neither sons
sons (even
(even minors!),
minors!),
father-in-law, nor
nor any
any other
other male
male kinsman
kinsman of
of her
her husband.
husband. OtherOtherfather-in-law,
wise,
wise, she
she was
was left
left under
under the
the patriarchal
patriarchal authority
authority of
of one
one of
of these.
these.
The
slaveThe MAL
MAL establish
establish aa very
very simple
simple procedure
procedure for
for turning
turning aa slaveconcubine
wife and
the children
borne by
by her
(A,
concubine into
into aa wife
and for
for legalizing
legalizing the
children borne
her (A,
but in
respects the
the treatment
very severe.
41),
41), but
in other
other respects
treatment of
of slaves
slaves was
was very
severe. On
On
pain of
of aa very
very cruel
cruel punishment,
punishment, slave
slave women
women and
and harlots
were forforpain
harlots were
bidden to
to wear
wear the
the veil,
veil, an
an obligatory
obligatory part
of the
the garment
garment of
of aa free
free
bidden
part of
20
woman.
But it
should be
noted that
that such
such severe
severe punishments
punishments were
were
woman. 20 But
it should
be noted
inflicted on
on the
the slaves
slaves according
according to
to law,
law, not
according to
the arbitrary
arbitrary
inflicted
not according
to the
wish of
of the
the owner.
owner. The
The MAL
MAL also
also mention
mention some
some nonslave
nonslave dependent
dependent
wish
persons; however,
however, the
the exact
exact sense
sense of
of the
the terms
terms in
in question
question is
is still
still
persons;
debatable.
debatable.
From the
the documents
be seen
that the
From
documents it
it can
can also
also be
seen that
the "voluntary"
"voluntary" subjecsubjection
person to
the patronage
patronage of
rich and/or
and/or noble
noble person
person (i.e.,
(i.e., aa
tion of
of aa person
to the
of aa rich
change from
from freeman
freeman to
to client)
client) was
was practiced.
practiced.
change
In
procedure, aa wide
by
In the
the Assyrian
Assyrian court
court procedure,
wide use
use was
was made
made of
of ordeal
ordeal by
water and
and of
of oaths.
oaths. Declining
Declining to
the ordeal
ordeal or
or to
swear an
an
water
to undergo
undergo the
to swear
oath was
was tantamount
tantamount to
admitting one's
one's guilt
guilt or
or the
groundlessness of
of
oath
to admitting
the groundlessness
one's claim.
claim.
one's
The punishments
meted out
out according
according to
to the
the MAL
MAL were
were very
very seThe
punishments meted
severe and
and were
based on
on the
talion principle,
although not
so consisvere
were based
the talion
principle, although
not so
consistently
as in
in the
the LH.
LH. The
The principle
its expression
expression mainly
mainly in
in the
the
tently as
principle finds
finds its
wide application
application of
of mutilating
mutilating punishments.
punishments.
wide
20.
20. Note
Note that
that in
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia the
the women
women were
were not,
not, as
as aa rule,
rule, veiled.
veiled. The
The
custom may
may have
have been
borrowed by
the Assyrians
Assyrians from
from the
nomads.
custom
been borrowed
by the
the nomads.

12
12
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in
in the
the Sixteenth
Sixteenth
to Eleventh
Eleventh Centuries
Centuries B.C.
to
B.C.
A. jAKOBSON
JAKOBSON
V. A.

The Middle
Middle Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period in
in Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia,
The
the Kassite
Kassite Kingdom,
Kingdom, and
and Elam
the
Elam
As
saw earlier,
earlier, the
Old Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period of
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian histhe Old
hisAs we
we saw
tory ended
ended soon
soon after
after 1600
1600 B.C.
Kassite conquest.
conquest. The
The homehometory
B.C. with
with the
the Kassite
land of
of the
the Kassite
Kassite tribes
was in
in the
the mountainous
mountainous regions
regions of
of western
western
land
tribes was
Iran and
upper course
the Diyala
Diyala River
Iran
and along
along the
the upper
course of
of the
River and
and its
its tributaries
tributaries
near
the northwestern
northwestern borders
of Elam.
Elam. We
We do
do not
not know
know whether
whether
near the
borders of
they were
native inhabitants
inhabitants of
of this
this region
region or
or whether
they came
came from
from
they
were native
whether they
elsewhere. Nor
do we
about any
any possible
possible kinship
the
elsewhere.
Nor do
we know
know about
kinship between
between the
Kassites and
and other
other ancient
ancient peoples.
One thing
thing is
is clear:
clear: they
they were
not
Kassites
peoples. One
were not
Indo-Europeans.
Toward the
the end
end of
of the
First Babylonian
Babylonian dynasty
the
Indo-Europeans. Toward
the First
dynasty the
Kassites raided
raided Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia through
the Diyala
Diyala Valley,
Valley, and
and one
one of
of
Kassites
through the
the
Kassite
tribal
groups
even
advanced
into
northern
Mesopotamia
the Kassite tribal groups even advanced into northern Mesopotamia
as early
early as
as the
eighteenth century,
century, settling
settling in
in the
the Hanean
(on
the eighteenth
Hanean kingdom
kingdom (on
as
the
Middle
Euphrates,
near
the
mouth
of
the
Khabur).
It
seems
that
the Middle Euphrates, near the mouth of the Khabur). It seems that
some of
of the
the Kassite
Kassite tribal
entered the
the service
service of
of the
the local
local rulers,
rulers,
some
tribal chiefs
chiefs entered
but
eventually they
seized power
and became
became kings
kings themselves.
These
but eventually
they seized
power and
themselves. These
chiefs were
much later
later included
included in
in the
lists of
of Kassite
chiefs
were much
the lists
Kassite kings
kings of
of
Babylonia, although
although actually
actually it
it was
was still
still far
far too
too early
early for
for them
them to
to have
have
Babylonia,
ruled Babylon.
Babylon. It
It was
was only
only following
following the
the destruction
destruction of
of Babylon
Babylon by
by the
the
ruled
Hittites
in 1595
1595 B.C.
B.C. that
that this
this city
city came
came into
into the
the hands
hands of
the Kassites.
Hittites in
of the
Kassites.
Very
sixVery few
few documents
documents are
are available
available from
from Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia from
from the
the sixteenth
teenth and
and fifteenth
fifteenth centuries.
centuries. The
The first
first Kassite
Kassite king
king in
in Babylon
Babylon known
known
to us
us is
is Agum
(sixteenth century,
century, the
the second
second of
of his
his name
in the
the dynasty
dynasty
Agum (sixteenth
name in
to
that originally
originally ruled
ruled in
in Hana).
Hana). He
He already
already ruled
ruled over
over aa vast
vast territory
territory
that
that included
southern Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia (except
the Sealand)
Sealand) and
and the
the
that
included southern
(except for
for the
mountainous regions
regions beyond
the Tigris,
Tigris, although
although he
did not
not adopt
adopt the
the
mountainous
beyond the
he did
title "King
"King of
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad."
Akkad."
title
At
new kingdom
kingdom in
At about
about the
the same
same time
time the
the Hurrians
Hurrians created
created aa new
in
Upper
11.
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, Mitanni,
Mitanni, which
which was
was discussed
discussed in
in Lecture
Lecture 11.
A curious
A
curious document
document has
has reached
reached us
us from
from the
the first
first quarter
quarter of
of the
the
first
first millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C, the
the so-called
so-called Synchronistic
Synchronistic History.
History. It
It enumerenumer-

262

V.
V. A.
A. Jakobson
Jakobson

ates
ates the
the wars
wars and
and peace
peace treaties
treaties between
between Assyria
Assyria and
and Babylonia.
Babylonia. We
We
find in
in this
this document
document that
that the
the successor
successor of
of Agum
Agum II,
II, Burnaburiash
Burnaburiash I,
I,
find
signed aa peace
peace treaty
treaty with
with the
the ruler
ruler of
of Asshur,
Asshur, on
on the
the Middle
Middle Tigris
Tigris
signed
around 1450
1450 B.C.
B.C. This
This shows
shows that
that Kassite
Kassite Babylonia
Babylonia shared
shared aa border
border
around
with this
this city-state.
city-state. Two
Two generations
generations later
later Ulam-Buriash,
Ulam-Buriash, brother
brother of
of
with
the Kassite
Kassite king,
king, conquered
conquered the
the Sealand
Sealand and
and killed
its last
last ruler.
ruler. After
After
the
killed its
the death
death of
of his
his brother,
brother, he
he apparently
apparently became
became king
king of
of Babylonia,
Babylonia,
the
thus once
once again
again reuniting
reuniting all
all of
of Lower
Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia into
into aa single
single
thus
state. The
The Ka&site
Kassite kings
kings now
now began
began to
to call
call themselves
themselves "King
"King of
of Babystate.
Babylon, King
King of
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad,
Akkad, King
King of
of the
the Kassites,
Kassites, King
King of
of KarKarlon,
Duniash."l1 Some
Some of
of the
the Kassite
Kassite kings
kings corresponded
corresponded with
with Egypt
Egypt in
in aa
Duniash."
rather favor-seeking
favor-seeking tone.
tone. Their
Their relations
relations with
with Asshur
Asshur were
were varied:
varied:
rather
sometimes the
the rulers
rulers of
of Asshur
Asshur were
were their
their enemies,
enemies, sometimes
sometimes their
their
sometimes
tributaries or
or allies,
allies, and
and even
even occasionally
occasionally their
their kinsmen.
kinsmen.
tributaries
The
The Kassite
Kassite king
king Kurigalzu
Kurigalzu the
the Elder
Elder (beginning
(beginning of
of the
the fourteenth
fourteenth
century)
century) built
built the
the city
city Dur-Kurigalzu
Dur-Kurigalzu ("Kurigalzu
("Kurigalzu Fortress"),
Fortress"), where
where he
he
established his
his royal
royal residence,
residence, separate
separate from
from Babylon.
Babylon.22 Babylon
established
Babylon itself
itself
was exempted
exempted from
from the
general royal
royal taxes
taxes and
and became
privileged
was
the general
became aa privileged
self-governing city.
city. A
A similar
similar privilege
privilege was
apparently granted
granted to
to Sipself-governing
was apparently
Sippar
already during
during the
the First
First Babylonian
Babylonian dynasty,
dynasty, to
to Nippur
Nippur around
around
par already
1250
B.C., and
cities.
1250 B.C.,
and later
later to
to other
other important
important cities.
Since
Since the
the middle
middle of
of the
the fourteenth
fourteenth century,
century, the
the Babylonian
Babylonian econeconomy seems
seems to
to have
have experienced
experienced an
an upswing,
upswing, which
is attested
attested by
the
omy
which is
by the
increase in
in the
the number
number of
of business
and economic
economic documents.
documents. But
But
increase
business and
then the
the ruler
ruler of
of Asshur
Asshur began
in the
the dynastic
dynastic quarrels
quarrels of
of
then
began meddling
meddling in
Babylonia, twice
twice managing
put his
his henchman
on the
the Babylonian
Babylonian
Babylonia,
managing to
to put
henchman on
throne. Some
Some later
later Babylonian
Babylonian military
military attempts
attempts against
against Assyria
were
throne.
Assyria were
unsuccessful, and
and the
the Kassite
Kassite kings
kings were
were forced
forced to
to accept
accept Assyrian
Assyrian
unsuccessful,
control over
over the
the Babylonian-Mitannian
Babylonian-Mitannian trade.
trade. A
A lasting
lasting peace
peace with
with AsAscontrol
syria was
was eventually
eventually established,
established, and
and the
the Babylonian
Kurigalzu
syria
Babylonian king
king Kurigalzu
the Younger
(1333-1312 B.C.)
B.C.) was
was able
able to
to conduct
conduct aa successful
successful war
war
the
Younger (1333-1312
against Elam,
Elam, taking
taking Susa
Susa and
and other
other cities.
cities. This
This success,
success, however,
however, was
against
was
short-lived, an
an independent
independent and
and powerful
powerful state
state soon
soon emerging
emerging again
again
short-lived,
in Elam.
Elam.
in
In
In general,
general, Babylonia's
Babylonia's political
political situation
situation continued
continued to
to deteriorate.
deteriorate.
A
A powerful
powerful Assyrian
Assyrian kingdom
kingdom already
already existed
existed in
in the
the north
north and
and concon1.
1. Kar-Duniash
Kar-Duniash was
was the
the Kassite
Kassite name
name for
for Lower
Lower Mesopotamia;
Mesopotamia; it
it remained
remained in
in use
use
for several
several centuries.
centuries. Another
Another official
official name
name for
for Babylonia
Babylonia from
from that
that time
time on
on was
for
was
Shinar,
Shinar, or
or Shinhara.
Shinhara.
2.
2. A
A cylinder
cylinder seal
seal with
with the
the name
name and
and title
title "Kurigalzu,
"Kurigalzu, king
king of
of Shinar"
Shinar" written
written in
in
MetEgyptian
Egyptian hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics has
has been
been found
found in
in aa somewhat
somewhat later
later burial
burial at
at the
the site
site of
of Metsamor,
samor, located
located as
as far
far north
north as
as the
the modern
modern Soviet
Soviet Republic
Republic of
of Armenia.
Armenia. A
A chalcedony
chalcedony
weight
weight in
in the
the form
form of
of aa frog,
frog, with
with the
the name
name of
of Ulam-Buriash,
Ulam-Buriash, was
was also
also found
found there.
there.

Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia in
in the
the Sixteenth
Sixteenth to
to Eleventh
Eleventh Centuries
Centuries B.C.
B.C.

263

tinued
to expand
its territory,
to cut
cut Babylonia
from
tinued to
expand its
territory, threatening
threatening to
Babylonia off
off from
its trade
as mentioned
mentioned above,
above, posed
posed aa threat
from the
the
its
trade routes.
routes. Elam,
Elam, as
threat from
east. On
On the
the west,
west, where
apparently managed
rid
east.
where the
the Kassites
Kassites apparently
managed to
to rid
themselves of
of the
the stock-raising
stock-raising Amorite
tribes, new
new nomadic
nomadic tribes
themselves
Amorite tribes,
tribesthe
the steppes.
steppes. This
This threat
the Aramaeansbegan
Aramaeans-began moving
moving in
in from
from the
threat bebecame especially
especially serious.
serious.
came
To counter
counter these
these developments
developments attempts
attempts were
were made
to forge
forge an
an alTo
made to
alliance,
directed mainly
Assyria and
and the
the nomads,
nomads, between
between the
the
liance, directed
mainly against
against Assyria
three "traditional"
"traditional" great
the Hittite
of Asia
three
great powers:
powers: Egypt,
Egypt, the
Hittite kingdom
kingdom of
Asia
Minor,
and Babylonia.
Babylonia. The
The alliance
alliance did
not succeed.
succeed. Around
1225 the
the
Minor, and
did not
Around 1225
Elamite
conducted aa devastating
and
Elamite king
king conducted
devastating incursion
incursion into
into Babylonia,
Babylonia, and
the
followed almost
almost immediately
the Assyrian
Assyrian king
king Tukulti-Ninurta
Tukulti-Ninurta followed
immediately with
with
his
the Kassite
Kassite army,
army, and
his attack.
attack. The
The Assyrians
Assyrians routed
routed the
and King
King KashKashtiliash
in chains.
Then the
tiliash was
was captured
captured and
and taken
taken to
to Asshur
Asshur in
chains. Then
the city
city of
of
Babylon
fell; its
its temples
temples and
palaces were
plundered, and
and the
the statue
statue
Babylon fell;
and palaces
were plundered,
of its
its god,
Marduk, was
off to
Seven years
afterward,
of
god, Marduk,
was carried
carried off
to Assyria.
Assyria. Seven
years afterward,
the
Babylonians recovered
recovered their
their independence,
and the
Kassite
the Babylonians
independence, and
the new
new Kassite
king, Adad-shum-utsur
(about 1187
1187 B.C.),
was able,
in turn,
turn, to
to interinterking,
Adad-shum-utsur (about
B.C.), was
able, in
vene
affairs and
and to
to place
on their
throne.
vene in
in Assyrian
Assyrian affairs
place his
his own
own protege
protege on
their throne.
In
the middle
the twelfth
century, Babylonia
In the
middle of
of the
twelfth century,
Babylonia suffered
suffered aa series
series
of new
invasions, first
first from
from Assyria
then from
The latter
latter
of
new invasions,
Assyria and
and then
from Elam.
Elam. The
was particularly
particularly grave.
Around 1158
B.C. the
Elamite king
king Shutrukwas
grave. Around
1158 B.C.
the Elamite
ShutrukNahhunte
invaded the
the Diyala
Tigris, and
and led
his
Nahhunte invaded
Diyala Valley,
Valley, crossed
crossed the
the Tigris,
led his
army
across Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, capturing
of cities.
cities. The
The
army across
capturing aa number
number of
Kassite king
king was
overthrown, and
Babylonia was
placed under
Kassite
was overthrown,
and Babylonia
was placed
under an
an
Elamite
Mesopotamian cities
suffered terrible
terrible destruction
destruction
Elamite governor.
governor. Mesopotamian
cities suffered
3
and on
on top
top of
of it
it all,
all, tribute
tribute payments
payments were
were imposed
imposed on
on
and looting,
and
looting,3 and
them. The
The Babylonians
Babylonians tried
tried to
to resist,
resist, but
but their
their attempts
attempts were
were brutally
brutally
them.
suppressed.
suppressed.
Later,
Babylonian leader
of internal
internal strife
Later, aa new
new Babylonian
leader took
took advantage
advantage of
strife in
in
Elam
himself king,
but it
was Issin
Issin he
he chose
his capicapiElam and
and proclaimed
proclaimed himself
king, but
it was
chose as
as his
tal (the
(the Second
Second Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Issin).
Issin). During
During this
this dynasty,
dynasty, whose
whose most
most
tal
prominent
B.C),
prominent representative
representative was
was Nebuchadrezzar
Nebuchadrezzar II (1126-1105
(11261105 B.C.),
Babylonia
Babylonia enjoyed
enjoyed aa brief
brief resurgence.
resurgence. The
The king
king even
even managed
managed to
to subsubjugate
and to
destroy Elam,
Elam, excluding
excluding the
the
jugate Assyria
Assyria and
to destroy
the latter
latter from
from the
political
game for
for aa long
time to
to come.
come. All
All these
these successes
successes were
evenpolitical game
long time
were eventually brought
brought to
to naught,
naught, first
the Assyrians
and, later,
later, by
by aa massive
massive
tually
first by
by the
Assyrians and,
invasion
of southern
southern Aramaean
nomadic tribes
tribes (the
(the Chaldeans).
Chaldeans). With
With
invasion of
Aramaean nomadic
these events
events the
stage of
of antiquity
antiquity comes
comes to
an end
end in
southern
these
the first
first stage
to an
in southern
Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia.
3. The
Elamites also
carried away
away to
to Susa
the big
inscribed with
3.
The Elamites
also carried
Susa the
big stela
stela inscribed
with Hammurapi's
Hammurapi's
laws, and
and it
it was
was there
there that
that it
it was
was discovered
discovered by
by archaeologists.
archaeologists.
laws,

264

V. A.
Jakobson
V.
A.Jakobson

The
The Society
Society of
of the
the Middle
Middle Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period

The typical
document of
of the
Kassite and
and post-Kassite
post-Kassite periods
periods is
is aa
The
typical document
the Kassite
kudurru-a
the royal
royal fund
kudurrua deed
deed granting
granting land
land from
from the
fund to
to some
some individindividual, sometimes
sometimes freeing
freeing the
the recipient
recipient from
from certain
certain taxes
taxes and
and service
service
ual,
duties. Such
Such grants
grants were,
were, strictly
strictly speaking,
speaking, not
donations but
but cessions
cessions
duties.
not donations
of property
property for
for temporary
temporary use.
use. A
A kudurru
kudurru could
could be
be transferred
transferred to
to fufuof
ture
subject to
sanction. However,
However, with
this land
land
ture heirs,
heirs, subject
to royal
royal sanction.
with time
time this
came to
to be
regarded as
as private
especially since
since the
the kings
came
be regarded
private property,
property, especially
kings bebecame tired
of resolving
endless litigations
litigations about
about inheritance
inheritance rights
rights
came
tired of
resolving the
the endless
and began
began to
to transfer
transfer the
the land
for "times
"times eternal."
eternal." Thus,
Thus, alongside
alongside
and
land for
community land,
land, privately
owned lands
lands came
came into
into existence,
existence, lying
lying
community
privately owned
outside the
the jurisdiction
of the
the communal
communal authorities.
authorities. It
It was
still not
not
outside
jurisdiction of
was still
feasible to
to run
small economies
economies independently,
independently, and
and the
the new
private
feasible
run small
new private
owners tended
tended again
to form
form communal
communal structures-"houses"
structures"houses" or
or
owners
again to
"brotherhoods." Extensive
Extensive land
land tracts,
as well
as entire
entire villages
(more
"brotherhoods."
tracts, as
well as
villages (more
accurately, taxes
and the
service duties
duties from
from them),
also given
given to
accurately,
taxes and
the service
them), were
were also
to
temples.
temples.
These new
new phenomena
about by
the disintegration
disintegration of
These
phenomena were
were brought
brought about
by the
of
the
state economies
economies with
unwieldy and
and costly
costly administrative
administrative mamathe state
with their
their unwieldy
chinery. Instead
Instead of
keeping up
such economies,
economies, the
state imposed
imposed taxes
taxes
chinery.
of keeping
up such
the state
its majority).
majority). The
The differdifferand service
service duties
duties on
on the
the entire
entire population
(or its
and
population (or
ence between
community members
members and
of royal
royal
ence
between the
the community
and the
the beneficiaries
beneficiaries of
grants
gradually
disappeared;
both
in
fact
became
private
owners,
grants gradually disappeared; both in fact became private owners,
was also
also accelerated
accelerated by
by
equally subject
subject to
and duties.
duties. This
equally
to taxes
taxes and
This process
process was
the fact
fact that
that the
old irrigated
irrigated lands
lands had
to be
be abandoned
abandoned because
the
the old
had to
because of
of
increasing salinization.
salinization.44 New
lands had
had to
the plow.
increasing
New lands
to be
be brought
brought under
under the
plow.
The kings
such fields
fields to
to be
since new
irrigation
The
kings considered
considered such
be their
their own,
own, since
new irrigation
canals were
dug at
at the
the expense
expense of
of the
and with
with the
help
canals
were dug
the royal
royal treasury
treasury and
the help
of royal
services. However,
However, the
as noted
noted earlier,
earlier, were
were
of
royal duty
duty services.
the cities,
cities, as
granted privileges
privileges and
and became
autonomous entities.
entities. A
social divigranted
became autonomous
A new
new social
division arose:
arose: on
on the
the one
one hand,
hand, there
citizens of
urban communities
communities
sion
there were
were citizens
of urban
exempt from
from general
general royal
taxes and
and duties
duties and
and large
large landowners
landowners enenexempt
royal taxes
joying
the same
same freedom;
freedom; on
on the
other hand,
hand, aa peasant
population
joying the
the other
peasant population
came into
into being,
lacking civil
civil rights,
rights, burdened
and service
service
came
being, lacking
burdened with
with taxes
taxes and
duties, and
and living
living on
on royal
royal land.
land. This
new social
social structure
structure arose
arose at
at this
this
duties,
This new
time; it
it fully
fully developed
developed in
in the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
time;
B.C.
Because of
of all
all this,
economy virtually
disappeared during
during
Because
this, the
the royal
royal economy
virtually disappeared
the Middle
Middle Babylonian
Babylonian period.
documents from
from temple
temple
the
period. Numerous
Numerous documents
economies of
of this
this period
are available.
available. (Unfortunately,
(Unfortunately, they
not
economies
period are
they have
have not
yet
studied thoroughly
show that
that even
even the
temples
yet been
been studied
thoroughly enough.)
enough.) They
They show
the temples
4.
4. It
It has
has lately
lately been
been suggested
suggested that
that the
the importance
importance of
of salinization
salinization should
should not
not be
be
over stressed.
overstressed.

Mesopotamia in the Sixteenth to Eleventh Centuries B.C.

B.C.

265

probably
no longer
longer kept
kept up
their own
own field
field economies.
economies. The
The temple
temple
probably no
up their
archives consist
consist of
of income
income and
and expenditure
expenditure records.
records. The
The former
former regisarchives
registered the
from the
the dependents
dependents (amelutu)
(amelutu)attached
attachedtotothe
thetemtemtered
the income
income from
ple.
The income
income due
from them
them was
was called
called their
their task.
task. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the
the
ple. The
due from
temple workers
workers had
had their
their own
own households,
households, although
although it
it is
apparent that
that
temple
is apparent
the
households were
were not
their private
From the
socioecothe households
not their
private property.
property. From
the socioecothese temple
temple workers
must be
regarded as
as aa varinomic point
of view,
point of
view, these
workers must
be regarded
varinomic
ety of
of helot
helot slaves.
slaves. The
The accounts
accounts of
of expenditures
expenditures registered
registered the
the
ety
payments in
kind to
to the
the priests
priests and
and artisans
artisans of
of the
the temple.
temple.
payments
in kind
Toward
of this
Toward the
the end
end of
this period,
period, commodity-money
commodity-money relations
relations began
began
to
Note that
the universal
universal value
value standard
was no
no longer
longer silver
to revive.
revive. Note
that the
standard was
silver
but gold.
but
gold. The
The causes
causes of
of this
this change
change are
are still
still unclear.
unclear. In
In any
any case,
case, gold
gold
was
never used
was practically
practically never
used in
in actual
actual payments.
payments. Payments
Payments were
were made
made in
in
grain
grain and
and other
other commodities
commodities and
and sometimes
sometimes in
in silver
silver and
and copper,
copper, but
but
their
determined in
in gold.
their value
value was
was determined
gold.
Moneylending
again developed,
developed, this
this time
without any
any restrictions.
Moneylending again
time without
restrictions.
The
was debt-bondage,
for free-born
The unavoidable
unavoidable consequence
consequence was
debt-bondage, even
even for
free-born
citizens, and
and now
now it
it resulted
resulted in
permanent slavery,
slavery, not,
not, as
as earlier,
earlier, in
in
citizens,
in permanent
temporary slavery.
slavery.
temporary
Thus,
the economic
Thus, the
economic circumstances
circumstances of
of the
the poorest
poorest strata
strata deteriodeteriorated
was not
not only
rated sharply.
sharply. It
It is,
is, therefore,
therefore, not
not surprising
surprising that
that it
it was
only the
the
slaves
temple helots
from their
their places
places of
to bebeslaves or
or temple
helots who
who fled
fled from
of residence
residence to
come exiles,
hapiru, but
but even
even free
free community
community members.
members. The
The groups
groups
come
exiles, hapiru,
of
of hapiru,
hapiru, recruited
recruited from
from different
different tribes
tribesand
and united
united by
bytheir
their common
common
misfortune, wandered
wandered about
misfortune,
about the
the Zagros
Zagros foothills
foothills and
and the
the steppes
steppes enengaging
breeding, occasional
gaging in
in sheep
sheep breeding,
occasional work
work for
for hire,
hire, and
and even
even robbery.
robbery.
The
The hapiru
hapiru soon
soon became
became known
known all
all over
over Western
Western Asia.
Asia. This
This rather
rather
violent social
violent
social group
group was
was of
of considerable
considerable concern
concern to
to the
the minor
minor kings
kings of
of
Syria
and Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, but
but it
it was
no substantial
Syria and
was no
substantial threat
threat to
to the
the Kassite
Kassite
kingdom.
kingdom.
Another important
group in
were the
Another
important social
social group
in Babylonia
Babylonia were
the warriors.
warriors.
The
military force
The core
core of
of the
the Kassite
Kassite military
force was
was composed
composed of
of chariot
chariot dedetachments,
tachments, aa newly
newly established
established arm.
arm. The
The Kassites
Kassites considerably
considerably imimproved
proved the
the design
design of
of the
the Western
Western Asiatic
Asiatic battle
battle chariot.
chariot. Various
Various
craftsmen of
of high
high qualifications-carpenters,
qualificationscarpenters, coppersmiths,
coppersmiths, tanners,
tanners,
craftsmen
and
armorerscooperated in
in the
of the
the chariots.
chariots. Other
Other
and armorers-cooperated
the manufacture
manufacture of
fighting
gear,
such
as
bows,
were
also
improved;
plate
armor
for
infighting gear, such as bows, were also improved; plate armor for infantrymen made
made its
its appearance
appearance together
together with
with armor
armor for
for horses.
But it
fantrymen
horses. But
it
would
be erroneous
erroneous to
to regard
the Kassites
Kassites chariot
chariot warriors
as aa kind
kind
regard the
warriors as
would be
of feudal
feudal aristocracy.
aristocracy. Although
Although they
they did
did indeed
indeed constitute
constitute an
an elite
elite in
of
in
the armed
armed forces,
they depended
on the
the king's
the
forces, they
depended fully
fully on
king's maintenance;
maintenance; it
it
was the
the royal
royal economy
that supplied
supplied them
them with
with horses,
chariots, and
and
was
economy that
horses, chariots,
weapons.
weapons.

13
13
The Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
The
Kingdom
G.
G. G.
G. GIORGADZE
GIORGADZE

Discovery
of the
Hittites
Discovery of
the Hittites
Until
Until the
the middle
middle of
of the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century
century the
the existence
existence of
of the
the HitHittites
tites was
was known
known only
only from
from biblical
biblical sources;
sources. The
The European
European translation
translation
of
of the
the Bible
Bible calls
calls aa pre-Hebrew
pre-Hebrew nation
nation of
of Palestine
Palestine and
and Syria
Syria "Sons
"Sons of
of
Heth,"
that PalPalHeth," or
or "Hittites."
"Hittites." This
This initially
initially made
made historians
historians believe
believe that
estine or
or Syria
Syria was
was the
the homeland
homeland of
of the
the Hittites,
Hittites, but
but subsequent
subsequent invesestine
investigations showed
showed this
this was
was an
an error.
error. Classical
Classical authors,
authors, on
on the
the other
other
tigations
hand,
the Hittites.
Hittites.
hand, had
had no
no idea
idea about
about the
the existence
existence of
of the
The
The fact
fact that
that the
the Hittites
Hittites were
were one
one of
of the
the greater
greater ethnic
ethnic groups
groups
in
became clear
in the
the ancient
ancient East
East became
clear during
during the
the past
past century,
century, following
following
the
successful decipherment
of Egyptian
hieroglyphics and
and Akkadian
Akkadian
the successful
decipherment of
Egyptian hieroglyphics
cuneiform.
cuneiform.
Information
was also
toward the
the end
end of
of
Information about
about the
the Hittites
Hittites was
also found
found toward
the nineteenth
the
nineteenth century
century in
in the
the cuneiform
cuneiform texts
texts of
of the
the Tell
Tell el-Amarna
el-Amarna
archive in
in Egypt,
Egypt, which
contained the
diplomatic correspondence,
correspondence,
archive
which contained
the diplomatic
written
in the
the Akkadian
Akkadian language,
language, of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian pharaohs
Amenwritten in
pharaohs Amenhetep III
III and
and Amenhetep
Amenhetep IV
IV (Akhenaton)
(Akhenaton) with
of Near
Near
hetep
with various
various kings
kings of
Eastern
be inferred
this correspondence,
Eastern states.
states. As
As could
could be
inferred from
from this
correspondence, the
the
Hittite kingdom
kingdom appeared
appeared to
to have
strong state
state whose
center
Hittite
have been
been aa strong
whose center
was
somewhere in
in Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. Its
Its political
political influence
influence spread
spread to
to the
the rewas somewhere
region of
of northern
northern Syria,
Syria, where
where Egyptian,
Egyptian, Hittite,
Hittite, and
and Mitannian
intergion
Mitannian interbecame evident
kingdom (Kheta
ests
ests clashed.
clashed. It
It became
evident that
that the
the Hittite
Hittite kingdom
(Kheta in
in the
the
conventional Egyptian
Egyptian reading;
reading; Hatti
Hatti in
in Akkadian)
Akkadian) was
was aa major
major power
power
conventional
in the
the ancient
ancient East
East that
that compared
compared with
Egypt and
and Assyria.
Assyria.
in
with Egypt
The
The hypothesis
hypothesis about
about aa Hittite
Hittite center
center in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor was
was fully
fully conconfirmed
firmed only
only in
in the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the present
present century
century when
when the
the German
German
Orientalist
first archaeological
Orientalist H.
H. Winkler
Winkler directed
directed the
the first
archaeological excavations
excavations in
in
the Turkish
Turkish village
village of
of Boghazkoy
Boghazkoy (ancient
(ancient Hattusas,
Hattusas, 150
150 kilometers
kilometers
the
east
east of
of Ankara)
Ankara) in
in 1906-12;
1906-12; at
at this
this site
site archaeologists
archaeologists discovered
discovered
thousands of
of cuneiform
cuneiform tablets.
tablets. Some
Some were
were written
written in
in Akkadian,
Akkadian, but
but
thousands
most were
were written
written in
in what
was then
then aa still
still unknown
unknown ancient
ancient language
language
most
what was
that also
also used
the already
already well
known Akkadian
Akkadian cuneiform
cuneiform script.
script.
that
used the
well known
Scholars immediately
immediately embarked
embarked on
on its
its decipherment.
decipherment. Already
Already in
in 1915
1915
Scholars
the Czech
Czech Orientalist
Orientalist B.
B. Hrozny.defined
Hrozny defined the
the character
character of
of this
this lanIanthe

The
Hittite Kingdom
The Hittite
Kingdom

267

guage and
and concluded
concluded that
that it
it belonged
belonged to
to the
the Indo-European
Indo-European family
family
guage
of languages.
languages. Scholars
Scholars dubbed
dubbed it
it the
the Hittite
Hittite cuneiform
cuneiform language
language (in
(in
of
contrast to
to the
the Hittite
Hittite hieroglyphic
hieroglyphic language-or,
languageor, more
more accurately,
accurately,
contrast
Luwian-specimens
had already
been discovered
discovered in
in northLuwianspecimens of
of which
which had
already been
northern Syria
Syria and
and Asia
Asia Minor
Minor before
before the
the beginning
of the
century). The
The
ern
beginning of
the century).
inhabitants
of ancient
ancient Asia
Minor called
called the
the Hittite
Hittite cuneiform
cuneiform lanlaninhabitants of
Asia Minor
guage
Nesite (from
(from the
the name
name for
for the
the city
city of
of Nesa).
Texts written
written in
in
guage Nesite
Nesa). Texts
other ancient
ancient languages
languages of
of Asia
Asia Minor
Minor were
were also
also found
found in
in this
this archive.
archive.
other
The interpretation
interpretation of
of Hittite
Hittite cuneiform
cuneiform texts
texts from
from Boghazkoy
Boghazkoy dedeThe
veloped
into aa new
new branch
branch of
of science-Hittitology,
scienceHittitology, aa discipline
discipline that
that
veloped into
studies the
the history,
and culture
culture of
of the
the inhabitants
of Asia
studies
history, languages,
languages, and
inhabitants of
Asia
Minor from
the earliest
earliest times
times to
to the
the middle
middle of
of the
the first
first millennium
millennium
Minor
from the
B.C. Archaeological
Archaeological excavations,
excavations, which
which still
still continue
continue today
today at
at various
various
B.C.
sites in
in Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, revealed
revealed not
not only
only new
new cuneiform
cuneiform texts
texts but
but also
also
sites
assemblages of
of material
material culture
culture indicating
indicating that
that the
the roots
roots of
of historical
historical
assemblages
development in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor stretch
stretch back
long before
before the
the second
second mildevelopment
back long
millennium B.C.;
B.C.; they
they are
are deeply
deeply entrenched
entrenched in
in earlier
earlier millennia.
millennia.
lennium
The
The Pre-Hittite
Pre-Hittite Period
Period in
in Central
Central Asia
Asia Minor
Minor

The eastern
eastern part
part of
of today's
today's Asiatic
Turkeythe Anatolian
Anatolian plateau
plateau
The
Asiatic Turkey-the
civi(called
(called Asia
Asia Minor
Minor since
since ancient
ancient times)-is
times)is one
one of
of the
the cradles
cradles of
of civilization.
At <;atal-Hiiyiik,
Qatal-Huyuk, located
located in
in central
central Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, archaeoloarchaeololization.11 At
gists discovered
discovered aa Neolithic
Neolithic settlement
settlement of
of the
the urban
urban type,
type, containing
containing
gists
houses and
and sanctuaries
sanctuaries with
with small
small religious
religious sculptures
sculptures and
and decorated
decorated
houses
with
murals.
The
most
extensively
excavated
levels
of
the
settlement
with murals. The most extensively excavated levels of the settlement
inhabitants were
were
date between
between the
the seventh
seventh and
sixth millennia
date
and sixth
millennia B.C.
B.C. Its
Its inhabitants
agriculturalists and
and animal
animal breeders
breeders who
maintained
active
relations
agriculturalists
who maintained active relations
with distant
distant regions.
regions. The
The immediate
immediate ancestors
ancestors of
of the
the <;atal-Hiiyiik
Qatal-Huyiik culculwith
ture
apparently were
were among
among the
earliest agriculturalists
agriculturalists in
in the
the world;
world;
ture apparently
the earliest
those
appearing at
at about
about the
the same
same period
period or
or somewhat
somewhat later
later in
in Thrace
Thrace
those appearing
and Macedonia
Macedonia on
on the
may have
in
and
the Balkan
Balkan Peninsula
Peninsula may
have had
had their
their roots
roots in
Asia
Minor. Although
Although the
Qatal-Huyuk pre-urban
pre-urban culture
did not
not
Asia Minor.
the <;atal-Hiiyiik
culture did
survive, which
which was
perhaps due
due to
to the
the severe
severe droughts
droughts of
of the
the sixth
sixth to
to
survive,
was perhaps
fifth millennia,
cultural centers
centers arose
arose throughout
the subsequent
subsequent
throughout the
fifth
millennia, cultural
epochs and
and eventually
eventually resulted
resulted in
in individual
individual cultural-economic
cultural-economic zones
zones
epochs
in the
eastern, northern,
northern, southern,
southern, and
and central
central regions
regions of
of
in
the western,
western, eastern,
Anatolia.
the Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic and
and Early
ages, the
the central
central
Anatolia. During
During the
Early Bronze
Bronze ages,
and eastern
eastern parts
parts of
significant progress
progress in
their
and
of Asia
Asia Minor
Minor achieved
achieved significant
in their
economic and
and cultural
cultural development.
development. This
This is
is seen
seen from
from archaeological
archaeological
economic
material, dated
dated to
to the
the fourth
fourth and
and third
third millennia
millennia B.C.,
B.C., found
found at
at the
the
material,
1. This
This section
section was
written in
in collaboration
collaboration with
with N.
N. B.
B. Jankowska.
Jankowska.
1.
was written

268

G. C.
G. Giorgadze
C.
Ciorgadze

sites
sites of
of Alaca-Hiiyiik
Alaca-Hiiyiik and
and Horoz-Tepe
Horoz-Tepe in
in central
central Anatolia.
Anatolia. This
This region
region
great Hittite
eventually
eventually saw
saw the
the establishment
establishment of
of the
the great
Hittite kingdom
kingdom of
of the
the
second
millennium
B.C.
second millennium B.C.
Asia
link, aa kind
bridge, that
connected the
Asia Minor
Minor served
served as
as aa link,
kind of
of bridge,
that connected
the
Near East
with the
the Aegean
world and
Balkan Peninsula.
espeNear
East with
Aegean world
and the
the Balkan
Peninsula. An
An especially
role in
by the
cially important
important role
in these
these relations
relations was
was played
played by
the city
city at
at the
the site
site
of
of Hissarlik,
Hissarlik, commonly
commonly identified
identified as
as Troy
Troy and
and located
located on
on the
the Asiatic
Asiatic
shore of
of the
the Aegean
Aegean Sea
Sea near
near the
the Hellespont,
Hellespont, or
or the
the Strait
Strait of
of DarDarshore
danelles,
danelles, which
which leads
leads from
from the
the Aegean
Aegean to
to the
the Black
Black Sea.
Sea. An
An exchange
exchange
of
between the
was
of influence
influence between
the cultures
cultures of
of the
the Balkans
Balkans and
and Asia
Asia Minor
Minor was
especially
at Troy.
Troy.
especially obvious
obvious at
Ancient Asia
Asia Minor
Minor benefited
not only
only from
from its
its unique
geographic
benefited not
unique geographic
Ancient
location
location but
also from
from its
its natural
natural resources,
decisive facfacbut also
resources, which
which were
were aa decisive
tor in
in its
its economic
economic and
and cultural
cultural development.
development. From
From very
very early
early times,
tor
times,
metals (copper,
(copper, silver,
silver, lead,
lead, and
and gold)
gold) had
had aa special
special attraction
attraction for
for
metals
neighboring countries
countries of
of the
the Near
Near East.
East. Fortified
Fortified settlements
settlements on
on the
the
neighboring
hills in
in eastern
eastern Anatolia
were centers
centers of
of economic,
economic, political,
and culhills
Anatolia were
political, and
cultural
life for
for the
the tribes
of Asia
Asia Minor
already at
at the
the beginning
tural life
tribes of
Minor already
beginning of
of
the
millennium. These
older tribes
tribes were,
not the
later
the third
third millennium.
These older
were, however,
however, not
the later
Hittites, or
or Nesites
(Indo-Europeans), who
who appeared
appeared in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor
Hittites,
Nesites (Indo-Europeans),
somewhat later,
around the
the end
end of
of the
the third
third millennium,
millennium,
somewhat
later, probably
probably around
according to
to written
written sources.
sources. Scholars
Scholars call
call these
these ancient
ancient indigenous
indigenous
according
tribes Proto-Hittites
Proto-Hittites (because
(because they
they inhabited
inhabited these
these parts
parts of
of Anatolia
Anatolia
tribes
or Hattians.
Hattians. The
The latter
latter
before the
the appearance
appearance of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite state)2
state)2 or
before
name
is derived
derived from
from the
name of
of the
the center
center of
of their
their country:
country: Hatti.
Hatti.
name is
the name
(This name
name was
later adopted
adopted by
Hittites-Nesites to
to designate
the
(This
was later
by the
the Hittites-Nesites
designate the
whole
of their
country.) Hittite
Hittite cuneiform
cuneiform texts
in the
second
whole of
their country.)
texts written
written in
the second
half of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium call
call the
the language
of these
these people
people HatHathalf
language of
tic. The
The city
city of
of Hattusas
Hattusas was
was the
the center
center of
of political,
political, cultural,
cultural, and
and ecotie.
economic
life first
first of
of the
the Hatti
Hatti and
and then
then of
of the
the Hittites.
Hittites.
nomic life
The
natural resources
resources of
merchants from
The natural
of Anatolia
Anatolia attracted
attracted merchants
from anancient
Near Eastern
countries. According
According to
to aa late
late Hittite
Akcient Near
Eastern countries.
Hittite legend,
legend, Akkadian merchants
merchants must
must have
already appeared
appeared in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor in
in the
the
kadian
have already
twenty-fourth
twenty-fourth century
century B.c.-that
B.C.that is,
is, during
during the
the reign
reign of
of Sargon
Sargon the
the
Ancient, king
of Akkade.
Ancient,
king of
Akkade. Toward
Toward the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the second
second millenmillennium,
nium, merchants
merchants from
from different
different lands,
lands, most
most from
from Asshur
Asshur on
on the
the TiTigris and
and some
some from
from northern
northern Syria,
Syria, lived
lived among
among the
the local
local population.
population.
gris
cuneiform
This information
information comes
comes from
from the
the so-called
so-called Cappadocian
Cappadocian33 cuneiform
This
tablets that
at the
archaeological site
site of
of Kiil-tepe
Kiil-tepe
tablets
that were
were discovered
discovered at
the archaeological
2. It
It now
seems probable
that the
Hattians inhabited
inhabited only
only the
northwestern part
2.
now seems
probable that
the Hattians
the northwestern
part of
of
the peninsula
the Hittites,
tribes must
have preceded
preceded the
the Hitthe
peninsula before
before the
Hittites, while
while some
some other
other tribes
must have
Hittites
Luwians in
the center
(IMD).
tites and
and Luwians
in the
center and
and the
the southeast.
southeast. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).
3. Cappadocia
Cappadocia is
is the
the later
later name
name of
of the
the eastern
eastern part
part of
of Anatolia.
Anatolia.
3.

The
The Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom

269

(near
Nesa) once
(near today's
today's Kayseri),
Kayseri), where
where the
the ancient
ancient city
city of
of Kanesh
Kanesh (or
(or Nesa)
once
stood,
stood, as
as well
well as
as at
at Boghazkoy
Boghazkoy (Hattusas)
(Hattusas) and
and at
at Aliar-Hl1yl1k
Aliar-Huyiik (possi(possibly
bly the
the ancient
ancient city
city of
of Amkuwa).
Amkuwa).
According
According to
to the
the Cappadocian
Cappadocian tablets,
tablets, foreign
foreign merchants
merchants estabestablished
lished two
two kinds
kinds of
of trading
trading settlements
settlements in
in order
order to
to better
better organize
organize
their
in Asia
Asia Minor:
karum (literally
their business
business activities
activities in
Minor: karum
(literally "harbor"
"harbor" or
or
"quay"),
"quay"), aa foreign
foreign merchants'
merchants' colony
colony enjoying
enjoying an
an autonomous
autonomous status
status
with
rights to
with rights
to self-government
self-government granted
granted by
by the
the local
local city-state
city-state (alum);
(alum)',
and
and wabartum,
wabartum,a atrading
tradingfactory.
factory.The
Thecenter
centerthat
thatorganized
organizedallallforeign
foreign
trading
located in
karum of
of Kanesh.
Kanesh.
trading communities
communities was
was located
in the
the karum
There
traders among
merchants of
There were
were also
also native
native traders
among the
the merchants
of the
the foreign
foreign
trading
however, were
Asshur. The
Astrading colonies.
colonies. Most
Most traders,
traders, however,
were from
from Asshur.
The Assyrians
were the
the ones
brought with
them the
syrians were
ones who
who brought
with them
the first
first writing
writing system
system
and literary
language used
used in
in Asia
Minorthe Old
Old Assyrian
dialect of
and
literary language
Asia Minor-the
Assyrian dialect
of
the Akkadian
Akkadian language.
language. Though
Though Asshur
Asshur greatly
greatly influenced
influenced the
the comcomthe
mercial activities
activities of
of these
these trading
trading communities
communities through
through its
its merchants,
merchants,
mercial
the
karum of
of Kanesh
Kanesh was
wasfree
free to
toconclude
conclude its
itsown
own agreements
agreements with
with the
the
the karum
local rulers.
rulers. The
The primary
primary task
task of
of the
the trading
trading colonies
colonies was
was to
to organize
organize
local
the export
export of
of silver-lead
silver-lead ore
ore and
and gold.
gold.
the
The
The exported
exported silver-lead
silver-lead ore
ore was
was apparently
apparently refined
refined in
in Asshur,
Asshur, and
and
large quantities
quantities of
of lead
lead consequently
consequently accumulated
accumulated in
in this
this city-this
citythis
large
metal
metal was
was even
even used
used as
as aa price
price standard.
standard. The
The lively
lively trade
trade in
in copper
copper
and
and bronze
bronze and
and also
also wool
wool was
was carried
carried on
on mainly
mainly within
within Asia
Asia Minor
Minor
proper. Iron
Iron was
was also
also known
known here
here (apparently
(apparently not
not just
meteoritic
proper.
just meteoritic
iron),
iron), but
but the
the local
local people
people held
held the
the sites
sites where
where it
it was
was extracted
extracted in
in
utmost secrecy.
secrecy. Its
Its exportation
exportation from
from Asia
Asia Minor
Minor was
was strictly
strictly proproutmost
hibited until
until the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., although
although foreign
foreign merchants
merchants
hibited
the
tried to
to smuggle
smuggle it
it out.
out. In
In exchange
exchange for
for silver
silver and
and copper
copper ore
ore44 the
tried
merchants imported
imported to
to Asia
Asia Minor
Minor woolen
woolen and
textiles and
also
merchants
and linen
linen textiles
and also
great
amounts of
of the
the metal
metal annakum,
annakum, which
which has
hasbeen
been identified
identified both
both
great amounts
as tin
tin and
and lead.
lead. It
It abounded
abounded in
in Asshur
Asshur on
on the
the Tigris,
Tigris, but
but its
its origin
origin is
as
is
still aa subject
subject of
of contention
contention (see
(see Lecture
Lecture 10).
still
10).
Goods
donkey caravans.
Goods were
were transported
transported by
by donkey
caravans. Their
Their route
route passed
passed
through
through many
many city-states,
city-states, where
where each
each minor
minor king
king exacted
exacted aa ransom
ransom or
or
duty that
that consisted
consisted of
of aa share
share of
of the
the transported
transported merchandise.
merchandise. In
In
duty
spite
merchants realized
spite of
of this,
this, the
the merchants
realized enormous
enormous profits,
profits, mostly
mostly from
from
their
exchange. Antheir trade
trade in
in textiles
textiles and
and the
the operations
operations of
of money
money exchange.
Annakum served
served as
as money
money in
in Asshur;
Asshur; there
there its
its price
price in
in relation
relation to
to silver
silver
nakum
was
1; in
7.5:1.
1.
was 15:
15:1;
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor it
it was
was 7.5:
The
technical
properties
of
bronze
The technical properties of bronze are
are far
far superior
superior to
to those
those of
of pure
pure
4.
4. Copper
Copper apparently
apparently was
was brought
brought to
to Kanesh
Kanesh and
and the
the central
central plateau
plateau via
via Asshur,
Asshur,
in eastern
having
having been
been originally
originally procured
procured from
from mines
mines located
located in
eastern Anatolia.
Anatolia. Editor's
Editor's note
note
(PLK).
(PLK).

270

G. G.
G. Giorgadze
Giorgadze

copper
better. Iron,
copper and
and stone-only
stoneonly steel
steel is
is better.
Iron, once
once it
it became
became available,
available,
offered
bronze only
offered advantages
advantages over
over bronze
only because
because of
of its
its lower
lower cost
cost and
and
abundance in
in nature.
nature.
abundance
Since
Since aa commodity
commodity economy
economy was
was not
not yet
yet sufficiently
sufficiently developed
developed and
and
the transportation
precious metals
risky, intermediate
the
transportation of
of precious
metals was
was risky,
intermediate accounts
accounts
were
settled through
associations (or
(or extended
extended families)
families) mainly
mainly
were settled
through trade
trade associations
on
tablets in
on credit.
credit. Promissory
Promissory notes
notes were
were issued
issued on
on clay
clay tablets
in cuneiform
cuneiform
script.
script.
It
did not
take long
the local
of Asia
Minor to
to enIt did
not take
long for
for the
local inhabitants
inhabitants of
Asia Minor
engage in
in these
commercial activities
and to
accumulate financial
financial regage
these commercial
activities and
to accumulate
resources
process. This
used for
sources in
in the
the process.
This capital
capital was
was used
for issuing
issuing credit
credit to
to local
local
free farmers
farmers under
under debt-bondage
debt-bondage conditions
conditions when
when bad
bad harvests
harvests or
or
free
other
other natural
natural and
and social
social factors
factors made
made it
it impossible
impossible to
to survive
survive until
until the
the
next harvest.
harvest.
next
The
ocThe Cappadocian
Cappadocian tablets
tablets include
include quite
quite aa few
few proper
proper names
names and
and occasional words
words of
of Indo-European
Indo-European (Hittite
(Hittite or
or Luwian)
Luwian) origin;
origin; thus,
thus, the
the
casional
Hittite
Hittite and
and Luwian
Luwian tribes
tribes must
must have
have appeared
appeared in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor earlier
earlier
than the
the date
date of
of these
these tablets.
tablets. Their
Their appearance
appearance in
in Asia
Asia Minor
Minor and
and
than
the routes
routes they
they traveled
traveled to
to arrive
arrive there
there remain
remain open
open to
to question.
question. They
They
the
may have
have migrated
migrated to
to Anatolia
Anatolia in
in very
very ancient
ancient times
times through
through the
the Balmay
Balkans
or via
via the
the eastern
eastern regions
and the
the Caucasus;
Caucasus; none
none of
of this
this has
has yet
yet
kans or
regions and
been
definitely confirmed.
confirmed. One
One hypothesis
hypothesis even
even proposes
proposes that
that all
all
been definitely
Indo-European tribes
may be
be indigenous
indigenous to
Asia Minor.
Minor. It
It is
is beyond
beyond
Indo-European
tribes may
to Asia
doubt, however,
however, that
that toward
toward the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium
doubt,
B.C. the
Indo-European Hittite
Hittite and
and Luwian
Luwian tribes
had already
already sepasepaB.C.
the Indo-European
tribes had
rated
completely. Several
Several distinct
distinct ethnic
ethnic groups
groups are
are known.
The
rated completely.
known. The
Nesites
apparently lived
lived in
in territories
south or
or southeast
southeast of
of cencenNesites apparently
territories to
to the
the south
tral Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, from
from where
gradually spread
spread north
north into
into the
the terterwhere they
they gradually
tral
ritory inhabited
inhabited by
by the
the Hatti.
Hatti. The
The Palaians
Palaians lived
lived in
in the
the country
country of
of Pala
Pala
ritory
in northern
northern Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, where
where they
they also
also came
came into
into contact
contact with
with the
the
in
Hatti. And,
And, finally,
finally, the
the Luwians
Luwians inhabited
inhabited the
the country
country called
called Luwia
Luwia in
in
Hatti.
the southern
southern and
and southwestern
southwestern portions
portions of
of Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. The
The Luwians
Luwians
the
also spread
spread to
to the
the southeast,
southeast, where
where the
the Hurrian
Hurrian ethnic
ethnic group
group apapalso
peared
at
about
the
same
time
or
earlier.
peared at about the same time or earlier.
The
The significant
significant advances
advances in
in agriculture
agriculture and
and technology
technology that
that had
had
been taking
taking place
place in
in the
the eastern
eastern part
part of
of Asia
Asia Minor
Minor since
since the
the beginbeginbeen
ning
ning of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium (especially
(especially during
during the
the nineteenth
nineteenth to
to
eighteenth centuries)
centuries) produced
corresponding changes
changes in
in the
the sphere
sphere
eighteenth
produced corresponding
of social
social relations.
relations. Differentiation
Differentiation of
of social
social and
and property
property groups
groups and
and
of
strata advanced
advanced very
very rapidly
rapidly in
in the
the local
local society.
society. It
It seems
seems that
that politipolitistrata
cal structures
structures of
of the
city-state type
type had
had already
already developed
developed in
in the
eastcal
the city-state
the eastern
part
of
Asia
Minor
as
early
as
the
third
millennium.
They
were
ern part of Asia Minor as early as the third millennium. They were
headed by
ruba'u ("princes")
("princes") or
or rubatum
("princesses"). The
The royal
royal
headed
by ruba'u
rubatum ("princesses").

The
Hittite Kingdom
The Hittite
Kingdom

271

court
included numerous
numerous "great
persons" or
held aa varivaricourt included
"great persons"
or "chiefs"
"chiefs" who
who held
ety
positions ("chief
("chief of
the stairs,"
"chief smith,"
smith," "chief
"chief cupcupety of
of state
state positions
of the
stairs,"55 "chief
bearer," "chief
"chief gardener,"
gardener," and
and many
many others).
others). Writing
Writing and
and literacy
literacy
bearer,"
were
adopted from
of Asshur.
Asshur.
were adopted
from the
the merchants
merchants of
The
political leaderThe city-states
city-states struggled
struggled among
among themselves
themselves for
for political
leadership.
was first
first in
in achieving
Its ruler
ship. Purushkhanda
Purushkhanda was
achieving hegemony.
hegemony. Its
ruler came
came
to
regarded as
as the
the "great
"great king"
king" among
the city-state
city-state rulers
of Asia
be regarded
among the
rulers of
Asia
to be
Minor. Later,
the situation
situation changed
changed in
of the
city-state of
of KusMinor.
Later, the
in favor
favor of
the city-state
Kusor southwest
Anatolia. The
sara,
situated somewhere
somewhere south
south or
southwest of
of central
central Anatolia.
The
sara, situated
first
Pitkhanas and
(ca.
first known
known rulers
rulers of
of Kussara
Kussara were
were Pitkhanas
and his
his son
son Anittas
Anittas (ca.
1790-1750
1790-1750 B.C.).
B.C.). Kussara
Kussara already
already began
began to
to expand
expand its
its domain
domain when
when
Anittas
text written
written by
Anittas,
Anittas was
was still
still "chief
"chief of
of the
the stairs."
stairs." From
From aa text
by Anittas,
which
reached us
us in
later version
version written
written in
in Hittite
Hittite (Nesite),
(Nesite), we
learn
which reached
in aa later
we learn
that
Kussara (i.e.,
Anittas) with
with aa great
great multhat the
the "king
"king of
of Kussara
(i.e., the
the father
father of
of Anittas)
multitude
Nesa66 by
by
titude of
of troops
troops descended
descended from
from the
the city
city and
and took
took the
the city
city Nesa
storm
the night.
the king
Nesa, (but)
(but) caused
caused no
no
storm during
during the
night. He
He captured
captured the
king of
of Nesa,
harm to
to the
sons (citizens)
Nesa, and
and he
made them
them his
his mothers
mothers
harm
the sons
(citizens) of
of Nesa,
he made
and
fathers." Anittas
continued his
father's conquests,
conquests, capturing
and fathers."
Anittas continued
his father's
capturing aa
number of
of neighboring
neighboring regions
regions of
of central
central Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. Twice
Twice he
number
he dedefeated Piusti,
Piusti, king
king of
the Hatti
country, and
and leveled
leveled Hattusas
Hattusas to
to the
the
feated
of the
Hatti country,
ground. Anittas
Anittas also
marched against
against Purushkhanda,
Purushkhanda, whose
surground.
also marched
whose king
king surrendered without
without battle
battle and
and gave
up the
the symbols
symbols of
of his
his power
power (his
(his
rendered
gave up
iron
throne and
scepter). Anittas
the city
city of
Nesa his
his royal
royal
iron throne
and his
his scepter).
Anittas made
made the
of Nesa
residence, where
where he
fortresses and
and temples
temples and
and proclaimed
proclaimed himhimresidence,
he built
built fortresses
self "great
"great king."
king." Indo-European
and native
gods were
worself
Indo-European and
native Hattian
Hattian gods
were worshiped in
in his
his city.
shiped
city.
The
Kussara kingdom
under Anittas
most powerThe Kussara
kingdom founded
founded under
Anittas was
was the
the most
powerful
political unit
in central
central Asia
Asia Minor
ful political
unit in
Minor prior
prior to
to the
the rise
rise of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite
state.
state. It
It seems
seems that
that Anittas's
Anittas's conquest
conquest put
put an
an end
end to
to the
the foreign
foreign traatrading colonies
colonies and
and trading
trading stations
stations in
in all
all of
of Anatolia.
It is
also generally
generally
ing
Anatolia. It
is also
assumed that
that during
rule Indo-European
Nesite tribes
tribes gradgradassumed
during Anittas's
Anittas's rule
Indo-European Nesite
ually spread
spread throughout
central Anatolia,
Anatolia, which
which up
up to
to then
then was
inually
throughout central
was inhabited
mainly by
the Hattians.
Hattians.
habited mainly
by the
During this
this contact
contact between
between the
the Hittites
and the
the Hattians,
which
During
Hittites and
Hattians, which
lasted
lasted for
for several
several centuries,
centuries, the
the newly
newly arrived
arrived Indo-Europeans
Indo-Europeans
blended in
in with
the indigenous
The Hattian
Hattian language
language
blended
with the
indigenous population.
population. The
was absorbed
the Hittite
Hittite (Nesite)
(Nesite) language,
language, which,
which, in
in turn,
turn, underunderwas
absorbed by
by the
went considerable
considerable changes
changes in
in vocabulary,
vocabulary, and
and in
morwent
in phonetics,
phonetics, in
in morphology.
This
blending
of
Indo-European
and
aboriginal
Hattian
phology. This blending of Indo-European and aboriginal Hattian
tribes gave
gave rise
rise to
to the
the Hittite
Hittite ethnic
ethnic group
group in
central Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. Totribes
in central
To5. This
This probably
probably meant
meant the
the ascent
ascent to
to the
the citadel.
citadel. It
It was
was aa very
very important
post, usuusu5.
important post,
ally held
held by
by the
the ruler's
son.
ruler's son.
ally
6. Nesa
Nesa is
the same
same as
6.
is apparently
apparently the
as Kanish.
Kanish.

272

G.
G. G.
G. Giorgadze
Giorgadze

ward the
eighteenth century
century B.C.
B.C. this
this group
group founded
founded the
the mighty
Hitward
the eighteenth
mighty Hitthat inherited
tradition. Scholars
tite state
tite
state that
inherited the
the rich
rich Hattian
Hattian cultural
cultural tradition.
Scholars
conventionally divide
divide the
the history
history of
of this
this state
state into
into three
three main
main periods:
periods:
conventionally
the
New Kingdoms.
the Old,
Old, Middle,
Middle, and
and New
Kingdoms.
The
B.C.)
The Old
Old Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom (ca.
(ca. 1650-1500
1650-1500 B.C.)
Hittite
period of
KusHittite tradition
tradition associated
associated the
the earliest
earliest period
of its
its history
history with
with Kussara, which
which was
was the
the capital
capital of
of the
the early
early Hittite
Hittite state.
state. But
But certain
certain culculsara,
tural
and social
social changes
changes took
after Anittas
Anittas that,
among other
other
tural and
took place
place after
that, among
things, led
led the
the Hittites
Hittites to
to relinquish
relinquish the
the Old
Old Assyrian
Assyrian dialect
dialect of
of AkkaAkkathings,
dian as
as the
the official
official language
language and
and the
the Old
Old Assyrian
Assyrian cuneiform
cuneiform script
script
dian
and to
to substitute
substitute their
their native
native language
language and
and aa variant
variant of
of the
the cuneiform
cuneiform
and
script adopted
adopted from
from the
Hurrian scribes
scribes of
of northern
northern Syria.
Syria.
script
the Hurrian
In
In the
the Hittite
Hittite historical
historical tradition,
tradition, Pitkhanas
Pitkhanas and
and Anittas,
Anittas, the
the first
first
rulers of
of Kussara
Kussara known
known to
to us,
us, were
were not
not the
the founders
founders of
of the
the state:
state: the
the
rulers
founder was
was one
one Labarna,
Labarna, aa later
later king
king of
of Kussara.
Kussara. In
In the
the beginning
beginning
founder
of his
his reign,
reign, when
when the
the "country
"country was
small," Labarna
Labarna subjugated
subjugated the
the
of
was small,"
neighboring regions
armed force.
force. He
He also
also fought
fought in
in the
the northern
northern
neighboring
regions by
by armed
and southern
southern regions
regions of
of Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, expanding
expanding the
the Hittite
Hittite domain
domain
and
"from sea
sea to
to sea"
sea" (from
(from the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean to
to the
the Black
Black Sea).
Sea). The
The
"from
next
Hittite ruler-Hattusilis
rulerHattusilis II (also
(also called
called Labarna
Labarna H)-began
II)began his
his
next Hittite
rule still
still in
in Kussara.
He was
called Hattusilis
Hattusilis ("the
("the one
one from
from HatHatrule
Kussara. He
was called
tusas") because
for strategic
strategic reasons
reasons he
he transferred
transferred the
the center
center of
of his
tusas")
because for
his
kingdom from
from Kussara
Kussara northward
northward to
to Hattusas.
Hattusas. From
From that
that time
time on,
on,
kingdom
Hattusas, which
which seems
seems to
to have
have been
subjected to
to Kussara
Kussara following
following its
its
Hattusas,
been subjected
conquest and
and destructi<:>n
destruction by
by Anittas,
Anittas, now
Hittite capital
capital
conquest
now became
became the
the Hittite
until the
the fall
fall of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite state.
state. The
The name
name "Hatti"
"Hatti" began
began to
to be
used as
as
until
be used
general designation
designation for
for the
the country
country and
and the
the entire
entire Hittite
Hittite kingdom.
kingdom.
aa general
After
regions in
After conquering
conquering aa number
number of
of regions
in Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, Hattusilis
Hattusilis
marched
marched against
against northern
northern Syria.
Syria. Following
Following the
the subjugation
subjugation of
of Alalakh
Alalakh
(today, the
the archaeological
archaeological site
site of
of Tell-Atchana),
Tell-Atchana), one
one of
of the
the strongest
strongest
(today,
Hurrian-Semitic
Hurrian-Semitic states
states in
in northern
northern Syria,
Syria, Hattusilis
Hattusilis defeated
defeated two
two
other cities
cities in
in this
this regionUrshu
(Warsuwa) and
and Hashu
Hashu (Hassuwa)(Hassuwa)
other
region-Urshu (Warsuwa)
and initiated
initiated aa lengthy
lengthy struggle
struggle against
against aa third
third city,
city, Haleb.
Haleb. But,
But, because
because
and
of illness,
illness, he
he was
was unable
unable to
to finish
finish this
this task,
task, which
which was
was eventually
eventually acof
accomplished by
by his
his successor,
successor, Mursilis
Mursilis I.
I. After
After Haleb's
Haleb's defeat,
defeat, Mursilis
Mursilis
complished
marched against
against Babylon,
Babylon, which
which at
at that
that time
time was
was ruled
ruled by
by SamsudiSamsudimarched
tana of
of the
the Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian dynasty.
dynasty. He
He took
took the
the city
city and
and destroyed
destroyed it
it
tana
in 1595
1595 B.C.,
B.C., seizing
seizing much
much booty.
booty. During
During his
his expedition
expedition against
against Haleh
Haleb
in
and Babylon,
Babylon, Mursilis
Mursilis also
also defeated
defeated the
the Hurrians
Hurrians who
who lived
lived on
on the
the
and
left bank
bank of
of the
the Euphrates
Euphrates in
in northern
northern Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. This
This vast
vast councounleft
try was
was at
at that
that time
time called
called Hurri.
Hurri.
try
The
The military
military operations
operations of
of Hattusilis
Hattusilis II and
and Mursilis
Mursilis II influenced
influenced

The
The Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom

273
273

the
Near East.
the course
course of
of events
events for
for the
the entire
entire Near
East. Hittite
Hittite victories
victories over
over
Alalakh, Haleb,
Alalakh,
Haleb, and
and other
other cities
cities formed
formed the
the cornerstone
cornerstone of
of Hittite
Hittite
domination
in northern
question became
domination in
northern Syria.
Syria. After
After that,
that, the
the Syrian
Syrian question
became
one of
of the
the central
central factors
factors in
in Hittite
Hittite foreign
foreign policy.
policy. Mursilis's
Mursilis's victory
victory
one
over
rule of
over Babylon
Babylon ended
ended the
the rule
of the
the First
First Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Babylon.
Babylon. These
These
important victories
victories were
were of
of tremendous
tremendous significance
significance to
to the
the Hittites.
Hittites.
important
Henceforward,
state was
was one
one of
of the
great powers
of the
Near
Henceforward, their
their state
the great
powers of
the Near
Eastbeyond comparison
comparison even
even with
with the
the "great
"great kingdom"
kingdom" of
of Haleb
Haleb or
or
East-beyond
with Babylon.
Babylon.
with
During
During the
the reigns
reigns of
of Hattusilis
Hattusilis II and
and Mursilis
Mursilis II the
the military
military clashes
clashes
between the
the Hittites
Hittites and
and Hurrians
Hurrians began.
began. The
The Hurrians
Hurrians started
started to
to atatbetween
tack
Hatti from
from the
highland and
and from
from northern
northern Syria,
Syria,
the Armenian
Armenian highland
tack Hatti
devastating the
the eastern
eastern provinces
of Hatti.
Hatti. At
the very
very beginning
of
devastating
provinces of
At the
beginning of
Hattusilis I's
Fs reign,
reign, the
the Hurrians
Hurrians invaded
invaded the
the Hittite
country from
from
Hattusilis
Hittite country
Hanigalbat (northern
(northern Mesopotamia).
Mesopotamia). As
As aa result,
result, many
many eastern
eastern reHanigalbat
regions, formerly
formerly under
under Hittite
Hittite rule,
rule, temporarily
temporarily seceded.
seceded. Only
Only the
the city
gions,
city
of Hattusas
Hattusas remained
remained unharmed.
unharmed. Now
Now and
and again,
again, the
also
of
the Hurrians
Hurrians also
attacked
in northern
northern Syria,
Syria, as
as was
was the
the case
case during
during
attacked Hittite
Hittite possessions
possessions in
the rule
rule of
of the
the next
next Hittite
Hittite king,
king, Hantilis,
Hantilis, when
when the
the Hurrians,
Hurrians, after
after
the
having devastated
devastated Hittite
Hittite territories,
territories, took
took the
the queen
queen prisoner
prisoner and
and exehaving
executed her
her along
along with
with her
her sons.
sons. Hantilis
Hantilis repelled
repelled the
the invasion,
invasion, but
the
cuted
but the
struggle against
against the
the Hurrians
Hurrians continued
continued for
for aa long
long time
time to
to come.
struggle
come.
At the
the end
end of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom
the last
last Hittite
Hittite king
king of
of this
this period,
period,
At
Kingdom the
Telepinus, was
was successful
successful against
against Kizzuwadna,
Kizzuwadna, aa strategically
strategically imporimporTelepinus,
tant region
region in
in the
the northeast
northeast corner
corner of
of the
the Mediterranean.
Mediterranean. A
A peace
peace
tant
treaty with
with the
the king
king of
of Kizzuwadna
Kizzuwadna was
was concluded.
concluded. From
From then
then on,
on,
treaty
Kizzuwadna oriented
its policy
toward Hatti
and gradually
gradually liberated
liberated
oriented its
policy toward
Hatti and
Kizzuwadna
itself from
from the
the influence
influence of
of Haleb
and Hurri.
Hurri.
Haleb and
itself
Throughout the
the Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom the
the Hittite
Hittite kings
kings struggled
struggled to
to conconThroughout
solidate their
their power,
power, which
which was
was strongly
strongly limited
limited by
by the
the popular
popular assemassemsolidate
bly, the
the pankus.
Initially, the
the assembly
assembly comprised
comprised all
all men
men capable
capable of
of
pankus. Initially,
bly,
bearing arms;
arms; later,
later, the
the circle
circle of
of participants
participants was
was considerably
rebearing
considerably reduced to
to include
include only
only representatives
representatives from
from the
the upper
upper aristocracy.7
aristocracy.7
duced
The assembly
assembly had
the right
right to
to name
the successor
successor to
to the
the throne,
throne, to
to
The
had the
name the
decide legal
legal matters
matters as
as aa court
court of
of law,
law, and
and so
so on.
on. The
The king,
king, who
who bore
decide
bore aa
high
title of
of Hattian
origintabarnascould only
only nominate
high title
Hattian origin-tabarnas-could
nominate his
his sucsuccessors.
It was
the pankus
that had
the ultimate
to confirm
confirm or
or
cessors. It
was the
pankus that
had the
ultimate power
power to
reject
choice. Potential
candidates to
the throne
were many,
and
reject his
his choice.
Potential candidates
to the
throne were
many, and
the
selection was
was not
not limited
limited to
to the
the king's
king's sons;
sons; the
the power
power could
could pass
the selection
pass
7. Apparently,
the pankus
originally the
the popular
popular assembly
assembly of
7.
Apparently, the
pankus was
was originally
of the
the city-state
city-state of
of
Hatti (Hattusas);
(Hattusas); with
time, as
as the
the scope
scope of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite conquests
conquests grew,
grew, most
most of
of the
the citiHatti
with time,
citizens of
of Hattusas
Hattusas acquired
acquired commanding
commanding posts
posts in
in the
army and
and in
in the
the administration,
administration,
zens
the army
so that
that the
almost automatically
automatically became
became aa council
of dignitaries.
Editor's note
note
the pankus
pankus almost
council of
dignitaries. Editor's
so
(IMD).
(IMD).

274
274

G.
Giorgadze
G- G. Giorgadze

on
when the
on (especially
(especially when
the king
king had
had no
no son)
son) to
to the
the king's
king's grandson,
grandson, to
to the
the
son or
or husband
husband of
of the
the ruler's
ruler's sister,
sister, etc.
etc. Starting
Starting with
with Hantilis,
Hantilis, usurpausurpason
tions
of the
the throne
throne became
became frequent.
frequent.
tions of
The
was finally
by Telepinus,
The question
question of
of succession
succession was
finally resolved
resolved by
Telepinus, who
who
issued
to which
which the
the right
to the
issued aa "throne
"throne succession
succession law,"
law," according
according to
right to
the
basis. If
If
throne
was from
from then
on held
held by
the king's
king's sons
sons on
on aa seniority
seniority basis.
throne was
then on
by the
the king
no son,
son, only
only the
the husband
husband of
of the
king's daughter
daughter could
could
the
king had
had no
the king's
ascend to
to the
the throne.
throne. All
All others
others were
were excluded
excluded from
from the
the succession,
succession,
ascend
wascharged
charged with
with enforcing
enforcing this
this law.
law.The
Thelaw
lawof
ofsuccessuccesand the
the pankus
and
pankus was
sion greatly
greatly strengthened
strengthened the
the royal
royal authority
authority and
and continued
continued without
without
sion
change throughout
throughout the
the existence
existence of
of the
the Hittite
kingdom.
change
Hittite kingdom.
However, even
even in
in the
the time
of Telepinus,
Telepinus, during
during whose
whose reign
reign apparapparHowever,
time of
ently other
other Hittite
Hittite laws
laws were
were issued
issued in
in written
written form
form for
for the
the first
first time,
time,
ently
the monarch's
monarch's authority
authority still
still was
was not
not absolute.
absolute. The
The assembly
assembly conconthe
tinued to
to limit
limit the
the royal
royal power,
although the
the king
king could
could be
be overruled
overruled
tinued
power, although
by it
it only
only if
if he
he chose
chose to
to break
break the
the succession
succession rule
rule or
or to
to execute
execute ararby
interfered in
in no
no other
other governgovernbitrarily
his royal
royal relatives.
relatives. The
The pankus
bitrarily his
pankus interfered
mental affairs.
affairs. During
During the
the New
New Kingdom,
Kingdom, the
the assembly
assembly ceased
ceased to
to
mental
exist.
exist.
The
New Hittite
B.C.)
The New
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom (ca.
(ca. 1400-1200
1400-1200 B.C.)

Because
Because the
the history
history of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom, which
which embraced
embraced aa period
period
from approximately
approximately 1500
1500 to
to 1400
1400 B.C.,
B.C., has
has not
not been
sufficiently exfrom
been sufficiently
explored,
plored,s8 we
we will
will deal
deal in
in what
what follows
follows with
with the
the highlights
highlights of
of the
the New
New
Kingdom period
of Hittite
Hittite history,
history, aa time
when Hatti
Hatti came
came to
Kingdom
period of
time when
to be
be reregarded as
as aa power
power equal
equal to
Egypt, Babylonia,
Babylonia, and
and Assyria.
Assyria.
garded
to Egypt,
It
was Tutkhalias
Tutkhalias III
who began
policy at
It was
III who
began the
the aggressive
aggressive policy
at the
the end
end of
of
the
the middle
the fifteenth
fifteenth century
century that
that continued
continued successfully
successfully into
into the
middle of
of
the thirteenth
thirteenth century.
century. Throughout
Throughout almost
almost the
the entire
entire period
of the
the
the
period of
New
Kingdom the
the Hittites
Hittites conducted
conducted military
military expeditions
expeditions into
into the
the
New Kingdom
southwestern regions
regions of
of Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, an
an area
area occupied
occupied by
by political
political
southwestern
units subsumed
subsumed under
under the
the common
common denomination
denomination of
of Arzawa,
Arzawa, as
as well
units
well
as to
to the
the south,
south, aa territory
territory inhabited
inhabited by
by Luwians,
Luwians, who
who spoke
spoke aa lanlanas
guage related
to that
that of
of the
the Hittites.
Hittites. Their
Their country
country was
called Luwia.
Luwia.
guage
related to
was called
Wilusa, which
many scholars
scholars believe
believe was
was the
of the
the region
region of
Wilusa,
which many
the name
name of
of
was in
in Arzawa
Arzawa country.
country. In
In earlier
earlier times
times Arzawa
Arzawa mainmainIlion, or
or Troy,9
Troy,9 was
Ilion,
8.
8. Some
Some scholars
scholars actually
actually deny
deny the
the existence
existence of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite Middle
Middle Kingdom.
Kingdom. Editor's
Editor's
note
(IMD).
note (IMD).
9.
9. The
The Hittite
Hittite texts
texts mention,
mention, in
in the
the southwestern
southwestern part
part of
of Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, aa town
town called
called
Wilusa,
Wilusa, presumably
presumablythe
theGreek
Greek(Wilios)
(Wilios)or
or(Wilion),
(Wilion),the
the"town
"townof
of(W)ilius,"
(W)ilius,"and
andaatown
town
called
called Taruisa,
Taruisa,presumably
presumablytotobeberead
read"Troisa,"
"Troisa,"which
whichmay
maybebethe
theGreek
GreekTroy.
Troy.The
TheHoHomeric
this, however,
however, may
be aa later
reinterpretation of
meric epic
epic identifies
identifies the
the two
two cities;
cities; this,
may be
later reinterpretation
of the
the
historical
(lMD).
.
historical tradition. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).

The
The Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom

275
275

tained
tained contacts
contacts with
with Egypt.
Egypt. This
This is
is attested
attested by
by letters
letters written
written by
by PhaPharaoh Amenhetep
III in
the Hittite
(Nesite) language
language to
to the
the king
king of
of
raoh
Amenhetep III
in the
Hittite (Nesite)
Arzawa
requesting him
him to
to send
send his
his daughter
daughter to
to the
the pharaoh's
pharaoh's harem.
harem.
Arzawa requesting
As aa result
I, son
As
result of
of the
the military
military operations
operations by
by Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas I,
son of
of
Tutkhalias
the lands
Tutkhalias III,
III, and
and the
the former's
former's son,
son, Mursilis
Mursilis II,
II, the
lands of
of Arzawa
Arzawa
were conquered,
conquered, and
and peace
peace treaties
treaties were
were signed
signed with
with each
each of
of them.
them.
were
The
The rulers
rulers of
of the
the lands
lands of
of Arzawa
Arzawa promised
promised to
to send
send to
to Hatti
Hatti on
on aa
regular basis
auxiliary detachments
detachments and
and battle
battle chariots,
chariots, to
to pay
pay annual
annual
regular
basis auxiliary
tribute
king, to
so
tribute to
to the
the Hittite
Hittite king,
to extradite
extradite fugitives
fugitives from
from Hatti,
Hatti, and
and so
forth. In
In turn,
turn, the
the Hittites
Hittites pledged
pledged their
their help
help to
to Arzawa
Arzawa against
against any
any
forth.
eventual enemy.
enemy. The
The peace
treaties were
were confirmed
oaths of
eventual
peace treaties
confirmed by
by oaths
of loyloyalty, but
but these
were not
not to
to be
be relied
relied upon,
upon, since
since we
we know
rulthese were
know that
that the
the rulalty,
ers of
of Arzawa
Arzawa broke
away from
from Hatti
whenever they
they had
the chance.
chance.
ers
broke away
Hatti whenever
had the
Hittite
Hittite historical
historical texts
texts of
of the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom are
are also
also full
full of
of accounts
accounts
about
about struggles
struggles against
against the
the Kaska
Kaska tribes
tribes who
who lived
lived north
north and
and northnortheast of
of Hatti
Hatti in
in the
the mountains
mountains along
along the
the shores
shores of
of the
the Black
Black Sea.
Sea. The
The
east
accounts of
of the
the Kaska
Kaska aTe
are especially
especially numerous
numerous in
in the
the annals
annals of
of SupSupaccounts
piluliumas II and
and the
the annals
annals of
of Mursilis
Mursilis II.
II. The
The Hittite
Hittite texts
texts tell
tell us
us that
that
piluliumas
"in the
the Kaska
Kaska country
country the
the rule
rule of
of one
one [person]
[person] was
was not
not customary"customary"
"in
that is,
is, they
they had
had no
no king
king and
and were
still at
at aa primitive
primitive stage
stage of
of developdevelopthat
were still
ment. After
After the
the reign
reign of
of Mursilis
Mursilis II,
II, however,
however, some
some Kaska
Kaska rulers
rulers
ment.
(Pihuniyas in
in the
the Kaska
Kaska region
region of
of Tibiya,
Tibiya, for
for example)
example) began
began to
to
(Pihuniyas
govern their
their country
country "in
"in the
the royal
royal fashion,"
fashion," instead
instead of
of in
in the
the usual
usual
govern
"Kaska fashion."
fashion."
"Kaska
The
people became
The struggle
struggle against
against the
the Kaska
Kaska people
became continual
continual beginning
beginning
with the
the reign
reign of
of Tutkhalias
Tutkhalias III.
It was
was provoked
provoked both
both by
by the
the frequent
frequent
with
III. It
incursions
incursions of
of the
the Kaska
Kaska tribes
tribes into
into Hittite
Hittite territory
territory and
and by
by the
the agaggressive intentions
intentions of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite rulers
rulers themselves.
themselves. The
The Kaska
Kaska not
not
gressive
only devastated
devastated the
the border
border regions
regions of
of Hatti
Hatti but
but also
also invaded
invaded the
the councounonly
try's interior,
interior, threatening
threatening the
the Hittite
Hittite capital.
capital. No
No Hittite
Hittite ruler
ruler was
was able
able
try's
to settle
settle the
the Kaska
Kaska question
question finally,
finally, though
though they
they did
did at
times sign
sign
at times
to
peace
tribes
peace treaties.
treaties. Hittite
Hittite military
military expeditions
expeditions against
against the
the Kaska
Kaska tribes
could only
only temporarily
temporarily halt
halt their
their devastating
devastating incursions.
incursions.
could
The
The Hittites
Hittites subdued
subdued the
the allied
allied tribes
tribes of
of Azzi
Azzi and
and Hayasa
Hayasa in
in the
the
northeastern
northeastern part
part of
of Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas signed
signed aa peace
peace treaty
treaty
with
with their
their people
people and
and their
their ruler,
ruler, Hukkanas,
Hukkanas, according
according to
to which
which the
the
latter was
was to
to marry
marry the
the daughter
daughter of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite king,
king, but
but it
it forbade
forbade
latter
Hukkanas,
among other
other things,
Hukkanas, among
things, to
to claim
claim other
other women
women of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite
royal house.
house. This
This shows
shows that
vestiges of
of very
very ancient
ancient marital
marital relations
relations
that vestiges
royal
survived in
in Hayasa
(as, for
the right
right to
to cohabit
cohabit with
with the
the wife's
wife's
survived
Hayasa (as,
for instance,
instance, the
sisters and
and cousins).
sisters
cousins).
During
results in
During that
that period,
period, the
the Hittites
Hittites achieved
achieved significant
significant results
in their
their
struggle for
for northern
Syria. The
The kingdom
kingdom of
of Mitanni
took advantage
advantage
struggle
northern Syria.
Mitanni took
of the
the temporary
temporary weakness
weakness of
of Hatti
Hatti after
after the
the fall
fall of
of the
the Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom,
of

276

G.
G. G.
G. Giorgadze
Giorgadze

as well
as of
of the
the weakening
city that
had been
been
as
well as
weakening Asshur,
Asshur, aa city
that up
up until
until then
then had
dominant in
in northern
Mesopotamia. Mitanni
Mitanni had
also achieved
achieved great
great
dominant
northern Mesopotamia.
had also
successes west
of the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, particularly
in northern
northern Syria.
Syria. Haleb,
Haleb,
successes
west of
particularly in
Alalakh, Carchemish,
Carchemish, and
and other
other kingdoms
came under
Mitanni's pokingdoms came
under Mitanni's
poAlalakh,
litical control.
control. Led
Led by
King Saussattar
Saussattar (or
(or Sausadattar),
Sausadattar), the
Mitannians
litical
by King
the Mitannians
defeated and
and sacked
sacked the
the city
city of
of Asshur
Asshur and
and laid
laid claim
claim to
to the
the lands
lands
defeated
east
of the
the Tigris.
Tigris. The
The Mitannian
Mitannian rulers
Shuttarna II
II and
Dushratta
east of
rulers Shuttarna
and Dushratta
maintained
friendly relations
III and,
and,
maintained friendly
relations with
with the
the pharaohs
pharaohs Amenhetep
Amenhetep III
to aa lesser
lesser extent,
extent, with
IV (Akhenaton).
(Akhenaton). These
These relations
relations
Amenhetep IV
to
with Amenhetep
were
consolidated by
by marriages
marriages between
the Egyptian
Egyptian rulers
and the
the
were consolidated
between the
rulers and
10
Mitanni, like
like the
Hittite kingdom,
kingdom,
daughters of
of the
daughters
the Mitannian
Mitannian kings.
kings. 1O Mitanni,
the Hittite
comprised
number of
of semiindependent
semiindependent kingdoms
and city-states
city-states
kingdoms and
comprised aa number
that pledged
and military
military assistance
the supreme
supreme king
of the
the
that
pledged tribute
tribute and
assistance to
to the
king of
Mitannian
federation.
Mitannian federation.
Suppiluliumas II put
an end
end to
crossing
put an
to Mitannian
Mitannian power.
power. After
After crossing
Suppiluliumas
the
Euphrates, Hittite
Hittite troops
troops invaded
the small
small Hurrian
the Upper
Upper Euphrates,
invaded the
Hurrian kingkingdoms of
of the
and approached
approached the
capital of
of
the river
river valley
valley and
the Mitannian
Mitannian capital
doms
Wasshukanne
from the
The Hittites
devastated the
capital, but
but
Wasshukanne from
the north.
north. The
Hittites devastated
the capital,
the
pretender retreated
accepting battle.
Supthe Mitannian
Mitannian pretender
retreated without
without accepting
battle. Suppiluliumas
installed his
supporter Shattiwazza
Shattiwazza as
heir apparent
apparent to
to the
the
piluliumas installed
his supporter
as heir
Mitannian
and gave
gave him
in marriage.
After aa
throne and
him his
his daughter
daughter in
marriage. After
Mitannian throne
successful Hittite
Hittite expedition
expedition into
into northern
northern Syria,
Syria, Mitanni
Mitanni lost
lost all
all its
its
successful
possessions west
west of
of the
Euphrates. Later,
Later, Mitanni
unable to
to rethe Euphrates.
Mitanni was
was unable
repossessions
sist Assyrian
Assyrian attacks,
and toward
century
toward the
the end
end of
of the
the thirteenth
thirteenth century
sist
attacks, and
Mitanni was
included in
in the
Assyrian Empire.
Empire.
Mitanni
was included
the Assyrian
Suppiluliumas not
only destroyed
destroyed Mitanni
Mitanni but
also managed
managed to
to denot only
but also
deSuppiluliumas
pose almost
rulers in
the Syrian
principalities, which
which exexpose
almost all
all its
its vassal
vassal rulers
in the
Syrian principalities,
tended
all the
Lebanon Mountains.
Mountains. This
This period
the
tended all
the way
way to
to the
the Lebanon
period marks
marks the
beginning
of aa lengthy
lengthy Hittite
Hittite dominion
dominion in
in northern
Syria. After
After conconbeginning of
northern Syria.
quering Haleb
Haleb and
and Carchemish
Carchemish (an
(an important
important crossing
crossing point
of the
the
quering
point of
Euphrates), Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas installed
installed his
sons Piyassili
Piyassili and
and Telepinu
as
Euphrates),
his sons
Telepinu as
This was
was the
of the
Hittite dynasties
dynasties in
in
rulers
of these
these cities.
cities. This
the beginning
beginning of
the Hittite
rulers of
Haleb and
and Carchemish,
Carchemish, which
which endured
endured for
for centuries.
centuries. Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas
Haleb
conquered
as well,
also been
been dominated
dominated by
the
conquered Alalakh
Alalakh as
well, which
which had
had also
by the
Hurrians. Hittite
Hittite hegemony
hegemony lasted
lasted here
throughout the
of the
the
Hurrians.
here throughout
the period
period of
Hittite kingdom.
kingdom. Other
Other principalities
principalities of
of Syria
Syria also
also came
came under
under strong
strong
Hittite
Hittite influence
influence during
during the
the New
New Kingdom.
Kingdom. This
This domination
domination was
was supsupHittite
ported
appearances of
of Hittite
Hittite troops
in Syria.
Syria.
ported by
by regular
regular appearances
troops in
No tensions
tensions existed
existed between
between Hatti
Hatti and
and Egypt
Egypt during
during SuppiluliuSuppiluliuNo
10.
This did
did not
mean that
that Mitannian
Mitannian princesses
princesses became
became queens
queens of
of Egypt.
10. This
not mean
Egypt. The
The
pharaohs merely
them among
the ladies
their harems,
harems, where
where they
they served
pharaohs
merely included
included them
among the
ladies of
of their
served
the actual
who was
was Egyptian
Egyptian by
by birth
birth and
the pharaoh's
pharaoh's own
the
actual queen,
queen, who
and frequently
frequently the
own sister.
sister.
Editor's
note (IMD).
(IMD).
Editor's note

The
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom
The Hittite

277
277

mas's
mas's time,
time, aa fact
fact corroborated
corroborated by
by aa congratulatory
congratulatory letter
letter sent
sent by
by SUpSuppiluliumas to
to Pharaoh
Pharaoh Amenhetep
IV on
on the
occasion of
of his
his ascent
ascent to
to
piluliumas
Amenhetep IV
the occasion
the Egyptian
Egyptian throne.
throne. Eventually,
Eventually, however,
Hittite policies
policies in
in Syria
Syria led
led
the
however, Hittite
to collision
collision with
Egypt.
to
with Egypt.
Since the
the Nineteenth
Nineteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, the
the aim
aim of
of Egyptian
Egyptian policy
policy had
had been
been
Since
the restoration
restoration of
of its
its past
past influence
influence in
in Palestine,
Palestine, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Syria,
Syria,
the
having been
been lost
lost in
in the
the first
of the
the fourteenth
fourteenth century
century B.C.
B.C. Hatti
Hatti
having
first half
half of
now became
Egypt's main
main rival
rival in
in Asia,
Asia, and
and Pharaoh
Pharaoh Rameses
Rameses II
II benow
became Egypt's
began aa prolonged
prolonged war
war against
against the
the Hittites.
Hittites. In
In the
the fifth
fifth year
year of
of his
his rule
rule
gan
(ca. 1312
1312 B.C.)ll
B.C.)11 Rameses
Rameses II
II gathered
gathered an
an army
army of20,000
of 20,000 and
and led
led itit into
into
(ca.
Syria, where
where the
the Hittite
Hittite king
king Muwatallis
Muwatallis prepared
an army
army of
of 30,000
30,000
Syria,
prepared an
warriors. Near
the city
city of
of Kadesh
Kadesh (Qinza)
(Qinza) the
the Hittite
Hittite troops,
troops, which
which ininwarriors.
Near the
cluded militiamen
militiamen from
from various
various tributary
tributary countries
countries (including
(including DardaDardacluded
nians, i.e.,
i.e., Trojans),
Trojans), ambushed
ambushed the
the Egyptian
Egyptian detachments
detachments led
led by
by the
the
nians,
pharaoh and
and thoroughly
thoroughly defeated
defeated them.
them. Rameses
Rameses managed
managed to
to break
break
pharaoh
out from
from the
the encirclement
encirclement and
and repel
repel the
the enemy
enemy but
was unable
unable to
to
out
but was
defeat the
the Hittites
Hittites and
and to
to take
take Kadesh.
Kadesh. Nor,
Nor, for
for that
that matter,
matter, could
could
defeat
the Hittites
Hittites advance
advance farther
farther south.
south. After
After many
many years
years of
of war,
war, in
in the
the
the
when
twenty-first year
year of
of Rameses'
Rameses' rule,
rule, presumably
in 1296
1296 B.C.,12
B.C.,12 when
twenty-first
presumably in
Hattusilis III
III reigned
reigned in
in Hatti,
Hatti, both
both countries
countries signed
signed aa peace
peace treaty
treaty
Hattusilis
providing for
for mutual
mutual nonaggression,
nonaggression, aid
aid against
against common
common foes,
foes, extraextraproviding
dition of
of fugitives,
fugitives, etc.
etc. The
The treaty
treaty was
was confirmed
confirmed by
by aa marriage
marriage of
of
dition
Rameses II
II to
to Hattusilis's
Hattusilis's daughters.
daughters. As
As aa result,
result, Egyptians
Egyptians and
and HitHitRameses
tites never
never again
again fought
fought each
each other.
other.
tites
Hittite
Hittite cuneiform
cuneiform texts
texts from
from the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom contain
contain informainformation about
about Hittite
Hittite contacts
contacts with
with the
the state
state of
of Ahhiyawa
Ahhiyawa (apparently
(apparently
tion
identical to
to the
the Akaiwasha
Akaiwasha mentioned
mentioned in
in Egyptian
Egyptian hieroglyphic
hieroglyphic texts).
identical
texts).
Ahhiyawa is
is mentioned
mentioned in
in connection
connection with
with regions
regions situated
situated in
in westwestAhhiyawa
ern and
and southwestern
southwestern Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. Some
Some scholars
scholars identify
identify the
the name
name of
of
ern
this
Achaeans, which
whichHomer
Homeruses
usestotodescribe
describeaa
this country
country with
with the
the term
term Achaeans,
union
of ancient
ancient Greek
Greek tribes,
tribes, although
although others
others vehemently
vehemently oppose
oppose
union of
this
equivalence as
as linguistically
linguistically highly
improbable. Ahhiyawa
not
this equivalence
highly improbable.
Ahhiyawa has
has not
yet found
found aa definite
definite place
place on
on the
the map.
map. Experts
Experts suggest
suggest that
this councounyet
that this
try
should be
be sought
sought on
on Rhodes,
Rhodes, Cyprus,
Cyprus, Crete,
Crete, or
or somewhere
somewhere in
in
try should
Anatolia
(southwest, west,
or northwest).
northwest). In
In recent
recent times
times more
more and
and
Anatolia (southwest,
west, or
more
scholars have
have tended
tended to
to accept
accept the
the original
original hypothesis
hypothesis that
that idenidenmore scholars
tified
Ahhiyawa with
Mycenaean Greece.
Greece.
tified Ahhiyawa
with Mycenaean
Friendly
prevailed between
Friendly relations
relations prevailed
between Ahhiyawa
Ahhiyawa and
and Hatti
Hatti beginbeginning with
the reign
of Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas I.
I. But
But the
relations later
later deteriodeterioning
with the
reign of
the relations
rated because
because of
rated
of Ahhiyawa's
Ahhiyawa's determination
determination to
to consolidate
consolidate its
its power
power
in
Asia Minor,
the city
in southern
southern and
and southwestern
southwestern Asia
Minor, especially
especially in
in the
city of
of
11.
11. In
In 1286
1286 B.C.,
B.C., according
according to
to other
other estimates.
estimates.
this date
12.
12. Estimates
Estimates of
of this
date vary
vary from
from 1296
1296 to
to 1270
1270 B.C.
B.C.

278

G.
G. G.
G. Giorgadze
Giorgadze

Milawanda
Milawanda (possibly
(possibly the
the later
later Miletus),
Miletus), and
and in
in Alasia
Alasia (the
(the island
island of
of
Cyprus), where
where the
the interests
interests of
of both
both states
states clashed.
clashed. Toward
the secCyprus),
Toward the
second
the thirteenth
thirteenth century,
(i.e.,
ond half
half of
of the
century, "a
"a man
man (from)
(from) Ahhiya(wa)"
Ahhiya(wa)" (i.e.,
ruler of
of that
that country)
country) began
began with
with increasing
increasing frequency
frequency to
to invade
invade
aa ruler
Hittite-dependent countries
countries that
were situated
situated in
in western
western Anatolia.
Anatolia.
Hittite-dependent
that were
It is
is during
during this
this time
time that
that the
the gradual
gradual decline
decline of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite Empire
Empire
It
commenced. Kaska
Kaska tribes
tribes continually
continually attacked
attacked the
the northern
northern regions
regions
commenced.
of their
their weakened
weakened neighbor.
neighbor. According
According to
to some
some scholars,
scholars, this
this was
of
was
taking place
place under
under the
the pressure
pressure of
of Abkhasian
Abkhasian and
and Georgian
Georgian tribes
tribes
taking
that were
were migrating
migrating from
from the
the Caucasus
Caucasus toward
toward the
the southwest.
southwest. In
In easteastthat
ern Asia
Asia Minor
various political
unions became
active in
in the
the Upper
Upper
ern
Minor various
political unions
became active
others). An
An unfavorable
situEuphrates Valley
Valley (Pahhuwa,
(Pahhuwa, Zhuma,
Zhuma, and
and others).
Euphrates
unfavorable situation for
for the
Hittites also
also developed
developed in
in the
the lands
lands of
of Arzawa
Arzawa that
strove
ation
the Hittites
that strove
for political
independence. The
increasing cultural-religious
cultural-religious influinflufor
political independence.
The increasing
ence
of the
the Luwian
Luwian world
world in
in Hatti
itself may
have contributed
contributed to
to this
this
ence of
Hatti itself
may have
situation.1313
situation.
The
The Hittite
Hittite state
state suffered
suffered an
an internal
internal crisis
crisis toward
toward the
the end
end of
of the
the
thirteenth century.
century. Continuous
Continuous military
military expeditions
expeditions strongly
strongly underunderthirteenth
mined the
the country's
country's economy,
economy, various
various branches
branches of
of which
which became
became
mined
ruined. A
A letter
letter addressed
addressed by
by the
the Hittite
Hittite king
king to
to the
the ruler
ruler of
of U
Ugarit
ruined.
garit
reveals that
that Hatti
Hatti suffered
suffered from
from food
food shortages.
shortages. Aegean
Aegean tribes
tribes ininreveals
vaded Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, further
further aggravating
aggravating the
the situation.
situation. Egyptian
Egyptian sources
sources
vaded
14 "No
call them
them the
the Sea
Sea Peoples.
Peoples.14
"No country,
country, beginning
Hatti, was
beginning with
with Hatti,
was
call
able to
resist their
armies," declares
declares an
an Egyptian
Egyptian inscription.
inscription. Hittite
Hittite
able
to resist
their armies,"
sources do
do not
give any
any information
information about
about this
this catastrophe
catastrophe that
that befell
befell
sources
not give
their country
country during
during the
the reign
reign of
of the
the last
last Hittite
Hittite king-SuppiluliukingSuppiluliutheir
mas II.
II.
mas
Around
B.C., or
or somewhat
somewhat later,
later, the
the formerly
formerly powerful
powerful Hittite
Hittite
Around 1200
1200 B.C.,
15
kingdom
kingdom fell
fell once
once and
and for
for all
all together
together with
with its
its capital,
capital, Hattusas.
Hattusas.15
Eastern
Eastern Asia
Asia Minor
Minor sunk
sunk into
into decay
decay for
for three
three to
to four
four centuries.
centuries.
13.
13. Actually,
Actually, during
during this
this period
period Luwian
Luwian may
may have
have completely
completely replaced
replaced Hittite
Hittite
(Nesite) as
as the
the spoken
spoken language.
language. Strong
Strong Hurrian
Hurrian influence
influence was
was also
also felt
felt in
in the
the Hittite
Hittite
(Nesite)
this time.
time. Editor's
note (IMD).
(IMD).
capital
capital at
at this
Editor's note
14. Egyptian
Egyptian sources
sources name
name many
many of
of the
the Sea
Sea Peoples,
Peoples, butthey
but they are
are difficult
difficult to
to ideniden14.
tify.
kywsh (probably
with
thethe
(probablytotobeberead
readasasAkaiwasha)
Akaiwasha)
with
tify. Possible
Possible identifications
identifications are
are of
of the'
the 'kywsh
Achaeans; the
rk (to
(to be
be read
read as
as Rukka,
Rukka, Lukka)
with the
the Lycians
Lycians inin southwestern
southwestern Asia
Asia
Achaeans;
the rk
Lukka) with
(tobe
beread
readasasShikulai)
Shikulai)with
withthe
theSiculi;
Siculi;the
theprst
prst(to(tobeberead
readasasPurusta
Purusta
Minor; the
the shkrsh
shkrsh (to
Minor;
or Pulasta})
withthe
thePhilistines
Philistinesand
and possibly
possiblythe
thePelasgoi;
Pelasgoi;and
and the
the trsh
trsh(to(tobeberead
readasas
or
Pulasta?) with
Turshaor
or Trasha?)
Trasha?)
with
Etruscans
(Tirseni)
with
Thracians
(Thrasici).
Note
Tursha
with
thethe
Etruscans
(Tirseni)
or or
with
thethe
Thracians
(Thrasici).
Note
that vowels
vowels were
were not
not spelled
spelled out
out in
in Egyptian.
Egyptian. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).
that
(IMD).
15.
Which of
the migrating
migrating tribes
tribes actually
king15. Which
of the
actually destroyed
destroyed Hattusas
Hattusas and
and the
the Hittite
Hittite kingdom is
is not
not clear.
clear. In
In the
the opinion
opinion of
of I.
I. M.
M. Diakonoff,
Diakonoff, the
the Indo-European
Indo-European Mushki
Mushki tribes
tribes
dom
were responsible.
responsible. The
The Mushki
Mushki belonged
to aa non-Hittite
non-Hittite and
and non-Luwian
non-Luwian group
group oflndoof Indobelonged to
were
European speakers.
speakers. Later,
Later, according
according to
to this
this scholar,
scholar, they
they merged
merged with
with the
the Urartians
Urartians
European
and Hurrians
Hurrians and
and formed
formed the
Armenian nation,
nation, giving
giving them
Indo-European lanlanand
the Armenian
them their
their Indo-European
guage. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).
guage.
(IMD).

The
The Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom

279
279

During the
the same
same critical
critical period,
the famous
famous city
city of
of Troy
Troy perished
perished in
in
During
period, the
the
the civilizations
the war
war against
against the
the Achaeans.
Achaeans. Troy
Troy had
had linked
linked the
civilizations of
of Asia
Asia
Minor with
those of
of the
Balkan Peninsula.
Peninsula. Legends
Legends about
about the
the fall
fall
Minor
with those
the Balkan
of Troy
Troy eventually
eventually supplied
supplied the
the subject
subject matter
matter for
for the
the great
great Greek
Greek
of
poems attributed
attributed to
poet Homer:
The Iliad
and The
poems
to the
the legendary
legendary poet
Homer: The
Iliad and
The
Odyssey.
Socioeconomic Relations
Relations in
in the
the Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom
Socioeconomic
Farming
and livestock
livestock breeding
the main
occupations of
of the
HitFarming and
breeding were
were the
main occupations
the Hittite people.,
people., This
This is
is reflected
reflected in
in many
many paragraphs
paragraphs of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite laws.
laws.
tite
The Hittites
Hittites bred
bred sheep,
sheep, goats,
goats, pigs,
and cattle.
cattle. During
During the
second
The
pigs, and
the second
breeding began
through Asia
Minor.
millennium B.C.
millennium
B.C. horse
horse breeding
began to
to spread
spread through
Asia Minor.
The Hittites
learned the
methods for
for training
battle
The
Hittites learned
the most
most advanced
advanced methods
training battle
horses from
from aa text
text that
"texthorses
that had
had been
been translated
translated into
into Hittite
Hittite from
from aa "textbook"
written by
the Hurrian
Hurrian horse
horse breeder
breeder Kikkuli.
laws esbook" written
by the
Kikkuli. Hittite
Hittite laws
established
prices of
of various
domestic animals:
animals: for
for example,
example, aa horse
horse
tablished the
the prices
various domestic
or aa mule
cost 15-40
1540 shekels
shekels of
of silver;
silver; aa sheep
sheep cost
cost 11 shekel.
shekel. (A
(Ashekel
shekel
or
mule cost
was
unit of
of approximately
8.4 grams.)
Poultry and
apiculture
was aa weight
weight unit
approximately 8.4
grams.) Poultry
and apiculture
also
Hittite kingdom.
kingdom.
also played
played aa role
role in
in the
the Hittite
Agriculture
important in
the Hittite
economy. The
The working
working
Agriculture was
was important
in the
Hittite economy.
population
Compopulation cultivated
cultivated arable
arable land
land and
and orchards
orchards and
and vineyards.
vineyards. Compared
with domestic
domestic animals,
iku (0.865
(0.865 acres)
acres)
pared with
animals, land
land was
was cheap;
cheap; 11 iku
of
cost 11 shekel
shekel of
of silver;
cultivated land
cost 2-3
2-3
of uncultivated
uncultivated land
land cost
silver; cultivated
land cost
shekels.
16
shekels.16
Alongside
reached aa
Alongside agriculture
agriculture and
and stock
stock rearing,
rearing, the
the crafts
crafts also
also reached
high level
level of
of development
development in
in Hittite
Hittite society,
society, especially
especially bronze
bronze metalmetalhigh
lurgy and
and pottery
making. Archaeologists
Archaeologists have
have discovered
discovered excellent
excellent
lurgy
pottery making.
examples of
of bronze
bronze agricultural
agricultural implements
implements and
and other
other tools,
tools, bronze
bronze
examples
weapons,
and highly
artistic ceramic
ceramic artifacts.
artifacts. The
high level
level of
of HitHitweapons, and
highly artistic
The high
tite
agriculture and
and crafts
crafts contributed
contributed to
to the
the development
development of
of trade.
trade.
tite agriculture
Several
forms of
ownership and
and land
land tenure
the
Several forms
of land
land ownership
tenure existed
existed in
in the
Hittite
There were
royal (or
(or palace),
palace), temple,
and private
private
Hittite kingdom.
kingdom. There
were royal
temple, and
private property
(community) lands.
lands. Royal
Royal and
and temple
temple lands
lands were
were the
the private
property
(community)
of the
the supreme
supreme power
of the
the state,
state, because
not only
only the
the
of
power of
because the
the king
king was
was not
supreme ruler
of the
the country
country but
but also
also the
the high
high priest
priest and,
and, conseconsesupreme
ruler of
quently, the
the principal
principal owner
owner of
of palace
palace and
and temple
temple lands.
lands. However,
However,
quently,
not
all the
the land
land in
in the
country was
was the
king's property.
Some land
land was
not all
the country
the king's
property. Some
was
outside the
the state
state economic
economic sector.
sector. Such
Such land
land could
could be
be alienated
alienated (by
outside
(by
purchase-sale
transactions, gifts,
gifts, etc.).
purchase-sale transactions,
etc.).
16.
16. These
These prices
prices are
are incredibly
incredibly low.
low. Some
Some scholars
scholars think
think that
that land
land in
in the
the Hittite
Hittite
kingdom, as
as in
in early
early Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, was
was not
not involved
involved in
in normal
normal commodity
commodity circulation,
circulation,
kingdom,
and
the above
and the
above evaluations
evaluations refer
refer to
to cases
cases when
when land
land was
was transferred
transferred from
from aa debtor
debtor to
to aa
creditor
to cover
note (IMD).
(IMD).
creditor to
cover aa loan.
loan. Editor's
Editor's note

280

G.
G. G.
G. Giorgadze
Giorgadze

State
State lands
lands could
could be
be assigned
assigned to
to the
the various
various royal
royal (or
(or palace)
palace) and
and
temple
economies,
usually
as
undivided
tracts
including
several
temple economies, usually as undivided tracts including several
villages.
The royal
royal economy
economy encompassed
encompassed different
different estates,
estates, called
called
villages. The
"houses": for
for example,
example, "the
"the king's
king's house"
house" (sometimes
(sometimes called
called "house
"house of
of
"houses":
the
Sun"), "the
"the queen's
queen's house,"
"the house
house of
of the
the palace."
Land was
the Sun"),
house," "the
palace." Land
was
tilled by
by people
people of
of different
different statuses.
statuses. A
A certain
certain number
number of
of the
the workworktilled
ers were
were permanently
assigned to
to each
each house.
house. Temple
Temple economies
economies
permanently assigned
ers
included estates
estates called
called "house
"house of
of aa god"
god" (temples
(temples proper),
proper), "stone
"stone
included
17
houses,"
"bone houses,"
"seal houses,"
"tablet houses."
Each house
house
houses," 17 "bone
houses," "seal
houses," "tablet
houses." Each
had
its own
own staff
staff of
of workers,
workers, who
also were
were often
often permanently
had its
who also
permanently asassigned to
to the
the land
of the
the temple
temple economies
economies (or
(or to
to economies
economies conconsigned
land of
nected with
with specific
specific cultic
cultic activities,
activities, such
such as
as funerary
funerary rites).
rites). Houses
Houses
nected
could also
also be
transferred to
to different
different royal
royal and
and temple
temple officials,
officials,
could
be transferred
usually together
together with
assigned to
to the
the land
land and
and their
their corcorusually
with the
the workers
workers assigned
responding villages.
villages. Land
Land could
could also
also be
be granted
granted as
as such,
such, without
without
responding
laborers.
laborers.
The large
large houses
of the
the state
state sector
sector were
were subdivided
subdivided into
into smaller
smaller
The
houses of
economies: individual
individual (nuclear)
(nuclear) houses,
houses, which
which were
were the
the basic
produceconomies:
basic production cells
use of
oblition
cells of
of Hittite
Hittite society.
society. The
The possession
possession and
and use
of state
state land
land obligated the
the grantee
grantee to
fulfill two
of state
state duties:
duties: the
sahhan and
and
gated
to fulfill
two kinds
kinds of
the sahhan
sahhan was
wasan
an in-kind
in-kind tax
tax that
that required
required the
the individual
individual
the Luzzi.
luzzi. The
The sahhan
the
producers
or large
large houses
houses to
to supply
supply the
the king
king and
and high
high state
state functionfunctionproducers or
aries ("the
("the lord
lord of
of the
the country,"
country," the
the district
district chief,
chief, the
the city
city mayor,
mayor, etc.)
etc.)
aries
with
finished products
(dairy and
and other
other foodstuffs,
foodstuffs, wool,
wool, etc.),
etc.), as
as well
with finished
products (dairy
well
as domestic
domestic animals.
animals. The
The Luzzi
luzzi was
was aa labor
labor duty
duty involving
involving work
work in
in the
the
as
fields and
and vineyards,
vineyards, plowing,
plowing, repairing
repairing fortifications,
fortifications, construction,
construction,
fields
and other
other state
state and
and public
work for
for the
the benefit
benefit of
of the
the country's
country's ruler
ruler
and
public work
or high
high state
state officials.
officials. The
The luzzi
also included
included the
the obligation
obligation of
of royal
royal
or
Luzzi also
employees and
and large
large houses
houses to
to furnish
furnish troops
for the
Hittite army.
army.18
employees
troops for
the Hittite
18
A
A person
person could
could be
be freed
freed from
from the
the sahhan
sahhanand
and the
the Luzzi
luzzibybya aspecial
special
royal decree.
decree. Temple
and various
various cultic
cultic establishments
establishments were
were usually
usually
royal
Temple and
free from
from state
state obligations,
obligations, because
laborers worked
only for
for the
the
free
because their
their laborers
worked only
benefit of
of the
the deity.
deity. There
There were,
were, however,
however, cases
cases of
of double
double exploitaexploitabenefit
tion
forced to
both for
for the
or his
his offioffition whereby
whereby workers
workers were
were forced
to toil
toil both
the king
king or
cials and
and for
for the
temple.
cials
the temple.
17.
17. These
These were
were apparently
apparently royal
royal mausoleums
mausoleums and
and funerary
funerary temples.
temples.
18. Some
Some scholars
scholars believe
believe that
that the
the population
population outside
outside the
the state
state sector
sector was
was also
also subsub18.
ject
to military
military service
service and
and some
some other
other conscription
conscription duties.
duties. They
They assume
assume the
the existence
existence
ject to
of aa private/communal
private/communal sector
sector on
on the
the basis
basis of
of indirect
indirect allusions
allusions found
found in
in Hittite
Hittite laws
laws and
and
of
law. Some
Some citizens
citizens were
were subject
subject to
on the
the dual
dual jurisdiction
of the
the courts
courts of
of law.
on
jurisdiction of
to the
the jurisdicjurisdiction of
of royal
royal functionaries
functionaries and
and others
others to
to that
that of
of community
community elders,
elders, or
or miyahwantes
miyahwantes(ac(action
cording to
to the
the "Instruction
"Instruction to
to the
the District
District Chief").
Chief"). It
It must
must be
in mind
mind that
that no
no
cording
be kept
kept in
private documents
documents have
have been
been preserved
preserved from
from the
the Hittite
Hittite kingdom;
probably having
having
private
kingdom; probably
been written
written on
on wood,
wood, they
they did
did not
not survive.
survive. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).
been
(IMD).

The
The Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom

281

In
In agricultural
agricultural activities
activities in
in the
the state
state sector
sector there
there developed
developed and
and concontinued to
to exist
exist two
two types
types of
of economic
economic relationships:
relationships: the
the slave
slave type
type and
and
tinued
the serf
serf type
type (by
(by the
the latter
latter we
we mean
mean corvee
corvee labor).
labor). The
The methods
methods of
of
the
exploitation were
were mainly
mainly of
of aa slave-owning
slave-owning type
type coexisting
coexisting with
with an
an exexexploitation
ploitation of
of the
the corvee
corvee type.
type. Thus
Thus we
we can
can call
call the
the workers
workers of
of the
the state
state
ploitation
We also
also should
should
sector dependent
dependent laborers
laborers of
of the
the slave
slave and
and serf
serf type.
type.19
sector
19 We
keep in
in mind
mind that
that aa Hittite
Hittite "serf"
"serf" did
did not
not constitute
constitute aa distinct
distinct social
social
keep
class separate
separate from
from that
that of
of slaves.
slaves. The
The Hittites
Hittites themselves,
themselves, although
although
class
they distinguished
distinguished serfs
serfs from
from common
common slaves,
slaves, still
still referred
referred to
to them
them
they
both as
as "heads
"heads of
of [female]
[female] and
and [male]
[male] slaves"
slaves" (Sumerian
(Sumerian sag-geme-ir;
both
sag-geme-ir;
Akkadian ashtapiru).
ashtapiru).For
Forthis
thisreason;
reason,they
theyare
aretoday
todayoften
oftenregarded
regardedasas
Akkadian
20
subcategories of
of one
one and
and the
the same
same class
class of
of nonfree
nonfree persons.
persons.20
subcategories
Hittite
nonfree perHittite law
law divided
divided its
its society
society into
into free
free persons
persons and
and nonfree
persons.
people were
if
sons. From
From the
the very
very beginning
beginning people
were referred
referred to
to as
as free
free only
only if
and luzzi,
luzzi,
they were
were freed
freed by
by the
the king
king from
from the
the state
state duties
duties of
of sahhan
they
sahhan and
not just
those due
due to
to the
the king
king (or
(or palace)
palace) and
and high
high officials
officials but
but also
also
not
just those
obligations to
to temples
temples and
and cultic
cultic establishments.
establishments. People
People free
free of
of all
all
obligations
obligations gradually
gradually became
became "noble,
"noble, honorable,
honorable, and
and well-born"
well-born" and
and
obligations
constituted the
the top
top echelon
echelon of
of the
the ruling
ruling hierarchy
hierarchy (royal
(royal servants,
servants,
constituted
military chiefs,
chiefs, administrators,
administrators, temple
temple servants,
servants, who
who held
held large
large land
land
military
estates). For
For them
them physical
physical labor
labor became
became aa shameful
shameful occupation
occupation or
or aa
estates).
form of
of punishment.
punishment.
form
Nonfree
Nonfree persons
persons were
were those
those who
who were
were not
not liberated
liberated from
from obligaobligatory labor-even
laboreven if
if it
it were
were only
only one
one single
single obligatory
obligatory duty.
duty. They
They all
tory
all
were therefore
therefore considered
considered socially
socially dependent.
dependent. When
When such
such aa person
person
were
was
high state
was freed
freed from
from duties
duties to
to the
the king
king and
and high
state officials
officials or
or servants,
servants,
he was
was transferred
transferred to
to work
work for
for the
the temple;
temple; he
he remained
remained nonfree,
nonfree, or
or
he
dependent. Thenonfree
The nonfree inhabitants
inhabitants comprised
comprised large
large numbers
numbers of
of
dependent.
direct production
production workers
workers (plowmen,
(plowmen, shepherds,
shepherds, craftsmen,
craftsmen, gardengardendirect
ers, and
and so
so forth)
forth) and
and formed
formed the
the lowest
lowest social
social stratum,
stratum, in
in the
the Hittite
Hittite
ers,
kingdom. They
They included
included slaves
slaves and
and serfs
serfs (i.e.,
(i.e., helots),
helots), hired
hired hands,
hands,
kingdom.
etc.people in
in various
various forms
forms of
of dependence.
dependence.
etc.-people
War
Hittite society
War furnished
furnished Hittite
society with
with an
an additional
additional labor
labor force
force and
and
material
milimaterial goods.
goods. The
The Hittites
Hittites took
took many
many prisoners
prisoners during
during their
their military
expeditions. Mursilis
Mursilis II
II alone
alone brought
brought back
back 66,000
66,000 captives
captives from
from
tary expeditions.
the lands
lands of
of Arzawa.
Arzawa. In
In the
the annals
annals of
of Mursilis
Mursilis II
II they
they are
are described
described
the
nam-ra(read
(readininHittite
Hittiteasasarnuwala),
arnuwala),meaning
meaning
with the
the Sumerian
Sumerian term
term nam"ra
with
"deported" (captured
(captured inhabitants
inhabitants of
of aa conquered
conquered territory).
territory). Some
Some of
of
"deported"
these deported
deported people
people were
were converted
converted into
into different
different kinds
kinds of
of slaves,
these
slaves,
19.
19. In
In the
the earlier
earlier lectures
lectures of
of our
our book,
book, this
this type
type of
of worker
worker was
was called
called aa helot.
helot. Editor's
Editor's
note
(IMD).
note (IMD).
20.
20. They
They can
can also
also be
be regarded
regarded as
as members
members of
of the
the "slave
"slave class
class in
in the
the broad
broad sense
sense of
of
the
(IMD).
the term."
term." Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).

282

G.
G.G.
G. Giorgadze

and others
others were
were settled
settled on
on land
land as
as subjects
subjects of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite king
and oband
king and
obligated
ligated to
to corvee
corvee labor.
labor. (They
(They were
were sometimes
sometimes also
also taken
taken into
into the
the
army.) After
After aa certain
certain period
period of
of time
could no
no longer
longer be
be distindistinarmy.)
time they
they could
guished from
from the
the rest
of the
the Hittite
Hittite working
population.
guished
rest of
working population.
There
were different
producers of
There were
different categories
categories of
of direct
direct producers
of material
material
goods.
goods. Some
Some were
were fully
fully dispossessed
dispossessed of
of all
all property
property rights,
rights, including
including
property in
in the
the means
means of
of production,
production, and
and their
their labor
labor was
was exacted
exacted by
property
by
coercion. They
They were
were slaves,
slaves, not
not subjects,
subjects, but
but only
only objects,
objects, of
of law
law that
that
coercion.
were
were used
used in
in domestic
domestic service,
service, to
to work
work the
the land
land of
of the
the houses,
houses, to
to tend
tend
livestock, and
and so
so on.
on. Others
Others had
had means
means of
of production
production at
at their
their dislivestock,
disposal,
but only
only as
as aa conditional
conditional possession
possession and
and not
not as
as their
their private
private
posal, but
property. Economically
Economically (but
(but not
not socially),
socially), they
they differed
differed from
from the
the prepreproperty.
vious
category. They
They usually
usually had
had certain
certain legal
legal rights
rights and
and their
their own
own
vious category.
"houses" (economies),
(economies), families,
families, land
land (as
(as aa rule,
only on
on the
basis of
of
"houses"
rule, only
the basis
possession, not
not property
right), aa few
few domestic
domestic animals
animals and
and could
could
possession,
property right),
have their
their own
own working
working personnel
(i.e., slaves).
slaves). For
For small
small producers
producers
personnel (i.e.,
have
this created
created an
an opportunity
opportunity for
for incentive
incentive and
and economic
economic initiative.
initiative.
this
From the
the legal
legal viewpoint,
viewpoint, all
all categories
categories of
of direct
direct producers
producers consticonstiFrom
tuted one
one exploited
exploited class-a
classa stratum
stratum of
of dependent,
dependent, nonfree
nonfree people.
people.
tuted
The
The Hittite
Hittite state
state was
was loosely
loosely structured.
structured. In
In this
this respect
respect it
it resembled
resembled
Mitanni
Mitanni and
and other,
other, relatively
relatively short-lived
short-lived state
state confederations
confederations of
of Asia
Asia
Minor, Syria,
Syria, and
and northern
northern Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. Apart
Apart from
from the
cities and
and
the cities
Minor,
regions directly
directly under
under the
the authority
authority of
of the
the king,
king, there
there were
were semidesemideregions
pendent kingdoms
kingdoms (under
(under the
the king's
sons and
and kinsmen),
kinsmen), as
as well
as rependent
king's sons
well as
regions placed
under the
the rule
rule of
of high
high officials.
officials. The
The entire
entire state
state was
gions
placed under
was
headed by
by the
the king,
king, hassus,
hassus,who
whoalso
also(contrary
(contrarytotolesser
lesserkings)
kings)bore
borethe
the
headed
title tabarnas,
tabarnas,and
andbybythe
thequeen,
queen,who
whocould
couldhold
holdthe
thetitle
titletawanannas
tawanannas
title
if she
she was
was the
the mother
mother of
of the
the heir
heir apparent
apparent or
or of
of the
the king
king himself.
himself.
if
The king
king performed
performed important
important military,
military, religious-cultic,
religious-cultic, legal,
legal, diplodiploThe
matic, and
and economic
economic functions.
functions. The
The tawanannas
tawanannasoccupied
occupiedananequally
equally
matic,
elevated position
in the
the Hittite
Hittite social
social structure;
structure; she
she was
the supreme
supreme
elevated
position in
was the
priestess,
array of
of cult-related
cult-related and
and political
functions and
and
priestess, with
with aa wide
wide array
political functions
rights. Moreover,
Moreover, she
she had
had her
her own
independent income.
income.
rights.
own independent
The
and servants:
of
The royal
royal court
court included
included many
many functionaries
functionaries and
servants: "sons
"sons of
the
palace," "bearers
the palace,"
"bearers of
of the
the golden
golden spear,"
spear," "men
"men of
of the
the scepter,"
scepter,"
"overseers of
of aa thousand,"
thousand," "wine
"wine scoopers,"
scoopers," "masters
"masters of
of repast,"
repast,"
"overseers
"cooks,"
"cooks," "cupbearers,"
"cupbearers," "barbers,"
"barbers," "bread
"bread bakers,"
bakers," "milkers,"
"milkers," and
and so
so
on. Moreover,
Moreover, the
the king
king was
was served
served by
by "tanners,"
"tanners," "shoemakers,"
"shoemakers," and
and
on.
"makers of
of battle
chariots." They
They were
were regarded
regarded as
as "slaves
"slaves [servants]"
"makers
battle chariots."
[servants]"
of the
the king,
king, although
although they
they were
were not
not slaves
slaves in
in the
the social
social sense
sense of
of the
the
of
word. They
They all
all received
received parcels
of land
land for
for their
their sustenance.
sustenance.
word.
parcels of
Temples had
had large
large economies
economies that
that were
were structurally
structurally analogous
analogous to
to
Temples
the royal
royal economy.
economy. Various
Various categories
categories of
of people
people worked
worked for
for the
the
the
temples. There
There were
were cult
cult servants
servants ("high
("high priests,"
priests," "minor
"minor priests,"
temples.
priests,"

The
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom
The Hittite

283

"annointed
"annointed ones,"
ones," "musicians,"
"musicians," "singers"),
"singers"), servants
servants of
of the
the "kitchen"
"kitchen"
("masters
("masters of
of repast,"
repast," "cooks,"
"cooks," "bread
"bread bakers," "wine
"wine makers"),
makers"), and
and
direct
producers of
material goods
direct producers
of material
goods (plowmen,
(plowmen, shepherds,
shepherds, cattle
cattle herdherders,
were all
in regard
regard to
ers, gardeners).
gardeners). They
They were
all subsumed
subsumed as
as "slaves"
"slaves" in
to the
the
god,
they also
not actually
slaves.
god, although
although they
also were
were not
actually slaves.
Justice
Law
Justice and
and Law

The Hittites
Hittites believed
law was
was of
of divine
divine origin,
origin, although
although this
this is
not
The
believed the
the law
is not
stated
words in
the legal
texts. The
stated in
in so
so many
many words
in the
legal texts.
The collection
collection of
of laws
laws that
that
have reached
have
reached us
us consists
consists of
of two
two main
main tablets.
tablets. The
The first
first had
had already
already
been
the beginning
beginning of
the Old
been written
written in
in the
of the
Old Kingdom.
Kingdom. (There
(There is
is also
also aa
later variant
dated to
thirteenth century
century B.C.)
B.C.) Having
class charcharlater
variant dated
to the
the thirteenth
Having aa class
acter,
the protection
protection of
acter, Hittite
Hittite laws
laws stressed
stressed the
of property,
property, especially
especially the
the
private property
property rights,
rights, of
of the
the free
free persons.
persons. The
The laws
laws established
established aa
private
fixed
fixed scale
scale of
of prices,
prices, aa sign
sign of
of aa certain
certain degree
degree of
of development
development in
in the
the
commodity-money system.
system. (Prices
(Prices are
are also
also fixed
fixed for
for slave-craftsmen,
slave-craftsmen,
commodity-money
including potters,
smiths, carpenters,
carpenters, tanners,
tanners, tailors,
tailors, weavers,
weavers, and
and
including
potters, smiths,
bird
catchers. They
They range
from 10
10 to
to 20
20 shekels
shekels of
of silver.)
bird catchers.
range from
silver.)21
21
A
A whole
whole series
series of
of paragraphs
paragraphs is
is dedicated
dedicated to
to family
family and
and inheritance
inheritance
law. The
The Hittite
family was
was patriarchal.
It was
was indisputably
indisputably headed
law.
Hittite family
patriarchal. It
headed by
by
the father:
father: his
his authority
authority applied
applied not
not only
only to
family property
but also
also
the
to family
property but
to his
his wife
wife and
and children,
children, although
although his
rights over
over the
the family
family members
members
to
his rights
were
not limitless.
limitless. Different
Different forms
forms of
of marriage
marriage existed.
existed. One
One type
of
were not
type of
marriage involved
involved aa payment
of bride-money
bride-money by
by the
groom's family.
family.
marriage
payment of
the groom's
Another, the
the errebu-marriage,
m*&M-marriage, was
was characterized
characterized by
the son-in-law
son-in-law beAnother,
by the
becoming aa member
member of
of the
the bride's
bride's family,
family, which
which paid
ransom. Finally,
Finally,
coming
paid aa ransom.
there
marriage by
abduction. Marriage
Marriage between
free and
and nonfree
nonfree
there was
was marriage
by abduction.
between free
persons was
was permitted
under certain
certain conditions.
conditions.
persons
permitted under
Hittite
Hittite Culture
Culture
The
the merger
Hattian and
The Hittite
Hittite nation
nation originated
originated from
from the
merger of
of Hattian
and IndoIndoEuropean tribes.
tribes. Both
Both ethnic
ethnic groups
groups also
also contributed
contributed their
their respective
respective
European
its
cultural
rise to
to the
cultural achievements,
achievements, giving
giving rise
the Hittite
Hittite culture,
culture, which
which from
from its
beginnings
was characterized
characterized by
wealth of
of local
local Hattian
Hattian traditions.
traditions.
beginnings was
by aa wealth
Hurrian
and Luwian
cultural elements
elements also
also played
played an
an important
important role
role
Hurrian and
Luwian cultural
in the
the development
development of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite culture.
culture. The
The same
same can
can be
said about
about
in
be said
the influences
influences of
of northern
northern Syrian
Syrian and
and Sumerian-Akkadian
Sumerian-Akkadian cultures.
cultures.
the
A
rich
Hittite
literature
has
been
preserved
in
the
Boghazkoy
arA rich Hittite literature has been preserved in the Boghazkoy ar21.
prices were
probably not
just as
price lists
lists
21. These
These prices
were probably
not used
used by
by the
the Hittites,
Hittites, just
as similar
similar price
were not
not used
used in
were
in Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, for
for actual
actual business
business transactions.
transactions. More
More likely
likely they
they served
served
the courts
as
used by
by the
as estimates
estimates used
courts in
in cases
cases of
of damage
damage and
and theft.
theft. As
As already
already mentioned
mentioned
above,
note (IMD).
(IMD).
above, there
there were
were almost
almost no
no slave-craftsmen
slave-craftsmen in
in Old
Old Babylonia.
Babylonia. Editor's
Editor's note

284

G.
G-.G.G.Giorgadze
Giorgadze

chive,
chive, which
which contains
contains official
official texts
texts (royal
(royal decrees,
decrees, instructions,
instructions, anannals), as
as well
well as
as mythological
and legendary
legendary texts
texts and
and aa great
great number
number
nals),
mythological and
of
of ritual
ritual texts.
texts. One
One of
of the
the world's
world's first
first autobiographies
autobiographies is
is found
found in
in this
this
archive: "The
"The Autobiography
Autobiography of
of Hattusilis
Hattusilis III."
III." A
A considerable
considerable numnumarchive:
ber
ber of
of Near
Near Eastern
Eastern literary
literary works
works were
were translated
translated into
into the
the Hittite
Hittite
New Kingdom
language
language during
during the
the New
Kingdom (such
(such as
as "The
"The Epic
Epic of
of Gilgamesh"
Gilgamesh"
and aa number
number of
of Hurrian
Hurrian myths).
myths). The
The most
most important
important are
are the
the HurHurand
rian myths
myths about
about the
heavenly kingdom,
kingdom, which
deal with
the transfer
transfer
rian
the heavenly
which deal
with the
of power
one dynasty
of gods
gods to
to another,
another, and
and the
the "Song
"Song of
of
power from
from one
dynasty of
of
Ullikumme," an
an originally
originally Hurrian
Hurrian poem
about the
the god
Kumarwe.
Ullikumme,"
poem about
god Kumarwe.
These literary
literary works
works represent
represent aa link
link connecting
connecting the
the ancient
ancient Near
Near
These
Eastern literatures
literatures with
with the
the ancient
ancient Greek
Greek mythological
mythological and
and poetic
poetic
Eastern
tradition, especially
especially with
with the
the Theogony
TheogonyofofHesiod.
Hesiod.The
Thesubject
subjectofofthe
the
tradition,
"Song of
of Ullikumme"
Ullikumme" is
is the
the succession
succession of
of four
four generations
generations of
of gods
gods in
in
"Song
heaven,
analogous to
to Hesiod's
Hesiod's story
story of
of the
of power
from UraUraheaven, analogous
the transfer
transfer of
power from
nus to
to Cronos
Cronos and
and from
from Cronos
Cronos to
to Zeus.
Zeus. It
It is
is very
very similar
similar to
to Hesiod's
Hesiod's
nus
myth about
about Typhon.
Typhon.
myth
Hittite mythological
mythological literature,
literature, which
which also
also includes
includes myths
myths of
of HatHatHittite
tian
tian origin,
origin, is
is very
very rich.
rich. One
One of
of the
the mythological
mythological tales
tales connected
connected with
with
the
the Hattian
Hattian New
New Year
Year ritual
ritual is
is "The
"The Myth
Myth of
of the
the Serpent
Serpent Illuyankas."
Illuyankas."
The ritual
the battle
divine hero
hero and
and his
his enemy,
enemy,
The
ritual re-created
re-created the
battle between
between aa divine
the dragon
dragon Illuyankas.
Illuyankas. It
It was
was performed
before the
the celebration
celebration of
of the
the
the
performed before
New Year.
Year. This
This battle
battle is
is to
to be
be compared
compared with
with the
the ritual
ritual battles
battles that
that
New
were staged
staged in
in later
later times
times in
in many
many countries
countries of
of the
the world
world at
at New
New Year
Year
were
celebrations. Another
Another myth
myth traced
traced back
back to
to Hattian
Hattian tradition,
tradition, "The
"The
celebrations.
Myth of
of Telepinus,"
Telepinus," is
is about
about aa temporarily
temporarily disappearing
disappearing and
and resurresurMyth
recting
deity. One
One of
of the
the attributes
attributes in
in the
the cult
cult of
of this
this god
god was
was an
an evereverrecting deity.
green tree.
tree.
green
Hittite objects
objects of
of art
art are
are characterized
characterized by
by the
the variety
variety and
and origiorigiHittite
nality of
of their
their designs
designs and
and shapes
shapes (silver
(silver and
and bronze
bronze animal
animal figurines,
figurines,
nality
gold goblets
goblets and
and pitchers,
pitchers, gold
gold ornaments,
ornaments, and
and so-called
so-called military
military
gold
standards,
standards, which
which sometimes
sometimes depict
depict aa deer).
deer). Original
Original idols
idols have
have been
been
found at
at Kiil-tepe,
Kul-tepe, together
with pottery
pottery items
items (cups,
(cups, rhytons,
rhytons, vases,
found
together with
vases,
etc.). The
The period
period of
of the
the New
New Kingdom
Kingdom saw
saw the
the appearance
appearance in
in Asia
Asia
etc.).
Minor of
of aa monumental
monumental style
style in
in different
different fields
of art
art (architec(architecMinor
fields of
ture, stone
stone reliefs,
reliefs, and
and animal
animal sculptures,
sculptures, such
such as
as lions
lions and
and sphinxes).
sphinxes).
ture,
Stoneworking reached
reached aa high
high level
level of
of sophistication
sophistication in
in Hatti;
Hatti; aa beautibeautiStoneworking
ful example
example of
of this
this is
is the
the gallery
gallery of
of sculpture
sculpture carved
carved in
in high
high relief
relief into
into
ful
the rock
rock at
at Yazilikaya.
Yazilikaya. Original
Original examples
examples of
of Hittite
Hittite glyptics
glyptics have
have also
also
the
been preserved.
They include
include royal
seals with
inscriptions in
in Luwian
Luwian
been
preserved. They
royal seals
with inscriptions
hieroglyphics
and in
in the
the Hittite
Hittite cuneiform
cuneiform script.
script.
hieroglyphics and
Hittite
Hittite religion
religion played
played an
an extremely
extremely important
important role
role in
in the
the ideologiideological and
and economic
economic life
life of
of the
the society.
society. In
In the
the words
words of
of the
the Hittites,
Hittites, there
there
cal
were "a
"a thousand
thousand gods
gods of
of Hatti,"
Hatti," among
among whom
whom were
were gods
gods of
of diverse
diverse
were

The
The Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom

285

origins: Hattian,
Hattian, Indo-European
Indo-European (Nesite,
(Nesite, Luwian,
Luwian, Palaic,
Palaic, and
and also
also
origins:
Aryan),
Hurrian, Assyrian,
Aryan), Hurrian,
Assyrian, Babylonian,
Babylonian, Sumerian,
Sumerian, and
and others.22
others.22 The
The
principal
deity was
the Thunder
Thunder god,
god, "King
"King of
of Heaven,
Heaven, Lord
Lord of
of the
the
principal deity
was the
Hatti Country."
Country." His
His wife
was the
the goddess
goddess of
of the
the Sun
Sun from
from the
city of
Hatti
wife was
the city
of
Arinna, "Lady
"Lady of
of the
the Hatti
Hatti Country,
Country, of
of the
the Heavens
Heavens and
and Earth,
Earth, Lady
Lady
Arinna,
of the
the Kings
Kings and
and Queens
Queens of
of Hatti."
Hatti."
of
The
The traditions
traditions of
of Hittite
Hittite culture
culture did
did not
not vanish
vanish after
after the
the fall
fall of
of the
the
Hittite state.
state.
Hittite
22. Reliable
references to
Aryan (i.e.,
(i.e., Indo-European)
Indo-European) gods
gods can
can be
found only
only in
in aa
22.
Reliable references
to Aryan
be found
long list
list of
of deities
deities mentioned
mentioned in
in aa treaty
treaty between
between the
the Hittite
and Mitanni.
Mitanni.
Hittite kingdom
kingdom and
long
Mitanni,
was ruled
Indo-Iranian origin.
Mitanni, as
as mentioned
mentioned before,
before, was
ruled by
by aa dynasty
dynasty of
of Indo-Iranian
origin. Thus,
Thus,
these Aryan
may not
not have
been part
part of
the Hittite
Hittite pantheon
pantheon at
these
Aryan gods
gods may
have been
of the
at all.
all. Editor's
Editor's note
note
(IMD).
(IMD).

14
14
Syria,
Syria, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine
Palestine
in
the Third
in the
Third and
and Second
Second
Millennia
Millennia B.C.
B.C.
I. M. DIAKONOFF
DlAKONOFF

The
The Emergence
Emergence of
of Civilization
Civilization
In
willwill
be used
ex- exIn this
this lecture
lecture the
the terms
terms Syria,
Syria,Phoenicia,
Phoenicia,and
andPalestine
Palestine
be used
clusively
reclusively to
to refer
refer to
to ancient
ancient geographical
geographical (not
(not political
political or
or ethnic)
ethnic) regions. During
During this
this period
period Syria
Syria comprised
comprised only
only the
the western
western part
part of
of the
the
gions.
present Republic
Republic of
of Syria
Syria (from
(from the
the Euphrates
Euphrates to
to the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean
present
Sea) and
and part
of the
the adjoining
adjoining region
region of
of Turkey
Turkey south
south of
of the
the Taurus
Taurus
Sea)
part of
Mountains. Ancient
Ancient Phoenicia
Phoenicia approximately
approximately corresponded
corresponded to
to the
the
Mountains.
modern state
state of
of Lebanon.
Lebanon. Ancient
Ancient Palestine
Palestine included
included not
not only
only the
the tertermodern
ritory now
now assigned
assigned by
by the
the United
United Nations
Nations to
to the
the state
state of
of Israel
Israel and
and
ritory
the territory
territory of
of the
the Palestinian
Palestinian Arabs
Arabs but
but also
also part
part of
of today's
today's Jordan.
Jordan.
the
(The latter
latter part
part of
of ancient
ancient Palestine
Palestine is
is also
also known
known as
as Transjordan.)
Transjordan.)
(The
The
sepThe natural
natural features
features of
of these
these regions
regions are
are very
very diverse.
diverse. A
A desert
desert separated
is aa land
land of
of natunatuarated ancient
ancient Palestine
Palestine from
from Egypt.
Egypt. Palestine
Palestine itself
itself is
ral
of the
Jordan there
there are
are mountains
mountains interspersed
interspersed
ral contrasts:
contrasts: west
west of
the Jordan
with
with oases
oases and
and fertile
fertile valleys.
valleys. Along
Along the
the shore
shore of
of the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean
stretches
plain. In
north, high,
stretches aa fertile
fertile plain.
In the
the north,
high, frequently
frequently snow-capped
snow-capped
peaks rise.
rise. Transjordan
Transjordan is
is separated
separated from
from the
the rest
of Palestine
Palestine by
by the
the
peaks
rest of
deep depression
depression of
of the
the Jordan
Jordan and
and by
the bitter-salt
bitter-salt Dead
Dead Sea
Sea with
with its
its
deep
by the
sun-parched, almost
almost lifeless
lifeless shores.
shores. In
In the
the third
third and
and second
second millennia
millennia
sun-parched,
the Jordan
Jordan Valley
Valley was
was covered
covered with
with damp
damp forest
forest and
and papyrus
papyrus thickets.
thickets.
the
The hilly
hilly and
and mountainous
regions of
of Transjordan,
covered with
The
mountainous regions
Transjordan, covered
with
steppe vegetation,
vegetation, gradually
gradually merge
merge with
with the
the Syro-Arabian
Syro-Arabian semidesert.
semidesert.
steppe
The
was separated
rest of
of
The region
region of
of ancient
ancient Phoenicia
Phoenicia was
separated from
from the
the rest
Western
by the
Western Asia
Asia by
the high
high range
range of
of the
the Lebanon
Lebanon Mountains,
Mountains, with
with its
its
cedar and
and other
other forests,
forests, alpine
alpine meadows,
meadows, and
and snow-capped
snow-capped peaks.
cedar
peaks.
The
The western
western slopes
slopes of
of the
the Lebanon
Lebanon Mountains,
Mountains, facing
facing the
the sea,
sea, were
were
covered with
evergreen Mediterranean
Mediterranean vegetation.
vegetation. The
The moist
moist sea
sea
covered
with evergreen
breezes that
brought the
the rains
rains made
made artificial
artificial irrigation
irrigation unnecessary.
unnecessary.
breezes
that brought
Syria
by
Syria lies
lies east
east of
of the
the Lebanon.
Lebanon. It
It is
is cut
cut in
in aa north-south
north-south direction
direction by
the Orontes
Orontes River
River (today
(today called
called Al-'Asi),
along the
the valley
valley
the
AI- 'Asi) , which
which flows
flows along
between the
the Lebanon
Lebanon and
and the
Anti-Lebanon Mountains.
Mountains. Beyond
Beyond the
the
between
the Anti-Lebanon

Syria,
Syria, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine
Palestine

287

Anti-Lebanon,
the Syrian
Anti-Lebanon, toward
toward the
Syrian semidesert,
semidesert, lies
lies the
the large
large Damascus
Damascus
oasis and,
and, farther
farther east,
east, barren
barren lava
lava fields.
fields. A
A caravan
caravan route,
route, usually
usually
oasis
threatened by
by tribes
tribes of
of pastoralists,
from Damascus
Damascus through
through
threatened
pastoralists, passed
passed from
the small
small Palmyra
Palmyra oasis
toward the
middle course
of the
the Euphrates.
Euphrates.
the
oasis toward
the middle
course of
The Great
Great Bend
Bend of
of the
the Euphrates
Euphrates formed
formed the
the ancient
ancient northeastern
northeastern
The
border
border of
of Syria.
Syria. Northern
Northern Syria
Syria extended
extended from
from the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean
Sea to
to the
the Taurus
Taurus Mountains
Mountains of
of Asia
Asia Minor
Minor and
and to
to the
fords of
of the
the
Sea
the fords
Euphrates. The
The Orontes
Orontes River
River passed
passed northward
northward through
through aa region
region of
Euphrates.
of
swamps and
and lakes
lakes (which
(which now
now no
longer exist),
then turned
turned west,
and
swamps
no longer
exist), then
west, and
discharged into
into the
the Mediterranean.
Mediterranean. The
The mouth
mouth of
of the
the Orontes
Orontes ofofdischarged
fered aa passage
for the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean winds
into aa hilly
makfered
passage for
winds into
hilly region,
region, making it
it adequately
adequately fertile
fertile..
ing
.Thus,
Thus, the
the Eastern
Eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean Belt
Belt (a
(a term
term we
we use
use for
for all
all three
three
historical
uniform geogeohistorical regions
regions discussed
discussed in
in this
this lecture)
lecture) was
was not
not aa uniform
graphical
graphical area.
area. Here
Here were
were deserts,
deserts, fertile
fertile lowlands,
lowlands, uplands,
uplands, everevergreen
green vegetation,
vegetation, marshes,
marshes, and
and snow-capped
snow-capped mountains.
mountains. But
But since
since
there
which to
there were
were no
no larger
larger flooding
flooding rivers
rivers upon
upon which
to base
base an
an important
important
irrigation system,
system, no
no powerful
powerful centralized
centralized state
state developed
developed here.
here. In
In
irrigation
ancient times
times this
this region
region was
was rich
rich in
in valuable
valuable species
species of
of wood,
wood, but
but at
at
ancient
that time
time few
few valuable
valuable minerals
minerals had
had been
discovered. Copper
Copper indeed
indeed
that
been discovered.
seems to
to have
have been
been transported
transported through
through Syria
Syria and
and Palestine;
Palestine; but
but it
seems
it
came either
either from
from the
the Sinai
Sinai Peninsula
Peninsula in
in the
the south,
south, from
from the
the upper
upper
came
reaches of
of the
the Tigris
Tigris River
River in
in the
the north,
north, or
or from
from Cyprus
Cyprus in
in the
the west.
west. It
It
reaches
was only
only some
some time
time later
that copper,
copper, iron,
iron, and
and natural
natural asphalt
asphalt were
were
was
later that
discovered in
in southern
southern Palestine
Palestine and
and began
began to
to be
be exploited.
exploited.
discovered
passed through
However,
However, very
very important
important caravan
caravan routes
routes passed
through this
this land
land
to
to and
and from
from Egypt,
Egypt, Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, and
and Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. Although
Although the
the
word
caravanusually
usuallyconjures
conjures up
upimages
imagesof
ofaastring
stringof
ofcamels,
camels,the
theananword caravan
cient caravans
caravans used
used donkeys
donkeys to
to carry
carry their
their merchandise.
merchandise. The
The hardiest
hardiest
cient
of these
these animals
animals were
were bred
bred for
for sale
sale in
in the
the Damascus
Damascus oasis.
of
oasis.
Palestine,
Palestine, Syria,
Syria, Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, the
the mountains
mountains of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia,
and the
the regions
regions beyond
beyond the
the Tigris
Tigris were
perhaps the
first homelands
homelands
and
were perhaps
the first
of animal
animal husbandry
husbandry and,
and, especially,
especially, of
of farming.
farming. Prosperous
Prosperous agriculagriculof
tural
as early
in Palestine
tural towns
towns existed
existed as
early as
as the
the eighth
eighth millennium
millennium in
Palestine
(Jericho) and
and in
in some
some parts
parts of
of Syria.
Syria. Some
Some of
of these
these towns
towns or
or villages
villages
(Jericho)
were already
already encircled
encircled by
by strong
strong stone
stone walls
walls during
during the
the Early
Early NeoNeowere
lithic Period
Period (Jericho,
(Jericho, for
for example).
example).
lithic
There
There is
is some
some reason
reason to
to believe
believe that
that the
the region
region of
of Palestine
Palestine and
and
Syria
spoke Afrasian
Afrasian (AfroSyria was
was the
the center
center of
of aa group
group of
of tribes
tribes who
who spoke
(AfroAsiatic) languages;
languages; namely,
namely, the
the Semites.
Semites. From
From here
here they
they spread
spread
Asiatic)
throughout
throughout the
the Arabian
Arabian Peninsula
Peninsula (South
(South Arabians
Arabians and
and Arabs),
Arabs), along
along
the
the eastern
the coast
coast of
of the
eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean (Western
(Western Semites),
Semites), and
and to
to
Mesopotamia (Akkadians).
(Akkadians). None
None of
of these
these tribes
tribes were
were originally
originally enenMesopotamia
tirely nomadic,
nomadic, although
although as
as they
they penetrated
penetrated deeper
deeper into
into the
the interior
interior
tirely

288

/.
I. A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

of
the steppes
regions (which
(which during
the fourth
of the
steppes and
and semidesert
semidesert regions
during the
fourth to
to
third
third millennia
millennia B.C.
B.C. covered
covered all
all of
of Arabia),
Arabia), they
they began
began to
to engage
engage more
more
in
in sheep
sheep breeding
breeding and
and less
less if)
in farming.
farming.
Tribes
were continually
marching along
Tribes were
continually migrating,
migrating, armies
armies were
were marching
along the
the
roads of
of Syria-Palestine,
Syria-Palestine, and
and the
the raw
raw materials
materials required
required for
for the
the techtechroads
the Chalcolithic
nological advances
nological
advances of
of the
Chalcolithic and,
and, eventually,
eventually, the
the Bronze
Bronze
Age
This was
was the
the reason
reason why
why there
there was
was aa lag
Age were
were lacking.
lacking/This
lag in
in social
social
development between
this zone
zone and
and southern
Mesopotamia and
and
development
between this
southern Mesopotamia
Egypt. However,
However, city-states
city-states of
of the
the Sumerian-Akkadian
Sumerian-Akkadian type
type develEgypt.
developed during
during the
the second
second half
half of
of the
third millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., but,
so far
far
oped
the third
but, so
as is
is known,
known, only
only in
in northern
northern Syria.
Syria. The
The most
most important
important of
of these
these were
were
as
Ebla, which
was closely
closely connected
connected with
Middle
the flourishing
flourishing cities
cities of
of Ebla,
the
which was
with Middle
and Lower
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, and
and Byblos
on the
Phoenician coast,
coast, which
which
and
Byblos on
the Phoenician
was
export center
of valuable
Egypt.
was the
the export
center of
valuable cedar
cedar timber
timber to
to Egypt.
the earliest
Investigations
Investigations of
of the
earliest geographical
geographical names
names in
in this
this region
region and,
and,
to some
Mesoto
some extent,
extent, direct
direct information
information found
found in
in the
the Egyptian
Egyptian and
and Mesopotamian texts
texts indicate
indicate that
that the
eastern Mediterranean
was ininpotamian
the eastern
Mediterranean region
region was
habited
by Western
Western Semites
third millennium
habited by
Semites at
at least
least as
as early
early as
as the
the third
millennium
B.C. They
can be
subdivided into
into three
groups on
on the
of
B.C.
They can
be subdivided
three tribal
tribal groups
the basis
basis of
linguistic
The three
three groups
called CaCaare conventionally
conventionally called
linguistic features.
features. The
groups 1I are
naanites,
and Aramaeans.
Aramaeans. In
In addition,
addition, Hurrian
Hurrian tribes
tribes from
from
naanites, Amorites,
Amorites, and
Transcaucasia and
and ultimately
ultimately from
from the
the mountains
mountains surrounding
surrounding Lake
Lake
Transcaucasia
Van (now
(now in
in Turkey)
Turkey) and
and Lake
Lake Urmia
Urmia (now
(now in
in Iran)
Iran) reached
reached Upper
Upper
Van
Mesopotamia and
and northern
northern Syria
Syria in
in the
the third
third millennium
millennium (see
(see LecMesopotamia
Lecture 11).
11). During
During the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the third
third millennium,
millennium, the
the first
first
ture
Hurrian wave
wave seems
seems to
to have
have reached
northern Palestine.
Palestine.
Hurrian
reached northern
Mesopotamian
to appear
Mesopotamian armies
armies began
began to
appear in
in northern
northern Syria
Syria during
during
the Akkade
Akkade dynasty
dynasty (twenty-third
(twenty-third century).
century). Later,
Later, during
during the
the Ur
Ur III
III
the
dynasty
dynasty (twenty-first
(twenty-first century),
century), the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Akkad
Akkad and
and Sumer
Sumer temtemporarily extended
extended its
its power
power to
to northern
northern Syria
Syria and
and Byblos.
porarily
Byblos.
The
Kingdom of
The pharaohs
pharaohs of
of the
the Middle
Middle Kingdom
of Egypt
Egypt began
began their
their incurincursions into
into Palestine
Palestine somewhat
somewhat later,
later, and
and Byblos
Byblos became
and for
for some
some
sions
became and
time
be an
time continued
continued to
to be
an isolated
isolated center
center of
of Egyptian
Egyptian culture
culture in
in the
the
midst of
of aa Semitic
Semitic population.
population. (The
(The ancient
ancient Egyptians
Egyptians spoke
spoke an
an AfraAframidst
sian language
language of
of aa non-Semitic
non-Semitic branch.)
branch.) However,
However, toward
toward the
the end
end of
of
sian
the third
third millennium
millennium Byblos
Byblos was
was burned
burned down,
down, together
together with
with its
its
the
Egyptian temple.
temple. This
This may
may have
been the
the time
time when,
when, if
if we
we are
are to
to beEgyptian
have been
believe
a
legend,
a
group
of
tribes
from
northern
Arabia
spoke the
the
lieve a legend, a group of tribes from northern Arabia that
that spoke
Western
Semitic dialect
dialect of
of the
the Canaanite
groupp became
established on
on
Western Semitic
Canaanite grou
became established
the
Mediterranean
coast.
They
later
became
known
as
Phoenicians.
the Mediterranean coast. They later became known as Phoenicians.
1.
placement of
firmly
1. The
The placement
of the
the Semitic
Semitic language
language of
of Ebla
Ebla within
within these
these groups
groups is
is not
not firmly
established,
Eblaite was
was aa separate,
established, but
but in
in our
our opinion,
opinion, Eblaite
separate, early
early Western
Western Semitic
Semitic language.
language.

Syria,
Phoenicia, and
Syria, Phoenicia,
and Palestine
Palestine

289

Amorite-type speech
speech was
was preserved
preserved north
north of
of Byblos,
Byblos, particularly
particularly in
in
Amorite-type
U
garit, aa city
Byblos.
Ugarit,
city that
that later
later successfully
successfully competed
competed with
with Byblos.
At
At the
the end
end of
of the
the third
third and
and beginning
beginning of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium
B.C.
B.C. aa network
network of
of city-states
city-states characterized
characterized by
by aa society
society of
of the
the early
early class
class
type appeared
appeared all
all over
over the
the Eastern
Eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean Belt.
Belt. These
These were
were
type
walled cities.
cities. In
In the
the center
center of
of each
each city
city was
was aa temple
temple and
and aa residence
residence
walled
for
for the
the local
local ruler.
ruler. These
These were
were surrounded
surrounded by
by aa complex
complex of
of adobe
adobe
and brick
brick houses.
houses. The
The houses
houses usually
usually had
had two
two stories,
stories, with
with an
an open
open or
or
and
grilled gallery
gallery on
on the
the upper
upper floor,
which was
was occupied
occupied by
by the
the owners,
owners,
grilled
floor, which
and aa lower
lower level
level for
for storage
storage and
and for
for lodging
lodging slaves.
slaves. Most
Most of
of these
these
and
towns were
were located
in valleys.
valleys. The
The uplands
uplands were
were sparsely
sparsely populated.
populated.
towns
located in
In
In the
the areas
areas at
at the
the edge
edge of
of the
the desert,
desert, such
such as
as the
the Damascus
Damascus oasis
oasis
and Transjordan,
Transjordan, people
people lived
lived in
in tents.
tents. During
During the
the spring,
spring, when
when the
the
and
steppes
steppes were
were in
in bloom,
bloom, they
they migrated
migrated with
with their
their herds
herds away
away from
from the
the
sown
sown fields
fields of
of the
the oasis.
oasis. The
The life
life of
of these
these tribes
tribes is
is vividly
vividly described
described in
in
the
the ancient
ancient Egyptian
Egyptian "Story
"Story of
of Sinuhe"
Sinuhe" and
and in
in later
later biblical
biblical stories
stories
about
about the'tribal
the'tribal patriarchs.
patriarchs.
The
Amorite pastoral
was
The social
social unit
unit of
of the
the Amorite
pastoral nomads
nomads of
of the
the period
period was
the clan
clan community.
community. It
It formed
formed part
part of
of aa tribe
tribe or
or sometimes
sometimes of
of aa tribal
the
tribal
union.
union. The
The head
head of
of an
an extended
extended patriarchal
patriarchal family
family had
had full
full authority
authority
not only
only over
over his
his wives
wives and
and children
children but
but also
also over
over the
the nuclear
nuclear families
families
not
of his
his sons,
sons, over
over aliens
aliens who
who may
may have
have joined
the tribe
tribe or
or were
were adopted
adopted
of
joined the
by
had complete
by it,
it, and,
and, of
of course,
course, over
over slaves.
slaves. The
The patriarch
patriarch had
complete power
power
over life
life and
and death,
death, as
as well
well as
as over
over the
the personal
personal belongings,
belongings, of
of the
the
over
family members.
members. The
The affairs
affairs of
of the
the tribal
tribal community
community were
were managed
managed
family
by aa council
council of
of "old
"old men"
men" and
and aa chief,
chief, who
who was
was chosen
chosen in
in aa meeting
meeting of
of
by
all adult
adult able-bodied
able-bodied and
and armed
armed men.
men. From
From time
time to
to time
time some
some leader
leader
all
could assemble
assemble aa group
group of
of warriors
warriors that
that would
would form
form the
the core
core of
of aa
could
tribal
militia. Arguments
between neighbors
occasionally settled
settled
tribal militia.
Arguments between
neighbors were
were occasionally
in
single combat
strong men
men from
from each
each side.
side.
in single
combat between
between strong
Sedentary
populations, however,
however, were
At that
Sedentary populations,
were in
in the
the majority.
majority. At
that time
time
Hazor,
Hazor, aa major
major city
city in
in northern
northern Palestine,
Palestine, covered
covered an
an area
area of
of some
some 50
50
hectares (about
was large
days.
hectares
(about 125
125 acres),
acres), which
which was
large for
for aa city
city in
in those
those days.
The
traders of
The traders
of Hazor
Hazor traveled
traveled far,
far, even
even as
as far
far as
as Mari
Mari on
on the
the EuphraEuphrates.
tes. In
In Phoenicia
Phoenicia and
and coastal
coastal Syria,
Syria, Byblos
Byblos and
and Ugarit
Ugarit flourished.
flourished. A
A
number of
of small
small settlements
settlements had
had developed
developed into
into towns
towns by
by this
this time,
time,
number
although they
they seldom
seldom exceeded
exceeded one-tenth
one-tenth the
the size
size of
of Hazor.
Hazor. The
The
although
cause of
of the
the growth
growth of
of Phoenician
Phoenician towns
towns was
was the
the early
early development
development of
of
cause
trade, especially
especially with
with Egypt.
Egypt. The
The Phoenician
Phoenician merchants
merchants exported
exported
trade,
Lebanese timber,
timber, and
and for
for this
this reason
reason the
the Egyptians
Egyptians endeavored
endeavored to
to
Lebanese
keep royal
royal officials
officials at
at Byblos.
Byblos. Overland
Overland trade
trade between
between Egypt,
Egypt, Mesokeep
Mesopotamia, and
and Asia
Asia Minor
Minor via
via Syria
Syria was
was also
also very
very important,
important, as
as shown
shown
potamia,
by the
the finds
finds of
of objects
objects at
at Ebla
Ebla and,
and, later,
later, by
by the
the commercial
commercial corresponcorresponby

2 go
29

I.LA.
A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

dence
Minor. The
dence from
from Kanish,
Kanish, Asia
Asia Minor.
The same
same is
is attested
attested by
by tales
tales of
of EgypEgyptian royal
royal officials
officials passing
passing continually
continually through
through the
the pastoral
pastoral regions.
regions.
tian
Transit
but Syria
Transit trade
trade was,
was, of
of course,
course, the
the more
more important,
important, but
Syria also
also sold
sold
its
pack donkeys,
its own
own wood,
wood, pack
donkeys, and
and ivory.
ivory. (Elephants
(Elephants still
still inhabited
inhabited
northern Syria.)
Syria.) Egyptian
Egyptian influence
influence was
was especially
especially marked
marked in
in the
the
northern
coastal regions
(e.g., as
as shown
shown by
the numerous
numerous Egyptian
Egyptian inscriptions
inscriptions
coastal
regions (e.g.,
by the
found in
in Byblos),
Byblos), while
while some
some Akkadian
Akkadian influence
influence was
felt in
in the
the inteintefound
was felt
rior, determined
determined by
by the
the orientation
orientation of
of the
the trade
trade routes.
routes. Many
Many people
people
rior,
could speak
speak Egyptian,
Egyptian, and
and some
some could
could use
use Akkadian
Akkadian cuneiform.
cuneiform.
could
At
At the
the beginnings
beginnings of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium aa powerful
powerful kingdom
kingdom
appeared
appeared in
in northern
northern Syria
Syria called
called Yamkhad.
Yamkhad. Its
Its capital
capital was
was Haleb
Haleb
(present-day Aleppo).
Aleppo). Its
Its population
population was
was Amorite
Amorite and
and its
its culture
culture AkAk(present-day
kadian. Southern
Southern Syria
Syria and
and even
even the
coast had
had felt
felt the
kadian.
the Phoenician
Phoenician coast
the popolitical influence
influence of
of the
the Upper
Upper Mesopotamian
king Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad I.
I.
litical
Mesopotamian king
The
The social
social structure
structure in
in the
the city-states
city-states of
of Syria,
Syria, about
about which
which we
we have
have
litde
little written
written information
information (except
(except for
for the
the still
still insufficiendy
insufficiently researched
researched
archives from
from the
the city
city of
of Alalakh
Alalakh of
of the
the eighteenth
eighteenth century),
century), was
was apaparchives
parently very
very similar
similar to
to that
that of
of the
the Hurrian
Hurrian society
society of
of Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe (disparendy
(discussed in
in Lecture
Lecture 11).
11). We
We know
know there
there were
were Hurrians
Hurrians in
in Alalakh,
Alalakh, and
and
cussed
both
cities had
similar economy
economy at
at about
about the
the same
same stage
stage of
of developdevelopboth cities
had aa similar
ment.
the king
ment. It
It is
is interesting
interesting to
to note
note that
that here
here the
king of
of aa city
city would
would somesometimes
grant or
or "sell"
"sell" entire
entire villages
to his
his agent
agent or
or to
to his
his retainers.
The
times grant
villages to
retainers. The
documents recording
recording these
these transactions
transactions were
were formulated
formulated as
as if
if the
the
documents
transactions were
were donations
donations or
or sales,
sales, although
although we
we can
can assume
assume that
that
transactions
they were
were just
transfers of
of the
the right
right to
to collect
collect taxes
taxes and
and exact
exact service
service
they
just transfers
duties from
from the
the villages
villages in
in question.
question. It
It also
also seems
seems probable
that such
such
duties
probable that
transferssome
of them
them reversible,
reversible, others
others not-may
notmay sometimes
sometimes have
have
transfers-some of
been
form of
of foreclosure
foreclosure of
of property
property for
for unpaid
unpaid debts.
debts. MoneylendMoneylendbeen aa form
ing and
and usury
usury were
were common.
common. Individual
Individual owners
owners and
and entire
entire village
village
ing
communities appear
appear as
as creditors.
creditors. Obviously,
Obviously, the
the society
society was
was undergoundergocommunities
ing an
an accelerated
accelerated stratification
stratification along
along property
property lines
lines at
at the
the expense
expense of
of
ing
ordinary community
community members
members who
who were
were sinking
sinking into
into poverty.
poverty. Many
Many
ordinary
fled to
to become
become Hapiru/
Hapiru,2 hiding
hiding in
in the
the Syrian
Syrian semidesertic
semidesertic steppe
steppe (see
(see
fled
the third
third section
section of
of this
this lecture
lecture for
for aa discussion
discussion of
of the
the Hapiru).
Hapiru).
the
As
As discussed
discussed earlier
earlier (Lecture
(Lecture 7,
7, third
third section),
section), groups
groups of
of pastoral
pastoral
tribes,
tribes, the
the so-called
so-called Hyksos,
Hyksos, from
from Palestine
Palestine or
or the
the Sinai,
Sinai, gradually
gradually ininfiltrated the
the Nile
Delta between
between the
the end
end of
of the
the eighteenth
eighteenth and
and the
the befiltrated
Nile Delta
beginning
ginning of
of the
the sixteenth
sixteenth centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. Armed
Armed detachments
detachments of
of the
the
newcomers gradually
gradually seized
seized power
in the
the northern
northern nomes
nomes of
of Egypt,
Egypt,
newcomers
power iIi
and their
their leaders
leaders began
began to
adopt pharaonic
titles. The
The Hyksos
Hyksos soon
soon
and
to adopt
pharaonic tides.
lost
their
ethnic
identity
and
blended
with
the
local
Egyptian
populalost their ethnic identity and blended with the local Egyptian popula2.
2. The
The earlier
earlier opinion
opinion that
that the
the term
term Hapiru
Hapiruisisan
anearly
earlyform
form of
of the
the name
name Hebrew
Hebrewhas
has
been
completely disproved
disproved and
and is
is no
longer held
held by
scholars.
been completely
no longer
by most
most scholars.

Syria,
Phoenicia, and
Syria, Phoenicia,
and Palestine
Palestine

291

tion. The
The degree
degree to
to which
which they
they preserved
preserved their
their supremacy
supremacy in
in their
their
tion.
original homeland
homeland remains
remains unclear.
unclear. In
In any
any event,
event, the
the cities
cities and
and rural
rural
original
areas of
of Palestine
Palestine during
during this
this period
period showed
showed signs
signs of
of an
an improving
improving
areas
standard of
of living.
living. Yet,
Yet, the
the wealthy,
wealthy, spacious,
spacious, and
and comfortable
comfortable houses
houses
standard
of the
the elite
elite sharply
sharply contrasted
contrasted with
with the
the wretched
wretched hovels
hovels of
of the
the poor:
poor: aa
of
process of
of crass
crass property
property stratification
stratification was
was in
full swing.
swing. Palestine
Palestine was
process
in full
was
not aa political
political unit
unit during
that period.
The mighty
mighty city
city fortifications
fortifications
not
during that
period. The
and the
the archaeological
archaeological signs
signs of
their destruction
destruction at
at different
different times
times tesand
of their
testify to
to frequent
frequent internecine
internecine wars.
wars. It
is possible,
possible, however,
however, that
that the
the
It is
tify
towns of
of Palestine
gave nominal
nominal recognition
recognition to
to the
the supremacy
supremacy of
of the
the
towns
Palestine gave
Hyksos king
king in
in Awaris.
Awaris. The
The second
second Hyksos
Hyksos center
center may
may have
have been
been
Hyksos
Gaza, in
in southern
southern Palestine.
Palestine.
Gaza,
Mitanni
Mitanni and
and Pharaonic
Pharaonic Egypt
Egypt

During the
the Hyksos
During
the second
second half
half of
of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., the
Hyksos
kingdom (or
(or kingdoms)
kingdoms) of
of Egypt
Egypt began
began to
to decline.
decline. In
the beginning
beginning
kingdom
In the
of
political factors
of the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century,
century, several
several important
important new
new political
factors apappeared
peared simultaneously
simultaneously in
in the
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean region.
region.
In
In the
the north,
north, the
the Hurrian
Hurrian kingdom
kingdom of
of Mitanni
Mitanni swallowed
swallowed the
the small
small
Akkadian, Hurrian,
Hurrian, and
and Amorite
Amorite kingdoms,
kingdoms, including
including the
the onceAkkadian,
oncepowerful Yamkhad
Yamkhad kingdom
held the
powerful
kingdom beyond
beyond the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, which
which held
the
key to
to Syria.
Syria. Idri-Mi,
Idri-Mi, one
one of
of the
the kings
of Alalakh
Alalakh of
of that
that time,
time, tells
tells in
in
key
kings of
his
to flee
flee in
his inscription
inscription about
about aa revolt
revolt in
in his
his city
city that
that forced
forced him
him to
in aa
single
by aa faithful
and to
single chariot
chariot driven
driven by
faithful driver
driver and
to seek
seek refuge
refuge among
among
the Hapiru
Hapiru of
of the
the mountains.
mountains. He
lived among
among them
them for
for several
several years
years
the
He lived
before regaining
regaining power
power in
in his
his city,
city, but
but this
this time
time under
under the
the condition
condition
before
of recognizing
recognizing the
the supremacy
supremacy of
of Parattarna,
Parattarna, the
the king
king of
of Mitanni.
Mitanni.
of
It
It seems
seems doubtful
doubtful whether
whether the
the state
state power
power of
of the
the Mitanni
Mitanni kingdom
kingdom
was
but its
was ever
ever firmly
firmly established
established west
west of
of the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, but
its influence
influence
was very
very much
much felt.
felt. Although
Although the
the dialects
dialects spoken
spoken by
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of
was
by the
Syria
Syria and
and Palestine
Palestine remained
remained Western
Western Semitic
Semitic (Canaanite
(Canaanite in
in the
the south
south
and
in the
and Amorite
Amorite in
the north)
north) and,
and, to
to some
some extent,
extent, also
also Hurrian,
Hurrian, nevernevertheless the
the dynasts
dynasts of
of the
the different
different cities
cities of
both countries
countries often
often bore
bore
theless
of both
not only
only Hurrian
Hurrian but
but also
also Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian proper
proper names
names up
up to
to the
the end
end
not
The most
most likely
likely explanation
explanation is
is that
that these
these
of the
the fifteenth
fifteenth century
century B.C.
of
B.C. The
rulers were
were kinsmen
kinsmen of
of the
the Mitannian
Mitannian kings,
kings, because
because at
at that
that time,
time, exexrulers
cept for
for Mitanni,
Mitanni, Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian was
was not
not aa common
common language
language anywhere
anywhere
cept
else in
in Western
Western Asia,
Asia, and
and the
the language
language must
must have
have been
been confined
confined to
to the
the
else
Iranian plateau.
plateau.
Iranian
The
The rise
rise of
of Mitanni
Mitanni coincided
coincided with
with two
two inventions
inventions that
that could
could have
have
contributed
the wealth
About the
contributed to
to the
wealth of
of Syria
Syria and
and Phoenicia.
Phoenicia. About
the eigheighteenth
Mesoteenth or
or the
the seventeenth
seventeenth centuries,
centuries, the
the Hurrians
Hurrians of
of Upper
Upper Mesopotamia
potamia devised
devised aa method
method of
of making
making small
small vessels
vessels from
from opaque,
opaque,

292

I.
A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
LA.

colored
colored glass.
glass. This
This technique
technique later
later spread
spread to
to Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, Lower
Lower MesoMesopotamia, and
and Egypt,
Egypt, but
for some
some time
time the
the Hurrians
Hurrians and
and Phoenicians
Phoenicians
but for
potamia,
enjoyed an
an international
international monopoly
monopoly in
in the
the trade
trade of
of glass
glass objects.
objects. The
The
enjoyed
second invention
invention appeared
appeared no
no later
later than
than the
the end
end of
of the
the sixteenth
sixteenth cencensecond
tury when
when the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians discovered
discovered aa method
method of
of dying
dying wool
wool deep
deep
tury
crimson to
to violet,
violet, the
the coloring
coloring agent
agent being
being extracted
extracted from
from MediterraMediterracrimson
nean shellfish.
shellfish.33 As
As aa consequence,
consequence, the
the importation
importation of
of cheap,
cheap, undyed
undyed
nean
wool into
into Phoenicia
from the
the pastoral
pastoral regions
regions of
of Syria
Syria (probably
(probably also
also
wool
Phoenicia from
from the
the island
island of
of Crete
Crete and,
and, later,
later, from
from all
all of
of Western
Western Asia)
Asia) became
became
from
very important
important economic
economic factor
factor for
for Phoenicia.
Phoenicia. In
In turn,
turn, the
the PhoeniPhoeniaa very
cians exported
exported very
expensive purple-dyed
purple-dyed wool.
(The dye
dye itself
itself was
cians
very expensive
wool. (The
was
very perishable
perishable and
and unfit
unfit for
for transportation.)
transportation.) As
As aa result
result of
of this
this trade,
trade,
very
large reserves
reserves of
of grain
grain and
and metal
metal artifacts
artifacts accumulated
accumulated in
in the
the small
small
large
towns
of Canaanite
Phoenicia. This
Phoenicia to
embark on
on aa
towns of
Canaanite Phoenicia.
This enabled
enabled Phoenicia
to embark
lively trade
trade with
distant regions
regions of
of the
(and also
also to
to enenwith distant
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean (and
lively
gage in
in piracy).
piracy).
gage
pottery appeared
Mycenaean
Mycenaean and
and Cypriote
Cypriote pottery
appeared in
in Syria
Syria and
and Palestine
Palestine
probably attesting
beginning about
beginning
about 1400
1400 B.C.,
B.C., probably
attesting to
to the
the importation
importation of
of
olive oil
oil and
and wine.
wine. It
It is
is also
also quite
quite possible
possible that
that somewhat
somewhat later
later the
the
olive
Phoenicians began
began to
to import
import tin
tin from
from or
or via
via Spain.
Spain. This
This made
made the
the
Phoenicians
manufacture
of bronze
bronze in
in Western
Asia less
less costly.
costly.
manufacture of
Western Asia
The increasing
increasing importance
importance of
of the
the merchant
merchant impeded
impeded the
develThe
the development
opment of
of monarchic
monarchic governmental
governmental systems
systems of
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian or
or
Mesopotamian
Although almost
almost every
every town
had aa king,
the govMesopotamian type.
type. Although
town had
king, the
governments were
were of
of an
an oligarchical
oligarchical character,
character, with
certain degree
degree of
of
ernments
with aa certain
surviving primitive
primitive democracy.
democracy.
surviving
The economic
economic growth
growth of
of the
the Canaanite
Canaanite and
and Hurrian
Hurrian cities
cities of
of Syria
Syria
The
did
have been
did not
not reach
reach the
the level
level of
of development
development that
that could
could have
been expected
expected
under these
these conditions
conditions because
because the
the Egyptian
Egyptian conquest
conquest of
of the
the region
region
under
B.C. The
The hold
hold of
of the
the Hyksos
Hyksos on
on Egypt
Egypt had
had been
been
began soon
soon after
after 1600
1600 B.C.
began
broken, and
and after
after having
having conducted
conducted isolated
isolated raids
raids into
Western Asia,
Asia,
broken,
into Western
the pharaohs
of the
Eighteenth Dynasty
Dynasty began
systematic invainvathe
pharaohs of
the new
new Eighteenth
began aa systematic
sion of
of Palestine,
Phoenicia, and
and Syria.
Syria. Pharaoh
Pharaoh Ya'hmes
captured
sion
Palestine, Phoenicia,
Va'hmes II captured
the last
last stronghold
stronghold of
of the
the Hyksos
Hyksos in
in southern
southern Palestine.
Palestine. During
During the
the
the
last quarter
quarter of
of the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century,
century, Pharaoh
Pharaoh Thutmosis
Thutmosis II led
last
led his
his
army all
all the
the way
to the
the Euphrates.
Euphrates. Beginning
Beginning with
the time
time of
of ThutThutarmy
way to
with the
mosis III,
III, who
who succeeded
succeeded to
to the
the throne
throne after
after the
the peaceful
reign of
of the
the
mosis
peaceful reign
female
pharaoh
Hatshepsut,
the
Egyptians
began
a
lengthy,
bloody,
female pharaoh Hatshepsut, the Egyptians began a lengthy, bloody,
and systematic
systematic devastation
devastation of
of Canaanite
Canaanite cities.
and
cities.
The
The Egyptian
Egyptian campaigns
campaigns did
did not
not result
result in
in territorial
territorial annexations
annexations
but in
in the
the wholesale
of villages
and cities
cities (especially
(especially palaces)
palaces)
but
wholesale plunder
plunder of
villages and
trunculns, Murex
Murex brandaris,
brandaris, and Thais
Thais haemastoma(Purpura).
haemastoma (Purpura).
3. These were the Murex
Murex truncuius,

Syria,
Syria, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine
Palestine

293
293

and
and the
the capture
capture of
of people
people and
and domestic
domestic animals.
animals. The
The administrative
administrative
measures of
pharaohs were
few Egyptian
forof the
the pharaohs
were very
very primitive.
primitive. A
A few
Egyptian formeasures
tresses were
were established
established to
to control
control the
the main
main roads
roads and
and mountain
mountain
tresses
passes.
The presence
of garrisons
garrisons encouraged
encouraged the
the local
local rulers
rulers to
appasses. The
presence of
to appease
the conqueror
conqueror with
with gifts
gifts and
and tribute
tribute as
as long
long as
as possible.
possible. Their
Their
pease the
children were
were taken
taken hostage
hostage to
to the
the Egyptian
Egyptian court
court as
as pledges;
the sons
sons
children
pledges; the
were educated
educated in
in Egypt
Egypt in
in aa spirit
spirit of
of loyalty
loyalty to
to the
the pharaoh,
and the
the
were
pharaoh, and
daughters were
were sent
sent to
to his
But the
pharaohs never
never attempted
attempted
daughters
his harem.
harem. But
the pharaohs
to introduce
introduce the
the Egyptian
Egyptian administrative
administrative system
system in
in Palestine
Palestine and
and
to
Syria. Minor
Minor Egyptian
Egyptian military
military units
units kept
kept by
by the
the Egyptian
Egyptian governgovernSyria.
ment at
at the
the courts
courts of
of the
the petty
petty local
local kings
kings performed
performed supervisory
supervisory
ment
functions. They
They did
did not
collect taxes:
taxes: there
there was
was no
no regular
regular imposition
imposition
not collect
functions.
of taxes
taxes and
tribute.
of
and tribute.
Valuables
pumped out
Valuables and
and manpower
manpower were
were pumped
out of
of Palestine,
Palestine, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia,
and Syria
Syria by
by continuous
continuous military
military expeditions.
expeditions. The
The booty
enumerand
booty is
is enumerated on
on the
the walls
of Egyptian
Egyptian temples
temples of
of the
the period
(although the
the
ated
walls of
period (although
numbers cited
numbers
cited are
are not
not entirely
entirely plausible).
plausible). It
It included
included dyed
dyed fabrics,
fabrics,
timber, chariots,
chariots, ivory,
ivory, gold
gold and
and silver
silver objects,
objects, large
large amounts
amounts of
of grain,
grain,
timber,
oils, tens
and even
even hundreds
of thousands
thousands of
of captives,
captives, and
and still
still more
more
oils,
tens and
hundreds of
numerous
sheep and
and cattle.
cattle. The
The minor
kings and
and their
their aristocracy
aristocracy
numerous sheep
minor kings
undoubtedly tried
recoup their
their losses
losses by
exploiting and
and bondbondundoubtedly
tried to
to recoup
by exploiting
enslaving their
their own
own subjects,
subjects, who
who found
trapped in
hopeenslaving
found themselves
themselves trapped
in aa hopeless situation
situation of
of insolvency.
insolvency. The
The city
city dwellers
dwellers and
and inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the
less
surrounding villages
fled into
into the
the ranks
ranks of
of the
the Hapiru
have
surrounding
villages who
who fled
Hapiru must
must have
constituted aa significant
significant part
part of
of the
the population.
population. Toward
Toward the
the end
end of
of the
the
constituted
fifteenth
century, Syrian
Syrian and
and Palestinian
states must
must have
have lost
lost aa great
great
fifteenth century,
Palestinian states
percentage
of their
their population
of the
the Egyptian
Egyptian invasions.
invasions.44
percentage of
population because
because of
Although
Although the
the pharaohs
pharaohs were
were able
able to
to push
push the
the forces
forces of
of Mitanni
Mitanni
across the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, they
they failed
failed to
crush them.
them. The
The Mitannian
Mitannian kings
kings
across
to crush
continued to
maintain contact
contact with
the unorganized
unorganized but
relentless rerecontinued
to maintain
with the
but relentless
sistance forces
forces in
in Syria
Syria and
and Palestine.
Palestine. On
On one
one occasion,
occasion, Egyptian
sistance
Egyptian solsoldiers intercepted
intercepted agents
agents of
of the
the Mitannian
Mitannian king
king who
who carried
cuneiform
carried cuneiform
diers
tabletsletters to
to aa local
local ruler-strung
rulerstrung around
around their
their necks.
the
tablets-letters
necks. As
As the
booty
of
the
pharaohs
grew
richer,
the
trade
along
the
Palestinian
and
booty of the pharaohs grew richer, the trade along the Palestinian and
Syrian trade
and the
area became
no
Syrian
trade routes
routes dwindled,
dwindled, and
the area
became poorer
poorer and
and was
was no
longer
able
to
supply
Egypt
with
valuables.
Eventually,
Thutmosis
IV
longer able to supply Egypt with valuables. Eventually, Thutmosis IV
was
compelled to
to make
make peace
peace with
with Mitanni
Mitanni and
and to
to delineate
delineate the
the
was compelled
spheres of
of influence
influence of
of the
two powers.
According to
this agreement
agreement
spheres
the two
powers. According
to this
between
the pharaoh
and the
the Mitannian
Artadama I,
I, northern
northern
between the
pharaoh and
Mitannian king
king Artadama
Syria and
and its
its outlet
outlet to
to the
Mediterranean remained
in the
the Mitannian
Mitannian
Syria
the Mediterranean
remained in
4.
that despite
the influx
of captives,
4. It
It is
is interesting
interesting that
despite the
influx of
of hundreds
hundreds of
of thousands
thousands of
captives, the
the
population of
of the
the Nile
Valley did
did not
not seem
seem to
This may
that the
the mormorpopulation
Nile Valley
to increase.
increase. This
may mean
mean that
tality rate
of the
the exploited
exploited population
very high.
high.
rate of
population was
was very
tality

294
294

I. A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
/.

zone. The
The Egyptian
Egyptian pharaohs
pharaohs now
now tried
tried to
to extract
extract resources
resources from
from
zone.
their
militheir sphere
sphere of
of influence
influence without
without resorting
resorting to
to devastating
devastating annual
annual military expeditions.
expeditions.
tary
The period
the end
end of
of the
fifteenth and
and the
beginning
The
period between
between the
the fifteenth
the beginning
of
usually classified
of the
the fourteenth
fourteenth centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. is
is usually
classified in
in the
the history
history of
of
Palestine, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Syria
Syria as
as the
the Amarna
Amarna Period,
Period, because
because of
of the
the
Palestine,
accidental fact
fact this
this it
it is
is very
very clearly
clearly illustrated
illustrated by
by the
the diplomatic
diplomatic cuneicuneiaccidental
form documents
documents found
found at
at the
the archaeological
archaeological site
site of
of Tell-Amarna,
Tell-Amarna, the
the
form
ancient capital
capital of
of the
the pharaoh
pharaoh Amenhetep
IV (Akhenaton),
(Akhenaton), and
and at
at
ancient
Amenhetep IV
Boghazkoy, the
the ancient
ancient capital
capital of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite kings.
kings. The
The participants
participants
Boghazkoy,
in the
the diplomatic
diplomatic exchange
exchange used
the cuneiform
cuneiform script
script but
several difdifin
used the
but several
ferent languages.
languages. The
kings used
Akkadian, the
the Mitannian
Mitannian
ferent
The Kassite
Kassite kings
used Akkadian,
kings
used Akkadian
Akkadian and
and Hurrian,
Hurrian, and
and the
the Hittite
Hittite kings
kings used
Akkakings used
used Akkadian
and Hittite.
Hittite. The
The minor
minor kings
kings of
of the
Eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean Belt
Belt
the Eastern
dian and
used aa strange,
strange, artificial
artificial language,
language, part
Akkadian and
and part
Canaanite.
used
part Akkadian
part Canaanite.
In
pharaoh resided
In the
the Amarna
Amarna Period,
Period, the
the pharaoh
resided at
at three
three locations:
locations:
in southern
southern Palestine,
Palestine, southern
southern Syria,
Syria, and
and northern
northern Phoenicia.
Phoenicia. All
All
in
aspects of
of Egyptian
Egyptian rule
rule remained
remained unchanged.
unchanged. Note
that aa local
local
Note that
aspects
Syrian-Palestinian ruler
ruler could
could be
be called
called by
by three
three different
different titles.
titles. To
To
Syrian-Palestinian
the pharaoh
pharaoh he
he was
was "the
"the Man
Man of
of (such-and-such)
(such-and-such) city";
city"; in
in diplomatic
diplomatic
the
documents he
he called
called himself
himself "mayor";
"mayor"; and
and to
own subjects
subjects he
he was
to his
his own
was
documents
"king." Only
Only the
the ruler
of Hazor
Hazor was
allowed to
to title
title himself
"king"
ruler of
was allowed
himself "king"
"king."
even in
in his
his letters
letters to
pharaoh. The
The power
of aa city
city ruler
was always
always
the pharaoh.
power of
ruler was
even
to the
limited by
council of
of elders,
elders, and
and in
in aa number
number of
of cases
cases this
council
this council
limited
by the
the council
or even
even the
the "sons
"sons of
of the
the city"
city" (i.e.,
popular assembly)
assembly) could
could actuactuor
(i.e., the
the popular
ally run
run the
the city
city without
without aa king
king and
and communicate
communicate directly
directly with
with other
other
ally
rulers and
and the
the great
great powers.
powers. Among
Among the
the city-states
city-states of
of Palestine
Palestine the
the
rulers
most important
important were
Gazru (Gezer),
(Gezer), Lachish,
Lachish, Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, Megiddo,
Megiddo,
most
were Gazru
and Hazor.
Hazor. In
In Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, Byblos
Byblos was
was dominant.
dominant. An
An important
important trading
trading
and
center on
on the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean coast
coast of
of Syria
Syria was
was U
Ugarit,
which fell
fell into
into
center
garit, which
the Mitannian
Mitannian sphere
sphere of
of influence.
influence. In
In southern
southern Syria
Syria the
city of
of Qinza,
Qinza,
the
the city
often given
given the
the epithet
epithet "the
"the Holy,"
Holy," qudshu
qudshuininCanaanite,
Canaanite,was
wasespecially
especially
often
important.
(It
is
usually
known
the more
more familiar,
familiar, conventional
conventional
important. (It is usually known under
under the
Egyptological designation
designation of
of Kadesh.)
Kadesh.) Qinza-Kadesh
guarded access
access
Qinza-Kadesh guarded
Egyptological
to
the
Orontes
Valley
from
the
south.
to the Orontes Valley from the south.
The
Popular Movement
of the
the Hapiru
Hapiru
The Popular
Movement of
An extremely
extremely peculiar
peculiar polity
polity arose
arose in
in the
the mountains
mountains between
An
between PhoePhoeIts
nicia and
and Syria
Syria at
at the
very beginning
of the
the fourteenth
fourteenth century
century B.C.
the very
beginning of
B.C. Its
nicia
main population
consisted of
of Hapiru.
Since these
had no
no comcommain
population consisted
Hapiru. Since
these people
people had
mon tribal
acquired an
an unconvenunconvenmon
tribal or
or territorial
territorial origin,
origin, the
the new
new polity
polity acquired
tional
fifteenth century
century
tional nameAmurru,
name-Amurru, which
which up
up to
to the
the end
end of
of the
the fifteenth

Syria,
Syria, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine
Palestine

295
295

simply meant
meant "west"
"west" in
in Akkadian
Akkadian or
or the
the places
places inhabited
inhabited by
by pastoral
pastoral
simply
tribes
tribes (who
(who for
for this
this reason
reason were
were called
called "Amorites"
"Amorites" or
or "Westerners";
"Westerners";
their actual
actual tribal
tribal name
name was
was apparently
apparently "Sutians").
"Sutians"). Even
Even earlier,
earlier, the
the
their
Hapiru formed
formed their
their own
own self-governing
self-governing communities
communities whenever
whenever they
they
Hapiru
had the
the opportunity
opportunity to
to do
do so.
so. Some
Some of
of them
them entered
entered the
the military
military serserhad
vice of
of local
local kings
kings (as
(as far
far away
away from
from pharaonic
pharaonic Egypt
as possible).
possible). All
vice
Egypt as
All
of them
them were
were opposed
opposed to
to royal
royal rule
rule in
in general
and to
to the
the authority
authority of
of
of
general and
the pharaohs
pharaohs in
in particular.
particular.
the
The ambitious
ambitious Abdi-Ashirta
use of
of these
these Hapiru
Hapiru to
to found
found the
the
The
Abdi-Ashirta made
made use
kingdom of
of Amurru.
Amurru. According
According to
to aa report
report received
received by
by Amenhetep
Amenhetep
kingdom
III,
III, Abdi-Ashirta
Abdi-Ashirta exhorted
exhorted his
his adherents
adherents with
with the
the following
following words:
words:
Let
Let us
us gather
gather together
together and
and attack
attack Byblos.
Byblos. And
And if
if there
there be
be
no one
one there
there who
who would
would liberate
liberate it
it from
from the
the hands
hands of
of the
the enenno
emy,
emy, we
we will
will drive
drive out
out the
the mayors
mayors from
from their
their lands
lands and
and then
then
all lands
lands will
will unite
unite with
with the
the Hapiru.
Hapiru. And
And let
let there
there from
from then
then
all
on
justice] for
on be
be fairness
fairness [or
[or justice]
for all
all lands.
lands. Let
Let the
the young
young men
men and
and
maidens
maidens be
be safe
safe [from
[from bondage-slavery]
bondage-slavery] forever.
forever. And
And if
if the
the
pharaoh
pharaoh turns
turns against
against us,
us, then
then all
all lands
lands will
will be
be inimical
inimical to
to
him. What
What could
could he
he then
then do
do to
to us?
us?
him.
In
all, freefreeIn ancient
ancient Western
Western Asia
Asia "fairness"
"fairness" (,justice")
("justice") meant,
meant, first
first of
of all,
dom
hosdom from
from indebtedness
indebtedness and
and the
the return
return of
of bonded
bonded and
and pledged
pledged hosthe return
tages and,
tages
and, whenever
whenever possible,
possible, the
return of
of seized
seized or
or sold
sold immovable
immovable
property.
property. This
This meant
meant that
that the
the subjects
subjects of
of all
all the
the small
small kingdoms
kingdoms were
were
exhorted
become free
exhorted to
to kill
kill their
their "mayors"
"mayors" (minor
(minor kings)
kings) and
and to
to become
free
Hapiru. Debtor
bondage was
was to
to be
abolished, and
and the
the pharaoh's
pharaoh's miliHapiru.
Debtor bondage
be abolished,
military power
power was
was to
to be
be confronted
confronted by
by the
the resolve
resolve of
of the
the combined
combined rebels.
rebels.
tary
It is
is not
not surprising
surprising that
that from
from the
the very
very beginning
beginning the
the pharaonic
pharaonic govIt
governments
ernments pursued
pursued the
the Hapiru
Hapiru and
and tried
tried to
to capture
capture and
and send
send them
them
into
into hard
hard slave
slave labor
labor (e.g.,
(e.g., in
in the
the stone
stone quarries).
quarries).
In
their
letters
to
the
pharaoh,
Abdi-Ashirta
In their letters to the pharaoh, Abdi-Ashirta and,
and, after
after him,
him, his
his son
son
Aziru
were
careful
to
appear
as
loyal
servants
of
the
pharaoh,
while
Aziru were careful to appear as loyal servants of the pharaoh, while in
in
the
urge the
the meantime
meantime their
their agents
agents continued
continued to
to urge
the local
local population
population to
to
kill their
their mayors.
mayors. This
This actually
actually happened
in several
several places
in PhoePhoekill
happened in
places in
nicia and
and Palestine.
Palestine. In
In some
some areas
areas groups
of armed
armed former
former slaves
slaves
nicia
groups of
were active.
were
active.
Meanwhile,
in the
the 1460s,
Meanwhile, in
1460s, the
the Hittite
Hittite king
king Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas II began
began atattacking
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Mitanni,
Mitanni, Egypt's
Egypt's ally.
ally. Amurru
Amurru became
tacking the
became aa
buffer
probuffer between
between the
the Hittites
Hittites and
and the
the Egyptians,
Egyptians, but
but its
its king
king took
took aa proHittite stance.
stance. From
From the
the onset
of the
the Hittite
Hittite
onset of
Hittite invasion,
invasion, it
it was
was clear
clear that
that
Hittite rule
rule was
was easier
easier to
to live
live under
under than
than the
the Egyptian.
Egyptian. The
The Hittite
Hittite
Hittite
king defined
defined his
his relationships
relationships with
with his
his vassal
vassal kings
kings in
in written
written agreeagreeking
ments and
and authenticated
authenticated them
them by
by terrible
terrible oaths
oaths invoking
invoking the
the names
names of
ments
of

2966
29

I. A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
LA.

all
both signatories;
rule, he
all the
the gods
gods commonly
commonly worshiped
worshiped by
by both
signatories; as
as aa rule,
he
kept to
The tribute
tribute imposed
by the
kept
to the
the terms
terms of
of these
these treaties.
treaties. The
imposed by
the Hittites
Hittites
and
required were
were less
and the
the military
military contingents
contingents they
they required
less onerous
onerous than
than
the loot
loot and
plunder taken
taken by
by the
the troops
troops and
the
and plunder
and functionaries
functionaries of
of the
the
pharaohs.
Indeed, enormous
enormous was
of the
the eastern
eastern
pharaohs. Indeed,
was the
the price
price the
the peoples
peoples of
Mediterranean
Mediterranean paid
paid for
for the
the luxurious,
luxurious, beautiful
beautiful decorations
decorations of
of the
the
pharaonic
and tombs.
tombs. The
The Hittites
Hittites were
were not
not yet
accustomed to
to
pharaonic palaces
palaces and
yet accustomed
such luxury,
luxury, and
and their
state was
conglomerate of
of allied,
allied, although
although
such
their state
was aa conglomerate
unequal,
minor kingdoms,
similar to
to the
the state
state of
of Mitanni
Mitanni earlier.
earlier.
unequal, minor
kingdoms, similar
Aziru, the
the second
second king
of Amurru,
Amurru, now
now aa large
large state
state in
in Syria,
Syria, paid
paid
Aziru,
king of
about five
five pounds
of gold
gold annually
annually (the
(the price
of aa hundred
hundred or
or so
so
about
pounds of
price of
slaves) to
to the
Hittite king.
means aa bargain,
he
slaves)
the Hittite
king. This
This was
was by
by no
no means
bargain, but
but he
would have
have paid
considerably more
more to
to the
the pharaoh.
It is
is therefore
therefore ununwould
paid considerably
pharaoh. It
derstandable
almost everyone
everyone in
in the
Eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean Belt,
Belt,
derstandable that
that almost
the Eastern
except for
for the
the pharaoh's
among the
elite, preferred
the
except
pharaoh's henchmen
henchmen among
the elite,
preferred the
Hittite rule.
rule.
Hittite
Amenhetep
with his
utopian religious
Amenhetep IV,
IV, busy
busy with
his Utopian
religious reform,
reform, did
did not
not
want to
troops to
to preserve
preserve the
the Asian
posseswant
to or
or could
could not
not send
send enough
enough troops
Asian possessions of
of Egypt.
Egypt. Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas II had
not yet
yet started
started moving
moving into
into these
these
sions
had not
regions;
regions; he
he still
still had
had to
to finish
finish with
with Mitanni.
Mitanni. The
The Asian
Asian empire
empire of
of the
the
pharaohs
the blows
Aziru and
and the
ruler
pharaohs was
was crumbling
crumbling under
under the
blows of
of Aziru
the ruler
of Damascus,
Damascus, who
also surrounded
surrounded himself
himself with
Hapiru troops.
In
of
who also
with Hapiru
troops. In
Phoenicia,
the king
king of
of Sidon
Sidon sided
sided with
with the
the Hapiru;
Hapiru; it
it is
is possible
that
Phoenicia, the
possible that
Sidon's importance,
importance, surpassing
surpassing Byblos,
Byblos, dates
dates from
from that
that time.
time. Despite
Despite
Sidon's
the
inaction of
of the
most of
of the
the minor
completely comcomthe inaction
the pharaoh,
pharaoh, most
minor kings,
kings, completely
promised
their cooperation
cooperation with
invaders, still
still maintained
maintained
promised by
by their
with the
the invaders,
their loyalty
loyalty to
to Egypt,
Egypt, but
but the
the ground
ground was
shifting under
their feet.
feet.
their
was shifting
under their
Following
in the
footsteps of
Hapiru, Hittite
Hittite armies
armies began
moving
Following in
the footsteps
of the
the Hapiru,
began moving
south. They
They reached
Palestine in
in the
of the
foursouth.
reached northern
northern Palestine
the middle
middle of
the fourteenth century.
century. Not
much is
is known
about the
the Hapiru
Hapiru after
after that.
that. They
They
teenth
Not much
known about
obviously
merged with
with the
rest of
of the
Some
obviously merged
the rest
the Canaanite
Canaanite population.
population. Some
may
have
managed
to
improve
their
living
conditions,
and
some
may have managed to improve their living conditions, and some may
may
even
have been
able to
to return
return to
to their
their original
original homes.
Of course,
course,
been able
homes. Of
even have
no radical
radical change
change in
in the
the social
social structure
structure could
could have
have occurred.
occurred. The
The
no
Amurru kingdom
kingdom became
another minor
Syrian state,
state, surviving
surviving
Amurru
became just
just another
minor Syrian
until
the twelfth
century B.C.
B.C. and
and maintaining
maintaining its
its access
access to
the MediMediuntil the
twelfth century
to the
terranean Sea.
Sea.
terranean

The Hittites
Pharaonic Egypt
The
Hittites and
and Pharaonic
Egypt
The pharaohs
of the
DynastySeti II and
and Rameses
Rameses IIII
The
pharaohs of
the Nineteenth
Nineteenth Dynasty-Seti
had
to reconquer
Palestine, Phoenicia,
The situation
had to
reconquer Palestine,
Phoenicia, and
and Syria.
Syria. The
situation of
of the
the
Hittites
was not
kings had
Hittites in
in Syria
Syria was
not at
at all
all secure,
secure, and
and the
the Hittite
Hittite kings
had to
to enen-

Syria,
Syria, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine
Palestine

297
297

gage
After the
gage in
in aa complex
complex political
political game.
game. After
the destruction
destruction of
of Mitanni,
Mitanni,
the
the crossings
crossings over
over the
the Euphrates
Euphrates into
into northern
northern Syria
Syria were
were threatened
threatened
by the
the recently
established Assyrian
kingdom. The
The Syrians
Syrians realized
realized
by
recently established
Assyrian kingdom.
that although
although the
the Hittite
Hittite rule
rule was
was more
more bearable
bearable than
than the
the Egyptian,
Egyptian, it
it
that
was more
more onerous
onerous than
than Mitannian
Mitannian domination.
domination. The
The agreements
agreements with
with
was
the Hittite
Hittite state
state included
included aa stipulation
stipulation that
that stripped
stripped the
the subject
subject states
states
the
of their
their rights
rights to
to independent
independent foreign
foreign and,
and, particularly,
particularly, military
military poliof
policies.
Other clauses
clauses also
also severely
severely limited
limited their
their independence.
independence. ConseConsecies. Other
quently, aa number
number of
of Syrian
Syrian states
states seceded
seceded from
from the
the Hittite
Hittite kingdom,
kingdom,
quently,
which was
was compelled
compelled to
to subdue
subdue them
them by
by military
military force.
force. The
The Amurru
Amurru
which
kingdom found
found it
it necessary
necessary to
to maneuver
maneuver between
between the
the Hittite
Hittite and
and the
the
kingdom
Egyptian imperial
imperial aspirations.
aspirations.
Egyptian
The
city
The principal
principal foothold
foothold of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite kingdom
kingdom in
in Syria
Syria was
was the
the city
of
of Carchemish,
Carchemish, on
on the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, which
which was
was ruled
ruled by
by Hittite
Hittite princes.
princes.
The
Hittites sought
garit into
The Hittites
sought to
to convert
convert the
the coastal
coastal city
city of
of U
Ugarit
into another
another
such strategic
strategic center.
center. The
The government
government archives
archives of
of U
Ugarit
supply hissuch
garit supply
historians with
with valuable
valuable information
information about
about Syrian
Syrian society
society in
in the
the fourfourtorians
teenth to
to thirteenth
thirteenth centuries
centuries B.C.
teenth
B.C.
A general
garit can
A
general outline
outline of
of the
the social
social order
order of
of U
Ugarit
can be
be gleaned
gleaned from
from
aa diplomatic
diplomatic agreement
agreement between
between the
the Hittite
Hittite king
king Hattusilis
Hattusilis III
III and
and
the king
king of
of U
Ugarit.
It is
is clear
clear from
from the
the stipulations
stipulations proposed
proposed to
to U
Ugarit
the
garit. It
garit
that
that Hattusilis
Hattusilis considered
considered the
the society
society of
of this
this city
city to
to be
be composed
composed of
of the
the
following
following strata:
strata: (1)
(1) "the
"the slaves
slaves (i.e.,
(i.e., servants)
servants) of
of the
the king";
king"; (2)
(2) "the
"the
sons
slaves,"
sons (i.e.,
(i.e., free
free citizens)
citizens) of
of Ugarit";
Ugarit"; (3)
(3) "the
"the slaves
slaves of
of the
the king's
king's slaves,"
meaning slaves
slaves of
of the
the king's
servants (this
(this category
category may
may have
have included
included
meaning
king's servants
the entire
entire lower
lower level
level of
of workers
workers of
of the
the royal
royal economy
economy who
who were
were
the
under the
the supervision
supervision and
and authority
authority of
of the
the royal
royal employees);
employees); and
and (4)
under
(4)
purchased
purchased priv'ate
private slaves.
slaves. The
The document
document also
also stipulates
stipulates that
that men
men of
of
any
category
who
have
run
away
to
Hapiru
communities
controlled
by
any category who have run away to Hapiru communities controlled by
the
Hittite king
king will
will be
be returned
returned by
by the
the king.
king.
the Hittite
From
From the
the documents
documents we
we learn
learn that
that collective
collective taxes
taxes (mostly
(mostly in
in kind,
kind,
but
but also
also in
in silver)
silver) were
were exacted
exacted from
from Ugaritic
Ugaritic communities,
communities, and
and its
its
people
people were
were recruited
recruited for
for obligatory
obligatory work
work for
for the
the state
state (called
(called "the
"the
going,"
Akkadian and
going," ilku
ilku55 in
in Akkadian
and unusshe
unussheinin Hurrian).
Hurrian).Obligatory
Obligatory labor
labor
included
the army,
included service
service in
in the
army, service
service as
as rowers,
rowers, and
and work
work on
on state
state projprojects. All
recruited for
for state
state obligatory
obligatory labor
labor were
were maintained
maintained
ects.
All persons
persons recruited
by the
the royal
royal treasury.
treasury. Members
Members of
of family
family communes
communes to
to be
be drafted
drafted for
for
by
obligatory labor
labor were
were apparently
apparently selected
selected by
the families
families themselves.
themselves.
obligatory
by the
The village
village and
and town
town communities
communities were
were governed
governed by
by elders
elders and
and by
The
by
special mediator
mediator between
between the
the individual
individual community
community and
and the
the royal
royal
aa special
5.
5. In
In ancient
ancient Babylonia
Babylonia the
the ilkum
ilkumdid
didnot
notmean
meanservice
serviceby
bythe
thepopulation
populationatatlarge
largebut
but
military service
service in
in exchange
exchange for
for royal
royal land
land grants.
grants.
military

298

I. A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
/.

authority
authority called
called the
the sakinu.
sakinu. The
The governmental
governmental system
system of
of Ugarit
U garit as
as aa
the same
lines, but
but Ugarit
U garit had
had aa king
king in
whole was
was organized
organized along
along the
whole
same lines,
in
addition
to the
the sakinu.
addition to
sakinu. This,
This, however,
however, did
did not
not prevent
prevent the
the council
council of
of
elders or
or the
the sakinu
sakinu from
from occasionally
occasionally engaging
engaging in
in foreign
foreign relations
relations
elders
directly.
directly.
The
Ugaritians did
The "king's
"king's men"
men" (the
(the Ugaritians
did not
not call
call themselves
themselves royal
royal
term used
by the
the Hittite
king) included
slaves,
slaves, the
the term
used by
Hittite king)
included plowmen,
plowmen,
herdsmen, vine
vine growers,
growers, salt
salt workers,
workers, various
various craftsmen,
craftsmen, and
and even
even
soldiers,
were battle
troops designated
by the
soldiers, among
among whom
whom were
battle chariot
chariot troops
designated by
the
Hurrian
marianna. The
The royal
royaltreasury
treasury supplied
supplied the
the chariots,
chariots,
Hurrian name
name marianna.
horses, and
other equipment.
Judging by
by their
their names,
names, these
these solh<?rses,
and all
all other
equipment. Judging
soldiers were
Amorites and
and not
not Hurrians
Hurrians or
or "Indo-Aryan
"Indo-Aryan feudal
feudal
diers
were Amorites
knights,"
by earlier
knights," as
as they
they have
have been
been represented
represented by
earlier historians.
historians. Each
Each
professional
group had
its own
own "elder."
"elder." None
of the
king's men
perhad its
None of
the king's
men perprofessional group
formed temporary
temporary obligatory
obligatory labor
labor (ilku);
(ilku); theirs
theirs was,
was, rather,
rather, aa "ser"serformed
vice" (pilku),
and they
to the
the state
state in
in silver.
silver. Moreover,
Moreover,
(pilku), and
they paid
paid their
their tax
tax to
vice"
they could
could be
awarded conditional
conditional land
land grants
grants (ubadiyu).
(ubadiyu).AAperson
personnot
not
they
be awarded
performing
his duty
declared aa "lazybones"
"lazybones" (nayyalu),
(nayyalu), and
and his
his
performing his
duty was
was declared
grant could
could be
be transferred
transferred as
as "alimentation"
"alimentation" to
other high
high royal
royal court
court
grant
to other
functionaries, who
who were
were also
also king's
king's men.
men. Certain
Certain high
high officials,
officials, espeespefunctionaries,
cially those
those connected
connected with
with international
international overseas
overseas trade,
trade, acquired
acquired subsubcially
stantial land parcels
for large
large sums
sums of
of money,
money, including
including royal
royal land,
land,
stantialland
parcels for
that is,
is, land
land constituting
constituting "alimentation"
"alimentation" for
for some
some royal
service. (This
(This
that
royal service.
land bought
bought from
from royal
royal employees,
employees, but
the king
king was
was recompensed.)
recompensed.)
land
but the
The legal
legal status
status of
of such
such properties,
properties, however,
however, apparently
apparently remained
remained
The
unclear
to the
the U
Ugaritians
themselves. These
These transactions
transactions sometimes
sometimes
garitians themselves.
unclear to
had to
to be
be reconfirmed
reconfirmed when
when aa new
new king
king ascended
ascended the
the throne.
throne.
had
Community
members, as
Community members,
as well
well as
as the
the king's
king's men,
men, were
were subject
subject to
to uniuniversal military
military conscription;
conscription; but
but some
some persons
could be
be exempted
exempted by
persons could
by
versal
virtue
virtue of
of special
special privileges.
privileges.
Ugarit's
Ugarit's influence
influence eventually
eventually decreased
decreased when
when it
it fell
fell under
under the
the hehegemony of
of Carchemish,
Carchemish, whose
whose power
on the
Meanwhile, the
the
power was
was on
the rise.
rise. Meanwhile,
gemony
Egyptian
B.C. under
under Pharaoh
Pharaoh Seti
Seti II
Egyptian offensive
offensive that
that started
started around
around 1300
1300 B.C.
was
intensified under
Rameses II.
II. The
The situation
situation of
of the
the Canaanite
Canaanite
under Rameses
was intensified
cities of
of Palestine
Palestine became
worse than
of the
the Amorite-Hurrian
Amorite-Hurrian
cities
became worse
than that
that of
cities of
of Syria.
Syria. The
The pharaonic
troops resumed
resumed their
their looting,
looting, murdermurdercities
pharaonic troops
captives. Rameses
Rameses fell
fell into
into aa trap
set for
for him
him by
by the
the
ing, and
and taking
taking of
of captives.
ing,
trap set
Hittites at
at the
the battle
of Qinza
Qinza but
but still
still managed
managed to
to defeat
defeat the
the Hittites
Hittites
battle of
Hittites
and their
their allies.
allies. He
He continued
continued the
annual campaigns
campaigns into
into the
the region
region
and
the annual
for almost
almost fifteen
fifteen years,
years, ravaging
ravaging not
not only
only Palestine
Palestine but
Syria as
as well.
for
but Syria
well.
In the
the end
end the
the Hittite
Hittite king
king Hattusilis
Hattusilis III,
III, whose
whose country
country was
now
In
was now
threatened by
Assyria, signed
signed aa peace
peace treaty
treaty with
with Rameses
II (in
(in 1296
1296
threatened
by Assyria,
Rameses II
or 1270
1270 B.C.).
or
B.C.).

Syria,
Phoenicia, and
Palestine
Syria, Phoenicia,
and Palestine

299
299

The
The Migration
Migration of
of "Those
"Those Who
Who Had
Had Crossed
Crossed the
the River"
River"
and
the "Sea
"Sea Peoples"
and the
Peoples"
Soon
the reign
reign of
Rameses II
II (end
fourteenth and
Soon after
after the
of Rameses
(end of
of the
the fourteenth
and beginbeginning of
thirteenth centuries
B.C), aa large
large group
group of
of pastoral
pastoral tribes
tribes
ning
of the
the thirteenth
centuries B.C.),
began
invading Palestine
from the
the Transjordanian
steppes. This
This
began invading
Palestine from
Transjordanian steppes.
event is
is confirmed
confirmed by
sufficiently detailed
detailed archaeological
archaeological data
data and
and is
event
by sufficiently
is
also described
described in
in the
of the
some 400
400
also
the historical
historical legends
legends of
the Bible,
Bible, written
written some
to 500
500 years
years later
from orally
orally transmitted
transmitted accounts.
accounts.
to
later from
The attitude
attitude toward
the historical
historical value
of biblical
stories varies
varies
The
toward the
value of
biblical stories
from
unreserved acceptance
their veracity
veracity to
to aa complete
from an
an unreserved
acceptance of
of their
complete rejecrejection
of their
worth to
the historian.
In fact,
fact, although
although these
these stories
stories are
are
tion of
their worth
to the
historian. In
legends that
that were
used in
acute ideological
struggles of
of much
later
legends
were used
in the
the acute
ideological struggles
much later
times, each
each can
can be
used by
to the
the extent
extent to
to which
which it
it can
can
times,
be used
by historians
historians to
be confirmed
confirmed by
by independent
independent written
sources or
or by
by archaeological
archaeological
be
written sources
remains.
remams.
A.D. it
it was
was quite
quite
Already by
by the
the middle
of the
the nineteenth
nineteenth century
century A.D.
Already
middle of
clear
biblical narratives
(ancestors of
of various
various
that the
the biblical
narratives about
about patriarchs
patriarchs (ancestors
clear that
Hebrew,
tribes) reflect
legends of
the type
current
Hebrew, Aramaic,
Aramaic, and
and Arab
Arab tribes)
reflect legends
of the
type current
among all
all Semites.
Semites. Such
Such stories
are based
on the
among
stories are
based on
the memorization
memorization of
of
tribal genealogies.
genealogies. Among
the pastoral
this was
necessary
tribal
Among the
pastoral tribes,
tribes, this
was aa necessary
part
of the
the training
inculcating the
the essential
essential mental
mental outlook
outlook and
and
part of
training inculcating
awareness of
of one's
one's identity.
identity. Such
Such genealogies
genealogies have
have come
come to
to us
only
awareness
us not
not only
from the
the authors
authors of
of the
the Bible
Bible but
but also
also from
from the
dynasties of
of HamHamfrom
the dynasties
murapi
and Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad II of
of Mesopotamia,
murapi and
Mesopotamia, who
who traced
traced their
their oriorigins to
to Amorite
(Sudan) ancestry.
ancestry. Ancestor
Ancestor lists
lists of
of this
this kind
kind are
are
gins
Amorite (Sutian)
memorized
even today
today among
among Bedouin
Bedouin Arabs.
Arabs. The
The most
most important
important
memorized even
biblical geneaologies
geneaologies are
are presented
Genesis. (This
(This is
is the
the first
book
biblical
presented in
in Genesis.
first book
of the
the most
sacred part
of the
Testament, the
or
of
most sacred
part of
the Old
Old Testament,
the Pentateuch
Pentateuch or
Torah,
venerated
by
Jews
as
well
as
Christians.)
An
analysis
shows
that
Torah, venerated by Jews as well as Christians.) An analysis shows that
these genealogies
genealogies apparently
apparently belong
Sudan tribes;
mythical
these
belong to
to Sutian
tribes; their
their mythical
the character
character
forefather must
therefore be
be one
one Sutu,
Sutu, or
or Shutu,
that is,
forefather
must therefore
Shutu, that
is, the
known from
from the
the Bible
Bible as
as Seth,
Seth, son
son of
of the
first man,
man, Adam.
The SuSuknown
the first
Adam. The
tians are
are the
the Amorites.
Amorites. There
There are
are aa number
number of
of other
other biblical
biblical legends
legends
tians
implying the
the Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian origin
origin of
of the
the Hebrew
Hebrew and
and related
related ananimplying
cestral tribes;
tribes; aa few
few biblical
biblical myths
myths are
are undoubtedly
undoubtedly of
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian
cestral
origin (e.g.,
(e.g., the
the legend
legend of
of the
the Flood).
origin
Flood).
This
This and
and other
other information
information make
make it
it probable
probable that
that the
the tribes
tribes that
that
appeared in
in Transjordan
Transjordan in
in the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the thirteenth
thirteenth cencenappeared
tury B.C.
and later
later invaded
invaded Palestine
Palestine were
were ultimately
ultimately related
related to
to the
the
tury
B.C. and
Amorite-Sutian tribes
tribes living
living during
during the
the third
third and
and early
early second
second millenmillenAmorite-Sutian
nia B.C.
in Upper
They were
were displaced
displaced from
from there
there durdurnia
B.C. in
Upper Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. They
ing the
the sixteenth
sixteenth to
to fourteenth
fourteenth centuries
centuries by
Mitannian Hurrians
Hurrians
ing
by the
the Mitannian

00
3300

I. A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
/.

and
and the
the Kassites.
Kassites. Indeed,
Indeed, Babylonian
Babylonian documents
documents of
of that
that time
time attest
attest to
to
disappearance of
of Amorite
Amorite pastoral
pastoral tribes
tribes from
from Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia. The
The
aa disappearance
Aramaean pastoral
tribes that
that replaced
replaced them
them (coming
(coming from
from oases
oases furfurAramaean
pastoral tribes
ther south,
south, in
in Arabia)
Arabia) began
to appear
appear in
in the
the Transjordan
Transjordan in
in small
small
ther
began to
groups beginning
beginning in
in the
the fourteenth
fourteenth century.
century. By
the end
end of
of the
the twelfth
twelfth
groups
By the
century many
many more
more were
were arriving.
arriving.
century
Some
Some of
of the
the Sutian
Sutian tribes
tribes migrated
migrated as
as far
far as
as central
central Arabia;
Arabia; others
others
appeared in
in Transjordan
Transjordan and
and Palestine.
Palestine. The
The Sutian
Sutian tribes
tribes living
living in
in
appeared
Transjordan
'ibri,
Transjordan in
in the
the thirteenth
thirteenth to
to twelfth
twelfth centuries
centuries were
were called
called 'ibri,
"those who
crossed (the
(The river
in question
question was
was of
"those
who had
had crossed
(the river)."
river)." (The
river in
of
course not
not the
the Jordan,
Jordan, which
they had
had not
crossed, at
at least
least en
en
course
which they
not yet
yet crossed,
masse, but
but the
the Euphrates.)
Euphrates.) Thus,
Thus, "those
"those who
who had
had crossed"
crossed" essentially
essentially
masse,
meant "those
"those from
from Mesopotamia."
Mesopotamia." At
At that
time the
the term
term 'ibri
'ibri was
was
meant
that time
by
no means
means equivalent
equivalent to
to "Hebrew"
"Hebrew" as
as the
understood
by no
the term
term was
was understood
in later
"Hebrew" included
included all
all the
descendants of
of the
the legin
later times;
times; "Hebrew"
the descendants
legendary patriarch
patriarch Abraham
Abraham and
and even
even of
of his
his ancestor
ancestor 'Eber.
'Eber. (This
(This
endary
name actually
actually means
means "crossing
"crossing [of
[of aa river].")
river].") According
According to
to biblical
biblical
name
and koranic
koranic accounts,
accounts, Abraham
Abraham was
regarded as
as the
ancestor not
not
and
was regarded
the ancestor
only of
of the
Israelite but
also of
of the
Aramaean and
and Arab
tribes. Some
Some
only
the Israelite
but also
the Aramaean
Arab tribes.
of the
the former
former Upper
Upper Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian tribes
(e.g., the
the Didani,
Didani, known
known
of
tribes (e.g.,
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia since
since the
the middle
middle of
of the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.C.)
in
B.C.) mimigrated to
to the
Arabian Peninsula
Peninsula and
and merged
merged with
with the
the Aramaeans
Aramaeans
grated
the Arabian
and Arabs;
Arabs; others
others settled
settled in
in Transjordan
and never
left it
it (the
(the Moaband
Transjordan and
never left
Moabites and
and Ammonites),
Ammonites), and
and others
others settled
settled south
south of
of the
Dead Sea
Sea (the
(the
ites
the Dead
Edomites, also
also called
called Idumeans).
Idumeans). All
All these
these lost
lost the
the designation
designation "those
"those
Edomites,
who
crossed (the
and only
only one
tribal group
group retained
this
who had
had crossed
(the river),"
river)," and
one tribal
retained this
name.
The
Hebrews
were
a
group
of
tribes
who
traced
their
ancesname. The Hebrews were a group of tribes who traced their ancestry to
to the
the legendary
patriarch Jacob
Jacob (also
(also called
called Israel),
Israel), grandson
grandson of
of
try
legendary patriarch
Abraham,
and
had
wandered
longer
than
other
tribes
before
finally
Abraham, and had wandered longer than other tribes before finally
settling.
settling.
According
to aa much
much later
later legend
legend (which,
however, was
was aa matter
matter of
According to
(which, however,
of
firm belief
among all
all Israelites)
Israelites) their
their ancestors,
ancestors, migrating
migrating from
from
firm
belief among
drought and
and famine,
famine, settled
settled on
on aa stretch
stretch of
of land
land beionging
belonging to
to Egypt,
Egypt,
drought
somewhere on
fringes of
Delta, where
where they
they multiplied
multiplied
somewhere
on the
the fringes
of the
the Nile
Nile Delta,
fabulously. (Twelve
(Twelve men
are supposed
supposed to
to have
have produced
produced 643,550
643,550 warwarfabulously.
men are
riors in
in just
four generations!)
generations!) They
were made
made bondsmen
or "slaves"
"slaves"
just four
They were
bondsmen or
riors
by
the Egyptian
Egyptian authorities
authorities and
and became
became "king's
"king's men,"
men," performing
performing
by the
forced
for the
Egyptians. (The
(The Bible
Bible mentions
mentions the
building of
forced labor
labor for
the Egyptians.
the building
of
two
cities that
that were
indeed founded
founded under
II.) Then
they
two cities
were indeed
under Rameses
Rameses II.)
Then they
were miraculously
miraculously led
from there
there by
the "prophet"
"prophet" Moses,
an Israelite
Israelite
were
led from
by the
Moses, an
raised by
an Egyptian
Egyptian princess
and the
the husband
husband of
of aa Midianite
Midianite
raised
by an
princess and
woman.
northern Arab
Arab tribe.)
tribe.)
woman. (The
(The Midianites
Midianites were
were apparently
apparently aa northern
Moses
supposedly
renewed
a
covenant
(treaty)
with
the
god
Yahweh,
Moses supposedly renewed a covenant (treaty) with the god Yahweh,

Syria,
Syria, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine
Palestine

01
3301

which,
which, it
it was
was believed,
believed, had
had originally
originally been
been concluded
concluded by
by Abraham.
Abraham.66
According
IsAccording to
to this
this treaty,
treaty, Yahweh
Yahweh promised
promised to
to give
give Palestine
Palestine to
to the
the Israelites in
in exchange
exchange for
for aa vow
vow not
not to
to worship
worship any
any other
other god.
god. Since
Since the
the
raelites
Israelites did
did not
not keep
keep their
their promise,
Moses announced
announced that
that they
they
Israelites
promise, Moses
were to
to wander
wander in
in the
the Sinai
Sinai and
and the
the Transjordanian
Transjordanian deserts
deserts for
for forty
forty
were
years until
until all
all those
those who
who had
had sinned
sinned had
had died
died and
and that
that only
only the
the new
new
years
generation would
would enter
enter Palestine.
Palestine. Moses
Moses also
also gave
gave the
the Israelites,
Israelites, in
in
generation
Yahweh's name,
name, ethical
ethical and
and legal
legal instructions
instructions to
to guide
guide their
their future
future
Yahweh's
settled life
life in
in Palestine.
Palestine.
settled
The
The story
story is
is legendary
legendary and
and was
was told
told some
some three
three or
or four
four hundred
hundred
years after
after the
the alleged
alleged events.
events. No
No historical
historical accounts
accounts are
are known
known to
to
years
have ever
ever been
been preserved
preserved correctly
correctly after
after four
four hundred
hundred years
years of
of oral
oral
have
transmission. So
So far,
far, no
no independent
independent evidence
evidence is
is known
known that
that could
could
transmission.
confirm this
this story,
story, and
and it
it would
would be
be futile
futile to
to attempt
attempt to
to discover
discover if
if any
any
confirm
of the
the elements
elements of
of the
the story
story are
are historically
historically accurate.
accurate. The
The same
same can
can be
be
of
said of
of any
any legend.
legend. There
There may
may be
be some
some truth
truth in
in the
the tale,
tale, but
but we
we lack
lack
said
the criteria
criteria for
for deciding
deciding what
what the
the truth
truth might
might be.
be.
the
The Bible
Bible does
does contain
contain legends
legends that
that can
can be
be checked
checked against
against archaearchaeThe
ological
ological data.
data. To
To be
be sure,
sure, in
in the
the biblical
biblical accounts
accounts the
the events
events from
from the
the
end
B.C. are
are presented
presented in
in aa disdisend of
of the
the thirteenth
thirteenth to
to the
the tenth
tenth centuries
centuries B.C.
torted
is
torted form,
form, with
with dislocations
dislocations of
of the
the historical
historical perspective.
perspective. This
This is
normal for
for legends.
legends. Many
Many events
events had
had been
been forgotten,
forgotten, many
many similar
similar
normal
facts
are telescoped
telescoped into
into one,
one, and
and reality
reality is
is intermixed
intermixed with
with obviously
obviously
facts are
fictional events.
events. Nevertheless,
the basic
basic outline
outline of
of the
the events
events of
of that
that
fictional
Nevertheless, the
time as
as described
described in
in the
the Book
Book of
of Joshua
time
Joshua and,
and, to
to aa lesser
lesser degree,
degree, in
in the
the
Book of
of Judges
Judges represents
represents reminiscences
reminiscences of
of real
real events
events rather
rather than
than
Book
pure folklore.
folklore.
pure
It
It is
is obvious
obvious that
that before
before invading
invading Transjordan
Transjordan and,
and, later,
later, Palestine
Palestine
proper, the
the tribes
tribes must
must have
consolidated to
to form
form the
the Israelite
Israelite tribal
tribal
proper,
have consolidated
union
union that
that recognized
recognized the
the common
common god
god Yahweh.
Yahweh. The
The tribes
tribes most
most
likely formed
formed their
their union
union in
in the
the oasis
oasis of
of Kadesh-Barnea,
Kadesh-Barnea, suitable
suitable for
for
likely
sheep raising,
raising, in
in the
the northern
northern part
part of
of the
the Sinai
Sinai Peninsula.
Peninsula. This
This traditradisheep
tion probably
probably reflects
reflects historical
historical reality,
reality, but
but the
the original
original composition
composition of
of
tion
the tribal
tribal union
union is
is very
very doubtful.
doubtful. The
The real
real circumstances
circumstances of
of the
the invainvathe
sion, as
as revealed
revealed by
by archaeological
archaeological data,
data, were
were different
different from
from those
those desion,
depicted in
in the
the Bible,
Bible, which
which tells
tells of
of aa coordinated
coordinated and
and simultaneous
simultaneous
picted
march of
of twelve
twelve tribes
tribes headed
headed by
by Moses'
Moses' successor,
successor, Joshua,
Joshua, son
son of
of
march
Nun. It
It was
was probably
probably the
the first
first wave
wave of
of the
the invading
invading tribes
tribes who
who crossed
crossed
Nun.
6.
6. A
A not-implausible
not-implausible theory
theory postulates
postulates that
that the
the cult
cult of
of Yahweh
Yahweh was
was an
an entirely
entirely new
new
one introduced
introduced ad
ad hoc
hoc by
by aa historical
historical Moses
Moses in
in order
order to
to consolidate
consolidate the
the tribes
tribes through
through aa
one
cult common
common to
to them
them all
all and
and to
to them
them alone.
alone. The
The new
new god
god was
was naturally
naturally identified
identified with
with
cult
other former
former divine
divine father
father figures.
The theory
theory can
can neither
neither be
be proved
proved nor
nor disproved,
disproved,
other
figures. The
owing to
to the
the lack
lack of
of independent
independent evidence.
evidence.
owing

302

/.
I. A.
A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

the
the Jordan
Jordan near
near the
the city
city of
of Jericho.
Jericho. The
The walls
walls of
of the
the city
city crumbled
crumbled in
in
the
face of
of the
the attackers,
attackers, not
not because
because of
of the
trumpets, but
the face
the biblical
biblical trumpets,
but bebecause they
they were
were undermined.
About the
the same
same time
time the
the city
city of
of Bethel
Bethel
cause
undermined. About
was destroyed,
destroyed, and
and the
the invaders
invaders advanced
advanced into
into the
center of
of Palestine.
Palestine.
was
the center
This particular
group of
of tribes
tribes (Ephraim,
(Ephraim, Manasseh,
Manasseh, and
and Benjamin)
Benjamin)
This
particular group
later claimed
claimed descent
descent from
from Jacob
Jacob and
and his
his favorite
favorite wife,
wife, Rachel.
Rachel.
later
Another invasion
invasion may
may have
followed shortly.
shortly. Although
Although the
the first
first
Another
have followed
group traversed
without obstacle,
obstacle, the
the second,
second, again
again
group
traversed Transjordan
Transjordan without
moving from
from the
Sinai, encountered
encountered resistance
had to
to fight
fight their
their
the Sinai,
resistance and
and had
moving
way through.
through. Only
Only some
some of
of the
the tribes
tribes of
of this
group eventually
eventually crossed
crossed
way
this group
the Jordan.
Jordan. Two
Two of
of these
these tribes,
tribes, Issachar
Issachar and
and Zebulun,
Zebulun, settled
settled in
in the
the
the
regions
Jordan, and
and east
east and
and north
of the
the Manasseh
Manasseh tribe.
regions west
west of
of the
the Jordan,
north of
tribe.
The third
third tribe,
tribe, Judah
Judah (Jehudah),
(Jehudah), turned
turned south,
south, proceeding
proceeding to
to dedeThe
stroy the
the towns
towns in
in their
their path
and eventually
eventually occupying
occupying the
the entire
entire
stroy
path and
southern Palestinian
Palestinian upland
upland southwest
southwest of
of the
Dead Sea.
Sea. The
fate of
of
southern
the Dead
The fate
the other
other two
two tribes
tribes is
is not
not entirely
entirely clear;
clear; at
at some
some later
later time
time they
they apparapparthe
ently lost
lost their
their identity.
identity. Moreover,
Moreover, it
it seems
seems that
that an
an Edomite
Edomite (?)
(?) group,
group,
ently
the Kalebites
Kalebites (or
(or Kenazites),
Kenazites), which
entered the
the upland
from the
the south
south
the
which entered
upland from
instead of
of crossing
crossing the
the Jordan,
Jordan, merged
merged with
the tribe
tribe of
of Judah.
Judah. The
The
instead
with the
same may
may be
be true
true of
of the
the tribe
tribe of
of Simeon,
Simeon, later
later possibly
possibly merged
with
same
merged with
Judah or
or the
the Edomites.
Edomites. This
entire group
group of
of tribes
tribes claimed
claimed descent
descent
Judah
This entire
7
said to
have
from Jacob
Jacob and
and his
eldest wife,
Leah. Four
Four tribes
from
his eldest
wife, Leah.
tribes 7 were
were said
to have
descended from
from Jacob's
Jacob's concubines.
concubines. All
these latter
latter tribes
lived at
at the
the
descended
All these
tribes lived
outer edges
edges of
of the
the territory
territory of
of the
the tribal
tribal union
union and
and may
may originally
originally
outer
have
been local
local Amorite
Amorite tribes
joined the
the union
union after
after it
it had
had behave been
tribes who
who joined
be8
8
come
established
in
Palestine.
come established in Palestine.
In
In Palestine
Palestine the
the Israelites
Israelites (apparently
(apparently aa part
part of
of the
the Amorite-Sutian
Amorite-Sutian
tribes)
to aa lesser
tribes) encountered
encountered aa Canaanite
Canaanite and,
and, to
lesser extent,
extent, Amorite
Amorite
The Canaanites
Canaanites and
and the
the Amorites
spoke very
very similar
similar diadiapopulation.
population.99 The
Amorites spoke
lects of
of Western
Western Semitic
Semitic and
and worshiped
worshiped many
many common
common gods.
gods. A
A much
much
lects
later tradition
tradition asserts
asserts that
that the
the invading
invading Israelites
Israelites butchered
butchered all
all of
of the
the
later
Canaanite inhabitants
at Yahweh's
Yahweh's command.
command. It
It is
is indeed
the
Canaanite
inhabitants at
indeed true
true that
that the
destruction visited
visited upon
upon Canaanite
Canaanite towns
towns and
and villages
villages was
was enormous.
enormous.
destruction
The population,
population, however,
however, was
was not
exterminated, nor
nor were
were all
all the
the CaCaThe
not exterminated,
naanite cities
cities destroyed.
destroyed.
naanite
Why were
were the
the Canaanite
Canaanite city-states
city-states so
so easily
easily conquered
conquered in
in spite
spite of
of
Why
7.
These tribes
tribes lived
where apparently
Yah7. These
lived in
in Phoenicia
Phoenicia (Asher),
(Asher), where
apparently no
no one
one worshiped
worshiped Yahweh,
weh, in
in northern
northern Palestine
Palestine (Naphtali),
(Naphtali), and
and in
in Transjordan
Transjordan (Gad).
(Gad). The
The fourth
fourth tribe
tribe
(Dan)
Palestine.
(Dan) initially
initially lived
lived in
in southwestern
southwestern and,
and, later,
later, in
in northern
northern Palestine.
8.
8. Some
Some of
of them
them had
no tradition
tradition of
of ever
ever having
having lived
lived in
in Egypt.
Egypt.
had no
9.
9. The
The Bible
Bible mentions
mentions Hittites,
Hittites, Horites
Horites (Hurrians?),
(Hurrians?), and
and some
some other,
other, otherwise
otherwise ununknown tribes
tribes among
the pre-Palestinian
pre-Palestinian population
population but
but lumps
them all
together as
as
known
among the
lumps them
all together
Canaanites.
Canaanites.

Syria,
Syria, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine
Palestine

303

their
military traditions?
their longstanding
longstanding cultural
cultural and
and military
traditions? The
The reason
reason is
is that
that
they had
had been
been severely
severely weakened
weakened by
by 350
350 years
years of
of massacres
and pilthey
massacres and
pillage, which
which had
had pitifully
pitifully decimated
decimated their
their population.
population. And
And yet,
yet, the
the
lage,
more important
important Canaanite
Canaanite cities
cities were
were not
conquered by
by the
the tribes
tribes
more
not conquered
"from beyond
beyond the
the river."
river." Some
Some Canaanite
Canaanite cities
cities bought
their freedom
freedom
"from
bought their
by ransom
ransom payments
payments or
or pledges
pledges oflabor
of labor service.
service. Some
Some remained
remained indeindeby
pendent, such
such as
as Jerusalem,
Jerusalem, the
the city
city of
of the
the Jebusites,
Jebusites, which
pendent,
which was
was lolocated on
on top
top of
of an
an inaccessible
inaccessible cliff.
cliff. The
The Manasseh
Manasseh tribe
tribe failed
failed to
to
cated
conquer any
any important
important center,
center, and
and one-half
one-half of
of the
the tribe
tribe had
had to
to return
return
conquer
to the
the east
east of
of the
the Jordan
Jordan River.
River.
to
It
It is
is fair
fair to
to say
say that
that the
the conquerors
conquerors settled
settled in
in the
the originally
originally sparsely
sparsely
populated uplands
uplands and
and developed
developed them.
them. The
The valleys,
valleys, to
to aa large
large exexpopulated
tent,
tent, remained
remained in
in the
the hands
hands of
of the
the Canaanites,
Canaanites, who
who counterattacked
counterattacked
the newcomers
newcomers with
with some
some success.
success. They
They received
received support
support from
from PhaPhathe
raoh
raoh Mer-ne-Ptab,
Mer-ne-Ptah, who
who invaded
invaded Palestine
Palestine during
during the
the last
last quarter
quarter of
of
the thirteenth
thirteenth century.
century. His
His inscription
inscription represents
represents the
the first
first written
written
the
mention of
of Israel
Israel in
in history:
history: "Canaan
"Canaan is
is ravaged
ravaged by
by all
all kinds
kinds of
of misformisformention
tunes
tunes.....
. . . Israel
Israel is
is annihilated
annihilated and
and its
its seed
seed is
is no
no more;
more; Hurri
Hurri [this
[this is
is
what the
the Egyptians
Egyptians then
then called
called Palestine]
has become
become aa widow
widow because
because
what
Palestine] has
of Egypt."
The Bible
Bible makes
makes no
no mention
mention of
of this
this event
event despite
despite its
its obof
Egypt." The
obvious significance.
significance. Having
Having lost
lost their
their initial
initial drive
drive and
and finding
finding themthemvious
selves pressured
pressured by
by new,
new, more
more vigorous
vigorous nomadic
nomadic tribes
tribes from
from across
across
selves
the Jordan
Jordan River
River (who
(who by
by now
now had
had domesticated
domesticated the
the dromedary
dromedary
the
camel), the
the population
population of
of twelfth-century
twelfth-century Palestine
Palestine found
found itself
itself in
in aa
camel),
very difficult
difficult situation.
situation. Archaeological
Archaeological data
data show
show that
that Egypt
Egypt still
still
very
exerted influence
influence in
in Palestine
Palestine during
during this
this century.
century. This
This was
was precisely
precisely
exerted
the time
time of
of the
the final
final consolidation
consolidation of
of the
the Israelite
Israelite tribal
tribal union,
union, the
the
the
memory of
of which
which persisted
persisted even
even when
when most
most of
of these
these tribes
tribes (even
(even the
the
memory
most important
important ones)
ones) ceased
ceased to
to exist
exist during
during the
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.
most
B.C.
But the
the membership
membership of
of the
the union
union was
was still
still different
different from
from that
that of
of the
the
But
later classical
classical "twelve
"twelve tribes."
tribes." This
This is
is demonstrated
demonstrated by
by aa fragment
fragment of
of
later
an ancient
ancient Israelite
epic from
from the
the latter
latter part
part of
of the
the twelfth
twelfth century
century
an
Israelite epic
preserved in
Bible called
called "The
"The Song
Song of
of Deborah."
It tells
tells of
of only
only
preserved
in the
the Bible
Deborah." It
seven
tribes,
headed
by
Barak
and
Deborah,
that
took
part
in
the
war
seven tribes, headed by Barak and Deborah, that took part in the war
against
Yabin,
king
of
Hazor,
and
his
military
commander
Sisera:
against Yabin, king of Hazor, and his military commander Sisera:
In
In the
the days
days of
of Shamgar,
Shamgar, the
the son
son of
of Anath,
Anath,
In the
the days
days of
of Jael
Jael the
the ways
ways were
were forsaken,
forsaken,
In
So aa path
path walker
walker was
was walking
walking by
by roundabout
roundabout ways,
ways,
So
Forsaken
Forsaken was
was the
the lowland
lowland in
in Israel,
Israel, forsakenforsaken
Until
Until II arose,
arose, Deborah,
Deborah, arising
arising aa mother
mother in
in Israel!
Israel!

Hazor, the
the largest
largest and
and most
most important
important city
city of
of the
the Canaanites,
Canaanites, was
Hazor,
was
razed
razed to
to the
the ground,
ground, aa fact
fact confirmed
confirmed by
by archaeological
archaeological data.
data. The
The

304

I. A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
/

conquerors
built aa few
huts on
ruins. But
conquerors built
few squalid
squalid huts
on the
the site
site of
of the
the city's
city's ruins.
But
this was
was to
to be
the last
last episode
episode in
in the
the war
war between
between the
Israelites and
and the
the
this
be the
the Israelites
Canaanites.
A new
new situation
situation arose
it became
to conconCanaanites. A
arose when
when it
became necessary
necessary to
front aa common
common enemy.
enemy. The
The victors
and the
the vanquished
front
victors and
vanquished joined
joined totogether to
to form
form one
one people.
literary language
language of
of the
is based
based
gether
people. The
The literary
the Bible
Bible is
on aa mixture
mixture of
of dialects.
dialects. The
The ancient
ancient Hebrews
Hebrews did
did not
call this
this lanlanon
not call
guage 'ibrith,
'ibrith,ororivrit
ivrit(as
(asthey
theydid
didlater),
later),but
butKena
Kena'nith,
"Canaanite."1010
guage
'nith, "Canaanite."
The
The events
events that
that radically
radically changed
changed the
the situation
situation were
were also
also strongly
strongly
influenced
by another
tribal invasion:
that of
the "Sea
influenced by
another tribal
invasion: that
of the
"Sea Peoples."
Peoples." This
This
was
Egyptian name
for aa group
group of
of tribes
of different
different origin.
origin. Some
Some
was the
the Egyptian
name for
tribes of
came
by sea,
came by
sea, sailing
sailing and
and rowing
rowing in
in ships;
ships; others
others came
came overland
overland with
with
carts.
carts. Among
Among them
them were,
were, no
no doubt,
doubt, the
the Achaean
Achaean Greeks
Greeks (after
(after having
having
destroyed Troy);
Troy); the
the tribes
tribes who
who put
an end
end to
to the
the Hittite
Hittite kingdom
kingdom
destroyed
put an
(possibly Proto-Armenians);
Proto-Armenians); and
and other
other tribes
known to
to us
(possibly
tribes known
us only
only by
by
names recorded
recorded in
in the
the imprecise
imprecise Egyptian
Egyptian script.
script. They
are said
said to
to
names
They are
have
midst of
They allied
allied themselves
themselves with
with
have "camped
"camped in
in the
the midst
of Amurru."ll
Amurru."11 They
the
Libyans, and
and the
the allies
both by
land (from
(from the
the east
east
the Libyans,
allies attacked
attacked Egypt
Egypt both
by land
and the
west) and
and by
sea (from
the north).
The movement
movement started
started at
at
and
the west)
by sea
(from the
north). The
the
end of
B.C., when
Mer-ne-Ptah
the end
of the
the thirteenth
thirteenth century
century B.C.,
when Pharaoh
Pharaoh Mer-ne-Ptab
fought them.
It reached
its peak
in the
of the
cenfought
them. It
reached its
peak in
the beginning
beginning of
the twelfth
twelfth century, when
destroyed. The
The advance
advance of
of the
the
tury,
when the
the Hittite
Hittite kingdom
kingdom was
was destroyed.
Sea Peoples
into Egypt
was halted
Pharaoh Rameses
III some
some time
time
Sea
Peoples into
Egypt was
halted by
by Pharaoh
Rameses III
after the
of the
the twelfth
twelfth century.
century. Two
Two of
of the
the tribes
to
after
the middle
middle of
tribes belonging
belonging to
settled the
the
the
Sea Peoples,
subsequently known
Philistines,12 settled
the Sea
Peoples, subsequently
known as
as the
the Philistines,12
fertile Palestinian
coast within
strip ofland
of land sixty
sixty kilometers
long and
and
fertile
Palestinian coast
within aa strip
kilometers long
twenty kilometers
kilometers wide
and formed
formed aa union
of five
five self-governing
self-governing
twenty
wide and
union of
cities: Gaza,
Gaza, Ashkelon,
Ashkelon, Ekron,
Ekron, Gath,
Gath, and
and Ashdod.
Ashdod. They
They brought
with
brought with
cities:
them the
Late Mycenaean
Mycenaean material
material culture,
culture, iron
iron technology,
technology, and
and iron
iron
them
the Late
At
weapons.
Soon their
hegemony spread
spread over
over almost
almost all
weapons. Soon
their hegemony
all of
of Palestine.
Palestine. At
the
same time
time nomadic
of Semites
Semites (Aramaeans
(Aramaeans or
Arabs) raided
raided
the same
nomadic tribes
tribes of
or Arabs)
the
land from
from the
the Sinai
Sinai and
and from
from across
across the
Jordan. Some
Some of
of these
these
the land
the Jordan.
tribes apparently
apparently settled
settled on
on the
the frontiers
frontiers of
of Palestine.
tribes
Palestine.
Apart
from some
some military
military leaders
leaders whose
whose authority
authority was
was temporary,
temporary,
Apart from
the
of their
own and
and were
ruled
the Israelite
Israelite tribes
tribes had
had no
no political
political power
power of
their own
were ruled
10.
10. Since
Since that
that time,
time, the
the term
term Hebrew
Hebrewhas
hascome
cometotomean
meana ageneral
generalethnic
ethnicidentity.
identity.The
The
narrower term
term Israelite
narrower
Israelitedenoted
denotedmembership
membershipininthe
thetribal
tribalunion
unionand,
and,later,
later,ininthe
thestate
state
of
of Israel.
Israel.
garit was
by aa completely
11.
11. The
The fall
fall of
of U
Ugarit
was brought
brought about
about by
completely different
different cause.
cause. When
When the
the
Ugaritians
sent their
their fleet
to confront
confront the
the approaching
approaching Sea
Sea Peoples,
Peoples, aa catastrophic
catastrophic
U
garitians sent
fleet to
earthquake destroyed
destroyed the
city. The
The city
city of
of Carchemish
Carchemish was
unscathed and
and became
became the
the
earthquake
the city.
was unscathed
center of
of aa Late
Late Hittite
Hittite (Luwian)
culture.
center
(Luwian) culture.
12.
possible tha:t
were two
two
12. It
It is
is possible
that "Philistines"
"Philistines" is
is another
another name
name for
for Pelasgians.
Pelasgians. There
There were
types of
of plural
morph in
in the
the region
around the
the Black
Black Sea:
Sea: -ta:
-ta and
and -k'a;
-k'a; hence,
*pelashplural morph
region around
hence, *pelashtypes
ta- and
and *pelash-k'a.
*pelash-k'a.(See
(See
Lecture15.)
15.)
The
term
Palestine
is derived
from
Philistine.
taLecture
The
term
Palestine
is derived
from
Philistine.

Syria,
Phoenicia, and
Palestine
Syria, Phoenicia,
and Palestine

305

by elders.
prophets (nabi),
by
elders. They
They were
were advised
advised by
by prophets
(nabi), who
who at
at that
that time
time had
had
not
political preachers
preachers and
far rerenot yet
yet become
become religious
religious and
and political
and were
were not
not far
moved
men. In
moved from
from shamans
shamans or
or medicine
medicine men.
In especially
especially difficult
difficult situasituations,
or the
union voluntarily
tions, individual
individual tribes
tribes or
the entire
entire union
voluntarily subjected
subjected
themselves
themselves to
to an
an elected
elected or
or self-proclaimed
self-proclaimed leader
leader and
and redeemer
redeemer
(shofet,
powers were
attributed. Their
(shofet, 'Judge")
"judge") to
to whom
whom magical
magical powers
were attributed.
Their
names are
are mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the Book
Book of
of Judges
names
Judges (Samson,
(Samson, Jephthah,
Jephthah, etc.),
etc.),
but not
not all
all of
of the
biblical judges
can be
be regarded
regarded as
as historical.
historical. The
The bebut
the biblical
judges can
beginnings
of statehood
statehood appeared
appeared during
during the
the time
time of
of the
the last
judges
ginnings of
last judges
(eleventh
B.C.).
(eleventh century
century B.C.).
The
The Israelite
Israelite tribal
tribal union
union was
was traditionally
traditionally considered
considered to
to be
be comcomposed of
posed
twelve tribes.
tribes. Actually,
Actually, the
the number
number of
of tribes
tribes in
the union
union
of twelve
in the
seems
seems to
to have
have varied.
varied.
The
tic association
toThe union
union was
was first
first and
and foremost
foremost aa cui
cultic
association welded
welded together by
the common
common worship
worship of
of Yahweh,
gether
by the
Yahweh, the
the god
god of
of the
the union.
union. The
The
maintenance
maintenance of
of the
the cult
cult was
was assigned
assigned to
to an
an intertribal
intertribal organization,
organization,
the Levites.
Traditionally, they
they were
were one
one of
of the
the tribes,
tribes, namely,
the
the
Levites. Traditionally,
namely, the
twelfth. Certain
Certain towns
towns in
in the
the areas
areas of
of the
the other
other eleven
eleven tribes
tribes were
were astwelfth.
assigned to
to the
the Levites.
Yahweh, as
well as
as other
other gods,
could be
be worworsigned
Levites. Yahweh,
as well
gods, could
shiped in
in any
any place
place but
but preferably
preferably on
on hilltops
hilltops and
and mountain
mountain peaks.
shiped
peaks.
The Israelites
Israelites believed
believed that
that Yahweh
Yahweh dwelled
dwelled invisibly
invisibly on
on earth
earth in
in the
the
The
"ark of
the covenant,"
covenant," which
which was
was kept
kept in
in aa tent,
tent, as
as it
it had
been during
during
"ark
of the
had been
the past
past nomadic
nomadic life
life of
of the
the tribes.
the
tribes.
During
the early
early period
period Yahweh
Yahweh was
was still
still easily
easily identified
with local
local
During the
identified with
Canaanite
the name
Canaanite gods,
gods, particularly
particularly because
because speaking
speaking the
name of
of Yahweh,
Yahweh,
as well
well as
as the
the names
names of
of the
the Canaanite
Canaanite gods
gods was
was very
very usually
usually tabooed
tabooed
as
in vain";
need), and
(not
(not to
to be
be "taken
"taken in
vain"; that
that is,
is, without
without need),
and the
the worshiper
worshiper
used apellatives
instead: "god"
{el)and
and even
even"gods"
"gods"(elohim),
(elohim),"master"
"master"
used
apellatives instead:
"god" (el)
(ba'al), and
and "my
"my lord"
lord" (adonai).
(adonai). Yahweh
Yahwehwas
wasnot
notconsidered
considered the
theonly
only
(ba'al),
deity
deity of
of the
the universe-neither
universeneither then
then nor
nor for
for aa long
long time
time later.
later. But
But he
he
was aa jealous
god who
who had
had concluded
concluded aa treaty
treaty (covenant)
(covenant) with
with his
his
was
jealous god
tribal union
union according
according to
to which
which he
was not
not to
to be
be regarded
regarded as
as equal
equal to
to
tribal
he was
other gods
gods but
but rather
rather was
was to
to be
be the
the only
only god
god worshiped
worshiped by
by the
the tribes
tribes
other
of the
the union.
union. The
The symbol
symbol of
of this
this covenant
covenant was
was circumcision,
circumcision, aa rite
rite that
that
of
originally was
was one
of the
the initiation
initiation rites
rites for
for an
an adolescent
the
originally
one of
adolescent entering
entering the
community of
of full-grown
full-grown warriors.
warriors. Many
Many Semitic
Semitic tribes
tribes gave
gave up
up this
this
community
ceremony over
over time
time (e.g.,
(e.g., the
the Canaanites,
Canaanites, but
but not
not the
the Arabs).
Arabs). The
The Isceremony
Israelites performed
this rite
rite immediately
immediately after
after birth
birth because
because the
the infant
infant
raelites
performed this
was ready
ready to
to enter
enter into
into the
the covenant.
covenant. In
In some
some places
Yahweh was
was rewas
places Yahweh
regarded
as "married"
"married" to
to the
the Amorite-Canaanite
Amorite-Canaanite goddess
even
garded as
goddess Anath,
Anath, even
centuries later.
each family
family revered
or idols,
idols, the
the
centuries
later. Also,
Also, each
revered figurines
figurines or
teraphim,
ofeither
eithergods
godsororancestors.
ancestors.InInprinciple,
principle,praying
prayingtotoother
other
teraphim, of
gods was
was not
not deemed
deemed impossible,
impossible, and
and certainly
certainly the
of other
other
gods
the power
power of
gods was
was not
not denied
denied for
for the
the territories
territories of
of other
other tribes
tribes and
and peoples.
peoples.
gods

306

/.
I. A.
A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

Culture
Culture and
and Alphabet
Alphabet

The
possessed neither
nor imiimiThe most
most ancient
ancient Israelites
Israelites possessed
neither architectural
architectural nor
tative
tative arts.
arts. Only
Only fragments
fragments remain
remain of
of their
their epics,
epics, and
and their
their written
written
literature, which
in many
many respects
is of
of the
greatest interest,
interest, was
to
the greatest
was yet
yet to
literature,
which in
respects is
be created.
created.
be
The
cultural legacy,
legacy, although
although some
The Canaanites
Canaanites left
left aa considerable
considerable cultural
some
them. Each
savage
savage customs
customs were
were also
also common
common among
among them.
Each CanaaniteCanaaniteAmorite community
community had
had its
its own
own patron
deities, usually
usually aa god,
god, his
his
patron deities,
Amorite
wife,
wife, and
and son.
son. As
As mentioned
mentioned before,
before, they
they were
were frequently
frequently designated
designated
by appellative
appellative nouns
nouns and
and were
were distinguished
distinguished by
the names
of their
their
by the
names of
by
Gubli,
"The
Lady
of
Byblos."
Certain
places
of
worship,
such
as
Ba'lat
places of worship, such as Ba'lat Gubli, "The Lady of Byblos." Certain
deities, especially
especially cosmic
cosmic ones-for
onesfor example,
example, those
those of
of the
the Sun,
Sun, the
the
deities,
Moon,
the
Thunder
and
Rain,
Fertility,
and
the
seawere
worshiped
Moon, the Thunder and Rain, Fertility, and the sea-were worshiped
all over
over the
the country,
country, not
not being
being confined
confined to
to any
any single
single community.
community.
all
Such was
also the
the case
case of
of the
"cultural hero,"
inventor of
of crafts,
crafts,
the "cultural
hero," the
the inventor
Such
was also
Kuthar-wa-Husas. Also foreign
foreign gods
gods were
were often
often worshiped
(Egyptian,
worshiped (Egyptian,
Kuthar-wa-Husas.Also
Sumerian, Hurrian,
Hurrian, etc.).
etc.). As
As various
various els
eh (gods)
(gods) began
began to
to be
identified
Sumerian,
be identified
with each
each other,
other, the
the notion
notion of
of aa common
common supreme
supreme god,
god, El,
El, emerged.
emerged.
with
El, however,
however, had
had aa different
different wife
wife in
in each
each community.
community.
El,
Many
were identified
plants, and
Many deities
deities were
identified with
with animals,
animals, plants,
and objects
objects or
or
had
permanent attributes
heifer, aa lioness,
had these
these as
as their
their permanent
attributes (e.g.,
(e.g., aa bull,
bull, aa heifer,
lioness,
serpent, aa tree).
tree). Stone
Stone pillars
pillars were
were often
often used
used as
as cult
cult objects,
objects, and
and it
it is
is
aa serpent,
not unlikely
unlikely that
that they
they had
origin. Orgiastic
Orgiastic cults
cults of
of fertility
fertility
not
had aa phallic
phallic origin.
deities were
common with
of sacred
sacred harlots.
Archaic
harlots. Archaic
deities
were common
with participation
participation of
rites such
such as
as the
the initiation
initiation of
of maidens
maidens and
and young
men (by
(by fire
fire and
and
young men
rites
maybe also
also by
by circumcision)
circumcision) were
were practiced.
practiced. Male
Male cult
cult associations
associations
maybe
were
also known.
known. On
On occasions
occasions that
that were
were especially
especially trying
or imporimportrying or
were also
tant to
to the
the community
community (a
(a siege,
siege, the
the founding
founding of
of aa new
new fortress,
fortress, etc.),
tant
etc.),
first-born children
children were
sacrificed.
first-born
were sacrificed.
In the
the arts,
arts, the
the Canaanites
Canaanites were
were somewhat
somewhat behind
the other
other Near
Near
In
behind the
Eastern civilizations.
civilizations. During
During the
third and
and beginning
of the
the second
second
Eastern
the third
beginning of
millennium B.C.,
millennium
B.C., Canaanite
Canaanite and
and Amorite
Amorite architecture
architecture of
of the
the north
north imimitated the
the Mesopotamian;
Mesopotamian; in
in the
the south
south and
and in
in Phoenicia
Phoenicia Egyptian
Egyptian dedeitated
The second
millennium, hpwever,
h,owever, saw
signs
signs served
served as
as models.
models. The
second millennium,
saw the
the
development of
of large-scale
large-scale and
and original
original fortress
fortress and
and temple
temple construcconstrucdevelopment
tion
across the
entire Eastern
Eastern Mediterranean
Belt. The
The largest
largest
the entire
Mediterranean Belt.
tion across
temples measured
measured 30
30 XX 20
20meters
metersand
and were
weresupported
supported by
bytwo
tworows
rowsof
of
temples
round
Stone slabs,
slabs, stelae,
stelae, or
or Egyptian-style
Egyptian-style poles
were
round columns.
columns. Stone
poles were
placed within
within the
the sanctuary
sanctuary proper
proper before
the shrine
shrine of
of the
the god
god or
or at
at
before the
placed
its entrance.
entrance.
its
kings) in
the preSculpture
Sculpture (representation
(representation of
of gods,
gods, rarely
rarely of
of kings)
in the
preIsraelite period
at aa stage
stage where
where artists
artists tried
tried to
to imbue
imbue the
statues
Israelite
period was
was at
the statues
with
power, achieving
obwith terrible
terrible and
and superhuman
superhuman power,
achieving (in
(in the
the eyes
eyes of
of an
an ob-

Syria, Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
Palestine
Syria,
and Palestine

307

server
server of
of today)
today) an
an impression
impression of
of inhumanity
inhumanity and
and ugliness.
ugliness. They
They were
were
usually small
small bronze
bronze statues;
statues; stone
stone figures
figures were
were less
less frequent.
frequent. The
The IsIsusually
raelite god
god could
could not
not be
be represented
represented because
because of
of aa prohibition
prohibition atatraelite
tributed
to Yahweh
himself: "Thou
"Thou shalt
shalt not
not make
make unto
unto thee
thee any
any
tributed to
Yahweh himself:
graven image
image or
or any
any likeness."
likeness." This
This led
to the
the almost
almost complete
complete disapdisapgraven
led to
pearance of
of representational
representational art,
art, although
although small
small domestic
domestic terra-cotta
terra-cotta
pearance
idols continued
continued to
to be
be made.
made. However,
However, the
the figurines
figurines of
of the
the naked
naked godgodidols
dess of
of fertility
fertility and
and birth,
birth, whose
whose gestures
gestures emphasized
emphasized her
her nudity
nudity or
or
dess
pregnancy, were
were replaced
replaced by
by fully
fully clothed
clothed representations.
representations.13
pregnancy,
13
Very
Very little
little remains
remains of
of Canaanite
Canaanite and
and Amorite
Amorite literature
literature of
of the
the secsecond
ond millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. What
What has
has reached
reached us
us are
are religious
religious poetic
poetic texts
texts
written
written in
in Ugaritic
Ugaritic (a
(a Western
Western Semitic
Semitic language)
language) that
that were
were preserved
preserved
in the
the temple
temple library
library of
of U
Ugarit.
The most
most interesting
interesting of
of these
these are
are the
the
garit. The
in
epic
Aliyan-Ba'1. The
The song
song
epic cult
cult songs,
songs, such
such as
as the
the song
song about
about the
the god
god Aliyan-Ba'l.
relates his
his defeat
defeat in
in his
fight with
with the
the god
god of
of fading
fading and
and death.
death. Other
Other
his fight
relates
gods intervened,
intervened, death
was defeated,
defeated, and
and food
food became
became plentiful:
plentiful:
gods
death was
"The
flow with
"The heavens
heavens exude
exude oil,
oil, the
the rivers
rivers flow
with honey."
honey." Ugarit
Ugarit also
also had
had
heroic
heroic epics.
epics. An
An interesting
interesting inscription
inscription from
from Alalakh
Alalakh stands
stands apartapart
the "autobiography"
"autobiography" of
of King
King Idri-Mi-which
Idri-Miwhich may
may have
have been
influthe
been influenced by
the Egyptian
Egyptian "autobiographic"
"autobiographic" genre
genre (see
(see Lecture
Lecture 9).
enced
by the
9).
By
By far
far the
the most
most important
important accomplishment
accomplishment of
of the
the CanaaniteCanaaniteAmorite civilization
civilization was
was the
the invention
invention of
of the
the alphabet.
alphabet. The
The common
common
Amorite
form of
of expressing
expressing information
over time
time and
and space
space in
use throughthroughform
information over
in use
out
for aa long
was either
out the
the Eastern
Eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean Belt
Belt for
long time
time was
either the
the
Egyptian language
language and
and writing
writing or
or aa Canaanite-influenced
Canaanite-influenced dialect
dialect of
of
Egyptian
Akkadian and
and the
the cuneiform
cuneiform script.
script. During
During the
the second
second millennium
millennium
Akkadian
B.C.,
syllabic linear
linear script,
script, commonly
commonly called
called Proto-Byblian,
Proto-Byblian, appeared
appeared
B.C., aa syllabic
in Byblos.
It consisted
consisted of
of about
about one
one hundred
hundred signs,
signs, each
each representing
representing
in
Byblos. It
syllable composed
composed of
of aa consonant
consonant plus
plus one
one of
of the
the three
three ancient
ancient SeSeaa syllable
mitic vowels:
vowels: a,
a, i,i, or
or u.
u. (Some
(Some of
of these
these signs
signs were
were also
also used
used for
for consomitic
consonants without
without vowels.)
vowels.) This
This form
form of
of writing
writing could
could reproduce
reproduce texts
texts of
of
nants
practically any
any complexity
complexity and
and was
was much
much easier
easier to
to learn
learn than
than the
the Akpractically
Akkadian cuneiform
cuneiform script
script or
or Egyptian
hieroglyphs. It
It could
could be
be learned
learned
Egyptian hieroglyphs.
kadian
in aa few
few weeks
weeks instead
instead of
of years.
years. However,
However, the
the new
new writing
writing was
was difficult
difficult
in
to read
read because
because the
the words
words were
were not
not separated.
separated. In
In the
the Egyptian
Egyptian script
script
to
determinative symbols
symbols were
were used
used to
to separate
separate words.
words. These
These symbol
symbols
determinative
indicated the
the group
group of
of concepts
concepts to
which they
belonged; they
also
to which
they belonged;
they also
indicated
marked
the
limit
of
each
word.
The
cuneiform
script
also
designated
marked the limit of each word. The cuneiform script also designated
word boundaries.
boundaries.
word
The
The signs
signs used
used in
in Proto-Byblian
Proto-Byblian writing
writing had
had no
no prototypes
prototypes in
in any
any
other
when this
other writing
writing system
system and
and apparently
apparently were
were designed
designed ad
ad hoc
hoc when
this
13.
In daily
faces, in
in con13. In
daily life
life Israelite
Israelite women,
women, including
including prostitutes,
prostitutes, covered
covered their
their faces,
contrast
trast to
to the
the Canaanite
Canaanite women.
women.

308

/.
I. A.
A. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

writing system
writing
system was
was invented.
invented. Still,
Still, Proto-Byblian
Proto-Byblian writing
writing did
did not
not seem
seem
easy enough
enough to
to Phoenician
and seafarers,
seafarers, who
seem to
to
Phoenician merchants
merchants and
who seem
easy
have been
accelerate the
learning process
even at
at the
the exbeen willing
willing to
to accelerate
the learning
process even
exhave
pense
of intelligibility.
intelligibility. The
The ancient
ancient merchants
merchants engaged
engaged in
in interinterpense of
national trade
trade were
were never
never eager
eager to
to make
make their
documents easily
easily
national
their documents
understandable to
to strangers.
strangers. Simplified
Simplified variants
variants of
of their
their writing
understandable
writing syssystem appeared
appeared gradually
gradually throughout
the region,
from the
Sinai to
to
tem
throughout the
region, from
the Sinai
Syria. The
The number
number of
of symbols
symbols decreased,
decreased, so
so that
each sign
sign (letter)
(letter)
that each
Syria.
came to
indicate one
one consonant
consonant (with
(with or
or without
without aa vowel).
vowel). This
This rerecame
to indicate
sulted in
in an
an alphabet
alphabet of
of thirty
thirty to
to thirty-two
thirty-two consonants.
consonants.
sulted
Similarly
be represented
by
Similarly sounding
sounding consonants
consonants could
could sometimes
sometimes be
represented by
the same
same letter
letter (sh
(sh and,
and -s, ' 'and
the
andgh,
gh,I.thand
and kh).
kh).The
Theletters
lettersdeveloped
developed
different shapes;
shapes; the
the letters
letters on
on the
the clay
clay tablets
in Ugarit,
tablets used
used in
Ugarit, like
like
different
those of
of Babylonia,
Babylonia, were
were formed
formed of
of wedge-shaped
lines. Canaanite
Canaanite
wedge-shaped lines.
those
Phoenicia developed
developed aa system
system of
of twenty-two
twenty-two linear
linear consonant
consonant letters
letters
Phoenicia
B.C.). Another
Another variant
variant was
was de(probably about
about the
the thirteenth
thirteenth century
century B.C.).
de(probably
veloped in
in southern
southern Arabia.
Arabia. A
A writing
system without
signs was
writing system
without vowel
vowel signs
was
veloped
not at
at all
all "better
"better adopted
adopted for
for Semitic
Semitic languages,"
languages," as,
as, for
for some
some reason,
reason,
not
is frequently
frequently asserted;
asserted; it
it was
was actually
actually aa kind
kind of
of merchants'
cryptograis
merchants' cryptography. However,
However, once
once the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians began
to use
use the
the letters
letters ''',''
'"," "h,"
"h,"
began to
phy.
"w," and
and "y"
"y" to
to indicate
indicate the
6, u,
and iI and
and began
to
"w,"
the long
long vowels
vowels a, 0,
ii, e, and
began to
indicate word
word boundaries,
this writing
writing system
system became
much easier
easier to
to
indicate
boundaries, this
became much
master and
and to
to use.
in spite
spite of
of the
the fact
that Phoenician
Phoenician
master
use. Consequently,
Consequently, in
fact that
writing did
did not
not unequivocally
unequivocally express
express the
the precise
of aa
precise pronunciation
pronunciation of
writing
given text
text and
and that
cuneiform and
and hieroglyphic
continued
that cuneiform
hieroglyphic writing
writing continued
given
successfully to
to compete
compete with
with it
it for
for aa number
number of
of centuries,
centuries, the
the new
new
successfully
writing
system eventually
eventually prevailed
prevailed to
to become,
after improvements
improvements
writing system
become, after
introduced by
Greeks and
and other
other peoples,
the precursor
precursor of
of all
all alintroduced
by the
the Greeks
peoples, the
alphabets
of East
East and
and West.
West.
phabets of

15
15
The
World of
The World
of Crete
Crete and
and Mycenae
Mycenae
Yu.
V.
Yu. V.

ANDREYEV

Minoan (Cretan) Civilization

The
of Crete
of civilization.
civilization. The
The island
island of
Crete was
was Europe's
Europe's earliest
earliest cradle
cradle of
The
location
location of
of this
this mountainous
mountainous island,
island, which
which hinders
hinders access
access to
to the
the
Aegean
European conAegean Sea
Sea from
from the
the south,
south, is
is aa natural
natural outpost
outpost of
of the
the European
continent facing
and Asian
shores of
of the
the Mediterranean.
tinent
facing the
the African
African and
Asian shores
Mediterranean. Sea
Sea
Aegean Islands
routes
the Balkan
Balkan Peninsula
Peninsula and
routes connecting
connecting the
and the
the Aegean
Islands with
with
Asia Minor,
Minor, Syria,
Syria, and
and North
have intersected
intersected here
since very
very
North Africa
Africa have
here since
Asia
culture of
of Crete,
Crete, situated
situated at
at one
one of
of the
the
ancient times.
times. The
The Minoan
Minoan11 culture
ancient
most
important crossroads
crossroads of
of the
was influinfluthe ancient
ancient Mediterranean,
Mediterranean, was
most important
enced both
by the
oldest civilizations
civilizations of
of the
East and
and by
enced
both by
the oldest
the Near
Near East
by the
the NeoNeolithic cultures
cultures of
of Anatolia,
the Danube
Danube plain,
plain, and
and Balkan
Balkan Greece.
Greece. The
The
lithic
Anatolia, the
Minoan civilization
at the
the end
end of
the third
Minoan
civilization emerged
emerged at
of the
third and
and beginning
beginning of
of
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., that
that is,
is, toward
the end
end of
of the
the so-called
so-called
the
toward the
Early
Part of
of Europe
still covered
covered by
by dense
dense forests
forests
Europe was
was still
Early Bronze
Bronze Age.
Age. Part
and marshes,
but in
in scattered
scattered spots
spots there
appeared isolated
isolated centers
centers of
of
and
marshes, but
there appeared
farming and
and livestock-raising
livestock-raising cultures
cultures (in
(in the
south and
and southeast
southeast of
of
farming
the south
Europe: Spain,
Spain, Italy,
Italy, the
the lower
lower Danube
region, the
the steppes
steppes of
of southsouthEurope:
Danube region,
ern Russia,
Russia, and
and Greece).
this time,
time, elaborate
elaborate buildings,
usuern
Greece). Around
Around this
buildings, usually
called "palaces"
"palaces" by
by modern
modern archaeologists,
appeared in
Crete.
ally called
archaeologists, appeared
in Crete.
The first
first of
was discovered
by Evans
Evans in
in Knossos
Knossos (in
(in the
the
The
of these
these palaces
palaces was
discovered by
central part
part of
of Crete,
Crete, not
not far
far from
from the
the northern
northern shore
shore of
of the
the island).
central
island).
Legend
has it
that it
it was
was the
the residence
residence of
of the
the mythical
mythical ruler
ruler of
of Crete
Crete
Legend has
it that
King Minos.
The Greeks
Greeks called
called the
the palace
palace of
of Minos
the "Labyrinth"
"Labyrinth"
Minos the
King
Minos. The
(a word
adopted by
them from
from some
some pre-Greek
pre-Greek language).
language). Greek
Greek legword adopted
by them
leg(a
ends describe
the Labyrinth
as an
an enormous
enormous building
with countless
countless
ends
describe the
Labyrinth as
building with
rooms and
and corridors.
corridors. A
person who
entered it
it could
could not
not find
his way
rooms
A person
who entered
find his
way
out without
without outside
outside assistance
assistance and
and inevitably
inevitably perished.
perished. The
The bloodbloodout
thirsty Minotaur,
Minotaur, aa monster
monster with
with aa human
and aa bull's
bull's head,
head,
thirsty
human body
body and
lived deep
deep inside
inside the
the palace.
palace. The
The tribes
tribes subject
subject to
to Minos
Minos were
were rerelived
quired each
each year
year to
to oblige
oblige the
the terrible
terrible beast
with human
unquired
beast with
human sacrifices,
sacrifices, until one
one day
he was
slain by
the famous
famous Athenian
Theseus.
til
day he
was slain
by the
Athenian hero
hero Theseus.
1.
name Minoan
Minoan was
introduced by
1. The
The name
was introduced
by the
the first
first discoverer
discoverer of
of the
the ancient
ancient Cretan
Cretan
culture, Arthur
Evans, who
who derived
derived it
it from
from the
the name
name of
of aa mythological
of Crete,
Crete,
culture,
Arthur Evans,
mythological king
king of
Minos.
Minos.

310

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev
Andreyev
Yu.

In
unearthed aa huge
huge building,
building, or
or aa complex
of
In fact,
fact, archaeologists
archaeologists unearthed
complex of
structures, that
that covers
covers aa total
total area
area of
of 16,000
16,000 square
square meters
meters and
and comcomstructures,
prises some
some 300
300 rooms
of different
different kinds
and functions.
functions.22 Similar
Similar
kinds and
prises
rooms of
structures were
were later
later discovered
discovered in
in other
other parts
of Crete.
Crete. The
The overall
overall
parts of
structures
external appearance
appearance of
of the
reminds us
us of
of some
some ingenious
ingenious
external
the palaces
palaces reminds
theatrical set
set under
under the
the open
open sky:
sky: there
there are
are quaint
quaint porticoes
with
porticoes with
theatrical
columns seemingly
seemingly turned
stone steps
steps to
to open
tercolumns
turned upside
upside down,
down, wide
wide stone
open terraces, numerous
numerous balconies
balconies and
and loggias,
loggias, ornaments
ornaments carved
carved in
in stone
stone on
on
races,
the roofs,
schematically depicted
depicted horns
sacred bulls,
and bright
bright
the
roofs, schematically
horns of
of sacred
bulls, and
patches
of frescoed
frescoed walls.
walls. The
The interior
interior layout
layout is
is very
very chaotic.
chaotic. Living
Living
patches of
quarters,
storage areas,
areas, workrooms,
corridors
quarters, kitchens,
kitchens, storage
workrooms, connecting
connecting corridors
and staircases,
staircases, internal
internal patios,
and light
light shafts
shafts are
are distributed
distributed without
without
and
patios, and
any apparent
apparent plan
system. But
seemingly chaotic
chaotic nanaplan or
or system.
But despite
despite the
the seemingly
any
ture of
of the
the palace,
it is
is still
still perceived
perceived as
as aa single
single architectural
architectural enenture
palace, it
semble. One
of the
the factors
factors contributing
contributing to
is the
the large
large
One of
to this
this unity
unity is
semble.
rectangular court
court in
in the
the center
center of
of the
the palace
palace that
that connects
connects all
all the
the main
main
rectangular
rooms of
complex. This
This yard,
gypsum
of this
this enormous
enormous complex.
yard, paved
paved with
with huge
huge gypsum
rooms
slabs, was
was apparently
apparently not
not used
for any
any household
purposes but
rather
used for
household purposes
but rather
slabs,
for religious
activities. It
It is
is possible
famous games
games with
the
for
religious activities.
possible that
that the
the famous
with the
bulls
were conducted
conducted here:
here: we
we see
see them
them depicted
depicted on
on murals
murals that
that decobulls were
decorate
the walls
of the
the palace.
rate the
walls of
palace.
The
The Knossos
Knossos palace
palace had
had to
to be
be repeatedly
repeatedly reconstructed
reconstructed due
due to
to frefreattached to
existing ones.
quent earthquakes.
earthquakes.33 New
quent
New rooms
rooms were
were attached
to existing
ones.
Rooms
and pantries
pantries were
were strung
strung together,
together, forming,
forming, as
as it
it were,
long
were, long
Rooms and
rows
Separate structures,.or
structures, or groups
groups of
structures, gradually
gradually
rows of
of suites.
suites. Separate
of structures,
merged to
to form
form one
one residential
residential complex
complex around
around the
the central
central yard.
yard.
merged
The
palace had
had everything
everything necessary
necessary to
provide its
its dwellers
dwellers with
with aa
The palace
to provide
placid and
and comfortable
comfortable life.
life. The
even supplied
supplied running
running
The builders
builders even
placid
water and
and sewers.
sewers. The
The ventilation
and lighting
lighting systems
systems were
also well
water
ventilation and
were also
well
designed. The
The entire
entire building
building was
was traversed
from top
top to
bottom by
traversed from
to bottom
by
designed.
special shafts
shafts that
allowed sunlight
sunlight and
and fresh
air to
lower
that allowed
fresh air
to reach
reach the
the lower
special
levels
of the
palace. Large
Large windows
and verandas
for the
the
levels of
the palace.
windows and
verandas were
were built
built for
same purpose.
sake, that
the ananthat the
same
purpose. Let
Let us
us remember,
remember, for
for comparison's
comparison's sake,
cient Greeks
Greeks of
of the
the fifth
fifth century
century B.C.,
B.C., at
at the
the apogee
apogee of
of their
their culture,
culture,
cient
lived in
in badly
badly lighted,
lighted, stuffy
stuffy dwellings
dwellings and
and did
did not
not know
know such
such elemenelemenlived
tary
comforts as
as bathrooms
and toilets
furnished with
drains.
bathrooms and
toilets furnished
with drains.
tary comforts
An
portion of
floor of
An important
important portion
of the
the ground
ground floor
of the
the Knossos
Knossos palace
palace
was
occupied by
storage rooms,
where wine,
olive oil,
oil, and
and other
other prodprodwas occupied
by storage
rooms, where
wine, olive
2.
We must
must point
point out
that only
the first
first floor
floor and
the basement
basement remain.
remain. The
2. We
out that
only the
and the
The original
original
building
had two
two or
or three
above ground
ground level.
three floors
floors above
level.
building had
3.
palace and
first built
2000 B.C.,
of
3. The
The Knossos
Knossos palace
and others
others were
were first
built around
around 2000
B.C., and
and most
most of
them
abandoned by
fifteenth century;
the Knossos
Knossos palace
them were
were abandoned
by about
about the
the fifteenth
century; only
only the
palace itself
itself
B.C.
continued to
inhabited until
ca. 1200
1200 B.C.
be inhabited
until ca.
continued
to be

The
The World
World of
of Crete
Crete and
and Mycenae
Mycenae

311

ucts were
kept. Here,
were pits
in the
floors, covered
covered with
big
ucts
were kept.
Here, there
there were
pits in
the floors,
with big
stone slabs
slabs for
for the
the storage
storage of
of grain.
grain.
stone
During
Knossos palace,
archaeologists found
During the
the excavation
excavation of
of the
the Knossos
palace, archaeologists
found
great variety
variety of
of works
works of
of art
art produced
produced with
with exquisite
exquisite taste
taste and
and masmasaa great
were made
palace itself
tery. Many
Many of
of these
these objects
objects were
made at
at the
the palace
itself in
in special
special
tery.
workshops by
resident goldsmiths,
and
of vases,
vases, and
workshops
by resident
goldsmiths, potters,
potters, decorators
decorators of
other
nobility of
other craftspeople
craftspeople who
who served
served the
the king
king and
and the
the nobility
of his
his court.
court.
(Such shops
shops were
were found
found in
in many
many parts
of the
the palace.)
Of particular
particular
parts of
palace.) Of
(Such
interest are
are the
the wall
the interior
interior rooms,
rooms, hallwall paintings,
paintings, which
which graced
graced the
hallinterest
ways, and
and porticoes
of the
the palace.
Some frescoes
frescoes represented
represented scenes
scenes
porticoes of
palace. Some
ways,
from
nature with
with plants,
plants, birds,
and sea
sea animals.
animals. Others
show the
infrom nature
birds, and
Others show
the inhabitants of
of the
the palace:
palace: athletic,
long hair
in
athletic, sun-tanned
sun-tanned men
men with
with long
hair in
habitants
fancy
curls, thin
"wasplike" waists,
waists, and
and broad
broad shoulders,
shoulders, as
as well
well as
as
fancy curls,
thin "wasplike"
ladies
wearing enormous
enormous bell-shaped
bell-shaped skirts
skirts with
with numerous
numerous pleats,
ladies wearing
pleats,
tightly laced-up
and bared
bared breasts.
much
breasts. Male
Male clothing
clothing was
was much
tightly
laced-up bodices,
bodices, and
simpler and
and usually
consisted only
only of
of aa loincloth,
loincloth, but
they wore
splensimpler
usually consisted
but they
wore splendid,
feather-decorated headdresses,
headdresses, and
and gold
and bracelets.
did, feather-decorated
gold necklaces
necklaces and
bracelets.
The people
wall paintings
paintings seem
seem to
be participating
participating
The
people represented
represented in
in the
the wall
to be
in
some complex
and little-understood
little-understood rites.
Some are
are shown
shown marchmarchrites. Some
in some
complex and
ing
ceremoniously in
procession, carrying
carrying in
in outstretched
outstretched hands
suning ceremoniously
in procession,
hands sundry sacred
sacred vessels
vessels for
for libations
libations to
the gods.
Others turn
turn gracefully,
gracefully,
dry
to the
gods. Others
performing
dance around
around aa sacred
sacred tree.
group sits
sits on
on the
the
performing aa dance
tree. Another
Another group
steps of
of aa "stage"
"stage" and
and attentively
attentively watches
or ceremony.
ceremony.
steps
watches aa performance
performance or
Minoan
artists excelled
in depicting
depicting people
and animals
motion.
people and
animals in
in motion.
Minoan artists
excelled in
Magnificent
frescoes illustrating
illustrating the
the so-called
so-called bull
are good
Magnificent frescoes
bull games
games are
good exexamples of
their artistry.
artistry. We
We see
see aa swiftly
charging bull,
acrobat
amples
of their
swiftly charging
bull, with
with an
an acrobat
performing
series of
of intricate
leaps right
on the
the animal's
animal's horns
and
performing aa series
intricate leaps
right on
horns and
back.
In
front
and
behind
the
bull,
the
artist
has
depicted
two
girls
back. In front and behind the bull, the artist has depicted two girls
wearing
apparently the
assistants of
of the
acrobat. The
The
the assistants
the acrobat.
wearing loincloths,
loincloths, apparently
meaning
of
this
scene
is
not
entirely
clear.
We
do
not
know
who
parmeaning of this scene is not entirely clear. We do not know who participated
and life-risking
life-risking comcomticipated in
in this
this strange,
strange, undoubtedly
undoubtedly dangerous
dangerous and
petition
between
man
and
enraged
beast
and
what
the
ultimate
goal
petition between man and enraged beast and what the ultimate goal
of
this
game
was.
One
thing
we
can
be
sure
of:
the
Cretan
bull
games
of this game was. One thing we can be sure of: the Cretan bull games
were not
simple entertainment
entertainment for
an idle
crowd, like
like the
the modern
modern
not aa simple
for an
idle crowd,
were
Spanish
bullfights.
They
were
a
religious
ritual
connected
with
one of
of
Spanish bullfights. They were a religious ritual connected with one
the
principal
Minoan
cultsthe
worship
of
the
Bull
deity.
the principal Minoan cults-the worship of the Bull deity.
The
bull game
game scenes
scenes constitute
perhaps the
the only
The bull
constitute perhaps
only disturbing
disturbing feafeature
Minoan art.
art. Cruel
Cruel and
and bloody
bloody war
war and
and hunting
hunting scenes,
ture found
found in
in Minoan
scenes,
so
the Near
and continental
continental Greek
Greek art
of that
that time,
time,
of the
Near Eastern
Eastern and
art of
so typical
typical of
4
Judging
by
what
we
see
in
the
frescoes
were
alien
to
Minoan
artists.
were alien to Minoan artists.4 Judging by what we see in the frescoes
4.
battles. To4. Recently
Recently discovered
discovered Minoan
Minoan frescoes
frescoes on
on Thera,
Thera, however,
however, depict
depict naval
naval battles.
Today, some
some scholars
scholars believe
the idyllic
idyllic character
character of
of Minoan
civilization has
overday,
believe the
Minoan civilization
has been
been overEvans's original
Editor's note
note (PLK).
(PLK).
emphasized
emphasized since
since the
the time
time of
of Evans's
original discoveries.
discoveries. Editor's

312

Yu.
Yu. V.
V. Andreyev
Andreyev

and
and other
other Minoan
Minoan works
works of
of art,
art, the
the life
life of
of the
the elite
elite must
must have
have been
been
placid
and unperturbed.
unperturbed. It
It proceeded
in aa joyful
atmosphere of
of alplacid and
proceeded in
joyful atmosphere
alperformances. Crete
was sesemost
most continuous
continuous festivities
festivities and
and colorful
colorful performances.
Crete was
the surrounding
by the
waters of
of
curely
protected from
curely protected
from the
surrounding hostile
hostile world
world by
the waters
the
Mediterranean. At
At that
that time,
there was
significant maritime
or
the Mediterranean.
time, there
was no
no significant
maritime or
any other
other hostile
hostile state
state close
close to
to the
the island.
island. The
The feeling
feeling of
of security
security is
is the
the
any
only explanation
explanation for
for the
the fact
fact that
all Cretan
Cretan palaces,
including
only
that all
palaces, including
Knossos,
remained unfortified
unfortified throughout
throughout their
their history.
history.
Knossos, remained
Of
the life
was represented
Of course,
course, the
life of
of Minoan
Minoan society
society was
represented by
by the
the palace
palace
artists
and embellished
the island
artists in
in an
an idealized
idealized and
embellished fashion.
fashion. Real
Real life
life on
on the
island
had its
also
also had
its dark
dark side.
side. The
The natural
natural environment
environment was
was not
not always
always kind
kind to
to
the
inhabitants. Frequent
Frequent earthquakes
earthquakes shook
shook Crete,
Crete, often
often with
with devasthe inhabitants.
devastating force.
force. Ifwe
If we further
further consider
consider the
the strong
strong gales
gales (quite
(quite frequent
frequent in
in
tating
this area)
area) with
and heavy
heavy downpours,
downpours, dry
dry and
and hungry
hungry
thunderstorms and
this
with thunderstorms
years, and
and the
the epidemic
epidemic outbreaks
outbreaks of
of illnesses,
illnesses, the
the life
life of
of the
the Minoans
Minoans
years,
no longer
longer appears
appears as
as quiet
quiet and
and carefree.
carefree.
no
The
turned for
The inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Crete
Crete turned
for protection
protection against
against the
the natural
natural
forces to
to their
their numerous
numerous gods.
gods. The
The central
central figure
figure of
of the
the Minoan
Minoan panpanforces
theon was
goddess: the
the "Great
"Great Mistress."
In Cretan
Cretan works
works of
of art,
art,
theon
was aa goddess:
Mistress." In
usually statuettes
statuettes and
and seals,
seals, she
she is
is shown
shown in
in her
her various
various incarnations.
incarnations.
usually
We
can see
see her
her as
as the
ferocious Mistress
Mistress of
of the
as the
sovereign
We can
the ferocious
the Beasts,
Beasts, as
the sovereign
lady of
mountains and
and forests
forests and
and all
all that
that inhabits
inhabits them,
as aa beof the
the mountains
them, as
belady
nevolent protectress
protectress of
of plants,
primarily of
of grain
grain and
and fruit
fruit trees,
trees, and
and
plants, primarily
nevolent
as the
sinister queen
queen of
of the
holding coiling
coiling snakes
snakes in
in her
her
as
the sinister
the Underworld,
Underworld, holding
hands.
In these
these images
images we
we can
can recognize
recognize the
the ancient
ancient deity
deity of
of fertility,
fertility,
hands. In
the great
great mother
mother of
of people
and animals,
animals, revered
throughout all
all the
the
the
people and
revered throughout
In
lands of
of the
Mediterranean region,
at least
least since
since the
the Neolithic
era.55 In
the Mediterranean
region, at
Neolithic era.
lands
the Minoan
pantheon, next
next to
this great
great goddess
goddess who
who was
was the
the embodiembodithe
Minoan pantheon,
to this
ment of
of femininity
femininity and
and motherhood
motherhood and
and who
symbolized the
continument
who symbolized
the continuous renewal
renewal of
of nature,
nature, we
we find
find aa god
god who
who embodied
embodied all
all the
the destructive
destructive
ous
forces of
of nature,
nature, the
the terrible
terrible earthquakes
earthquakes and
and the
the might
might of
of the
stormy
the stormy
forces
sea. The
The Minoans
terrifying phenomena
in the
the form
form
Minoans perceived
perceived these
these terrifying
phenomena in
sea.
of the
the mighty
mighty and
and ferocious
ferocious god-bull.
god-bull. On
On some
some Minoan
seals the
the deof
Minoan seals
deified bull
bull is
depicted as
as aa fantastic
fantastic beinga
man with
head
is depicted
being-a man
with aa bull's
bull's headified
immediately reminding
reminding us
us of
of the
the later
later Greek
Greek myth
myth of
of the
the Minotaur.
Minotaur.
immediately
To
appease
this
terrible
god
and
thus
to
pacify
the
angry
forces of
of
To appease this terrible god and thus to pacify the angry forces
nature,
sacrifices,
apparently
even
human,
were
offered
to
him.
(This
nature, sacrifices, apparently even human, were offered to him. (This
barbaric
is echoed
echoed in
in the
the myth
myth of
of the
the Minotaur.)
Minotaur.)
barbaric rite
rite is
role in
the life
Minoan society
Religion
played an
Religion played
an enormous
enormous role
in the
life of
of Minoan
society and
and
5.
5. Actually,
Actually, the
the Great
Great Mistress
Mistress of
of Crete
Crete resembles
resembles rather
rather closely
closely the
the great
great goddess
goddess of
of
love
love and
and strife
strife and
and death,
death, like
like the
the Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian Ishtar
Ishtar and
and her
her underworld
underworld double,
double,
the Greek
Ereshkigal
Ereshkigal or
or the
the Hurrian
Hurrian Shawushka
Shawushka or
or the
Greek Artemis
Artemis (or
(or even
even Athene);
Athene); mothmotherhood
belong to
(IMD).
erhood does
does not
not seem
seem to
to belong
to her
her attributes.
attributes. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).

The
Mycenae
The World
World of
of Crete
Crete and
and Mycenae

313

left
its imprint
left its
imprint on
on absolutely
absolutely all
all aspects
aspects of
of its
its spiritual
spiritual and
and practical
practical
activities. Archaeologists
unearthed at
at the
the Knossos
Knossos palace
palace all
all kinds
kinds of
of
activities.
Archaeologists unearthed
religious items,
items, including
including figurines
figurines of
of the
the great
great goddess,
goddess, sacred
sacred symreligious
symlabrys),altars
altars
bols
form of
of bull's
bull's horns
horns and
and the
axe (the
(the labrys),
bols in
in the
the form
the double
double axe
and tables
for sacrifices,
sacrifices, diverse
diverse vessels
vessels for
for libations,
libations, and
and so
so on.
on. Many
Many
and
tables for
palace rooms
rooms were
were used
used as
as shrines
shrines for
for religious
religious rituals
and cerecererituals and
palace
monies. Among
were crypts,
crypts, or
or secret
secret rooms,
where sacrifices
sacrifices
monies.
Among them
them were
rooms, where
were offered
gods of
of the
the Underworld.
Underworld. Some
Some rooms
rooms had
had pools
pools
offered to
to the
the gods
were
for ritual
ritual ablutions;
ablutions; others
others served
served as
as small
small domestic
chapels. The
The ararfor
domestic chapels.
chitecture
of the
the palace,
the paintings
on its
its walls,
walls, and
and other
other works
works of
of
chitecture of
palace, the
paintings on
art were
were permeated
with complex
complex religious
religious symbolism.
symbolism. This
This was,
was, in
in
art
permeated with
fact, aa palace-temple
palace-temple where
where all
all inhabitants,
inhabitants, including
including the
the king,
king, his
his
fact,
family, and
and the
the court
court ladies
ladies and
and gentlemen
who formed
formed their
their retinue,
retinue,
family,
gentlemen who
performed different
different priestly
priestly duties
in rituals
rituals deperformed
duties by
by participating
participating in
depicted in
in the
the frescoes
frescoes of
of the
the palace.
picted
palace.
Thus,
Thus, Crete
Crete had
had aa special
special type
type of
of royal
royal power
power that
that is
is termed
termed thetheocracy.
is aa variant
variant of
of aa monarchy
monarchy and
and combines
combines the
the supreme
supreme lay
lay
ocracy. This
This is
and religious
person. The
king's person
was
and
religious authority
authority in
in the
the same
same person.
The king's
person was
probably regarded
untouchable. It
is possible
probably
regarded as
as sacred
sacred and
and untouchable.
It is
possible that
that he
he
could not
not even
even be
be viewed
by ordinary
ordinary mortals.
This may
explain the
the
could
viewed by
mortals. This
may explain
strange
that nowhere
in Minoan
art are
able to
strange circumstance
circumstance that
nowhere in
Minoan art
are we
we able
to find
find
any
representation that
that can
with certainty
certainty be
be interpreted
interpreted as
as that
that of
of the
the
any representation
can with
king's person.
The entire
entire life
the king
king and
his household
household was
was strictly
strictly
king's
person. The
life of
of the
and his
regulated and
and elevated
to aa ritual
status. The
The Knossos
Knossos kings
did not
not
regulated
elevated to
ritual status.
kings did
simply live
they performed
religious ritual.
ritual. The
The "holy
"holy of
simply
live and
and reign:
reign: they
performed aa religious
of
holies'
of the
the Knossos
Knossos palace
where the
the king-priest
king-priest condescended
condescended to
to
holies' of
palace where
meet his
subjects, offered
offered sacrifices
sacrifices to
to the
gods, and
decided the
affairs
meet
his subjects,
the gods,
and decided
the affairs
of state
state was
was the
the throne
room of
the king,
located near
near the
the large
large central
central
of
throne room
of the
king, located
courtyard. Before
Before entering
entering it,
it, aa visitor
visitor had
to pass
pass through
through aa lobby
lobby
courtyard.
had to
containing aa large
large bowl
bowl of
porphyry for
for ritual
ablutions. Apparently,
Apparently,
containing
of porphyry
ritual ablutions.
prior to
to making
making an
appearance before
before the
the king,
visitor had
had to
to wash
wash all
prior
an appearance
king, aa visitor
all
himself.
The
throne
room
itself
was
a
relatively
small
rectanevil
from
evil from himself. The throne room itself was a relatively small rectangular room.
room. A
A gypsum
chair with
with aa high
curved back-the
backthe royal
royal
gular
gypsum chair
high curved
thronestood
directly
across
from
the
entrance.
The
walls
were
lined
throne-stood directly across from the entrance. The walls were lined
with
alabaster-faced
benches
on
which
the
royal
councillors,
the
high
with alabaster-faced benches on which the royal councillors, the high
priests,
and
the
functionaries
of
Knossos
sat.
The
walls
of
the
throne
priests, and the functionaries of Knossos sat. The walls of the throne
room are
are decorated
decorated with
with colorful
colorful frescoes
frescoes of
of griffins-imaginary
griffinsimaginary creacrearoom
tures with
with the
the head
head of
of aa bird
bird and
and the
the body
body of
of aa lion.
lion. The
The griffins
griffins appear
appear
tures
lying in
in solemn
solemn postures
on each
each side
side of
of the
the throne
throne as
as if
if protecting
protecting the
the
lying
postures on
ruler of
of Crete
Crete from
from harm.
harm.
ruler
The splendid
splendid palaces
palaces of
of the
the Cretan
Cretan kings,
kings, the
the incalculable
wealth
The
incalculable wealth
amassed
amassed in
their basements
basements and
and storerooms,
storerooms, and
and the
the comfort
comfort and
and
in their
abundance surrounding
surrounding the
the life
life of
of the
the kings
their retinue
retinue were
were all
abundance
kings and
and their
all

314

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

being
being produced
produced by
by the
the labor
labor of
of thousands
thousands of
of nameless
nameless farmers
farmers and
and
craftspeople. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, we
we know
know little
about the
working inhabiinhabicraftspeople.
little about
the working
tants of
of Crete.
Crete. These
These people
apparently lived
outside the
the palaces
palaces in
in
people apparently
lived outside
tants
small villages
scattered across
across the
the fields
fields and
and hills
and in
in squalid
squalid mud
mud
small
villages scattered
hills and
houses
closely nestled
nestled together
along narrow
narrow crooked
crooked streets.
streets. Such
Such
houses closely
together along
homes
form aa striking
striking contrast
contrast with
with the
the monumental
monumental architecture
architecture of
of
homes form
the palaces,
with their
their luxurious
luxurious appointments.
appointments. The
The low
low standard
standard of
the
palaces, with
of
living and
and the
cultural backwardness
of Minoan
Minoan villages,
villages, compared
compared
living
the cultural
backwardness of
with the
the refined
refined culture
culture of
of the
is evident
evident in
in the
the simple
simple and
and
with
the palaces,
palaces, is
coarse funerary
funerary gifts,
gifts, the
the human
human and
and animal
animal figurines
figurines roughly
roughly modmodcoarse
eled of
of clay,
clay, and
and other
other items
items found
found by
archaeologists in
in remote
remote mounmounby archaeologists
eled
tain shrines.
shrines. We
We have
every reason
reason to
that the
the relationship
relationship
tain
have every
to believe
believe that
between masters
masters and
and dependents
dependents typical
typical of
of early
early class
class societies
societies had
had
between
already developed
developed in
in Crete
Crete at
at that
that time.
time. Thus,
Thus, we
we can
can assume
assume that
that the
the
already
farming population
population was
subjected to
taxation in
in the
form of
of in-kind
in-kind
farming
was subjected
to taxation
the form
tribute and
and service
service duty
duty for
for the
the benefit
benefit of
of the
the palace.
palace. The
The population
population
tribute
had to
to supply
supply the
the palace
with livestock,
livestock, grain,
grain, oil,
oil, wine,
wine, and
and other
other prodprodhad
palace with
ucts. All
All this
this was
was recorded
recorded by
by palace
scribes on
ucts.
palace scribes
on clay
clay tablets,
tablets, which
which totoward the
of the
destruction of
of the
(during the
fifteenth
ward
the time
time of
the destruction
the palace
palace (during
the fifteenth
century B.C.)
B.C.) formed
formed aa large
large archive
archive amounting
amounting to
to some
some 5,000
5,000 docudocucentury
ments.
These supplies
supplies were
delivered to
palace storerooms,
storerooms, where
where
ments. These
were delivered
to the
the palace
enormous quantities
quantities of
of food
food and
and other
other valuable
goods were
were stockpiled.
stockpiled.
enormous
valuable goods
The same
same farmers
farmers probably
probably built
and rebuilt
rebuilt the
the palace,
palace, constructed
constructed
The
built and
We must
not assume
assume
roads and
and irrigation
irrigation canals,
canals, and
and erected
erected bridges.
bridges.66 We
must not
roads
that
they performed
all this
only because
the king
king
that they
performed all
this work
work by
by compulsion,
compulsion, only
because the
and
the
nobility
so
desired.
The
palace
was
the
main
shrine
of
the
comand the nobility so desired. The palace was the main shrine of the community, and
and elementary
elementary piety
required each
each villager
honor with
gifts
piety required
villager to
to honor
with gifts
munity,
the
gods
who
inhabited
it,
donating
his
household
surplus
for
the
celethe gods who inhabited it, donating his household surplus for the celebration
of festivals
festivals and
and sacrifices,
sacrifices, and
and to
to work
work for
for the
glory of
of the
gods.
the glory
the gods.
bration of
Of
course,
there
was
an
entire
army
of
middlemen
between
the
people
Of course, there was an entire army of middlemen between the people
and their
their gods:
gods: aa staff
staff of
of professional
serving the
the sanctuary
sanctuary and
and
and
professional priests
priests serving
headed
by
the
king.
In
essence,
this
was
an
established
and
clearly
deheaded by the king. In essence, this was an established and clearly defined
stratum
of
hereditary
priestly
nobility,
who
stood
in
opposition
to
fined stratum of hereditary priestly nobility, who stood in opposition to
the
rest
of
society.
The
priests,
who
disposed
of
the
goods
stored
in
the
the rest of society. The priests, who disposed of the goods stored in the
royal
warehouses at
at their
could use
use aa lion's
lion's share
share of
of this
this
royal warehouses
their pleasure,
pleasure, could
wealth
for
their
own
needs.
wealth for their own needs.
The accumulation
accumulation of
of surplus
surplus produce
produce of
of the
the community
community in
in the
the
The
hands
hands of
of the
the palace
palace elite
elite was
was not
not motivated
motivated solely
solely by
by religious
religious reasons,
reasons,
but also
but
also by
by strictly
strictly economic
economic considerations.
considerations. The
The accumulated
accumulated prodprod6.
6. Besides
Besides free
free community
community members
members whose
whose dependence
dependence on
on the
the palace
palace consisted
consisted of
of
paying
taxes, there
also existed
existed aa nonfree
(slaves) or
or aa semifree
semifree
paying taxes,
there probably
probably also
nonfree population
population (slaves)
one
with other
one (servants
(servants and
and dependents).
dependents). On
On analogy
analogy with
other early
early class
class societies-those,
societiesthose, for
for
example, of
of the
the Near
East or
or of
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean Greece-the
Greecethe palace
palace personnel
personnel may
may have
have
example,
Near East
been quite
etc.
been
quite numerous,
numerous, hundreds
hundreds or
or even
even thousands
thousands of
of trained
trained craftspeople,
craftspeople, etc.

The
Crete and
The World
World of
of Crete
and Mycenae
Mycenae

315

ucts
of famine.
ucts could
could serve
serve as
as aa reserve
reserve for
for times
times of
famine. They
They were
were used
used
to
Any rereto maintain
maintain the
the craftspeople
craftspeople working
working for
for the
the community.
community. Any
exported to
maining
maining goods
goods were
were exported
to Egypt,
Egypt, Syria,
Syria, and
and Cyprus,
Cyprus, where
where
the goods
goods that
they could
be bartered
they
could be
bartered for
for the
that Crete
Crete lacked:
lacked: gold,
gold, copper,
copper,
ivory, and
and purple-dyed
purple-dyed textiles.
textiles. Overseas
Overseas trading
trading expeditions
expeditions were
were
ivory,
quite costly
costly and
and risky
risky in
in those
those days.
days. The
The state,
state, with
with its
material and
and
its material
quite
human
Naturally, the
human resources,
resources, was
was able
able to
to finance
finance such
such enterprises.
enterprises. Naturally,
the
rare goods
acquired through
through this
this exchange
exchange were
were stored
stored in
in the
the warewarerare
goods acquired
houses
houses of
of the
the palace
palace and
and from
from there
there distributed
distributed to
to master
master craftsmen
craftsmen
of the
the palace
palace and
and villages.
villages. Thus,
Thus, the
the palace
was multifunctional
multifunctional in
in Miof
palace was
Minoan society:
society: it
it was
was the
the administrative
administrative and
and religious
center of
of the
the
noan
religious center
community and,
and, at
at the
the same
same time,
time, its
its main
main commercial,
commercial, storage,
storage, and
and
community
artistic center.
center.
artistic
The
The golden
golden age
age of
of Minoan
Minoan civilization
civilization covers
covers the
the sixteenth
sixteenth century
century
and
first half
the fifteenth
and the
the first
half of
of the
fifteenth century.
century. This
This period
period saw
saw the
the complecompletion of
of the
the Cretan
Cretan palaces
palaces with
with aa heretofore
heretofore unseen
unseen splendor.
splendor. It
It seems
seems
tion
that
the kings
that during
during this
this epoch,
epoch, Crete
Crete was
was unified
unified under
under the
kings of
of Knossos
Knossos
and became
became aa single
single centralized
centralized state.
state. This
This is
is evident
from aa network
network
and
evident from
of convenient,
convenient, wide
wide roads
roads built
throughout the
the island,
island, connecting
connecting
of
built throughout
Knossos, the
the country's
country's capital,
with the
the most
most remote
of Crete.
Crete.
capital, with
remote corners
corners of
Knossos,
This is
is also
also indicated
indicated by
by the
the already-mentioned
already-mentioned fact
fact that
that the
the Knossos
Knossos
This
and other
other palaces
palaces were
were not
not fortified.
Had the
the palaces
palaces represented
represented the
the
and
fortified. Had
capitals of
of independent
independent states,
states, they
they would
would certainly
certainly have
have been
been forforcapitals
tified in
in defense
defense against
against any
any unfriendly
It is
is quite
quite possible
possible
tified
unfriendly neighbors.
neighbors. It
that Crete
Crete was
was unified
unified from
from the
the Knossos
Knossos palace
palace by
by the
the famous
famous King
King
that
Greek historians
historians
Minos, so
so often
often inentioned
mentioned in
in later
later Greek
Greek myths.
myths.77 Greek
Minos,
considered Minos
Minos the
the first
first thalassocrates,
thalassocrates,
"sovereign
sea."
They
considered
"sovereign
of of
thethe
sea."
They
said that
that he
he created
created aa large
large navy,
navy, eradicated
eradicated piracy,
piracy, and
and established
established
said
his supremacy
supremacy over
over the
the entire
entire Aegean
Aegean Sea
Sea and
and its
its islands.
islands. This
This legend
legend
his
probably
has
some
grain
of
historical
gruth.
Archaeological
findings
probably has some grain of historical gruth. Archaeological findings
show that
that Crete
Crete began
began an
an extensive
extensive maritime
maritime expansion
expansion in
in the
the sixsixshow
teenth
century
throughout
the
Aegean
basin.
Minoan
colonies
and
teenth century throughout the Aegean basin. Minoan colonies and
trading stations
stations emerged
emerged on
on islands
islands of
of the
the Cyclades
Cyclades archipelago,
archipelago, on
on
trading
the island
island of
of Rhodes,
Rhodes, and
and even
even on
on the
the shores
shores of
of Asia
in the
the
the
Asia Minor
Minor in
Miletus region.
region. At
the same
same time,
Crete started
started lively
lively commercial
commercial and
and
time, Crete
Miletus
At the
diplomatic relations
relations with
with Egypt
Egypt and
and with
with the
the states
states of
of the
the Syriodiplomatic
SyrioPhoenician coast.
coast. This
This fact
fact is
is attested
attested by
by frequent
frequent discoveries
discoveries of
of MiMiPhoenician
noan
ceramics in
in these
these regions.
regions. Objects
Objects from
from Egypt
Egypt and
and Syria
Syria have
have
noan ceramics
been found
found on
on Crete.
Crete. Egyptian
Egyptian wall
wall paintings
paintings from
from the
the first
half of
of
been
first half
the fifteenth
fifteenth century
century show
show the
the ambassadors
ambassadors of
of the
the country
country of
of Keftiu
Keftiu
the
(the Egyptian
Egyptian name
name for
for Crete)
Crete) wearing
wearing typical
typical Minoan
Minoan dress-aprons
dressaprons
(the
7.
7. However,
However, it
it is
is also
also possible
possible that
that this
this name
name was
was borne
borne by
by several
several kings
kings of
of Crete
Crete and
and
was
was aa dynastic
dynastic name.
name.

316

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

and half-bootsand
gifts to
pharaoh. There
There is
is no
doubt
and
half-boots-and bringing
bringing gifts
to the
the pharaoh.
no doubt
that Crete
Crete was
was aa very
very strong
strong sea
sea power
at the
the time
time these
these pictures
pictures were
were
that
power at
painted
and that
that Egypt
Egypt was
was seeking
seeking friendship
friendship with
its kings.
with its
kings.
painted and
The situation
situation changed
changed drastically
drastically in
in the
the middle
middle of
of the
the fifteenth
fifteenth cencenThe
tury. Crete
Crete suffered
suffered aa catastrophe
catastrophe unprecedented
unprecedented in
in its
its centuries-long
centuries-long
tury.
history.
Almost all
all the
the palaces
and villages
villages were
were destroyed;
destroyed; many
were
history. Almost
palaces and
many were
forever abandoned
abandoned by
their inhabitants
inhabitants and
and forgotten
forgotten for
for millennia.
millennia.
by their
forever
The Minoan
Minoan culture
culture never
from this
and from
from the
the
The
never recovered
recovered from
this blow
blow and
middle of
of the
century began
its decline.
decline. Crete
Crete lost
lost its
its place
middle
the fifteenth
fifteenth century
began its
place as
as
the leading
cultural center
center of
of the
Aegean basin.
basin.
the
leading cultural
the Aegean
The causes
causes of
of this
catastrophe have
established.
The
this catastrophe
have not
not yet
yet been
been firmly
firmly established.
The Greek
the palaces
palaces and
The
Greek archaeologist
archaeologist S.
S. Marinatos
Marinatos suggested
suggested that
that the
and
villages were
an earthquake
earthquake and
and the
the ejecta
of aa trementremenvillages
were destroyed
destroyed by
by an
ejecta of
dous eruption
volcano situated
on the
dous
eruption of
of the
the volcano
situated on
the island
island of
of Thera
Thera (modern
(modern
Santorin) in
in the
the southern
southern part
of the
the Aegean
Aegean Sea.
Sea.8B Other
Santorin)
part of
Other scholars
scholars are
are
inclined
inclined to
to believe
believe that
that Achaean
Achaean Greeks
Greeks who
who invaded
invaded Crete
Crete from
from conticontinental Greece
Greece were
were responsible
responsible for
for this
this disaster.
disaster. They
They plundered
plundered and
and
nental
devastated the
the island,
island, whose
whose fabulous
fabulous wealth
wealth had
had attracted
attracted them
them for
for aa
devastated
long time,
time, and
and subjugated
subjugated its
its inhabitants.
inhabitants. In
In fact,
fact, the
the culture
culture of
of
long
Knossosthe only
only place
place that
that survived
survived the
the catastrophe
catastrophe of
of the
the fifteenth
fifteenth
Knossos-the
centuryunderwent important
important changes
changes following
following this
this tragic
tragic event.
event. A
century-underwent
A
new people
people appeared
appeared on
on Crete.
Crete. And
And with
with them
them the
the optimistic
optimistic and
and realrealnew
istic Minoan
Minoan art
art yielded
yielded to
to an
an unemotional
unemotional and
and lifeless
lifeless stylization.
stylization. The
The
istic
traditional Minoan
Minoan ornamentation
ornamentation of
of vases
vases with
with plants,
plants, flowers,
flowers, and
and
traditional
octupuses was
was replaced
replaced by
abstract designs.
designs. At
At the
the same
same time
time tombs
tombs
octupuses
by abstract
with all
all sorts
sorts of
of weapons-bronze
weaponsbronze swords,
swords, daggers,
daggers, helmets,
arwith
helmets, arrowheads, and
and lance
lanceheadsappear
near Knossos.
Knossos. None
of these
these obheads-appear near
None of
obrowheads,
jects were
were typical
typical of
of earlier
earlier Minoan
Minoan burials.
They indicate
indicate that
persons
burials. They
that persons
jects
of an
an Achaean
Achaean military
military elite,
elite, now
now established
established in
in the
Knossos palace,
of
the Knossos
palace,
were buried
buried here.
Finally, one
one more
more fact
fact unequivocally
unequivocally points
the
were
here. Finally,
points to
to the
penetration of
of Crete
Crete by
new ethnic
ethnic element.
element. Numerous
documents
penetration
by aa new
Numerous documents
(of the
the so-called
so-called Linear
Linear B
B script
script group)
group) found
found in
in the
Knossos archives
archives
(of
the Knossos
were written
written in
in Greek
Greek (Achaean).9
(Achaean).9
were
These
These documents
documents date
date mainly
mainly from
from the
the end
end of
of the
the fifteenth
fifteenth cencentury. The
The Knossos
Knossos palace
was apparently
apparently destroyed
destroyed toward
toward the
the end
end of
tury.
palace was
of
the fifteenth,
fifteenth, or
or the
the beginning
of the
the fourteenth,
fourteenth, century
century and
and was
the
beginning of
was
never
fully restored.
Moreover, many
many remarkable
remarkable Minoan
Minoan works
works of
never fully
restored. Moreover,
of
art were
were lost
lost in
in aa fire.
fire.
art
8.
8. Following
Following the
the catastrophe,
catastrophe, part
part of
of the
the densely
densely inhabited
inhabited and
and flourishing
flourishing island
island
disappeared
Some scholars
scholars identify
identify it
it with
with the
the legendary
legendary Atlantis.
Atlantis. Editor's
Editor's
disappeared underwater.
underwater. Some
note
(IMD).
note (IMD).
9.
A few
tablets written
written in
the Linear
unknown language
9. A
few dozen
dozen tablets
in the
Linear A
A script
script in
in an
an unknown
language are
are to
to
be
be dated
dated earlier.
earlier.

The
of Crete
and Mycenae
Mycenae
The World
World of
Crete and

317

After
the decline
decline of
of Minoan
Minoan civilization
civilization was
irreversible. It
It
After that,
that, the
was irreversible.
continued to
to degenerate
degenerate and
to lose
lose its
distinctive character.
character. Crete
Crete becontinued
and to
its distinctive
became an
an obscure
obscure province,
and the
main center
center of
of cultural
cultural progress
progress
came
province, and
the main
and civilization
civilization moved
moved north
continental Greece,
Greece, where
and
north to
to continental
where the
the sosocalled Mycenaean
Mycenaean culture
culture reached
reached its
its peak
peak during
during that
that time.
called
time.
Achaean (Mycenaean)
(Mycenaean) Civilization
Civilization
Achaean
The Mycenaean
Mycenaean culture
culture was
was created
created by
Achaeans, aa Greek
Greek group,
group,
The
by Achaeans,
who
Balkan Peninsula
Peninsula at
who invaded
invaded the
the Balkan
at the
the end
end of
of the
the third
third or
or beginbeginning of
millennium. They
ning
of the
the second
second millennium.
They apparently
apparently came
came from
from the
the
north,
probably from
Danube lowland
north, probably
from the
the Danube
lowland region.
region. While
While advancing
advancing
farther south
south through
through the
the territory
territory of
of Greece,
Greece, the
the Achaeans
partly
farther
Achaeans partly
destroyed
and partly
partly assimilated
assimilated the
native pre-Greek
pre-Greek population
population of
destroyed and
the native
of
10 IniInithis
called Pelasgians
Pelasgians by
by later
later Greek
Greek historians.
this region,
region, who
who were
were called
historians.10
Mycenaean culture
culture was
tially, the
tially,
the Mycenaean
was strongly
strongly influenced
influenced by
by the
the more
more adadvanced Minoan
civilization. The
The following
of Minoan
Minoan culture
culture
vanced
Minoan civilization.
following aspects
aspects of
were
adopted from
Crete: certain
certain deities
deities and
and religious
rituals, palace
palace
were adopted
from Crete:
religious rituals,
wall paintings,
runing-water and
and sewerage
systems, male
male and
female
wall
paintings, runing-water
sewerage systems,
and female
dress styles,
styles, certain
types of
of weapons,
weapons, and,
and, finally,
the linear
syllabic
dress
certain types
finally, the
linear syllabic
script. This,
This, however,
does not
that Mycenaean
culture was
was just
just
script.
however, does
not mean
mean that
Mycenaean culture
minor, peripheral
peripheral variant
variant of
of the
the Minoan
Minoan culture
culture of
of Crete
Crete and
and that
that
aa minor,
the
settlements on
on the
the Peloponnesus
Peloponnesus and
and other
other places
places
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean settlements
were
simply Minoan
Minoan colonies
colonies in
foreign "barbarian"
"barbarian" country,
country, as
were simply
in aa foreign
as
Evans believed.
characteristics of
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean culture
culture lead
lead to
to the
the
Evans
believed. Many
Many characteristics
conclusion that
it developed
developed on
on Greek
Greek soil
soil and
and was
was directly
directly connected
connected
conclusion
that it
to the
the very
very ancient
ancient Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic and
and Early
Early Bronze
Bronze cultures
cultures of
of this
this
to
region.
region.
The
earliest attestations
attestations of
of Mycenaean
culture are
are the
the so-called
so-called
The earliest
Mycenaean culture
shaft
in the
northeast of
shaft graves
graves of
of Mycenae,
Mycenae, in
the northeast
of the
the Peloponnesus.
Peloponnesus. The
The
first six
six tombs
of this
were discovered
discovered within
within the
the
first
tombs of
this type
type ("Circle
("Circle A")
A") were
walled
perimeter of
of the
the well-known
well-known Gerwalled perimeter
the citadel
citadel of
of Mycenae
Mycenae by
by the
German archaeologist
Schliemann. Many
of gold,
gold, silver,
silver,
man
archaeologist H.
H. Schliemann.
Many objects
objects made
made of
ivory, and
materials were
were found
found in
tombs. In
In the
the
ivory,
and other
other precious
precious materials
in these
these tombs.
Iliad,
Homer
calls
Mycenae
"rich
in
gold"
and
the
Mycenaean
king,
Iliad, Homer calls Mycenae "rich in gold" and the Mycenaean king,
Agamemnon, is
is the
the most
most influential
and powerful
of the
the Achaean
Achaean
Agamemnon,
influential and
powerful of
leaders who
who took
took part
part in
in the
the famous
Trojan War.
War. However,
Schlieleaders
famous Trojan
However, Schliemann erred
erred in
thinking that
he had
tomb of
of Agamemnon,
Agamemnon,
mann
in thinking
that he
had found
found the
the tomb
who was
was viciously
viciously slain
slain by
his wife,
wife, Clytemnestra,
Clytemnestra, after
after his
return
who
by his
his return
10.
10. The
The Pelasgians
Pelasgians may
may have
have been
been related
related to
to the
the Minoans.
Minoans. Certain
Certain words
words of
of aa lost
lost
language-whether
the Greeks
Greeks and
inlanguagewhether it
it was
was Pelasgian
Pelasgian or
or Minoan-were
Minoanwere borrowed
borrowed by
by the
and inherited by
herited
by the
the modern
modern European
languages; e.g.,
e.g., such
such plant
plant names
names as
as "hyacinth,"
"hyacinth," "cyEuropean languages;
"cypress,"
press," and
and "narcissus."
"narcissus."

318

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

from
from the
the Trojan
Trojan campaign.
campaign. The
The shaft
shaft graves
graves date
date from
from the
the sixteenth
sixteenth
century
B.C., and
modern archaeolcentury B.C.,
and the
the Trojan
Trojan War,
War, in
in the
the opinion
opinion of
of modern
archaeologists, took
in the
early twelfth
century B.C.
the thirteenth
thirteenth or
or early
twelfth century
B.C. The
The
ogists,
took place
place in
very
items found
found in
in the
graves of
of Circle
Circle A
A show
show that
very valuable
valuable items
the graves
that the
the MyMycenaean
kings ruled
warlike and
violent people,
cenaean kings
ruled aa warlike
and violent
people, greedy
greedy for
for the
the
wealth of
of others.
others. They
long land
land and
and sea
sea expeditions
expeditions and
and
wealth
They undertook
undertook long
returned home
booty. It
unlikely that
returned
home loaded
loaded with
with booty.
It is
is unlikely
that any
any of
of the
the gold
gold
and silver
silver found
found in
in the
sites was
acquired through
and
the royal
royal burial
burial sites
was acquired
through peacepeaceful trade;
it was
captured in
in wars.
The military
inclinations
ful
trade; it
was most
most likely
likely captured
wars. The
military inclinations
of Mycenaean
are demonstrated
demonstrated by
the extraordinary
extraordinary number
number
of
Mycenaean rulers
rulers are
by the
of weapons
in their
their tombs
and by
the bloody
war and
and hunting
hunting
of
weapons found
found in
tombs and
by the
bloody war
scenes decorating
decorating some
some of
of the
objects found
in the
the tombs
and the
the
scenes
the objects
found in
tombs and
stelae placed
over the
graves. One
shows aa warrior
riding
stelae
placed over
the graves.
One of
of the
the latter
latter shows
warrior riding
in
chariot and
and pursuing
footsoldier carrying
Some objects
objects
pursuing aa footsoldier
carrying aa bow.
bow. Some
in aa chariot
are very
their design
(e.g., the
the golden
funeral masks),
are
very rudimentary
rudimentary in
in their
design (e.g.,
golden funeral
masks),
local Mycenaean
craftsmen. Other
Other objects
objects
revealing the
the lack
lack of
of skill
skill of
of local
Mycenaean craftsmen.
revealing
were made
made by
best Minoan
Minoan goldsmiths.
goldsmiths.
were
by the
the best
Thirty years
another royal
necropolis was
discovered in
in MyThirty
years ago,
ago, another
royal necropolis
was discovered
Mycenae,
the walls
walls of
cenae, outside
outside the
of the
the citadel.
citadel. It
It consisted
consisted of
of twenty-three
twenty-three
graves of
of about
about the
the same
same type
type as
as the
the six
six shaft
shaft graves
graves found
found earlier.
earlier.
graves
These
burials were
not as
wealthy, although
These burials
were not
as wealthy,
although quite
quite aa few
few valuable
valuable items
items
were found
found here
here too,
too, such
such as
as vessels
vessels made
made of
of quartz
quartz crystal
crystal and
and beads
beads
were
made
of amber.
The earliest
graves of
of "Circle
"Circle B"
B" are
are dated
dated to
to the
made of
amber. The
earliest graves
the secsecond
of the
the seventeenth
seventeenth century
century B.C.
beginning
ond half
half of
B.C. This
This places
places the
the beginning
of Mycenaean
culture earlier
earlier than
formerly assumed.
assumed. Apparently,
of
Mycenaean culture
than formerly
Apparently, aa
primitive state
state existed
existed in
in Mycenae
Mycenae already
already by
the seventeenth
seventeenth century,
century,
primitive
by the
and its
its ruling
elite, probably
clan itself,
itself, was
was clearly
clearly separated
separated
and
ruling elite,
probably the
the royal
royal clan
from the
the population
at large.
large.
from
population at
The
golden age
age of
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean civilization
civilization can
can be
in the
the fiffifThe golden
be placed
placed in
teenth to
to thirteenth
thirteenth centuries.
this period,
period, it
teenth
centuries. During
During this
it spread
spread over
over the
the
entire
entire Peloponnesus,
Peloponnesus, central
central Greece
Greece (Attica,
(Attica, Boeotia,
Boeotia, and
and Phocis),
Phocis), aa
significant portion
of northern
northern Greece
Greece (Thessaly),
(Thessaly), as
as well
well as
as to
to many
many
portion of
significant
islands in
in the
the Aegean
Aegean Sea.
Sea. This
This whole
had aa homogeneous
homogeneous
whole territory
territory had
islands
culture
represented by
by the
the same
types of
houses, burials,
burials, pottery,
pottery, etc.
etc.
culture represented
same types
of houses,
From
available information
information we
can infer
Greece was
infer that
that Mycenaean
Mycenaean Greece
was aa
From available
we can
flourishing
spread throughout
throughout the
the
flourishing country
country with
with aa large
large population,
population, spread
entire
area and
and inhabiting
inhabiting many
small and
and large
settlements.
entire area
many small
large settlements.
The main
main centers
centers of
of Mycenaean
were palaces,
palaces, as
The
Mycenaean culture
culture were
as in
in Crete.
Crete.
The
most important
and
The most
important palaces
palaces were
were discovered
discovered in
in Mycenae,
Mycenae, Tiryns,
Tiryns, and
Pylos (Peloponnesus),
in Athens,
Thebes, and
and Orchomenus
Orchomenus (central
Pylos
(Peloponnesus), in
Athens, Thebes,
(central
Greece), and,
and, finally,
finally, in
in lolcus
Iolcus (Thessaly).
(Thessaly). Almost
all Mycenaean
Greece),
Almost all
Mycenaean palpalaces were
fortified and
constituted veritable
citadels, somewhat
somewhat reand constituted
veritable citadels,
reaces
were fortified
sembling outwardly
outwardly the
castles of
of feudal
feudal lords
lords in
in the
the Middle
Middle Ages.
sembling
the castles
Ages.

The
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World of
of Crete
Crete and
and Mycenae
Mycenae

319

The
Achaean builders
exThe advanced
advanced engineering
engineering skills
skills of
of the
the Achaean
builders are
are exhibited
by the
mighty, cyclopean
walls 11
II of
of the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean citadels,
citadels,
hibited by
the mighty,
cyclopean walls
which were
were built
built with
with massive
which
massive boulders
boulders without
without the
the use
use of
of mortar.
mortar.
The
MyThe famous
famous Tiryns
Tiryns citadel
citadel in
in the
the Argolis
Argolis region,
region, not
not far
far from
from Mycenae, serves
serves as
as aa first-rate
first-rate example
example of
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean fortification.
fortification. UnUncenae,
finished limestone
limestone boulders,
boulders, some
some weighing
weighing as
as much
much as
as 12
12 metric
metric
finished
tons, form
form the
the external
external walls
of the
the fortress,
fortress, which
which are
are up
up to
to 4.5
4.5 metons,
walls of
meters thick
thick and
and 7.5
7.5 meters
meters high
high (that
(that is,
is, in
in places
places where
where they
they have
have been
been
ters
preserved).
some places,
vaulted galleries
galleries with
with casemates
casemates were
were built
built
preserved). In
In some
places, vaulted
inside the
the walls.
walls. The
The casemates
casemates were
used to
to store
store weapons
weapons and
and food
food
were used
inside
supplies. (The
(The walls
can be
up to
to 17
17 meters
meters thick
thick here.)
Access to
the
supplies.
walls can
be up
here.) Access
to the
main roads
designed so
so that
that an
an enemy
enemy soldier
soldier approaching
approaching the
the
main
roads was
was designed
entrance had
to turn
turn his
right side,
side, which
which was
not protected
by his
his
entrance
had to
his right
was not
protected by
shield, to
the wall.
But in
event that
an enemy
enemy should
should manage
manage to
to
wall. But
in the
the event
that an
shield,
to the
penetrate
the citadel,
citadel, he
he would
would face
face an
an internal
internal protective
protective wall,
which
penetrate the
wall, which
guarded
the main
main part
part of
of the
the fortress,
fortress, the
the acropolis
acropolis with
with the
the royal
guarded the
royal palpalace. In
In order
order to
to reach
reach the
the palace,
palace, he
he would
would have
have to
to pass
pass through
ace.
through aa
narrow passage
the external
external and
and internal
internal walls
walls that
that was
was dinarrow
passage between
between the
divided
into two
sections by
wooden gates.
gates. Here,
an enemy
enemy would
would
vided into
two sections
by two
two wooden
Here, an
be subjected
subjected to
to aa crossfire
crossfire of
of missiles
shot from
from all
all sides.
sides. To
To guarantee
guarantee
be
missiles shot
the defenders
defenders of
of the
the citadel
citadel an
an abundant
abundant water
water supply,
supply, there
there was
was an
an
the
underground passage
passage on
on the
the northern
northern side
side of
of the
citadel (the
(the sounderground
the citadel
socalled lower
lower city)
city) that
that led
led to
to aa carefully
carefully hidden
hidden spring
spring situated
situated 20
20 mecalled
meters
from the
the wall.
ters from
wall.
The
the actual
MyThe most
most interesting
interesting of
of the
actual palace
palace structures
structures of
of the
the Mycenaean
12 in
cenaean epoch
epoch is
is the
the well-preserved
well-preserved "Nestor's
"Nestor's Palace"
Palace"12
in Pylos,
Pylos, in
in the
the
western part
part of
of the
the Peloponnesus.
Peloponnesus. The
The palace
palace at
at Pylos
Pylos is
is similar
similar in
in its
western
its
its precise
precise
interior decor
decor to
to the
the Cretan
Cretan palaces,
but differs
differs from
from them
them in
in its
interior
palaces, but
and symmetrical
symmetrical layout.
layout. The
The main
main rooms
rooms of
of the
the palace
palace are
are situated
situated
and
along one
one axis,
axis, forming
forming aa closed
closed rectangular
rectangular complex.
complex. In
In order
order to
to
along
reach the
the interior
interior of
of this
this complex,
complex, it
it was
was necessary
necessary to
to pass
pass through
through the
the
reach
entrance portico
portico (propylaeum),
(propylaeum), aa small
small inside
inside yard,
another portico,
portico,
entrance
yard, another
and aa lobby,
lobby, from
from which
the visitor
visitor entered
entered aa spacious
spacious rectangular
rectangular hall,
and
which the
hall,
megaron,which
whichwas
wasthe
themost
mostimportant
importantpart
partofofa aMycenaean
Mycenaeanpalace.
palace.
the megaron,
the
A large,
large, circular
circular fireplace
fireplace stood
stood in
in the
the center
center of
of the
the megaron,
megaron,from
from
A
which
smoke rose
through an
an opening
opening in
in the
ceiling. Four
Four wooden
wooden
which smoke
rose through
the ceiling.
ceiling. The
The walls
columns surrounded
surrounded the
the fireplace
fireplace and
and supported
supported the
the ceiling.
columns
walls
were decorated
decorated with
with paintings.
paintings. The
The megaron
megaronwas
wasthe
theheart
heartofofthe
thepalpalwere
11.
the Greeks
they attributed
11. When
When the
Greeks saw
saw these
these walls
walls in
in later
later times,
times, they
attributed their
their construcconstrucCyclops.
tion
tion to
to the
the one-eyed
one-eyed giant
giant Cyclops.
12.
is conventional.
According to
to Homer,
Homer, Nestor,
12. The
The Ilame
name "Nestor's
"Nestor's Palace"
Palace" is
conventional. According
Nestor,
the
was one
of the
participants in
the old
old and
and wise-king
wise king of
of Pylos,
Pylos, was
one of
the principal
principal participants
in the
the Trojan
Trojan
expeditions.
expeditions.

20
3320

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev
Andreyev
Yu.

ace;
ace; it
it was
was in
in this
this hall
hall that
that the
the king
king of
of Pylos
Pylos caroused
caroused with
with his
his noblemen
noblemen
and guests.
guests. This
This was
was also
also the
the hall
hall for
for official
official receptions
and audiences.
audiences.
and
receptions and
megaronfrom
fromthe
theoutside,
outside,
Two
Two long
long corridors
corridors were
were placed
placed along
along the
the megaron
and from
from here
here doors
doors opened
opened to
to numerous
numerous storage
storage rooms,
rooms, where
where sevand
several thousand vessels
vessels for
for keeping
keeping and
and shipping
shipping oil
oil and
and other
other products
products
eralthousand
were found.
found. It
It seems
seems that
that the
the Pylos
Pylos palace
palace was
was an
an important
important exporter
exporter
were
of olive
olive oil,
oil, aa very
very valuable
valuable commodity
commodity in
in neighboring
countries.
of
neighboring countries.
Nestor's
Palace had
had bathrooms,
bathrooms, running
running water,
water, and
and aa sewage
sewage system.
system.
Nestor's Palace
The archive
archive of
of the
the palace
palace was
was kept
kept in
in aa relatively
relatively small
small room
room near
near
The
the
main entrance.
the main
entrance. It
It contained
contained over
over 1,000
1,000 clay
clay tablets
tablets inscribed
inscribed in
in aa
linear syllabic
syllabic script,
script, very
very similar
similar to
to that
that used
used to
to write
write the
the documents
documents
linear
found in
in Knossos
Knossos (Linear
(Linear B)
B) and
and mentioned
mentioned earlier.
earlier. The
The tablets
tablets were
were
found
well preserved
because they
they had
had been
exposed to
heat when
the palwell
preserved because
been exposed
to heat
when the
palace was
was destroyed
destroyed by
fire.
ace
by fire.
Among the
the most
most interesting
interesting architectural
architectural relics
relics of
of the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean
Among
epoch are
are the
the majestic
majestic royal
royal tombs
tombs called
called tholoi.
tholoi.They
Theywere
wereusually
usually
epoch
built
near the
the palaces
palaces and
and citadels
citadels and
and most
most probably
probably served
served as
as burial
burial
built near
places for
for members
members of
of the
the ruling
ruling dynasty,
dynasty, just
just as
as had
had the
the earlier
earlier shaft
shaft
places
tholoi, the
theso-called
so-calledtomb
tombofof
graves. The
The largest
largest of
of the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean tholoi,
graves.
Atreus, is
is located
located in
in Mycenae.
Mycenae. (Originally
(Originally it
it was
thought to
have been
been
Atreus,
was thought
to have
treasure house.)
house.) The
The tomb
tomb proper
proper is
is hidden
hidden within
within an
an artificial
artificial
aa treasure
mound. To
To enter
enter it,
it, it
it is
is necessary
necessary to
to pass
pass through
through aa long,
long, stone-faced
stone-faced
mound.
passage called
called aa dromos,
dromos,which
whichleads
leadsinto
intothe
themound.
mound.The
Theentrance
entrancetoto
passage
the
tomb is
is covered
covered by
two enormous
enormous stone
stone slabs
slabs (one
(one of
of them
them weighweighthe tomb
by two
ing 120
120 metric
metric tons).
tons). The
The interior
interior chamber
chamber is
is aa monumental
monumental circular
circular
ing
room with
with aa high,
high, beehive-like
beehive-like vault
vault some
some 13.5
13.5 meters
meters high).
high). The
The
room
walls
and the
vault of
of the
the tomb
tomb are
are finished
finished with
with superbly
superbly hewn
hewn stone
stone
walls and
the vault
slabs that
that were
were originally
originally adorned
adorned with
with gilded
gilded bronze
rosettes. A
slabs
bronze rosettes.
A
somewhat smaller,
smaller, lateral
lateral chamber
chamber is
is connected
connected to
to the
the main
main chamber.
chamber.
somewhat
It is
is rectangular
and not
not as
as finely
finely finished.
finished. This
This was
apparently the
the
It
rectangular and
was apparently
actual royal
royal burial
burial place,
place, which
which had
had already
already been
been looted
looted in
in ancient
ancient
actual
times.
times.
The
The construction
construction of
of such
such monumental
monumental structures
structures as
as the
the tomb
tomb of
of
Atreus
Atreus and
and the
the Tiryns
Tiryns citadel
citadel could
could not
not have
have been
been accomplished,
accomplished, in
in
our opinion,
opinion, without
without the
the use
use of
of compulsory
compulsory labor.
labor. In
In order
order to
to perperour
form such
such tasks,
tasks, it
it was
was necessary
necessary to
to have
have access
access to
to aa cheap
cheap labor
labor force
force
form
in
in large
large numbers
numbers and,
and, at
at the
the same
same time,
time, have
have aa sufficiently
sufficiently developed
developed
state organization
organization to
manage such
such aa work
work force.
force. The
The rulers
of Mystate
to manage
rulers of
Mycenae and
and Tiryns
Tiryns obviously
obviously had
had both
both at
at their
their disposal.
disposal.
cenae
The
The mystery
mystery of
of the
the internal
internal structure
structure of
of the
the Achaean
Achaean state
state began
began to
to
be
when aa young
young Englishman,
M. Ventris,
be disentangled
disentangled in
in 1952
1952 when
Englishman, M.
Ventris, dedeciphered the
the tablets
tablets of
of the
the archive
archive of
of Pylos,
ciphered
Pylos, as
as well
wellas
assome
someof
ofthe
thetablets
tablets
from the
the Knossos
Knossos archive.
archive. He
He found
found that
that all
all these
these documents
documents were
were
from

The
The World
World of
of Crete
Crete and
and Mycenae
Mycenae

321
3 21

written
by
written in
in an
an archaic
archaic Achaean
Achaean dialect
dialect of
of the
the Greek
Greek language
language spoken
spoken by
13 The
The
the people
people of
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean Greece
Greece in
in the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C.13
the
syllabic Linear
Linear B
B script
script that
was used
used in
in these
these inscriptions
inscriptions most
most probaprobasyllabic
that was
14 and
Linear A
A script,15
bly
bly originated
originated on
on Crete
Crete14
and was
was based
based on
on the
the older
older Linear
script,15
which existed
existed there
there earlier.
earlier. The
The Achaeans,
who conquered
conquered Crete
Crete
which
Achaeans, who
around the
the middle
middle of
of the
the fifteenth
fifteenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., inherited
inherited from
from the
the
around
Minoans the
the syllabic
syllabic script
script and
and adapted
adapted it
it to
to their
their own
own language.
language.
Minoans
The
The tablets
tablets read
read by
by M.
M. Ventris
Ventris are
are bookkeeping
bookkeeping accounting
accounting
records, kept
kept from
from year
year to
to year
year in
in the
the Pylos
Pylos and
and Knossos
Knossos palaces.
palaces. The
The
records,
laconic
laconic records
records contain
contain invaluable
invaluable historical
historical information
information allowing
allowing us
us
to
to evaluate
evaluate the
the palace
palace economy,
economy, as
as well
well as
as the
the political
political and
and social
social strucstructures
altures of
of the
the states
states in
in question.
question. We
We find,
find, for
for example,
example, that
that slavery
slavery already existed
existed in
in Greece
Greece during
during that
that time
time and
and that
that slave
slave labor
labor was
was
ready
widely used
used in
in many
many branches
branches of
of the
the economy.
economy. A
A significant
significant number
number
widely
of documents
documents from
from the
the Pylos
Pylos archive
archive enumerate
enumerate groups
groups of
of workers
workers
of
employed by
by the
the palace.
palace. Lists
Lists indicate
indicate how
how many
many women
women there
there were
were
employed
in each
each group;
group; what
what their
their occupations
occupations were
were (grain
(grain millers,
millers, weavers,
in
weavers,
seamstresses, and
and even
even bathhouse
attendants); how
how many
many children,
children,
seamstresses,
bathhouse attendants);
both boys
boys and
and girls,
girls, were
were with
with them
them (apparently,
(apparently, these
these children
children of
of the
the
both
female slaves
slaves were
were born
born in
in captivity);
captivity); what
what rations
rations they
they were
were receivreceivfemale
ing; and
and where
where they
they worked
worked (i.e.,
(i.e., in
in Pylos
Pylos or
or in
in some
some town
town of
of the
the
ing;
dependent territory).
territory). Such
Such groups
groups of
of workers
workers could
could be
quite large,
large,
dependent
be quite
comprising aa hundred
hundred persons
persons or
or more.
more. The
The total
total number
number of
of women
women
comprising
and children
children in
in all
all the
the worker
worker groups
groups known
known from
from just
one set
set of
of inand
just one
in1,300. In
In addiaddiscriptions of
of the
the Pylos
archive must
been around
around 1,300.
Pylos archive
must have
have been
scriptions
tion
worker groups
groups made
made up
up of
of only
only women
women and
and children,
children, the
the
tion to
to worker
documents also
also mention
mention those
those composed
composed exclusively
exclusively of
of men;
men; howhowdocuments
ever, these
these were
were relatively
relatively smaller,
smaller, usually
usually not
not more
more than
than ten
ten workers
workers
ever,
each. There
There were
were obviously
obviously more
more female
female than
than male
male slaves,
slaves, aa fact
fact
each.
indicating
that slavery
slavery was
was still
still at
at aa relatively
relatively early
early stage
stage in
in its
its
indicating that
development.
development.
Documents
Documents from
from the
the Pylos
Pylos archive
archive also
also tell
tell us
us that
that in
in addition
addition to
to
conventional
conventional slaves,
slaves, there
there were
were "male
"male or
or female
female slaves
slaves of
of aa god."
god."
These
These people
people usually
usually rented
rented1616 small
small parcels
parcels of
of land
land from
from the
the commucommu(damos)ororfrom
fromprivate
privatepersons.
persons.We
Wecan
canconclude
concludefrom
fromthis
thisthat
that
nity (damos)
nity
13.
13. Earlier,
Earlier, the
the opinion
opinion of
of Evans
Evans was
was universally
universally accepted.
accepted. Evans
Evans believed
believed that
that all
all
the
in the
linear script
made by
by aa people
the inscriptions
inscriptions in
the linear
script were
were made
people of
of non-Greek
non-Greek origin.
origin.
14.
14. The
The Knossos
Knossos archive
archive is
is roughly
roughly two
two centuries
centuries older
older than
than analogous
analogous archives
archives of
of
continental
etc.).
continental Greece
Greece (Pylos,
(Pylos, Mycenae,
Mycenae, etc.).
15.
15. The
The tablets
tablets written
written in
in the
the Linear
Linear A
A script,
script, found
found in
in the
the Knossos
Knossos palace
palace and
and in
in
some
other parts
some other
parts of
of Crete,
Crete, remain
remain undeciphered.
undeciphered. Most
Most scholars
scholars are
are inclined
inclined to
to think
think
they
they reflect
reflect aa Minoan
Minoan language
language not
not related
related to
to Greek.
Greek.
16.
16. The
The statement
statement that
that the
the land
land granted
granted to
to these
these people
people was
was rented
rented cannot
cannot be
be conconsidered
Editor's note
(IMD).
sidered proved.
proved. Editor's
note (IMD).

22
3322

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev
Andreyev
Yu.

they did
not own
that they
they
did not
own land
land and,
and, consequently,
consequently, that
they were
were not
not considconsidered full-fledged
full-fledged members
of the
the community,
community, although
although they
not
ered
members of
they were
were not
slaves in
in the
the strict
strict sense
sense of
of the
term "slave
"slave of
of aa god"
itself
slaves
the word.
word. The
The term
god" itself
seems to
to indicate
indicate that
that people
in this
this social
social subcategory
subcategory were
were in
in the
the serserpeople in
seems
vice of
of temples
temples dedicated
dedicated to
to the
the principal
gods of
of the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of
principal gods
vice
Pylos and
and were
were under
under the
of the
the temple
temple administration.
administration.
Pylos
the protection
protection of
An important
portion of
the Pylos
is
An
important portion
of both
both the
Pylos and
and Knossos
Knossos archives
archives is
dedicated to
to accounting
accounting for
for the
the work
of craftsmen,
craftsmen, among
among whom
whom we
dedicated
work of
we
find
of specialists:
specialists: blacksmiths,
blacksmiths, stonemasons,
stonemasons, tailors,
tailors,
find aa wide
wide variety
variety of
carpenters, potters,
armorers, goldsmiths,
goldsmiths, and
and even
even perfumers.
For
perfumers. For
carpenters,
potters, armorers,
their
from the
treasury (barley
and
their work
work they
they received
received rations
rations from
the palace
palace treasury
(barley and
other produce).
Cases of
of absence
absence from
from work
were recorded
in special
special
other
produce). Cases
work were
recorded in
documents. "Loafers"
were apparently
apparently punished,
do not
not know
know
but we
we do
documents.
"Loafers" were
punished, but
how. Some
Some of
of the
the craftsmen
craftsmen were
were probably
considered "palace
"palace peohow.
probably considered
people"
and were
in the
the service
service of
of the
the state,
state, like
the numerous
officials
were in
like the
numerous officials
ple" and
mentioned in
in the
the same
same documents.
documents. Their
Their situtation
situtation apparently
apparently was
mentioned
was
not much
much better
better than
than that
that of
of the
the female
female slaves.
not
slaves.
Another group
group of
of craftsmen
craftsmen was
was composed
composed of
of free
free community
community
Another
members whose
whose work
for the
obligatory serserthe palace
palace was
was aa temporary
temporary obligatory
members
work for
vice. According
to the
vice.
According to
the documents,
documents, periodic
periodic obligatory
obligatory labor
labor of
of this
this
kind in
in Pylos
Pylos and
and Knossos
Knossos was
imposed on
on the
inhabitants of
of small
small
kind
was imposed
the inhabitants
villages
on the
of the
and economically
economically
the periphery
periphery of
the main
main palace
palace and
villages located
located on
dependent on
on it.
it. Craftsmen
Craftsmen drafted
drafted into
into state
state service
service did
did not
not lose
lose
dependent
their
freedom. They
They could
could own
own land
land and
and even
even slaves,
slaves, like
like all
all
their personal
personal freedom.
the
other community
community members.
members.
the other
Blacksmiths
position among
Blacksmiths occupied
occupied aa special
special position
among the
the craftsmen
craftsmen workworking
the palace.
palace. Thus,
ing for
for the
Thus, in
in Pylos
Pylos they
they were
were exempted
exempted from
from delivering
delivering
flax-the
all inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the Pylos
Pylos kingdom.
kingdom. All
All blacksmiths
blacksmiths
flaxthe duty
duty of
of all
residing within
within the
the territory
territory of
of the
the state
state were
were under
under the
the supervision
supervision of
of
residing
the palace
palace administration.
their work
was
the
administration. The
The metal
metal they
they required
required for
for their
work was
issued
together with
with aa task
issued by
by the
the palace
palace together
task assignment.
assignment. Blacksmiths
Blacksmiths
their work
work by
by slaves,
were apparently
aswere assisted
were
assisted in
in their
slaves, who
who were
apparently also
also aspalace.
signed by
by the
the palace.
signed
Pylos,
According to
to documents
documents from
from the
the archives
archives of
of Knossos
Knossos and
and Pylos,
According
the palace
palace economy
economy of
of the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean epoch
epoch appears
appears to
to have
the
have been
been aa
powerful, widely
widely branched
system involving
involving practically
practically the
the entire
entire
powerful,
branched system
society. The
The private
economies, although
although they
they apparently
apparently existed
existed in
in
private economies,
society.
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean states,
states, were
were subject
subject to
to taxation
taxation and
and obligatory
obligatory service
service
the
owed to
the state
state sector
sector and
and played
minor, subordinate
subordinate role.
role. The
The
played aa minor,
owed
to the
state monopolized
monopolized the
most important
important branches
branches of
of the
the production
state
the most
production of
of
the craftsmen
and established
established very
strict control
over the
distribution
the
craftsmen and
very strict
control over
the distribution
of
raw materials,
materials, especially
especially metals.
metals. Not
single kilogram
of bronze,
bronze,
of raw
Not aa single
kilogram of
not one
one arrowhead,
arrowhead, escaped
escaped the
watchful eyes
eyes of
of the
the palace
bureaunot
the watchful
palace bureau-

The
The World
World of
of Crete
Crete and
and Mycenae
Mycenae

323

crats. All
All metal,
whether held
held directly
directly by
by the
or in
private hands,
crats.
metal, whether
the state
state or
in private
hands,
was carefully
carefully weighed,
weighed, counted,
counted, and
and recorded
on clay
clay tablets
tablets by
by the
the
was
recorded on
scribes
palace archive.
scribes of
of the
the palace
archive. All
All available
available information
information indicates
indicates that
that
the economy
economy that
that developed
developed in
in Achaean
Achaean Greece
was analogous
analogous to
to the
the
the
Greece was
Near Eastern
Eastern type.
type.
Near
The
palace economy,
The palace
economy, based
based on
on the
the principles
principles of
of strict
strict accountability
accountability
and
bureaucracy in
in order
and control,
control, required
required aa bureaucracy
order to
to function.
function. Documents
Documents
from the
the archives
archives of
of Pylos
and Knossos
Knossos show
show it
it in
in action,
action, although
although
from
Pylos and
many
its organization
organization still
still remain
remain unclear.
unclear. In
In addition
addition to
to the
the
many details
details of
of its
staff of
of scribes
scribes who
who worked
worked directly
directly in
in the
the palace
offices and
and archive,
archive,
staff
palace offices
the tablets
mention numerous
numerous officials
officials who
who were
charge of
of the
the difdifthe
tablets mention
were in
in charge
ferent types
types of
of work
work and
and who
who monitored
monitored conscription
conscription for
for obligatory
obligatory
ferent
labor. Thus,
Thus, from
from the
the documents
documents ofthe
of the Pylos
Pylos archive
archive we
we discover
discover that
that
labor.
the entire
entire territory
territory of
the kingdom
kingdom was
was divided
divided into
sixteen tax
tax disthe
of the
into sixteen
districts,
each headed
headed by
by aa governor,
governor, koreter.
koreter.Each
Eachwas
wasresponsible
responsiblefor
forthe
the
tricts, each
punctual
delivery of
of tax
tax payments
from the
the district
district in
in his
his charge
charge to
to
punctual delivery
payments from
the palace
palace treasury.
treasury. The
The payments
mainly consisted
consisted of
metalsgold
the
payments mainly
of metals-gold
and bronzeas
well as
as different
different kinds
kinds of
of farm
farm products.
Functionand
bronze-as well
products. Functionaries of
of aa lower
lower rank
the individual
individual villages
villages in
in aa district
district and
and
aries
rank managed
managed the
reported to
to the
the koreter.
Sucha afunctionary
functionarywas
wascalled
calleda agwasileus
gwasileus
reported
koreter. Such
or or
basileus.They
Theysupervised
supervisedproduction
productionactivities,
activities,for
forexample,
example,the
thework
work
basileus.
andaabasileus
basileus
of blacksmiths
in the
the service
service of
of the
the state.
state. Both
of
blacksmiths in
Both aa koreter
koreter and
were
vigilant control
control of
of the
the central
central authority.
authority. The
The palace
palace
were under
under the
the vigilant
constantly sent
sent heralds,
messengers, inspectors,
inspectors, and
and auditors
all over
over
constantly
heralds, messengers,
auditors all
the territory.
territory.
the
The head
of the
state bore
bore the
title wanaka,
wanaka, which
which correcorreThe
head of
the palace
palace state
the title
sponds to
to the
wanax, that
sponds
the later
later Greek
Greek wanax,
that is,
is,"lord,"
"lord," "sovereign,"
"sovereign," "king."
"king."
Unfortunately,
nothing about
Unfortunately, the
the documents
documents tell
tell us
us nothing
about the
the political
political funcfunctions and
rights of
the wanaka,
wanaka,but
buthe
hecertainly
certainlyoccupied
occupiedaaspecial
specialand
and
tions
and rights
of the
privileged
position among
the ruling
ruling elite.
(teprivileged position
among the
elite. The
The land
land allotment
allotment (temenos) belonging
menos)
belongingtotothe
theking
kingwas
wasthree
threetimes
timesasaslarge
largeasasthat
thatofofthe
the
highest functionaries.
functionaries. The
The king
king had
had aa large
large staff
staff of
of servants
servants at
at his
his dishighest
disposal,
which, according
potters, royal
posal, which,
according to
to the
the tablets,
tablets, included
included royal
royal potters,
royal
fullers, royal
armorers, and
and others.
others.
fullers,
royal armorers,
One of
of the
the most
most prominent
functionaries under
under the
the
One
prominent high-ranking
high-ranking functionaries
lawagetas,"leader
"leaderofofthe
the(armed)
(armed)people,"
people,"oror
king
of Pylos
Pylos was
was the
the lawagetas,
king of
"military chief."
his title
title indicates,
responsibilities included
included
"military
chief." As
As his
indicates, his
his responsibilities
command of
of the
armed forces
forces of
of Pylos.
command
the armed
Pylos.
Other officials
officials are
are also
also mentioned
in the
Priests of
the prinprinOther
mentioned in
the texts.
texts. Priests
of the
cipal temples
of the
country and
and high-ranking
military officers,
officers, especipal
temples of
the country
high-ranking military
espedetachments, formed
cially those
commanding the
the battle
battle chariot
chariot detachments,
formed part
part
cially
those commanding
of the
top elite,
elite, which
and conconof
the top
which was
was closely
closely connected
connected with
with the
the palace
palace and
stituted the
immediate entourage
entourage of
of the
the wanaka
wanaka of
of Pylos.
Judging
stituted
the immediate
Pylos. Judging

324
324

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

from
from all
all available
available data,
data, farmers
farmers and
and craftsmen
craftsmen lacked
lacked all
all political
political
17 Only
rights and
and took
took no
no part
part in
in governing
governing the
the state.
state.17
Only the
the slaves
slaves workworkrights
ing
palace economy
had aa lower
ing in
in the
the palace
economy had
lower status.
status.
The decipherment
decipherment of
of the
the Linear
Linear B
B script
script did
did not
not resolve
all the
the
The
resolve all
questions about
about the
the socioeconomic
socioeconomic and
and political
political history
of the
questions
history of
the MyMycenaean
cenaean period.
period. For
For example,
example, we
we do
do not
not know
know the
the relations
relations that
that
existed between
between the
the separate
separate small
small states.
states. Did
Did they
they form,
form, as
as some
some
existed
scholars
scholars believe,
believe, aa single
single Achaean
Achaean state
state federation
federation under
under the
the aegis
aegis of
of
the king
king of
of Mycenae-the
Mycenaethe most
most powerful
powerful among
among the
the Greek
Greek rulers
rulers of
of
the
that time-or
timeor were
were they
they completely
completely separate
separate and
and independent
independent states?
states?
that
The latter
latter seems
seems more
more probable.
probable. It
It is
is not
not accidental
accidental that
that almost
almost all
all
The
Mycenaean palaces
surrounded by
by strong
strong defensive
defensive structures
structures
Mycenaean
palaces were
were surrounded
that
their inhabitants
inhabitants from
from aa hostile
hostile outside
outside world
and,
that protected
protected their
world and,
most of
of all,
all, from
from their
their closest
closest neighbors.
The huge
huge walls
of Mycenae
Mycenae
most
neighbors. The
walls of
and Tiryns
Tiryns stand
stand as
as witnesses
witnesses to
to the
the almost
almost uninterrupted
uninterrupted hostility
hostility
and
between these
these two
two states,
states, which
which shared
shared the
the fertile
fertile Argos
Argos Plain.
Plain. Greek
Greek
between
legends recount
recount the
the bloody
bloody wars
wars between
between the
the Achaean
Achaean rulers.
rulers. We
We are
are
legends
told, for
for instance,
instance, how
how seven
seven kings
kings of
of Argos
Argos intervened
intervened in
in the
the struggle
struggle
told,
between the
the sons
sons of
of king
king Oedipus
Oedipus of
of Thebes,
Thebes, how
how they
they marched
marched
between
against Thebes,
Thebes, one
one of
of the
the wealthiest
wealthiest cities
cities of
of central
central Greece
Greece (Boeo(Boeoagainst
tia), and
and how
managed to
to take
take and
and destroy
destroy the
the city
city after
after aa series
series
how they
they managed
tia),
of unsuccessful
unsuccessful attempts.
attempts. Archaeological
Archaeological excavations
excavations have
have shown
shown that
that
of
the Theban
Theban palace
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean times
times was,
was, in
in fact,
fact, burned
burned and
and dedethe
palace of
stroyed in
in the
the fourteenth
fourteenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., long
long before
before other
other citadels
citadels and
and
stroyed
palaces
fell into
into ruin.
ruin.
palaces fell
On occasion,
occasion, the
the Achaean
Achaean states
states were
were apparently
apparently able
able tojoin
to join forces
forces
On
for
for common
common military
military enterprises.
enterprises. The
The famous
famous Trojan
Trojan War
War is
is aa good
good
example. Homer
Homer tells
tells the
the story
story of
of this
this war
war in
in the
the Iliad.
Iliad. If
If we
wetake
takethis
this
example.
poem at
at face
face value,
value, it
it appears
appears that
that almost
almost all
all the
the principal
principal regions
regions of
of
poem
Achaean Greece
Greece took
took part
part in
in this
this expedition-from
expeditionfrom Thessaly
Thessaly in
in the
the
Achaean
north to
to Crete
Crete and
and Rhodes
Rhodes in
in the
south. The
The Mycenaean
Mycenaean king
king AgaAganorth
the south.
is quite
quite
memnon
was chosen
chosen as
as commander
commander of
of the
combined forces.
forces. It
It is
memnon was
the combined
possible
Homer exaggerated
exaggerated the
the actual
actual size
size of
of the
Achaean coalithat Homer
the Achaean
coalipossible that
tion and
and embellished
embellished the
the expedition
expedition itself.
itself. Nevertheless,
today almost
almost
Nevertheless, today
tion
no one
one questions
questions the
the historical
historical authenticity
authenticity of
of this
this event.
event. ArchaeologiArchaeologino
cal excavations
excavations in
in Troy
Troy (northwestern
(northwestern Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, not
not far
far from
from the
the
cal
shore of
of the
the Dardanelles,
Dardanelles, ancient
ancient Hellespont)
Hellespont) revealed
revealed that
that one
one of
of the
the
shore
settlements on
on this
this site
site (Troy
(Troy VIla)
Vila) was
was taken
taken and
and destroyed
destroyed after
after aa
settlements
protracted
siege
in
about
the
middle
of
the
thirteenth
century
B.C. or
or
protracted siege in about the middle of the thirteenth century B.C.
17.
term damos
17. According
According to
to one
one opinion,
opinion, the
the term
damos("people"),
("people"),which
whichappears
appearsinintablets
tabletsofof
the Pylos
Pylos archive,
archive, stands
stands for
for an
an assembly
assembly of
of the
the people
people representing
representing the
the entire
entire free
free
the
population of
of the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Pylos.
Pylos. It
It appears
appears more
more probable
probable to
to this
this author
author that
that damos
dumos
population
was
one of
of the
the territorial
communities (districts)
(districts) forming
forming the
state (compare
(compare with
the
was one
territorial communities
the state
with the
later Athenian
Athenian demos).
demos).
later

The
The World
World of
of Crete
Crete and
and Mycenae
Mycenae

325

somewhat later.
later. (This
(This date
date is
is close
close to
to the
traditional dating
dating of
of the
the TroTrosomewhat
the traditional
jan War
preserved by
jan
War preserved
by Herodotus.)IB
Herodotus.)18
The
war of
Achaeans against
against Troy
was just
just one,
The war
of the
the Achaeans
Troy was
one, though
though the
the
most significant,
manifestations of
most
significant, of
of the
the manifestations
of the
the military
military and
and colonizing
colonizing
expansion
the Mediterranean
reexpansion of
of Achaeans
Achaeans into
into Asia
Asia Minor
Minor and
and the
Mediterranean region. Many
Many Achaean
Achaean settlements
settlements appeared
appeared during
during the
the fifteenth
fifteenth to
to
gion.
fourteenth centuries
centuries on
on the
the western
western and
and southern
southern shores
shores of
of Asia
fourteenth
Asia
Minor,
on the
islands of
of Rhodes
Rhodes and
and Cyprus,
Cyprus, and
and even
even on
on the
the coasts
coasts
Minor, on
the islands
of Phoenicia
Phoenicia and
and Syria.
Syria. (They
(They are
are identified
identified by
large accumulations
accumulations of
of
of
by large
typically
Mycenaean ceramics.)
ceramics.) In
In all
all these
places the
Mycenaean
typically Mycenaean
these places
the Mycenaean
Greeks took
took over
over the
the trading
trading initiative
initiative from
from the
the hands
hands of
of their
their MiMiGreeks
noan
Crete iself,
iself, as
as we
we have
have mentioned,
was colonized
colonized
noan predecessors.
predecessors. Crete
mentioned, was
earlier (in
(in the
fifteenth century)
century) by
by the
the Achaeans
and became
became the
the
earlier
the fifteenth
Achaeans and
main
for their
their further
further expansion
expansion to
to the
east and
and south.
south.
main bridgehead
bridgehead for
the east
Successfully combining
combining commerce
commerce with
with piracy,
soon
Successfully
piracy, the
the Achaeans
Achaeans soon
prominent political
political force
in that
became aa very
very prominent
became
force in
that part
part of
of the
the ancient
ancient
world. A
document from
from the
of the
Hittite kingdom
kingdom puts
Ahhiworld.
A document
the capital
capital of
the Hittite
puts Ahhiyawa
(probably one
one of
of the
the Achaean
Achaean states
states in
western Asia
Asia Minor
Minor or
or on
on
yawa (probably
in western
neighboring
islands) on
on the
the same
same footing
footing with
the strongest
strongest states
states of
neighboring islands)
with the
of
that
and Assyria.
Assyria. The
Ahhiyawa mainthat time:
time: Egypt;
Egypt, Babylon,
Babylon, and
The rulers
rulers of
of Ahhiyawa
maintained
very close
close diplomatic
diplomatic contacts
contacts with
with the
the Hittite
Hittite kings.
tained very
kings.
At the
the thirteenth
At
the turn
turn of
of the
thirteenth to
to twelfth
twelfth centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., detachments
detachments
of Achaean
Achaean plunderers
plunderers from
from Crete
Crete or
or the
participated
of
the Peloponnesus
Peloponnesus participated
in
the invasion
Egypt by
by the
the "Sea
Peoples." Among
in the
invasion of
of Egypt
the coalition
coalition of
of the
"Sea Peoples."
Among
the
of the
the coalition,
that recount
recount these
these
the tribes
tribes of
coalition, the
the Egyptian
Egyptian inscriptions
inscriptions that
events
akaywasha and
andthe
thedanauna
danaunaorordanawanna,
danawanna,
which
which
events merition
mention the
the akaywasha
could
correspond to
to the
the Greek
Greek names
names Akhaioi
Akhaioi and
and Danawoi,
Danawoi, the
the
could correspond
names that
that Homer
Homer gave
gave the
the Achaeans.
Achaeans.
names
The Egyptians
Egyptians repelled
repelled the
the onslaught
onslaught of
of the
the Sea
Sea Peoples
Peoples from
from their
their
The
borders,
Achaean Greece
borders, but
but meanwhile
meanwhile Achaean
Greece was
was already
already on
on the
the threshold
threshold
of serious
serious troubles.
troubles. The
The last
last decades
decades of
of the
the thirteenth
century were
were
of
thirteenth century
very
agitated and
and alarming
alarming times,
and the
the inhabitants
of the
the palaces
palaces
very agitated
times, and
inhabitants of
and citadels
citadels lived
lived in
in fear.
fear. Mycenae,
Mycenae, Tiryns,
Tiryns, Athens,
Athens, and
and other
other cities
cities
and
began
to rebuild
rebuild their
their old
old fortifications
fortifications and
and to
to add
add new
new
began hurriedly
hurriedly to
18.
18. H.
H. Schliemann,
Schliemann, who
who discovered
discovered Troy
Troy in
in 1870,
1870, was
was mistaken
mistaken in
in assuming
assuming that
that
Homer's Troy
Troy was
was the
the settlement
settlement second
second from
from the
bottom of
of the
the seven
seven occupations
occupations disHomer's
the bottom
discovered at
at the
the same
same site.
site. In
In fact,
fact, it
it has
now been
been established
established that
that Troy
Troy II
II belongs
belongs to
to the
the
has now
covered
second
of the
third millennium
millennium B.C.;
is, it
it was
was occupied
occupied almost
almost aa thousand
thousand
second half
half of
the third
B.C.; that
that is,
years
the Trojan
Trojan War.
War. Troy
Troy VIla
Vila was
was ignored
ignored by
Schliemann. Even
Even worse,
the
years before
before the
by Schliemann.
worse, the
relatively
well preserved
preserved stone
stone walls
of Troy
Troy VIla
Vila were
demolished to
to construct
construct barbarwere demolished
relatively well
walls of
racks for
for the
the workers
hired by
by Schliemann;
Schliemann; he
he even
even failed
failed to
to sketch
sketch them.
them. Thus,
Thus,
racks
workers hired
Schliemann succeeded
succeeded in
in completing
completing Agamemnon's
work by
by destroying
destroying Troy
Troy and
and not
not
Schliemann
Agamemnon's work
leaving aa trace.
The (alleged)
(alleged) "backwardness"
"backwardness" of
of archaeological
archaeological science
science of
of that
time is
is aa
leaving
trace. The
that time
poor
excuse in
in this
case, because
because archaeology
archaeology had
had by
then accumulated
accumulated more
more than
than one
one
poor excuse
this case,
by then
century of
of experience.
experience. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).
century
(IMD).

326

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

ones.
was erected
ones. A
A massive,
massive, cyclopean
cyclopean wall
wall was
erected on
on the
the Isthmus
Isthmus (a
(a narrow
narrow
strip of
of land
land connecting
connecting middle
middle Greece
Greece with
with the
the Peloponnesus),
Peloponnesus), obstrip
obviously intended
intended to
to protect
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean states
states in
in the
the southern
southern part
part
protect the
viously
of the
the Balkan
Balkan Peninsula
Peninsula against
against dangerous
dangerous threats
threats from
from the
the north.
north.
of
Among
frescoes of
of the
the Pylos
Pylos palace
there was
was one
one painted
painted not
not
Among the
the frescoes
palace there
long
destruction of
of Pylos.
Pylos. The
The artist
artist depicted
depicted aa bloody
bloody
long before
before the
the destruction
battle
in armor,
armor, wearing
wearing their
their typical
typical
battle between
between Achaean
Achaean warriors
warriors in
horned
helmets, and
and some
some barbarians
wearing animal
animal skins
skins and
and dishorned helmets,
barbarians wearing
displaying
long, free-flowing
free-flowing hair.
hair. Most
likely these
people
playing long,
Most likely
these were
were the
the people
whom
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean fortresses
fortresses feared
feared and
and against
against
whom the
whom
erected.
whom new
new fortifications
fortifications were
were being
being erected.
Archaeological
show that
in the
the immediate
immediate proximity
proximity of
of
Archaeological discoveries
discoveries show
that in
the
main centers
of Mycenaean
civilization, in
in the
the north
north and
and northnorththe main
centers of
Mycenaean civilization,
west
(regions called
called Macedonia
Epirus in
in
west of
of the
the Balkan
Balkan Peninsula
Peninsula (regions
Macedonia and
and Epirus
ancient times),
times), aa completely
completely different
different kind
kind of
of life
life existed-very
existedvery far
far rereancient
moved from
from the
the luxury
luxury and
and majesty
of the
the Achaean
Tribes at
at
majesty of
Achaean palaces.
palaces. Tribes
moved
lower developmental
developmental stage
stage lived
lived there
there and
and apparently
apparently were
were still
still ororaa lower
ganized in
in clans
clans and
and lineages
lineages structured
structured by
kinship. We
We can
can evaluate
evaluate
by kinship.
ganized
their culture
culture by
their crudely
crudely modeled
modeled pottery
pottery and
and primitive
clay idols
idols
their
by their
primitive clay
this region
region dating
dating from
from this
this period.
period. We
We must,
must,
found in
in most
most burials
of this
found
burials of
however, point
point out
out that,
that, in
in spite
spite of
of such
such backwardness,
backwardness, the
the tribes
tribes of
of
however,
Macedonia and
and Epirus
Epirus were
were familiar
familiar with
with the
the use
use of
of metals,
metals, and
and in
in the
the
Macedonia
purely technical
technical sense,
sense, their
their weapons
weapons were
were no
no less
less effective
effective than
than those
those
purely
of the
the Mycenaeans.
Mycenaeans.
of
At
At the
the end
end of
of the
the thirteenth
thirteenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., the
the tribes
tribes of
of the
the entire
entire
northern Balkan
Balkan region
set in
in motion
some unknown
unknown
northern
region had
had been
been set
motion by
by some
causes.
barbarian tribes,
tribes, including
causes. An
An enormous
enormous multitude
multitude of
of barbarian
including peoples
peoples
who
spoke different
different dialects
dialects of
of the
Greek language
language (among
(among them
them
the Greek
who spoke
Doric and
and closely
closely related
related western
western Greek
Greek dialects),
dialects), and,
and, apparently,
apparently,
Doric
also people
of non-Greek
non-Greek origin
Thracian and
and Illyrian
Illyrian origins),
origins),
origin (of
(of Thracian
also
people of
left their
their homelands
homelands to
head south
south to
and flourishing
flourishing regions
regions
left
to head
to the
the rich
rich and
of
middle Greece
as well
to Asia
of middle
Greece and
and the
the Peloponnesus,
Peloponnesus, as
well as
as to
Asia Minor.
Minor. The
The
route of
of the
invaders is
is marked
marked by
by destruction.
destruction. The
The invaders
invaders conconroute
the invaders
quered
and destroyed
destroyed many
many Mycenaean
Mycenaean villages
villages and
and towns
towns that
stood
quered and
that stood
in their
their path.
The palace
of Pylos
Pylos was
was consumed
consumed by
fire, and
and its
its site
site
path. The
palace of
by aa fire,
in
was abandoned
abandoned and
and forgotten.
forgotten. The
The citadels
citadels of
of Mycenae
Mycenae and
and Tiryns
Tiryns
was
suffered serious
serious damage
damage but
but were
apparently not
taken. The
The effect
effect on
on
were apparently
not taken.
suffered
the economy
economy of
of the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean states
states was
one of
of irreparable
irreparable losses.
the
was one
losses.
This is
is evident
evident in
in the
the precipitous
precipitous decline
decline of
of crafts
crafts and
and commerce
commerce in
in
This
the regions
regions most
most damaged
damaged by
the invasion,
invasion, as
as well
well as
as by
by aa drastic
drastic dethe
by the
decline in
in population.
The Mycenaean
Mycenaean civilization
civilization suffered
suffered aa terrible
terrible
cline
population. The
blow
from which
which it
it was
was unable
to recover.
recover.
unable to
blow from
The
ensuing rapid
rapid disintegration
disintegration of
of the
the major
major Mycenaean
states is
The ensuing
Mycenaean states
is
explained not
not so
so much
much by
the onslaught
onslaught of
of the
the northern
northern barbarians
as
explained
by the
barbarians as

The World of Crete and Mycenae

327

by
the instability
their internal
internal structure,
which was
based, as
by the
instability of
of their
structure, which
was based,
as exexplained earlier,
earlier, on
on the
the systematic
systematic exploitation
exploitation and
and subjugation
subjugation of
of the
the
plained
working inhabitants
inhabitants by
by aa small
small palace
elite. A
single blow
blow was
suffiworking
palace elite.
A single
was sufficient to
destroy the
ruling group,
group, making
entire complex
complex strucstruccient
to destroy
the ruling
making the
the entire
ture crumble
crumble like
like aa house
of cards.
ture
house of
cards.
The
unclear, because
The further
further course
course of
of events
events is
is unclear,
because the
the available
available ararchaeological
is sparse.
barbarian tribes
chaeological material
material is
sparse. Most
Most of
of the
the barbarian
tribes who
who took
took
part
in the
the invasion
invasion apparently
part in
apparently did
did not
not remain
remain in
in the
the conquered
conquered terterritory (the
was unable
unable to
ritory
(the devastated
devastated country
country was
to sustain
sustain such
such aa large
large numnumber
north to
their original
ber of
of people)
people) and
and retreated
retreated north
to their
original homelands.
homelands. Only
Only
small tribal
tribal groups
groups of
Dorians19
19 and
small
of Dorians
and related
related western
western Greek
Greek peoples
peoples
settled
settled in
in the
the coastal
coastal region
region of
of the
the Peloponnesus
Peloponnesus (Argolis,
(Argolis, the
the regions
regions
near
near the
the Isthmus,
Isthmus, Achaea,
Achaea, Elis,
Elis, Laconia,
Laconia, and
and Messene).
Messene). Isolated
Isolated
pockets of
Mycenaean culture
to exist
pockets
of Mycenaean
culture continued
continued to
exist up
up to
to the
the end
end of
of the
the
B.C. in
in the
the midst
of the
the newly
established settlements
settlements
twelfth century
century B.C.
twelfth
midst of
newly established
of
newcomers. It
time the
the last
of the
the newcomers.
It appears
appears that
that at
at that
that time
last Achaean
Achaean citcitadels that
survived the
catastrophe at
at the
end of
of the
cenadels
that survived
the catastrophe
the end
the thirteenth
thirteenth century experienced
experienced their
final decline
decline and
and were
were forever
forever abandoned
abandoned by
tury
their final
by
their
inhabitants. To
To the
same period
period can
can be
traced aa mass
emigratheir inhabitants.
the same
be traced
mass emigrationapart
the movements
movements of
the Sea
Sea Peoples-from
Peoplesfrom Balkan
Balkan
tion-apart from
from the
of the
Greece toward
east, into
into Asia
Minor and
The parparGreece
toward the
the east,
Asia Minor
and nearby
nearby islands.
islands. The
ticipants
this colonizing
colonizing movement
surviving Mycenaeans
Mycenaeans
ticipants in
in this
movement were
were the
the surviving
of the
Peloponnesus and
and middle
and northern
Greece, who
were now
of
the Peloponnesus
middle and
northern Greece,
who were
now
called
Dorian newcomers.
This migration
migration
called Ionians
Ionians and
and Aeolians,
Aeolians, and
and Dorian
newcomers. This
resulted
in the
the establishment
establishment of
of many
many new
towns on
on the
the western
coast
new towns
western coast
resulted in
of Asia
and on
on the
the islands
islands of
of Lesbos,
Samos, Rhodes,
of
Asia Minor
Minor and
Lesbos, Chios,
Chios, Samos,
Rhodes,
and others.
the most
most important
of the
and
others. Among
Among the
important of
the new
new towns
towns were
were AeoAeolian
Smyrna, the
the Ionian
of Colophon,
Colophon, Ephesus,
and Miletus,
Miletus,
Ionian towns
towns of
Ephesus, and
lian Smyrna,
and the
of Halicarnassus.
Halicarnassus.
and
the Dorian
Dorian town
town of
19.
19. Some
Some modern
modern scholars
scholars think
think that
that the
the Dorians
Dorians did
did not
not participate
participate in
in the
the first
first ininvasion,
Pylos. According
According to
to this
this view,
view, they
they arrived
arrived later
later
vasion, which
which culminated
culminated in
in the
the fall
fall of
of Pylos.
the twelfth
even as
eleventh century),
century), when
when the
the resistance
resistance of
of
(in
(in the
twelfth century
century or
or even
as late
late as
as the
the eleventh
the Mycenaean
was completely
the
Mycenaean Greeks
Greeks was
completely broken.
broken.

16
16
Greece of
of the
Greece
the
Eleventh
B.C.
Eleventh to
to Ninth
Ninth Centuries
Centuries B.C.
in
the Homeric
Homeric Epics
in the
Epics
Yu.
Yu. V.

ANDREYEV
ANDREYEV

The
period of
The period
of Greek
Greek history
history following
following the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean Period
Period is
is usuusually called
called "Homeric"
"Homeric" after
after the
the great
great poet
poet whose
whose poems,
poems, the
the Iliad
Iliad and
and
ally
the
the Odyssey,
Odyssey,constitute
constitutea avery
veryimportant
importantsource
sourceofofinformation
informationabout
about
that time.
time. The
The origin
origin of
of the
the Homeric
Homeric poems
(the so-called
so-called Homeric
Homeric
that
poems (the
question) remains
remains an
an unsolved
unsolved problem
problem in
in historical
historical science.
science. Homer
Homer
question)
and his
his writings
writings were
were the
the subject
subject of
of heated
heated debates
debates in
in ancient
ancient and
and
and
modern times.
times. This
This controversy
controversy was
was not
not entirely
entirely useless.
useless. Scholars
Scholars
modern
were able
able to
to determine,
determine, at
at least
least approximately,
approximately, the
the time
time and
and place
place of
of
were
the creation
creation of
of these
these poems.
poems. On
On the
the basis
of aa number
number of
of indications,
indications,
the
basis of
we know
know that
that both
these poems
poems originated
originated about
about the
the eighth
eighth century
century
we
both these
Odyssey)
B.C. (the
(the Iliad
somewhat earlier
earlier than
the Odyssey)
B.C.
Iliad probably
probably was
was written
written somewhat
than the
in one
one of
of the
the Greek
Greek towns
of Asia
Asia Minor,
on the
the Ionian
Ionian coast
coast of
of the
the
in
towns of
Minor, on
Aegean Sea.
Sea.
Aegean
The Homeric
Homeric epics
epics did
did not
arise in
in aa vacuum;
great poet
had
The
not arise
vacuum; the
the great
poet had
numerous predecessors,
predecessors, nameless
nameless popular
bards, called
called aoidoi,
aoidoi, who
who
numerous
popular bards,
over the
centuries passed
word ofof mouth,
from one
one generation
generation to
to
over
the centuries
passed by
by word
mouth, from
another, songs
songs and
and tales
about the
the Trojan
and related
events.
another,
tales about
Trojan War
War and
related events.
Homer,
aoidoi,collected
collectedand
and
Homer, who
who himself
himself may
may have
have been
been one
one of
of the
the aoidoi,
recast these
these legends,
legends, which
which became
became the
the foundation
foundation for
for two
two epic
epic
recast
poems
of monumental
monumental scope
scope and
and outstanding
outstanding artistic
artistic value.
value.
poems of
The
The historical
historical material
material is
is included
included in
in Homer's
Homer's narrative
narrative in
in aa very
very
intricate
intricate manner.
manner. There
There is
is no
no doubt
doubt that
that it
it contains
contains elements
elements going
going
back to
to the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean Period,
Period, possibly
even to
to times
times preceding
preceding the
the
back
possibly even
itself. This
This may
may explain
explain the
the mention
mention of
of swords
swords and
and other
other
Trojan War
War itself.
Trojan
weapons of
of bronze
(although the
the poet
poet must
must certainly
certainly have
have lived
lived in
in the
the
weapons
bronze (although
Iron Age),
Age), of
of battle
battle chariots
chariots no
no longer
longer used
used by
the end
end of
of the
the second
second
Iron
by the
millennium, and
and of
of such
such very
very important
important former
former centers
centers of
of civilization
civilization
millennium,
as Mycenae,
Mycenae, Tiryns,
Tiryns, Pylos,
Knossos, and
and others.
others. Some
Some of
of these
these cities
cities
as
Pylos, Knossos,
had been
during the
Dorian invasion
invasion and
and never
never rebuilt;
rebuilt; others
others
had
been razed
razed during
the Dorian
had become
villages of
of no
importance.
had
become tiny
tiny villages
no importance.
However,
Mycenaean epoch
epoch as
as aa whole
remained for
for Homer
Homer aa
However, the
the Mycenaean
whole remained

Greece
Greece in
in the
the Homeric
Homeric Epics
Epics

329
329

very
past about
he had
had only
very distant
distant past
about which
which he
only aa very
very vague
vague idea.
idea. When
When the
the
poet
relates the
the events
events of
of the
the "Heroic
"Heroic Age,"
he generally
generally places
them
poet relates
Age," he
places them
in aa much
much later
later historical
milieu, belonging
belonging to
to aa time
time probably
not
in
historical milieu,
probably not
very distant
distant from
from his
his own.
own. This
This is
is attested
attested by
many details
details in
in the
the
very
by many
poems:
to iron-processing
iron-processing methods
methods that
that became
known in
in
poems: references
references to
became known
Greece no
no earlier
earlier than
than the
eleventh century
century B.C.,
B.C., allusions
allusions to
Greece
the eleventh
to PhoePhoenician
seafarers and
and merchants,
arrived in
in the
the waters
of the
the
merchants, who
who arrived
waters of
nician seafarers
Aegaean
Sea by
by about
about the
the same
same time
time or
or even
even later,
later, his
his accounts
accounts of
of the
the
Aegaean Sea
comparatively recent
recent custom
custom of
of cremating
cremating the
the dead.
dead. All
All this
this demands
demands
comparatively
great caution
caution on
on the
the part
part of
of historians
treating the
the data
data concongreat
historians when
when treating
tained
in Homer's
Homer's epics.
epics. When
When reading
reading Homer,
Homer, we
we must
always bear
bear
tained in
must always
in mind
mind that
that we
do not
not have
before us
us aa historical
historical document
document but
in
we do
have before
but aa
work of
of art,
art, where
and images
images from
from different
different ages
ages of
of history,
history,
work
where motifs
motifs and
far removed
removed in
in time
from one
one another,
another, appear
appear in
in close
close proximity,
proximity,
far
time from
combining in
in whimsical
and, at
at times,
times, surprising
surprising patterns.
patterns.
combining
whimsical and,
The evidence
evidence of
of the
Homeric epics
epics can
can be
checked and
and considerconsiderThe
the Homeric
be checked
ably augmented
augmented and
and corrected
corrected by
archaeology. Excavations
Excavations have
have
ably
by archaeology.
shown that
that the
the so-called
so-called Dorian
Dorian conquest
conquest threw
Greece several
several cencenshown
threw Greece
turies
almost to
to the
the conditions
conditions that
that prevailed
at the
turies back,
back, almost
prevailed at
the beginning
beginning of
of
the
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., before
the birth
of the
Mycenaean civithe second
before the
birth of
the Mycenaean
civilization. The
The material
material and
and spiritual
spiritual culture
culture of
of this
time is
is marked
marked by
this time
by
lization.
decline. The
The Mycenaean
Mycenaean palaces
palaces and
and citadels
citadels were
were abandoned
abandoned
signs of
of decline.
signs
and lay
lay in
in ruins;
ruins; no.
no one
one settled
settled within
their walls.
walls. Even
Even the
acropolis
and
within their
the acropolis
of Athens,
Athens, aa city
city apparently
apparently unaffected
by the
invasion, was
of
unaffected by
the Dorian
Dorian invasion,
was
abandoned by
its dwellers
dwellers as
as early
early as
as the
the twelfth
twelfth century
century and
and reabandoned
by its
remained uninhabited
for aa long
long time.
time. We
We get
get the
the impression
impression that
that the
the
mained
uninhabited for
Greeks of
of the
Homeric period
period had
forgotten how
how to
to build
build houses
and
Greeks
the Homeric
had forgotten
houses and
fortresses of
of stone,
stone, the
used by
Mycenaean
fortresses
the building
building material
material used
by their
their Mycenaean
predecessors.
all the
the structures
structures of
of the
period were
were
predecessors. Almost
Almost all
the Homeric
Homeric period
built
of wood
wood or
or adobe,
adobe, which
is the
the reason
why none
none of
of them
them have
have
which is
reason why
built of
been
preserved; only
only their
their stone
stone foundations
give us
us an
an idea
idea about
about
been preserved;
foundations give
their structure
structure and
and appearance.
appearance. In
In most
most cases,
cases, they
were merely
small
their
they were
merely small
rectangular
or
oval
huts
with
a
rudimentary
stone
fireplace
in
the
cenrectangular or oval huts with a rudimentary stone fireplace in the center,
a
mud
floor,
and
a
roof
made
of
reeds
or
straw.
ter, a mud floor, and a roof made of reeds or straw.
As
rule, the
the burials
of the
the Homeric
period were
were extremely
extremely poor
poor
As aa rule,
burials of
Homeric period
compared
with the
compared with
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean graves.
graves. Their
Their entire
entire contents
contents usually
usually
were aa few
clay pots
and an
an iron
iron sword
sword or
or knife
and some
some lanceheads
lanceheads
were
few clay
pots and
knife and
and arrowheads
arrowheads in
in the
the mens'
mens' graves,
graves, or
or cheap
cheap adornments
adornments in
in those
those of
of
and
the
women.
They
contained
almost
no
beautiful,
valuable
items;
obthe women. They contained almost no beautiful, valuable items; objects
imported from
from the
Orient, quite
quite common
common in
in Mycenaean
Mycenaean burials,
jects imported
the Orient,
burials,
are absent.
absent.
are
All of
of this
this points
points to
to aa sharp
sharp decline
decline of
of crafts
crafts and
and commerce
commerce and
and to
All
to aa
mass
flight of
of skilled
skilled craftsmen
out of
of aa country
country ravaged
by wars
wars and
and
mass flight
craftsmen out
ravaged by

33

Yu.
Yu- V.
V-Andreyev
Andreyev

invasions.
invasions. It
It also
also tells
tells us
us that
that the
the sea
sea routes
routes that
that connected
connected Mycenaean
Mycenaean
Greece
with the
the Near
Greece with
the countries
countries of
of the
Near East
East and
and all
all the
the other
other MediterMediterranean regions
regions were
were forsaken.
forsaken. In
In their
artistic quality,
quality, as
as well
well as
as in
in
ranean
their artistic
purely
technical aspects,
aspects, objects
objects made
made by
by Greek
Greek craftsmen
craftsmen of
of the
Hopurely technical
the Hoperiod are
meric period
are no
no match
match for
for the
the artifacts
artifacts of
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean masters,
masters, not
not
meric
to speak
speak of
of those
those of
of the
the Minoans.
Minoans. This
This is
is particularly
particularly striking
striking when
when we
to
we
compare the
the pottery
of the
the eleventh
eleventh to
to ninth
centuries with
earlier
compare
pottery of
ninth centuries
with earlier
specimens. The
The vessels
vessels of
of this
this period
are invariably
invariably painted
in the
specimens.
period are
painted in
the sosocalled geometric
geometric style.
style. The
The elaborate
elaborate drawings
drawings typical
typical of
of Minoan
Minoan and
and
called
Mycenaean vase
vase paintings
were replaced
unpretentious geoMycenaean
paintings were
replaced with
with unpretentious
geometric decorations
decorations made
made up
of concentric
concentric circles,
circles, triangles,
triangles, lozenges,
lozenges,
metric
up of
and squares.
squares. Later,
Later, in
in the
the eighth
eighth century,
century, these
these most
simple elements
elements
and
most simple
began to
construed into
into compositions
compositions involving
involving many
many figures,
figures, repbegan
to be
be construed
representing war
war scenes,
scenes, funerals,
funerals, chariot
chariot races,
and so
so on.
on. In
In their
their
resenting
races, and
schematism and
and primitivism
these vase
vase paintings
children's
schematism
primitivism these
paintings resemble
resemble children's
drawings. A
A very
very wide
wide gap
gap separates
separates these
these handicrafts
from the
the great
great
drawings.
handicrafts from
art of
of the
the Cretan
Cretan and
and Mycenaean
Mycenaean palaces.
art
palaces.
This,
This, of
of course,
course, does
does not
not mean
mean that
that the
the Homeric
Homeric period
period failed
failed to
to
contribute
contribute anything
anything new
new to
to the
the cultural
cultural development
development of
of Greece.
Greece. HuHuman
man history
history does
does not
not know
know absolute
absolute regression,
regression, and
and elements
elements of
of
decline
number of
decline are
are capriciously
capriciously intertwined
intertwined with
with aa number
of important
important innoinnovations
vations in
in the
the material
material culture
culture of
of the
the Homeric
Homeric period.
period. The
The most
most imimportant
portant development
development accomplished
accomplished by
by Greek
Greek craftsmen
craftsmen was
was in
in the
the
field of
of iron-smelting
iron-smelting and
and processing
processing technology.
technology. Iron
Iron was
was known
field
known in
in
Mycenaean
Greece only
only as
as aa valuable
valuable metal
metal for
for the
the making
making of
of such
such
Mycenaean Greece
items as
as rings
rings and
and bracelets.
The earliest
earliest specimens
specimens of
of iron
iron weapitems
bracelets. The
weapons (swords,
(swords, daggers,
daggers, arrowheads,
arrowheads, and
and lanceheads)
lanceheads) found
found in
in Balkan
Balkan
ons
Greece and
and on
on the
the Aegean
Aegean Islands
Islands date
date from
from the
the eleventh
eleventh century.
century.
Greece
The earliest
earliest discoveries
discoveries of
of slag
slag date
date from
from about
about the
the same
same time
time and
and
The
prove that
that iron
iron was
was being
smelted in
in Greece
Greece itself
itself and
and not
not imported
imported
prove
being smelted
from other
other countries.
countries.1I
from
The
utilization crecreThe acquisition
acquisition of
of this
this technology
technology and
and its
its large-scale
large-scale utilization
ated aa real
real technological
technological revolution.
revolution. For
first time,
time, iron
iron became
became
ated
For the
the first
cheap
cheap and
and widely
widely available.
available. (Iron
(Iron deposits
deposits are
are much
much more
more abundant
abundant
in
main components
in nature
nature than
than those
those of
of copper
copper and
and tin,
tin, the
the main
components of
of
bronze.)
the dangerous
dangerous and
and costly
costly expeditions
expeditions to
to the
sources of
of
bronze.) With
With the
the sources
the
the ores
ores no
no longer
longer necessary,
necessary, the
the accessibility
accessibility of
of iron
iron enormously
enormously inin1.
Until recently,
was commonly
1. Until
recently, it
it was
commonly assumed
assumed that
that the
the Dorians
Dorians introduced
introduced iron
iron to
to
Greece. (This
(This was
was the
the usual
usual explanation
explanation for
for their
their victories
victories over
over the
the Achaeans,
Achaeans, who
who only
only
Greece.
had bronze
bronze weapons.)
weapons.) So
has not
been confirmed
had
So far,
far, however,
however, this
this hypothesis
hypothesis has
not been
confirmed archaeoarchaeologically.
logically. Another
Another explanation
explanation seems
seems more
plausible: the
the secret
secret method
method for
for smelting
smelting
more plausible:
and treating
treating iron
iron was
adopted by
by the
the Greeks
Greeks from
from some
some of
of their
their eastern
eastern neighbors,
neighbors,
and
was adopted
most
Asia Minor,
was already
most likely
likely from
from one
one of
of the
the peoples
peoples of
of Asia
Minor, where
where it
it was
already known
known in
in the
the
second millennium
millennium B.C.
second
B.C.

Greece
Homeric Epics
Greece in
in the
the Homeric
Epics

331
33 1

cremented
production capabilities
cremented the
the production
capabilities of
of the
the smallest
smallest economic
economic unit
unit
of the
the society-the
societythe individual
individual family.
family. With
With the
the help
help of
of an
an iron
iron axe,
axe,
of
scythe,
scythe, and
and other
other tools,
tools, each
each family
family was
now able
able to
clear much
larger
was now
to clear
much larger
tracts of
of land
land for
for cultivation
cultivation than
than was
was possible
earlier when
when bronze
bronze
tracts
possible earlier
was the
the principal
principal metal
metal for
for tool
tool making.
making. Toward
Toward the
the end
end of
of Homeric
Homeric
was
times (second
(second half
half of
of the
the ninth
ninth century),
century), Greek
Greek smiths
smiths had
had mastered
mastered
times
the
wrought iron
the art
art of
of hardening
hardening wrought
iron and
and converting
converting it
it into
into aa kind
kind of
of
steel (less
(less resilient
resilient than
than the
the modern
steels): Greece
Greece had
had reached
reached the
the
steel
modern steels):
Iron Age.
Age. However,
However, the
the beneficial
beneficial effects
effects of
of technical
technical progress
progress did
did
Iron
not
immediately reflect
reflect on
on the
the social
social and
and cultural
cultural development
development of
of anannot immediately
cient Greece,
Greece, and
and on
on the
the whole,
whole, the
culture of
of the
the Homeric
Homeric period
period
the culture
cient
was clearly
clearly at
at aa much
much lower
lower level
level than
than the
the culture
culture of
of the
preceding
was
the preceding
period. This
This is
is clearly
clearly demonstrated
demonstrated not
only in
in the
the objects
objects excavated
excavated
period.
not only
by archaeologists
archaeologists but
but also
also in
in the
the accounts
accounts of
of daily
daily life
life found
found in
in the
the
by
poems of
of Homer.
Homer.
poems
Odysseypresent
presentus,us,
Long ago
ago it
it was
was observed
observed that
that the
the Iliad
and the
the Odyssey
Long
Iliad and
on the
the whole,
whole, with
with aa society
society that
that was
was much
much closer
closer to
to barbarism
barbarism and
and
on
whose culture
culture was
was much
much more
more backward
backward and
and primitive
primitive than
than the
the one
one
whose
we imagine
imagine when
when reading
reading the
the tablets
tablets written
written in
in the
the Linear
Linear B
B script
script or
or
we
when observing
observing Minoan
Minoan and
and Mycenaean
Mycenaean works
works of
of art.
art. The
The Homeric
Homeric
when
heroes,
every one of
of whom
whom was
was aa king
king and
and aristocrat,
aristocrat, lived
in primiprimiheroes, everyone
lived in
tive
wooden houses
houses in
in yards
yards surrounded
surrounded by
by palisades.
palisades. The
The dwelling
dwelling
tive wooden
of Odysseus,
Odysseus, the
the principal
principal hero
hero of
of the
the second
second Homeric
is typitypiof
Homeric poem,
poem, is
cal. At
At the
the entrance
entrance to
to the
the "palace"
"palace" of
of this
rests, in
in all
all its
its splensplencal.
this king
king rests,
dor, aa large
large heap
heap of
of manure,
manure, upon
returning home
home
dor,
upon which
which Odysseus,
Odysseus, returning
disguised as
as aa beggar,
finds his
his faithful
faithful dog
dog Argus.
Argus. Beggars
Beggars and
and vagavagadisguised
beggar, finds
bonds unceremoniously
enter the
the house
and sit
sit by
the door,
door, waiting
waiting
bonds
unceremoniously enter
house and
by the
for handouts
handouts from
from the
the chamber
chamber where
where the
the master
master is
is banqueting
with
for
banqueting with
his guests.
guests. Trampled-down
Trampled-down mud
the floor
of the
the house.
house. The
The
his
mud provides
provides the
floor of
walls
and the
the ceiling
ceiling are
are covered
covered with
with soot,
soot, because
because houses
houses were
were heated
heated
walls and
by
open fireplaces
fireplaces without
without chimneys
chimneys or
or flues.
The house
house even
even lacks
lacks aa
by open
flues. The
kitchen; all
all the
the preparations
for dinner
dinner take
take place
place in
in the
the yard
yard or
or
kitchen;
preparations for
itself. Here
animals to
to be
be consumed
consumed are
are
in
the dining
dining chamber
chamber itself.
in the
Here the
the animals
slaughtered, butchered,
butchered, and
and roasted
roasted on
on aa spit.
spit. The
The floor
is littered
littered
slaughtered,
floor is
with
bones,
leftovers,
and
freshly
flayed
oxen
and
sheep
skins.
with bones, leftovers, and freshly flayed oxen and sheep skins.
Obviously,
palObviously, Homer
Homer had
had no
no idea
idea about
about the
the actual
actual appearance
appearance of
of palaces and
and citadels
citadels of
of the
the "Heroic
"Heroic Age."
Never do
do his
his poems
poems mention
mention
aces
Age." Never
the
the complex
complex fortifications
fortifications or
or the
the monumental
monumental cyclopean
cyclopean walls
walls of
of the
the
Mycenaean fortresses
fortresses or
or the
the wall
wall paintings
paintings and
and painted
painted floors
that
Mycenaean
floors that
decorated
decorated their
their palaces.
palaces. He
He apparently
apparently knew
knew nothing
nothing about
about running
running
water and
and sewerage.
sewerage. Even
palace of
of Alcinous,
Alcinous, king
king of
of the
the PhaeaPhaeawater
Even the
the palace
cians, which
which so
so greatly
greatly impressed
impressed Odysseus
Odysseus by
by its
its wealth
wealth and
and luxury,
luxury,
cians,
has little
little in
common with
with the
the authentic
authentic palaces
of the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean era
era
has
in common
palaces of
and
is
more
likely
a
product
of
Homer's
poetic
imagination.
and is more likely a product of Homer's poetic imagination.

3322
33

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

The
whole way
being the
The whole
way of
of life
life of
of the
the poems'
poems' heroes
heroes is
is far
far from
from being
the
magnificent
and comfortable
comfortable existence
existence of
of Mycenaean
Mycenaean court
court aristoaristomagnificent and
much simpler,
crats.
crats. The
The Homeric
Homeric heroes
heroes led
led aa much
simpler, coarser
coarser life.
life. The
The
wealth
of aa Homeric
Homeric "king,"
"king," or
wealth of
or aa basileus,
basileus, does
doesnot
notcompare
comparewith
withthe
the
fortunes of
of his
wanaka. The
The latter
latter refortunes
his predecessors,
predecessors, the
the Achaean
Achaean wanaka.
required
an entire
entire staff
staff of
of scribes
scribes to
account for
for and
and control
control their
their propquired an
to account
propbasileushimself
himselfknew
knewperfectly
perfectlywell
well
erty, whereas
whereas aa typical
Homeric basileus
erty,
typical Homeric
what and
and how
how much
much was
was stored
stored in
in his
his pantry,
pantry, how
how much
much land
land he
he
what
owned, and
and how
many head
of cattle
cattle and
and slaves
slaves he
had. His
His main
main
owned,
how many
head of
he had.
wealth was
was his
his stock
stock of
of metal
metal artifacts:
artifacts: bronze
kettles and
and tripods,
tripods, as
as
wealth
bronze kettles
well
as iron
iron ingots,
ingots, which
which he
he carefully
carefully kept
in some
some secluded
secluded nook
of
well as
kept in
nook of
his house.
house. Thrift,
Thrift, economic
economic prudence,
and the
ability to
to make
profit
his
prudence, and
the ability
make aa profit
were
not the
the least
least among
among his
his characteristic
characteristic traits.
traits. In
In this
respect, the
the
were not
this respect,
psychology
of aa Homeric
Homeric aristocrat
aristocrat was
was not
not much
much different
different from
from that
that
psychology of
of any
any prosperous
farmer of
of that
time (see
about Hesiod).
Hesiod).
of
prosperous farmer
that time
(see below
below about
Nowhere
does Homer
Homer mention
mention the
the numerous
numerous servants,
servants, divided
divided by
Nowhere does
by
wanakaininMycenae
Mycenae
grades and
and ranks,
ranks, that
that would
would have
have surrounded
surrounded aa wanaka
grades
and Pylos.
Pylos. The
The centralized
centralized palace
economy, with
with its
its multitude
multitude of
of
and
palace economy,
workers, supervisors,
supervisors, scribes,
scribes, and
and inspectors,
inspectors, was
was completely
completely alien
alien to
to
workers,
Homer. To
To be
sure, the
the economies
economies of
of somebasileis
some basileis(e.g.,
(e.g.,Odysseus
Odysseusand
and
Homer.
be sure,
Alcinous) had
had aa relatively
large number
of working
fifty
Alcinous)
relatively large
humber of
working personnel,
personnel, fifty
female slaves,
slaves, as
as Homer
But even
even if
if this
is not
not aa poetic
hyperfemale
Homer tells
tells us.
us. But
this is
poetic hyperbole,
such economies
economies would
still be
be far
far smaller
smaller than
than those
of the
the palthose of
palbole, such
would still
aces of
of Knossos
Knossos or
or Pylos,
Pylos, which,
which, according
according to
to the
the tablets,
tablets, employed
employed
aces
hundreds and
and even
even thousands
thousands of
of workers.
workers. It
It is
is difficult
difficult to
to imagine
imagine aa
hundreds
Mycenaean wanaka
wanaka sharing
sharing aa meal
meal with
with his
his slaves,
slaves,or
or his
his wife
wife being
being
Mycenaean
surrounded by
by female
female slaves
slaves while
while sitting
sitting at
at aa loom.
loom. But
But to
to Homer,
Homer,
surrounded
these were
were typical,
typical, everyday
everyday scenes
scenes in
in the
the lives
lives of
of his
his heroes.
heroes.
these
Homer's
kings do
is
Homer's kings
do not
not shun
shun the
the roughest
roughest physical
physical work:
work: Odysseus
Odysseus is
no
with the
the plow
no less
less proud
proud of
of his
his skill
skill with
plow and
and the
the scythe
scythe than
than he
he is
is of
of his
his
military prowess.
meet the
for the
the first
time
military
prowess. We
We meet
the princess
princess Nausicaa
Nausicaa for
first time
when
she comes
comes with
with her
her servant
servant girls
girls to
to the
the seashore
seashore to
wash the
the
when she
to wash
clothes of
of her
her father,
father, Alcinous.
Alcinous. Such
Such facts
facts tell
tell us
us that
that slavery
slavery as
as an
an ininclothes
stitution had
had little
little importance
importance in
in Homeric
Homeric Greece
Greece and
and that
that even
even the
the
stitution
economies of
of the
the richest
richest and
and most
most prominent
prominent persons
persons did
did not
not employ
employ
economies
very many
many slaves.
slaves. We
We must
must also
also keep
keep in
in mind
mind that
that most
most of
of the
the slaves
slaves
very
were females.
females. As
As aa rule,
rule, men
men were
were not
not taken
taken prisoner
prisoner in
in the
the wars
wars of
of
were
that period,
period, because
their "taming"
"taming" consumed
consumed too
too much
much time
time and
and rethat
because their
required too
much persistence.
persistence. Women,
on the
the contrary,
contrary, were
were readily
readily
quired
too much
Women, on
taken because
they could
could serve
serve as
as both
force and
and as
as concontaken
because they
both aa labor
labor force
cubines.
(This
was
not
considered
reprehensible
even
when
a
master
cubines. (This was not considered reprehensible even when a master
had
lawful wife.)
In Odysseus'
Odysseus' house,
house, twelve
twelve female
female slaves
slaves mill
mill grain
grain
had aa lawful
wife.) In
with
hand
mills,
work
that
was
regarded
as
particularly
laborious
and
with hand mills, work that was regarded as particularly laborious and
was
assigned
to
unruly
and
refractory
slaves
as
punishment.
was assigned to unruly and refractory slaves as punishment.

Greece in
in the
Greece
the Homeric
Homeric Epics
Epics

333
333

Male
Male slaves,
slaves, in
in the
the rare
rare cases
cases when
when they
they are
are mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the
poems,
tend domestic
domestic animals.
animals. The
The "divine
"divine swineherd"
swineherd" EuEupoems, usually
usually tend
maeus
epitomizes the
the classical
classical type
type of
of Homeric
Homeric slave.
slave. Eumaeus
Eumaeus is
is the
the
mae
us epitomizes
first person
person to
to encounter
encounter and
and shelter
shelter the
the wandering
wandering Odysseus,
Odysseus, who
who
first
after aa long
long absence
absence has
has returned
returned home,
home, and
and helps
helps him
him to
deal with
with
after
to deal
As aa small
small boy,
boy, Eumaeus
Eumaeus was
from Phoenician
Phoenician
the suitors.2
suitors.2 As
the
was bought
bought from
slave traders
traders by
Odysseus's father,
father, Laertes.
For his
his exemplary
exemplary behavbehavslave
by Odysseus's
Laertes. For
ior and
and obedience,
obedience, Odysseus
Odysseus made
made him
him the
the chief
chief swineherd.
swineherd. Eumaeus
Eumaeus
ior
figures that
diligence will
will be
be rewarded
rewarded even
even further.
further. The
The master
master
figures
that his
his diligence
gives
him aa parcel
parcel of
of land,
land, aa house,
house, aa wife,
wife, "and
"and all
all else
else that
that aa liberal
liberal
gives him
master allows
allows aa servant
servant who
who has
hard for
for him
and whose
labor
master
has worked
worked hard
him and
whose labor
the
gods have
have prospered
prospered as
as they
they have
have mine
in the
the situation
situation II hold."3
hold."3
the gods
mine in
Eumaeus can
can be
be regarded
regarded as
as the
example of
of aa "good
"good slave"
slave" in
the HoEumaeus
the example
in the
Homeric sense.
sense.
meric
The
poet also
knows that
that there
there are
who do
not wish
wish to
The poet
also knows
are "bad
"bad slaves,"
slaves," who
do not
to
obey their
their masters.
masters. In
the Odyssey
obey
In the
Odysseythey
theyare
arerepresented
representedbybythe
thegoatgoatherd Melanthius,
Melanthius, who
who sympathizes
sympathizes with
with the
the suitors
suitors and
and helps
helps them
them
herd
against Odysseus,
Odysseus, as
as well
well as
as by
by Penelope's
Penelope's twelve
twelve female
female slaves
slaves who
who
against
entered into
into an
an illicit
illicit association
association with
with the
the enemies
enemies of
of their
their master.
master.
entered
Having disposed
disposed of
of the
the suitors,
suitors, Odysseus
Odysseus and
and Telemachus
Telemachus then
then deal
deal
Having
with the
the treacherous
treacherous slaves.
slaves. The
The female
female slaves
slaves are
are hanged
on aa ship's
ship's
with
hanged on
rope. As
As for
Melanthius, he
he is
is thrown
alive to
to the
the dogs
dogs after
after his
his ears,
ears,
rope.
for Melanthius,
thrown alive
nose, legs,
legs, and
and arms
arms have
cut off.
off. This
This episode
episode vividly
testifies to
to
have been
been cut
vividly testifies
nose,
the fact
fact that
that Homeric
Homeric heroes
already had
had aa strongly
strongly developed
developed proppropthe
heroes already
erty sense
sense in
in regard
regard to
to their
slaves, although
slavery as
as an
institution
erty
their slaves,
although slavery
an institution
was at
at an
an early
early stage.
was
stage.
The
Homeric community,
demos, led
leda arather
ratherisolated
isolatedexisexisThe typical
typical Homeric
community, demos,
tence, and
with similar
tence,
and its
its contacts
contacts with
similar communities,
communities, even
even with
with its
its closest
closest
neighbors, were
were relatively
relatively rare.
neighbors,
rare. Commerce
Commerce and
and crafts
crafts played
played an
an insiginsignificant
family produced
almost everything
everything it
it needed
needed to
to
nificant role.
role. Each
Each family
produced almost
subsist:
products, clothing,
the simplest
imsubsist: agricultural
agricultural and
and animal
animal products,
clothing, the
simplest implements,
tools, and
and possibly
even weapons.
plements, tools,
possibly even
weapons.
Specialized craftsmen,
craftsmen, living
living from
from their
their own
own labor,
labor, very
rarely apSpecialized
very rarely
appear in
in the
the poems.
Homer calls
calls them
them demiourgoi,
demiourgoi,"those
"thosewho
whowork
workforfor
pear
poems. Homer
the people."
people." Most
Most of
of them
them probably
did not
not even
even have
have their
their own
own
the
probably did
workshops
or permanent
permanent abodes
abodes and
and had
had to
to wander
wander through
through villages
villages
workshops or
from house
house to
to house
house in
in search
search of
of their
their earnings
earnings and
and food.
food. Their
Their serserfrom
vices were
were needed
needed only
only in
in special
special cases
cases when
when some
some object
object of
of weaponry
weaponry
vices
2. The
The suitors
suitors are
are aristocratic
aristocratic young
young men
men of
of Ithaca,
Ithaca, the
the island
island where
where Odysseus
Odysseus was
2.
was
born, and
and of
of neighboring
neighboring islands.
islands. Taking
Taking advantage
advantage of
of Odysseus's
Odysseus's absence,
absence, they
they settle
settle
born,
in his
his house
house and
and try
try to
to coerce
coerce Penelope,
Penelope, the
of the
the hero,
into marrying
one
the wife
wife of
hero, into
marrying one
in
of them.
them.
of
3.
3. Odyssey
OdysseyXIV,
XIV,55;
55;here
hereand
andininthe
thefollowing
followingcited
citedHomeric
Homericpassages,
passages,the
thequotations
quotations
are
are from
from the
the English
English rendering
rendering by
by Samuel
Samuel Butler.
Butler.

334
334

Yu.
Yu- V.
V-Andreyev
Andreyev

had to
to be
madebronze armor
armor or
or an
an oxhide
oxhide shield,
shield, for
for example-or
exampleor
had
be made-bronze
when
precious ornament
had to
be fashioned.
when some
some precious
ornament had
to be
fashioned. In
In such
such cases
cases aa
qualified master
master metalworker,
metalworker, tanner,
tanner, or
or jeweler
needed.
jeweler was
was needed:
qualified
The
The Greeks
Greeks of
of Homeric
Homeric times
times very
very rarely
rarely and
and reluctantly
reluctantly engaged
engaged
in trade.
trade. They
They preferred
preferred to
to acquire
acquire any
any foreign
foreign objects
objects or
or products
products
in
they
needed by
force, and
and to
end they
they organized
looting expediexpedithey needed
by force,
to this
this end
organized looting
tions to
to foreign
foreign lands.
lands.44 The
The seas
seas surrounding
surrounding Greece
Greece teemed
teemed with
with pipitions
rates. Piracy
and robbery
robbery on
on land
land were
were not
considered reprehensible
reprehensible
rates.
Piracy and
not considered
activities in
in those
fact already
already noted
great Greek
Greek histothose times,
times, aa fact
noted by
by the
the great
histoactivities
B.C. On
On the
the contrary,
contrary, such
such enterenterrian Thucydides
Thucydides in
in the
the fifth
fifth century
century B.C.
rian
prises
served as
as opportunities
opportunities to
to exhibit
exhibit special
special daring
daring and
and bravado,
bravado,
prises served
worthy
of aa real
and aristocrat.
aristocrat. Achilles
openly brags
in the
the
real hero
hero and
Achilles openly
brags that
that in
worthy of
course of
of his
battles on
on land
land and
and sea
sea he
he destroyed
destroyed twenty-three
twenty-three towns
towns
his battles
course
in Trojan
Trojan lands.
lands. Telemachus
Telemachus is
is proud
proud of
of the
"looted" for
for him
him
the riches
riches "looted"
in
by
his father,
father, Odysseus.
Odysseus. But
But even
even the
intrepid pirates
and plunderers
plunderers
the intrepid
pirates and
by his
did not
not venture
venture too
of their
their native
native Aegean
Aegean
did
too far
far beyond
beyond the
the boundaries
boundaries of
Sea. An
An expedition
expedition to
to neighboring
neighboring Egypt
Egypt seemed
seemed to
to the
the Greeks
Greeks of
of
Sea.
those days
days to
to be
be aa fantastic
fantastic enterprise,
enterprise, requiring
requiring exceptional
exceptional valor.
valor.
those
The
wide world
world beyond
the borders
borders of
own small
small universe
and
The wide
beyond the
of their
their own
universe and
even such
such relatively
relatively close
close territories
territories as
as the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea region,
region, Italy,
Italy,
even
and Sicily
Sicily appeared
appeared to
to them
them as
as faraway
faraway and
and frightful
frightful lands.
lands. In
In their
their
and
minds, these
lands were
were inhabited
inhabited by
creatures, such
such as
as Sirens
Sirens
minds,
these lands
by terrible
terrible creatures,
and giant
giant Cyclopes,
Cyclopes, about
about which
which Odysseus
Odysseus tells
tells fantastic
fantastic stories
stories to
to his
his
and
amazed listeners.
listeners.
amazed
The only
only true
true merchants
merchants that
that Homer
Homer mentions
mentions are
are the
"cunning
The
the "cunning
guests from
from the
seas"the
Phoenicians. In
In Greece,
Greece, as
as in
in other
other councounthe seas"
-the Phoenicians.
guests
tries, the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians engaged
engaged mainly
mainly in
in mediatory
mediatory trade
trade and
and sold
sold all
all
tries,
sorts of
of foreign
foreign goods,
goods, such
such as
as exotic
exotic and
and unusual
unusual items
items of
of handicraft,
handicraft,
sorts
gold trinkets,
amber, ivory,
ivory, little
little flasks
scents, glass
glass beads,
and so
so
gold
trinkets, amber,
flasks with
with scents,
beads, and
on. The
The poet
treats them
them with
with obvious
obvious distaste
distaste and
and regards
regards them
them as
on.
poet treats
as
crafty swindlers
swindlers always
always ready
ready to
to trick
trick aa simple-minded
simple-minded Greek.
Greek.
crafty
Like so
so many
many other
other achievements
achievements of
of the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean civilization,
the
civilization, the
Like
linear
linear syllabic
syllabic script
script was
was also
also forgotten
forgotten during
during the
the troubled
troubled times
times of
of
tribal
migrations. The
tribal invasions
invasions and
and migrations.
The entire
entire Homeric
Homeric period
period was
was nonnonliterate.
been unable
unable to
literate. So
So far,
far, archaeologists
archaeologists have
have been
to find
find aa single
single ininscription in
in Greece
Greece that
that can
can be
be attributed
attributed to
to the
the period
period from
from the
the
scription
eleventh
B.C.
eleventh to
to the
the ninth
ninth centuries
centuries B.C.
After this
this long
long gap,
gap, the
the first
first Greek
Greek inscriptions
inscriptions known
known to
to scholars
scholars
After
appear
only in
in the
second half
eighth century.
century. These
These inscripappear only
the second
half of
of the
the eighth
inscriptions, however,
however, are
are no
no longer
longer written
written in
in the
the Linear
Linear B
B script
script but
but in
in
tions,
4.
was apparently
4. Marketability
Marketability was
apparently more
more important
important in
in the
the economies
economies of
of hereditary
hereditary
noblemen
than in
the economies
An aristocrat
noblemen than
in the
economies of
of common
common community
community members.
members. An
aristocrat could
could
at
times exchange
his economy
at times
exchange the
the surplus
surplus of
of his
economy for
for bronze
bronze and
and copper,
copper, materials
materials he
he
textiles, jewelry, foreign
foreign slaves,
slaves, and
and so
so on.
on.
needed
for producing
producing weapons,
weapons, or
or for
for rare
needed for
rare textiles,jewelry,

Greece
the Homeric
Homeric Epics
Greece in
in the
Epics

335
335

letters
new alphabetic
letters of
of an
an entirely
entirely new
alphabetic system
system of
of Phoenician
Phoenician origin
origin that
that
must
have appeared
appeared at
at just
about that
that time.
Thus, we
we find
find no
no referrefermust have
just about
time. Thus,
heroes of
ences
ences in
in Homer's
Homer's poems
poems to
to writing.
writing. The
The heroes
of the
the poems
poems are
are all
all
illiterate;
neither read
nor write.
aoidoi,
illiterate; they
they neither
read nor
write. The
The "divine"
"divine" bards,
bards, or
or aoidoi,
Demodocus
Demodocus and
and Phemius,
Phemius, both
both of
of whom
whom appear
appear in
in the
the Odyssey,
Odyssey,were
were
illiterate as
as well.
already mentioned,
mentioned, aa close
close connection
connection between
between
illiterate
well. As
As already
the Homeric
Homeric poems
and the
the popular
popular oral
oral arts
arts can
can clearly
clearly be
be perperthe
poems and
ceived. In
In Greece,
Greece, as
as well
well as
as in
in other
other countries,
countries, folklore
folklore undoubtedly
undoubtedly
ceived.
preceded the
the birth
birth of
of written
written poetry.5
poetry.5
preceded
The
The mere
mere fact
fact of
of the
the disappearance
disappearance of
of writing
writing in
in the
the postpostMycenaean
the linear
Mycenaean era
era is
is certainly
certainly significant.
significant. The
The spreading
spreading of
of the
linear
script throughout
Crete and
and Mycenae
Mycenae was
was principally
dictated by
by the
the
script
throughout Crete
principally dictated
need of
of aa centralized
centralized monarchical
monarchical state
state to
to keep
keep strict
strict accounts
accounts and
and to
to
need
control its
its material
material and
and human
human resources.
resources. The
The scribes
scribes working
working in
in the
the
control
Mycenaean palace
archives diligently
diligently recorded
the receipt
receipt of
of produce
produce
Mycenaean
palace archives
recorded the
delivered by
by the
the dependent
dependent population
population and
and the
the performance
performance of
of labor
labor
delivered
nonslaves, as
duties
duties of
of slaves
slaves and
and nonslaves,
as well
well as
as all
all sorts
sorts of
of deliveries
deliveries from
from the
the
treasury and
cittreasury
and expenditures.
expenditures. The
The destruction
destruction of
of the
the palaces
palaces and
and citadels
twelfth centuries
was accompanied,
accompanied, bebeadels during
during the
the thirteenth
thirteenth to
to twelfth
centuries was
yond
the large
yond any
any shadow
shadow of
of aa doubt,
doubt, bya
by a complete
complete disintegration
disintegration of
of the
large
Achaean
Achaean states
states whose
whose centers
centers they
they were.
were. Individual
Individual communities
communities
were
were freed
freed from
from their
their former
former fiscal
fiscal dependence
dependence on
on the
the palace
palace and
and
shifted to
completely independent
independent economic
economic and
and political
political path
path of
shifted
to aa completely
of
development. With
the collapse
collapse of
of the
the entire
entire bureaucratic
managerial
development.
With the
bureaucratic managerial
system, the
for writing,
writing, which
which serviced.
serviced this
system, also
also disapsystem,
the need
need for
this system,
disappeared.
The art
art of
of writing
writing was
forgotten for
for aa long
long time
time to
peared. The
was forgotten
to come.
come.
we can
Relying
Relying on
on Homer's
Homer's testimony,
testimony, we
can say
say that
that aa fairly
fairly primitive
primitive terterritorial community
community was
was born
from the
the ruins
ruins of
of the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean buburitorial
born from
demosand
andinhabited
inhabitedaa
reaucratic monarchy.
monarchy. This
This community
community was
the demos
reaucratic
was the
very
small territory,
territory, the
and economic
center of
very small
the political
political and
economic center
of which
which was
was
the polis.
In the
the Greek
Greek language
of the
classical epoch
epoch polls
expressed
the
polis. In
language of
the classical
polis expressed
two closely
closely connected
connected concepts
concepts in
in the
consciousness of
of every
every Greek:
Greek:
the consciousness
two
"city"
"city" and
and "state."
"state." Yet;
Yet, it
it is
is interesting
interesting that
that in
in the
the Homeric
Homeric vocabulary,
vocabulary,
very frequent,
frequent, there
there isisno
no word
word that
that could
could be
be
where the
the word
word polls
where
polis isisvery
translated as
as "village."
"village." This
This means
means that
that there
as yet
yet no
difference
translated
there was
was as
no difference
between aa city
city and
and aa village
village in
in Greece
Greece during
during that
that time.
time. The
The Homeric
Homeric
between
polls
wassimultaneously
simultaneously aacity
city and
and aavillage.
village.ItIt resembled
resembled aacity
cityin
in the
the
polis was
tight clustering
clustering of
of its
its structures
structures within
within aa small
small area
area and
and its
its fortificafortificatight
tions.
Such aa Homeric
asTroy
Troy in
in the
the Iliad
Iliador
or the
the city
cityof
of the
the PhaPhapolis as
tions. Such
Homeric polls
eacians in
in the
the Odyssey
Odysseyalready
alreadyhad
hadwalls
wallsmade
madeofofstone
stoneororbrick,
brick,ororjust
just
eacians
5.
know whether
5. We
We do
do not
not know
whether Homer
Homer wrote
wrote down
down his
his own
own work.
work. There
There is
is no
no doubt,
doubt,
however, that
that both
in written
written form
form very
very soon
soon after
after their
their creation,
creation,
however,
both poems
poems were
were recorded
recorded in
B.C.
or even
even at
at the
the same
same time,
time, but
but hardly
hardly before
before the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.
or
The canonical
canonical text
text took
took shape
shape in
in the
sixth century
century B.C.
The
the sixth
B.C.

336

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

earthen
ramparts with
palisades. And
And yet,
yet, the
polis of
earthen ramparts
with palisades.
the polls
of the
the Homeric
Homeric
epoch can
can scarcely
scarcely be
be considered
considered aa real
real city,
city, because
because the
the bulk
bulk of
of its
its
epoch
population
was composed
composed of
of farmers
farmers and
and herdsmen,
herdsmen, not
not merchants
merchants
population was
and craftsmen.
craftsmen. The
The polls
wassurrounded
surrounded by
by uninhabited
uninhabited fields
fields and
and
and
polis was
mountains
where the
eye saw
saw only
isolated huts
of herdsmen
herdsmen
mountains where
the poet's
poet's eye
only isolated
huts of
and
and enclosures
enclosures for
for domestic
domestic animals.
animals.
As
the territory
territory of
exAs aa rule,
rule, the
of each
each individual
individual community
community did
did not
not extend
they were
tend very
very far.
far. In
In most
most cases,
cases, they
were limited
limited to
to either
either aa small
small mounmountain valley
valley or
Aegean or
the Ionian
tain
or some
some small
small island
island in
in the
the Aegean
or the
Ionian Sea.
Sea. The
The
boundary
separated one
community from
from the
was usually
usually
boundary that
that separated
one community
the next
next was
the
sea or
or the
the closest
closest mountain
mountain range.
range.
the sea
Thus,
Thus, the
the Homeric
Homeric poems
poems describe
describe all
all of
of Greece
Greece as
as aa land
land fragfragmented
into many
small, self-governing
self-governing units.
Throughout many
many
mented into
many small,
units. Throughout
future centuries
centuries this
fragmentation remained
most important
important
future
this fragmentation
remained the
the most
characteristic
of the
of the
states. In
In Homeric
Homeric
characteristic of
the political
political history
history of
the Greek
Greek states.
times, the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
regarded as
as enemies.
enemies.
times,
the next
next polls
polis were
were regarded
They could
could be
robbed, killed,
enslaved with
with impunity.
impunity. Violent
Violent
They
be robbed,
killed, and
and enslaved
strife and
and border
conflicts between
neighboring communities
communities were
were
strife
border conflicts
between neighboring
commonplace
and frequently
frequently escalated
escalated to
and protracted
protracted
commonplace and
to bloody
bloody and
wars.
Stealing livestock
livestock from
from aa neighboring
neighboring community,
for instance,
instance,
wars. Stealing
community, for
could precipitate
such aa war.
war. In
In the
Iliad Nestor,
Nestor, king
king of
of Pylos
Pylos and
and the
the
could
precipitate such
the Iliad
most venerable
venerable of
of the
the Achaean
Achaean heroes,
about
most
heroes, relates
relates his
his recollections
recollections about
the
feats he
performed as
as aa young
young man.
man. When
was less
less than
than
the feats
he had
had performed
When he
he was
twenty
old, he
he and
and his
small troop
troop of
of men
men attacked
attacked the
of
twenty years
years old,
his small
the region
region of
Elis, Pylos's
Pylos's neighbor,
drove away
away aa huge
herd of
Elis,
neighbor, and
and drove
huge herd
of sheep,
sheep, goats,
goats,
and cattle,
cattle, and
and when,
when, after
after aa few
few days,
days, the
the Eleans
Eleans counterattacked
counterattacked
and
Pylos, Nestor
Nestor slew
slew their
their chief
chief hero
hero and
and dispersed
dispersed their
entire army.
army.
Pylos,
their entire
Strong traditions
traditions of
of clan
clan society
society continued
continued to
play an
an important
important role
role
Strong
to play
in
the social
Homeric polels.
poleis. Clan
Clanunions,
unions,the
theso-called
so-calledphylae
phylae
in the
social life
life of
of Homeric
and phratrlae,
werethe
thefoundation
foundationfor
forthe
theentire
entirepolitical
politicaland
andmilitary
military
and
phratriae, were
organization of
of aa community.
community. The
The community
community militia
organized
organization
militia was
was organized
by
andphratriae
phratrlaeduring
duringmilitary
militarycampaigns
campaignsand
andininbattle.
battle.People
People
by phylae
phylae and
gathered to
discuss important
important questions
questions by
and phratriae.
phratrlae.AcAcgathered
to discuss
by phylae
phylae and
wasnot
not
cording to
to Homer,
Homer, aa person
did not
not belong
cording
person who
who did
belong to
to aa phratrla
phratria was
protected
by the
law and
and could
could easily
easily become
of violence
or of
protected by
the law
become aa victim
victim of
violence or
of
other arbitrary
arbitrary actions.
actions. The
The ties
ties between
between the
various clan
clan organizaorganizaother
the various
tions were
were rather
rather unstable,
unstable, and
and the
the only
only reason
they stayed
stayed close
close
reason why
why they
tions
together and
and lived
lived within
of the
same polls
wasbecause
because of
of aa
together
within the
the walls
walls of
the same
polis was
need
to protect
from external
external enemies.
enemies. In
In other
matters
need to
protect themselves
themselves from
other matters
andphratriae
phratrlaewere
werecompletely
completelyindependent;
independent;the
thecommunity
community
the phylae
the
phylae and
almost never
intervened in
their internal
internal affairs.
affairs.
almost
never intervened
in their
Lineages and
and other
other groups
groups continually
continually quarreled
quarreled with
with one
one another,
another,
Lineages
and the
of blood
feud was
commonly practiced.
and
the barbarous
barbarous custom
custom of
blood feud
was commonly
practiced. A
A

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in the
the Homeric
Homeric Epics
Epics

337
337

person
by murder
murder had
flee to
land in
to esesperson defiled
defiled by
had to
to flee
to aa foreign
foreign land
in order
order to
cape persecution
persecution by
the relatives
of his
of
cape
by the
relatives of
his victim.
victim. Among
Among the
the heroes
heroes of
the Homeric
Homeric poems
frequently see
such exiles
who had
had left
the
poems we
we frequently
see such
exiles who
left their
their
homelands because
of blood
blood feuds
feuds and
and found
found refuge
in the
househomelands
because of
refuge in
the households of
of other
other kings.
kings. Thus,
Thus, Patroclus,
Patroclus, Achilles'
Achilles' best
friend, in
in his
his early
early
holds
best friend,
his playmates
playmates while
throwing dice.
dice. He
He
youth accidentally
accidentally killed
killed one
one of
of his
youth
while throwing
was
leave his
native Locris
and to
Thessaly.
was forced
forced to
to leave
his native
Locris and
to flee
flee north
north to
to Thessaly.
There,
kindly received
who
There, he
he was
was kindly
received by
by Achilles'
Achilles' father.
father. A
A murderer
murderer who
was
could pay
pay ransom
ransom to
of the
victim.
was wealthy
wealthy enough
enough could
to the
the relatives
relatives of
the victim.
ingots. An
An interesting
interesting scene
scene of
of
Such aa fine
fine consisted
of cattle
or metal
Such
consisted of
cattle or
metal in
in ingots.
judgment dealing
dealing with
with aa fine
fine (or
(or blood
blood money)
money) for
for murder
murder is
is found
found in
in
aa judgment
Book XVIII
of the
the Iliad
(the poet
poet includes
includes this
this scene
scene among
among those
those
Book
XVIII of
Iliad (the
decorating the
the shield
shield of
of Achilles,
Achilles, made
made by
by the
Smith god
god Hephaestus):
Hephaestus):
decorating
the Smith
[497]
[497] Meanwhile
Meanwhile the
the people
people were
were gathered
gathered in
assembly, for
for
in assembly,
there was
quarrel, and
two men
men were
wrangling about
the
there
was aa quarrel,
and two
were wrangling
about the
blood-money
for aa man
who had
been killed,
the one
one saying
saying
blood-money for
man who
had been
killed, the
before the
the people
that he
he had
had paid
paid damages
damages in
in full,
full, and
and the
the
before
people that
other that
that he
not been
been paid.
was trying
his
other
he had
had not
paid. Each
Each was
trying to
to make
make his
own case
case good,
good, and
and the
the people
sides, each
each man
man backing
backing
people took
took sides,
own
the side
side he
he had
had taken;
but the
the heralds
heralds kept
kept them
them back,
back, and
and
the
taken; but
the
elders sat
sat on
on their
their seats
seats of
of stone
stone in
in aa solemn
solemn circle,
circle, holdholdthe elders
ing their
which the
heralds put
put into
into their
their hands.
hands. Then
Then
ing
their staves
staves which
the heralds
they
and each
each in
in his
turn gave
and there
there were
were
they rose
rose and
his turn
gave judgment,
judgment, and
two talents
talents laid
laid down,
down, to
to be
be given
given to
to him
him whose
whose judgment
judgment
two
should be
be deemed
deemed the
the fairest.
fairest.
should
the authority
represented in
As
As we
we can
can see,
see, the
authority of
of the
the community
community represented
in this
this
episode
the "elders"
episode by
by the
"elders" appears
appears in
in the
the capacity
capacity of
of aa simple
simple court
court of
of
arbitration,
which acts
the litigants.
Its verdict
verdict is
is not
arbitration, which
acts as
as aa reconciler
reconciler of
of the
litigants. Its
not
binding. In
such circumstances,
circumstances, without
without aa strong
strong central
central power
able to
to
binding.
In such
power able
impose its
its authority
authority on
on the
the opposing
opposing lineages,
lineages, such
such quarrels
quarrels quite
quite frefreimpose
quently
ended in
in bloody
civil wars,
putting the
community on
on the
the
quently ended
bloody civil
wars, putting
the community
collapse. Such
Such aa critical
critical situation
situation appears
appears in
in the
closing scene
scene
verge
of collapse.
verge of
the closing
of the
Odyssey.Angered
Angeredbybythe
theloss
lossofoftheir
theirsons
sonsand
andbrothers,
brothers,their
their
Qf
the Odyssey.
kinsmen
rush to
to the
the estate
estate of
of his
father beyond
town, firmly
rekinsmen rush
his father
beyond the
the town,
firmly resolved to
to avenge
avenge the
dead and
and to
eradicate the
entire royal
royal family.
family.
the dead
to eradicate
the entire
solved
Both armed
armed parties
confront each
each other,
other, and
and the
the battle
Only
Both
parties confront
battle begins.
begins. Only
the intervention
intervention of
of the
the goddess
of Odysseus,
Odysseus, stops
stops
the
goddess Athena,
Athena, patroness
patroness of
the
bloodshed and
and forces
the contending
contending foes
foes to
the bloodshed
forces the
to make
make peace.
peace.
Characterizing Greek
Greek society,
society, Engels
Engels writes:
writes:
Characterizing

Thus,
Thus, in
in the
the Greek
Greek constitution
constitution of
of the
the heroic
heroic age,
age, we
we see
see
the
old gentilic
gentilic order
order as
as still
But we
we also
also see
the old
still aa living
living force.
force. But
see the
the
beginnings of
of its
disintegration: father
misbeginnings
its disintegration:
father right,
right, with
with trans
transmis-

338

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

sion
sion of
of the
the property
property to
to the
the children
children by
by which
which accumulation
accumulation of
of
wealth within
within the
family was
favored, and
and the
family itself
itself bewealth
the family
was favored,
the family
became aa power
against the
the gens.
came
power against
gens.66
The
patriarchal family,
The monogamous
monogamous patriarchal
family, oikos,
oikos, was
wasthe
the primary
primaryecoecotribal, property
property in
nomic element
element in
Homeric society.
nomic
in Homeric
society. The
The gentilic,
gentilic, or
or tribal,
in
land
objects of
of ownership
by all
land and
and other
other objects
ownership had,
had, by
all indications,
indications, already
already
during the
the Mycenaean
become
become outdated
outdated during
Mycenaean Period,
Period, although
although its
its vestiges
vestiges
continued to
be present
in Greece
Greece for
for aa long
long time
time thereafter.
Thus, as
continued
to be
present in
thereafter. Thus,
as
late as
as the
beginning of
of the
sixth century
century B.C.,
a law
law was
was enforced
enforced in
in
late
the beginning
the sixth
B.C., a
deceased perpermany Greek
Greek states
states according
according to
to which
of aa deceased
many
which the
the property
property of
son who
who had
no direct
direct heirs
on to
relatives. It
It was
son
had no
heirs passed
passed on
to his
his nearest
nearest relatives.
was
strictly prohibited
to bequeath
to nonrelatives.
nonrelatives.
property to
strictly
prohibited to
bequeath property
The
fundamental form
form of
of wealth
wealth for
the Greeks
Greeks of
of the
the Homeric
Homeric peThe fundamental
for the
period
land; and
and it
it was
considered the
property of
of the
entire comcomwas considered
the property
the entire
riod was
was land;
munity. From
In
was redistributed.
redistributed. In
munity.
From time
time to
to time
time the
the community
community land
land was
theory, each
each community
community member
had the
the right
right to
to receive
receive an
an allotallottheory,
member had
ment.
(Such an
was called
klerosininGreek;
Greek;i.e.,
i.e.,a a"lot,"
"lot,"bebement. (Such
an allotment
allotment was
called kliros
cause they
they were
were distributed,
distributed, at
at least
least originally,
originally, by
by casting
casting lots.)
lots.) In
In
cause
practice, however,
however, this
this system
system of
of land
land tenure
tenure did
did not
not prevent
prevent the
the
practice,
enrichment of
of certain
certain community
community members
members or
or the
the ruin
ruin of
of others.
others.
enrichment
Homer already
already knew
that there
there were
were rich
rich people
people who
who had
had many
many allotallotHomer
knew that
ments in
in the
the community
community (polykleroi)
(polykleroi)and
andothers
otherswith
withnonoland
landatatallall
ments
(akleroi).Obviously,
Obviously,there
therewere
werepoor
poorpeasants
peasantswho
whohad
hadno
noresources
resources
(akleroi).
with
an economy
economy even
even on
on their
their own
own small
small allotment.
allotment. In
In
run an
with which
which to
to run
desperation they
ceded their
their land
land to
to rich
neighbors and
and became
became landlanddesperation
they ceded
rich neighbors
less hired
hired hands,
hands, or
or tketes.
thetes.The
Theimpoverished
impoverishedthites
thetes
wanderedin in
less
wandered
vil-villages, begging
for alms
alms or
or hiring
hiring themselves
themselves out
out for
for work
work in
in wealthy
wealthy
lages,
begging for
households under
under most
most difficult
difficult conditions
conditions in
in order
order to
to survive.
survive. One
One of
of
households
Penelope's suitors,
suitors, Eurymachus,
Eurymachus, turns
turns to
to Odysseus,
Odysseus, who
who has
has returned
returned
Penelope's
home
unrecognized, having
having disguised
disguised himself
himself as
as aa beggar,
beggar, and
and says:
home unrecognized,
says:
Stranger,
you to
to the
Stranger, will
will you
you work
work as
as aa servant,
servant, if
if II send
send you
the
wolds
and see
see that
are well
well paid?
Can you
you build
build aa stone
stone
that you
you are
paid? Can
wolds and
fence,
plant aa tree?
year round,
fence, or
or plant
tree? II will
will have
have you
you fed
fed all
all year
round, and
and
will
find you
in shoes
shoes and
and clothing.
clothing. Will
you go,
go, then?
Not
will find
you in
Will you
then? Not
you;
for you
have got
got into
into bad
ways, and
and do
do not
not want
work;
you have
bad ways,
want to
to work;
you; for
you
fill your
you had
had rather
rather fill
your belly
belly by
by going
going round
round the
the country
country begbegging.
(OdysseyXVIII,
XVIII,356)
356)
ging. (Odyssey
Severed
Severed from
from his
his community
community and
and deprived
deprived of
of the
the support
support of
of his
his
theswas
wasatatthe
the absolute
absolute mercy
mercyof
ofthe
the"strong
"strong men."
men."Any
Anyof
ofthe
the
kin, aa tkes
kin,
latter could
could kill
kill aa vagrant
vagrant or
or enslave
enslave him
him with
with impunity.
impunity. When
When he
he
latter
6. F. Engels, The Origin of the Family,
Property and State, ed. by E. B. Leacock
Family, Private Property
(New York:
York: International
International Publishers,
Publishers, 1972),
1972), p.
p. 169.
(New
169.

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in the
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Homeric Epics
Epics

339
339

hired
himself out
out for
for work,
work, he
he could
could be
be dismissed
dismissed without
without receiving
receiving
hired himself
the negotiated
payment, and
and even
even maimed,
maimed, should
should he
be too
too perperthe
negotiated payment,
he be
sistent
sistent in
in demanding
demanding what
what was
was his
his due.
due. The
The situation
situation of
of aa tkes
theswas
wasnot
not
much different
different from
from that
that of
of aa slave
slave and
and possibly
possibly even
even worse,
because
much
worse, because
he
protection given
by his
he was
was deprived
deprived of
of the
the protection
given aa slave
slave by
his master.
master. The
The
theteswere
wereatatthe
thebottom
bottomofofthe
thesocial
socialscale.
scale.At
Atthe
thetop,
top,we
wesee
seethe
the
tketes
dominating group
group of
of the
the gentilic
gentilic elite,
elite, people
people who
in Homer's
Homer's usage
usage
dominating
who in
are called
called "the
"the best"
(aristoi,hence
hence"aristocracy")
"aristocracy")ororthe
the"good,"
"good,""well"wellare
best" (aristoi,
(agathoi),asasopposed
opposedtotothe
the"bad"
"bad"or
or"lowborn"
"lowborn"(kakoi),
(kakoi),that
thatis,is,
born"
born" (agathoi),
the rest
rest of
of the
the community
community members.
members. In
In the
the poet's
poet's mind,
mind, aa natural
aristhe
natural aristocrat is
is far
far superior
superior to
to any
any commoner
commoner in
every aspect,
aspect, intellectually
intellectually
tocrat
in every
as well
well as
as physically.
physically. In
In the
the Iliad
Iliad the
the aristocratic
aristocratic Odysseus
Odysseus disdainfully
disdainfully
as
addresses aa "man
"man of
of the
the people,"
people," striking
striking him
him with
with his
his staff
staff as
as he
he
addresses
speaks (the
(the scene
scene is
meeting of
of the
the Achaean
assembly of
of people):
speaks
is aa meeting
Achaean assembly
people):
"Sirrah,
"Sirrah, hold
hold your
your peace,
peace, and
and listen
listen to
to better
better men
men than
than
yourself. You
yourself.
You are
are aa coward
coward and
and no
no soldier;
soldier; you
you are
are nobody
nobody
either
in fight
{Iliad II,
II, 198)
198)
either in
fight or
or in
in council."
council." (Iliad

The aristocrats
laid claim
to their
their special
special and
and privileged
privileged social
social posiThe
aristocrats laid
claim to
position on
on the
the basis
basis of
of their
their supposed
supposed divine
divine origin.
origin. For
For this
this reason
reason
tion
Homer usually
usually calls
calls them
them "divine"
"divine" or
or "godlike."
"godlike." Many
Many aristocratic
aristocratic
Homer
families traced
traced their
their lineage
lineage directly
directly to
to one
one of
of the
the Olympian
Olympian gods,
gods, or
or
families
to Zeus
Zeus himself
himself (the
(the supreme
supreme Olympian),
Olympian), not
only during
during the
the HoHoto
not only
meric period,
period, but
but also
also in
in aa much
much later
later time
time (in
(in classical
Athens of
of the
the
meric
classical Athens
fifth to
to fourth
fourth centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., for
for example).
example).
fifth
Of course,
course, the
the real
real source
source of
of the
the aristocracy's
aristocracy's power
power was
was not
not its
its
Of
kinship to
which set
kinship
to the
the gods
gods but
but its
its great
great wealth,
wealth, which
set apart
apart their
their ,social
social
group from
from the
the common
common members
members of
of the
the community.
community. Nobility
Nobility and
and
group
wealth are
two almost
concepts for
for Homer.
Homer. An
wealth
are two
almost inseparable
inseparable concepts
An aristoaristobe wealthy,
neccratic person
person must
must be
wealthy, and
and conversely,
conversely, aa rich
rich person
person must
must neccratic
essarily be
man. Aristocrats
Aristocrats boast
before the
the common
common folk
folk and
and
essarily
be aa noble
noble man.
boast before
before one
one another
another about
about their
their vast
vast fields,
fields, innumerable
innumerable herds
herds of
before
of
cattle, and
and rich
rich stores
stores of
of iron,
iron, bronze,
bronze, and
and precious
precious metals.
metals. Thus,
Thus, in
in
cattle,
the words
words of
of the
the swineherd
swineherd Eumaeus,
his master
master Odysseus
Odysseus owned
owned
the
Eumaeus, his
twelve herds
herds of
of oxen
oxen alone
alone and
and about
about the
the same
same number
number of
of pigs,
twelve
pigs,
sheep, and
and goats.
sheep,
goats.
oikosstood
stoodout
outamong
amongthe
thefamilies
familiesof
ofthe
theother
othercomcomAn aristocratic
aristocratic oikos
An
munity members
members not
not only
only because
because of
of its
its wealth
wealth but
but also
also because
because of
of its
its
munity
size. It
It included
included the
adult sons
of the
the head
head of
the family,
family, their
their wives
size.
the adult
sons of
of the
wives
and children,
children, as
as well
well as
as slaves
slaves and
and the
the so-called
so-called servants.
servants. (As
(As aa rule,
rule,
and
the servants
servants were
aliens, adopted
adopted by
by the
the household
household out
out of
of mercy,
and
the
were aliens,
mercy, and
had
the status
status of
of junior
family members.)
members.) In
In addition,
addition, each
each noble
noble
had the
junior family
family had
had an
an entire
entire staff
staff of
of followers
followers and
and clients
clients among
among the
the poorer
poorer
family
peasants
had become
become dependent
dependent on
on an
an aristocratic
benefactor
peasants who
who had
aristocratic benefactor

340
34

Yu.
Yu- V.
y Andreyev
Andreyev

when they
they were
were offered
offered material
material support
support in
in difficult
difficult times
times or
or who
who had
had
when
simply sought
sought the
the patronage
patronage of
of aa "strong"
"strong" person.
person. In
In case
case of
of need,
need, aa
simply
wealthy
nobleman could
could assemble
assemble an
an armed
armed troop
troop of
of his
his dependents
dependents
wealthy nobleman
for his
his current
current enterprise
enterprise of
of piracy
piracy or
or use
them in
in some
some internecine
internecine
for
use them
struggle within
within his
his community.
community.
struggle
The
The economic
economic might
might of
of the
the aristocracy
aristocracy ensured
ensured their
their dominance
dominance in
in
all affairs
affairs of
of the
the community,
community, in
in war
war as
as well
well as
as in
in peacetime.
The dedepeacetime. The
all
cisive role
role of
of the
the aristocrats
aristocrats on
on the
the battlefield
battlefield was
was theirs
theirs simply
simply by
by
cisive
virtue of
of the
the fact
fact that
that only
only aa wealthy
wealthy and
and noble
noble person
person was
was able
able
virtue
to acquire
acquire all
all the
the necessary
necessary heavy
heavy military
military gear
gear (bronze
(bronze helmet
helmet with
with
to
crest, armor,
armor, greaves,
greaves, heavy
ox-hide shield).
shield). Weapons
Weapons
heavy bronze-clad
bronze-clad ox-hide
crest,
were
costly. Only
Only the
wealthiest of
of the
the community
community members
members
were very
very costly.
the wealthiest
could afford
afford aa battle
battle horse.
horse. The
The natural
environment and
and the
the lack
lack of
of
could
natural environment
rich
grazing land
land in
in Greece
Greece were
not favorable
favorable for
for horse
horse breeding.
rich grazing
were not
breeding. We
We
must also
also add
add that
that only
only aa man
man with
with good
good athletic
athletic training
training could
could hope
hope
must
to become
become proficient
proficient in
in handling
handling the
the weapons
weapons of
of that
that time.
time. This
This ininto
cluded systematic
systematic running,
running, throwing
throwing the
the javelin
and discus,
discus, and
and horse
horse
javelin and
cluded
riding. Such
Such men
men could
could be
be found
found only
only among
among the
the nobility.
nobility. A
A common
common
riding.
peasant, busy
busy from
from sunrise
sunrise to
to sunset
sunset with
with heavy
heavy physical
physical labor
labor,, had
had no
no
peasant,
spare time
time to
to engage
engage in
in sports.
sports. Athletics
Athletics therefore
therefore remained
remained aa preprespare
rogative of
of the
the aristocracy
aristocracy in
in Greece
Greece for
for aa long
long time.
In battle
the arisrogative
time. In
battle the
aristocrats, clad
clad in
in heavy
armor and
and advancing
advancing on
on foot
foot or
or horseback
horseback (in
(in
tocrats,
heavy armor
chariots, in
in Homer's
Homer's poems),
took the
front positions
in the
the ranks
ranks of
positions in
of
chariots,
poems), took
the front
the
community militia;
militia; the
the "common
"common people"
were massed
massed together
together
the community
people" were
in no
no particular
order. The
The rank-and-file
rank-and-file soldiers
soldiers wore
wore cheap
cheap felt
felt ararin
particular order.
mor and
and carried
carried lightweight
lightweight shields,
shields, bows,
and darts.
darts. When
When the
the two
two
mor
bows, and
opponents approached
approached one
one another,
another, the
the promachoi
(literally,"those
"those
opponents
promachoi (literally,
fighting in
in the
the front,"
front," as
as Homer
Homer calls
calls the
the warrior-aristocrats)
warrior-aristocrats) adadfighting
vanced
ahead
of
the
ranks
and
fought
in
single
combat.
The
poorly
vanced ahead of the ranks and fought in single combat. The poorly
armed masses
masses rarely
rarely engaged
engaged in
in the
the actual
actual fighting,
fighting, and
and the
the outcome
outcome
armed
promachoi.
of
a
battle
was
usually
decided
by
the
of a battle was usually decided by the promachoi.
In ancient
ancient times
times the
position, or
or ranking,
ranking, that
that aa man
man occupied
occupied in
in
In
the position,
the
usually determined
the battle
battle line
line usually
determined his
his status
status in
in society.
society. By
By being
being the
the
decisive
decisive force
force on
on the
the battlefield,
battlefield, the
the Homeric
Homeric aristocracy
aristocracy also
also claimed
claimed
aa leading
leading role
role in
in the
the political
political life
life of
of the
the community.
community. As
As we
we already
already
mentioned, the
the aristocrats
aristocrats treated
treated the
the common
common community
community members
members
mentioned,
contemptuously as
as people
people who
who were
were "nobody
"nobody either
either in
in fight
fight or
or in
in
contemptuously
council." In
In the
the presence
presence of
of noblemen,
noblemen, "common
"common men"
men" had
had to
to stay
stay rerecouncil."
spectfully silent
silent and
and listen
listen to
to what
what the
the "best
"best people"
people" had
had to
to say.
say. It
It was
was
spectfully
considered
that
their
intellectual
capacity
was
insufficient
to
make
reaconsidered that their intellectual capacity was insufficient to make reasonable judgments
in matters
matters of
of "state."
"state." As
kings and
and heroes
heroes of
of
judgments in
As aa rule,
rule, kings
sonable
"noble birth"
birth" addressed
addressed people's
assemblies, as
as is
is frequently
frequently menmen"noble
people's assemblies,
tioned in
in the
attending these
these debates
debates could
could
the poems.
poems. The
The populace
populace attending
tioned
express their
their opinion
opinion by
by exclamations
exclamations or
or with
with the
the clatter
clatter of
of their
their
express

Greece
Epics
Greece in
in the
the Homeric
Homeric Epics

341
34 1

weapons (when
(when the
the meeting
place in
in aa military
situation). They
They
weapons
meeting took
took place
military situation).
were
or fans
were not
not unlike
unlike aa theater
theater audience
audience or
fans in
in aa stadium
stadium and
and usually
usually
did
proper. Only
did not
not participate
participate in
in the
the discussion
discussion proper.
Only in
in one
one instance
instance does
does
Homer
present aa representative
Homer make
make an
an exception
exception and
and present
representative of
of the
the masses
masses
with
the opportunity
to speak
with the
opportunity to
speak out.
out. The
The assembly
assembly of
of the
the Achaean
Achaean
army, which
which is
is besieging
besieging Troy,
Troy, debates
debates the
the vital
question affecting
affecting
army,
vital question
everyone:
whether to
everyone: whether
to continue
continue the
the war,
war, which
which in
in its
its tenth
tenth year
year is
is withwithout any
any prospect
of victory
victory or
or to
to board
board the
the ships
ships and
and head
head back
home
out
prospect of
back home
to Greece
Greece with
with the
the entire
entire army.
army. Unexpectedly,
common warrior,
warrior,
to
Unexpectedly, aa common
Thersites, addresses
addresses the
the meeting.
meeting. The
The poet,
obviously sympathizing
sympathizing
Thersites,
poet, obviously
with the
the noblemen,
noblemen, does
does not
not spare
spare foul
foul words
and debasing
debasing epithets
epithets
with
words and
in portraying
portraying this
this "troublemaker":
"troublemaker":
in
He was
was the
all those
those that
that came
came before
before TroyTroy
He
the ugliest
ugliest man
man of
of all
bandy-legged, lame
lame of
of one
one foot,
foot, with
with his
his two
two shoulders
shoulders
bandy-legged,
rounded and
and hunched
hunched over
over his
his chest.
chest. His
His head
head ran
ran up
up to
to aa
rounded
it. (Iliad
{Iliad II,
II, 212)
212)
point, but
but there
there was
was little
little hair
hair on
on top
top of
of it.
point,

Moreover, he
is an
an upstart
upstart and
and aa loudmouth
loudmouth who
disturbs the
the order
order
he is
who disturbs
Moreover,
of
the meeting
meeting with
with no
rules of
acof the
no regard
regard for
for the
the age-old
age-old rules
of behavior,
behavior, according to
which he
and persons
persons of
of his
position must
must not
not address
address the
the
cording
to which
he and
his position
people:
people:
aa man
seman of
of many
many words,
words, and
and those
those unseemly;
unseemly; aa monger
monger of
of sedition,
dition, aa railer
railer against
against all
all who
who were
were in
in authority,
authority, who
who cared
cared
not
not what
what he
he said,
said, so
so that
that he
he might
might set
set the
the Achaeans
Achaeans in
in aa laugh.
laugh.
(Iliad
{Iliad II,
II, 212)
Thersites
Thersites boldly
boldly exposes
exposes the
the greed
greed and
and self-interest
self-interest of
of the
the supreme
supreme
commander
Achaean army,
Agamemnon, and
commander of
of the
the Achaean
army, Agamemnon,
and urges
urges everyone
everyone
to
proud basileus
basileusfight
fightthe
the
to sail
sail immediately
immediately toward
toward home,
home, letting
letting the
the proud
Trojans alone:
alone:
Trojans

On this
this he
he beat
beat ~ith
with his
his staff
staff about
about the
the back
back and
and shoulders
shoulders
On
till he
he dropped
dropped and
and fell
fell a-weeping.
a-weeping. The
The golden
golden sceptre
sceptre raised
raised
till
bloody weal
weal on
on his
his back,
back, so
so he
he sat
sat down
down frightened
frightened and
and
aa bloody
in pain,
pain, looking
looking foolish
foolish as
as he
he wiped
wiped the
the tears
tears from
from his
his eyes.
in
eyes.
The people
people were
were sorry
sorry for
for him,
him, yet
yet they
they laughed
laughed heartily.
heartily.
The
{Iliad II,
II, 265)
265)
(Iliad
This
real relationship
relationship between
This curious
curious episode
episode illustrates
illustrates the
the real
between the
the
people
the aristocracy
people and
and the
aristocracy in
in the
the Homeric
Homeric community.
community. As
As soon
soon as
as aa
common man
man uttered
uttered aa single
single word
word in
in defiance
defiance of
of the
will of
of the
the rulrulcommon
the will
ing elite,
elite, he
he was
was immediately
immediately stifled,
stifled, and
and those
those in
in authority
authority did
did not
not
ing
shrink even
even from
from physical
physical reprisals.
The scene
scene with
with Thersites
Thersites and
and
shrink
reprisals. The
many
other episodes
episodes found
found in
in Homer's
Homer's poems
eloquently demondemonmany other
poems eloquently
strate the
the thorough
thorough decay
decay and
and degeneration
degeneration of
of the
the primitive
democstrate
primitive democ-

342
342

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

racy.
racy. The
The people's
people's assembly,
assembly, convoked
convoked to
to serve
serve as
as the
the natural
natural voice
voice of
of
the majority,
appears here
as aa docile
docile tool
tool in
in the
the hands
hands of
of aa small
small
the
majority, appears
here as
group of
of kings.
Although Thersites
Thersites certainly
certainly expresses
expresses the
the thoughts
thoughts
group
kings. Although
of the
the majority
of the
Achaean army,
army, he
he becomes
becomes their
laughingstock.
of
majority of
the Achaean
their laughingstock.
We
see how
how the
Achaeans, who
moments before
in panic
their
We see
the Achaeans,
who moments
before ran
ran in
panic to
to their
ships so
so that
that they
they might
might return
return home
home as
as quickly
quickly as
as possible,
possible, vocifervociferships
ously welcome
welcome Odysseus's
Odysseus's proposal
to remain
remain in
in place
and continue
continue
ously
proposal to
place and
the war
to victory.
victory.
the
war to
The
will of
people, even
by
The will
of the
the people,
even when
when openly
openly and
and directly
directly expressed,
expressed, by
no means
was
no
means had
had legal
legal force
force for
for aa strong
strong and
and willful
willful aristocrat
aristocrat who
who was
backed
by many
many servants
servants and
and partisans
partisans ready
to support
support him.
Thus,
backed by
ready to
him. Thus,
in spite
spite of
of the
the dearly
clearly manifest
manifest will
will of
of the
the entire
entire Achaean
army,
in
Achaean army,
Agamemnon
to return
Chryseis to
to her
her father,
father, the
the old
old priest
Agamemnon refuses
refuses to
return Chryseis
priest of
of
Apollo. She
She had
had fallen
fallen to
to Agamemnon's
Agamemnon's lot
when the
the loot
loot was
was divided.
divided.
Apollo.
lot when
This brings.
brings innumerable
innumerable misfortunes
misfortunes upon
upon the
the entire
entire army:
army: the
the
This
angered
god Apollo
that
angered god
Apollo inflicts
inflicts aa terrible
terrible plague
plague on
on the
the Achaeans
Achaeans that
kills
people and
and livestock.
livestock.
kills people
When
resistance to
to their
their schemes,
When encountering
encountering open
open resistance
schemes, the
the "best
"best
people" could
could simply
simply dismiss
dismiss the
the assembly.
assembly. This
This recourse
recourse is
is adopted
adopted
people"
Odyssey.The
Thepeople's
people'sassembly
assemblyhad
hadnot
not
by
Penelope's suitors
suitors in
in the
by Penelope'S
the Odyssey.
been
convoked since
since Odysseus
Odysseus sailed
sailed with
to Troy.
(Twenty
been convoked
with his
his troops
troops to
Troy. (Twenty
had passed
passed since
then.) Finally,
son of
of the
years had
since then.)
Finally, Telemachus,
Telemachus, son
the hero,
hero, at
at
years
last summons
summons the
citizens in
in the
square to
complain about
about the
outlast
the citizens
the square
to complain
the outrageous deeds
being committed
by the
the suitors
his house.
house. (To
(To force
rageous
deeds being
committed by
suitors in
in his
force
Penelope
into marrying
one of
Penelope into
marrying one
of them,
them, they
they consume
consume cattle
cattle and
and wine
wine
belonging to
Odysseus during
their feasts.)
The people
gather, but
but
belonging
to Odysseus
during their
feasts.) The
people gather,
at their
their first
first attempt
suitors, the
suitors order
order the
the
at
attempt to
to restrain
restrain the
the suitors,
the suitors
people
to disperse
disperse and
and go
go home,
they dutifully
dutifully obey.
people of
of Ithaca
Ithaca to
home, and
and they
obey.
The
here for
for even
even less
less than
than in
in the
the scene
scene with
The people's
people's assembly
assembly counts
counts here
with
Thersites.
Thersites.
In
the most
tense passages
the Iliad
Iliad and
and the
the Odyssey,
Odyssey,
In the
most dramatic
dramatic and
and tense
passages of
of the
the
the people
people remain
remain passive
passive and
and mute
mute witnesses
witnesses to
to the
the violent
violent collisions
collisions
between the
the principal
protagonists of
of the
the poems.
poems. (Such
(Such is
the scene
scene of
of
between
principal protagonists
is the
the
"quarrel among
among kings"
in the
first book
Only in
in aa few
few
the "quarrel
kings" in
the first
book of
of the
the Iliad.)
Iliad.) Only
Odyssey,written
writtenlater,
later,dodothe
thepeople
peopleappear
appearasasananaweaweepisodes of
of the
the Odyssey,
episodes
some, chastising
chastising force
force that
that furiously
furiously hurls
hurls its
its anger
anger upon
whomever
some,
upon whomever
transgresses their
their will.
will. Thus,
Thus, the
the people
people of
of Ithaca
Ithaca assemble
assemble to
to deal
deal
transgresses
with
Odysseus
and
to
avenge
his
slaying
of
the
suitors,
the
pick
with Odysseus and to avenge his slaying of the suitors, the pick of
of
Ithaca's youth.
However, the
the people
do not
act in
in such
such critical
critical situasituaIthaca's
youth. However,
people do
not act
tions on
on their
their own
own but
but in
in reaction
reaction to
to the
instigations of
of some
some aristocrat
aristocrat
tions
the instigations
who
seeks
to
settle
accounts
with
his
enemies.
In
this
case,
the ininwho seeks to settle accounts with his enemies. In this case, the
stigator
is
Eupeithes,
father
of
the
slain
leader
of
the
suitors,
Antistigator is Eupeithes, father of the slain leader of the suitors, Antinous.
saved by
from an
an enraged
enraged mob
mob of
nous. Eupeithes
Eupeithes was
was once
once saved
by Odysseus
Odysseus from
of

Greece
Greece in
in the
the Homeric
Homeric Epics
Epics

343
343

Ithaca's citizens
citizens who
who attempted
attempted to
to plunder
plunder his
his house
house and
and to
to kill
kill him
him
Ithaca's
for aa crime
crime he
he had
had committed
committed against
against the
the community.
community. The
The people's
people's
for
assembly thus
thus became
became an
an arena
arena used
contending groups
groups of
of the
the ararassembly
used by
by contending
istocracy to
to settle
settle accounts.
accounts. Each
Each faction
faction tried
tried to
to sway
sway the
the people
to
istocracy
people to
their side
side and
and to
to represent
represent their
their group's
group's desire
desire as
as the
the will
will of
of the
the entire
entire
their
community.
community.
In
In considering
considering all
all these
these facts,
facts, we
we must
must admit
admit that
that the
the political
political orgaorganization
nization of
of Homeric
Homeric society
society was
was very
very far
far from
from being
being aa genuine
genuine democdemocracy.
racy. The
The real
real power
power was
was vested
vested at
at that
that time
time in
in the
the hands
hands of
of the
the most
most
powerful
powerful and
and influential
influential represeritatives
representatives of
of the
the gentilic
gentilic nobility,
nobility, whom
whom
Homer calls
calls basileis.
Homer
basileis.InInliterary
literaryworks
worksofoflater
laterGreek
Greekauthors
authorsbasileus
basileus
usually
usually means
means "king,"
"king," as
as in
in "king
"king of
of Persia"
Persia" or
or "king
"king of
of Macedonia."
Macedonia."
Homer's
waswas
Homer's basileis
basileisindeed
indeedhave
havethe
theappearance
appearanceofofkings.
kings.AAbasileus
basileus
recognized by
by the
the symbols
symbols of
of royal
royal majesty:
majesty: aa scepter
scepter and
and aa purple
purple
recognized
garment. "Scepter
"Scepter bearers"
bearers" was
was the
the common
common epithet
epithet the
the poet
poet used
used
garment.
basileis.They
Theyare
arealso
alsocalled
called"born
"bornofofZeus"
Zeus"oror
to characterize
characterize the
the basileis.
to
"reared by
Zeus," epithets
epithets designed
designed to
to show
show the
the special
special favor
favor ac"reared
by Zeus,"
accorded them
them by
by the
the supreme
supreme Olympian.
Olympian. The
The basileis
basileisare
areendowed
endowed
corded
with
the exclusive
exclusive right
right to
to preserve
preserve and
and interpret
interpret laws,
laws, which
which was
with the
was
granted to
them, believes
the poet,
by Zeus
Zeus himself.
himself. Nestor
Nestor addresses
addresses
granted
to them,
believes the
poet, by
Agamemnon: "By
"By glory,
radiant son
son of
of Atreus,
you are
king of
of many
many
Agamemnon:
glory, radiant
Atreus, you
are king
nations; the
the Olympian
Olympian handed
handed you
you the
the scepter
scepter and
and the
the laws
laws so
so you
you
nations;
may judge
and counsel
counsel the
the people."
people."
may
judge and
In
basileusstood
stoodatatthe
thehead
headofofthe
thetroops
troopsand
andhad
hadtotobebethe
the
In war,
war, aa basileus
first
first in
in battle,
battle, setting
setting an
an example
example of
of valor
valor for
for his
his warriors.
warriors. During
During
great
great popular
popular festivities,
festivities, the
the basileis
basileisperformed
performedsacrifices
sacrificestotothe
thegods
gods
and prayed
to them
them for
for the
the well-being
well-being and
and prosperity
of the
the entire
entire
and
prayed to
prosperity of
community.
for all
this, the
the people
had to
community. In
In exchange
exchange for
all this,
people had
to honor
honor the
the
"kings" with
with gifts:
gifts: an
an honorary
honorary share
share of
of wine
wine and
and meat
meat during
during banban"kings"
quets, the
the best
best and
and largest
largest lot
lot of
of land
land during
during the
the reallotment
reallotment of
of
quets,
community land,
land, and
and so
so oh.
on. These
These "gifts"
"gifts" were
were formally
formally regarded
regarded as
as
community
voluntary grants
grants or
or honors
honors that
that aa basileus
basileusreceived
receivedfrom
fromthe
thepeople
peopleinin
voluntary
reward
for his
his military
(or for
for his
fairness as
as aa judge).
judge). In
In pracpracreward for
military valor
valor (or
his fairness
tice,
however,
this
ancient
custom
frequently
provided
the
king
with
tice, however, this ancient custom frequently provided the king with
aa convenient
convenient excuse
excuse for
for extortion
extortion on
on supposedly
supposedly legal
legal grounds.
grounds.
Agamemnon is
is presented
presented in
in such
such aa light
light as
as aa "king
"king devouring
devouring the
the
Agamemnon
people" in
in the
the initial
initial books
books of
of the
the Iliad.
people"
Iliad.
But
But despite
despite all
all the
the might
might and
and wealth
wealth of
of the
the basileis,
basileis,their
theirpower
powercancannot
not be
be considered
considered royal
royal in
in the
the strict
strict sense.
sense. Consequently,
Consequently, the
the common
common
for the
the Greek
Greek basileus
basileusininmodern
moderntranslations
translationscan
can
use of
of the
the word
use
word king
king for
be accepted
accepted only
only as
as aa convention.
convention. In
In the
the views
views of
of Marx
Marx and
and Engels,
Engels,77
be
7. See
See ibid.,
ibid., pp.
pp. 167-69,
167-69, where
where Engels
Engels cites
cites Marx's
Marx's viewpoint.
viewpoint.
7.

344
344

Yu.
Yu- V.
V-Andreyev
Andreyev

which
which concur
concur with
with those
those of
of the
the prominent
prominent American
American ethnographer
ethnographer
L.
L. H.
H. Morgan,
Morgan, aa basileus
basileuswas
wasa atribal
tribalororclan
clanchief.
chief.This
Thisassumption
assumption
helps to
to explain
explain aa circumstance
circumstance that,
at first
first glance,
glance, is
is very
very strange.
strange. It
It
that, at
helps
hadseveral
severalperperwas
observed aa long
long time
time ago
ago that
that each
each Homeric
Homeric polls
was observed
polis had
sons holding
holding the
the title
title of
of basileus,
basileus,who
whoeach,
each,sosoit itseems,
seems,enjoyed
enjoyedallallthe
the
sons
privileges accorded
accorded this
this position.
position. Thus,
Thus, the
the fairy-tale
fairy-tale island
island of
of the
the
privileges
Phaecaeans, where
where Odysseus
Odysseus arrives
arrives during
during his
his wanderings,
wanderings, is
is ruled
ruled
Phaecaeans,
basileis."One
Oneofofthem,
them,Alcinous,
Alcinous,kindly
kindlywelwelby thirteen
thirteen "glorious
"glorious basileis."
by
comes the
wandering hero
into his
his home
home and
and helps
helps him
return to
to
the wandering
hero into
him to
to return
comes
his homeland.
homeland. We
We may
may assume
assume that
that each
each basileus
basileusheaded
headedone
oneofofthe
the
his
thirteen phylae
and phratriae
that constituted
constituted the
the Phaecaean
Phaecaean demos.
demos.
thirteen
phylae and
phratriae that
Athens, even
even during
during aa much
much later
later time,
had four
four so-called
so-called phylobasileis,
Athens,
time, had
phylobasileis,
corresponding to
to the
the number
number of
of the
the ancient
ancient phylae
(tribes)that
thatconsticonsticorresponding
phylae (tribes)
tuted the
the Athenian
Athenian nation.
nation.
tuted
boundaries of
his phyle
phyle or
discharged
Within
Within the
the boundaries
of his
or phratria
phratriaa abasileus
basileus
discharged
mainly priestly
priestly functions,
functions, since
since he
he headed
the tribal
tribal cults.
cults. (Each
(Each tribal
tribal
mainly
headed the
union had
had its
its special
special patron
god.) As
As aa group,
group, the
the basileis
basileisformed
formed
union
patron god.)
something resembling
resembling aa ruling
ruling collegium
collegium or
or council
council and
and jointly
desomething
jointly decided all
all matters
matters of
of government
government before
submitting the
the outcome
outcome for
for
cided
before submitting
ratification to
to the
the people's
people's assembly.
assembly. (This
(This formality
formality was
was very
very frefreratification
basileisofofthe
thecommunity
community
quently ignored.)
ignored.) From
From time
time to
to time,
time, all
all the
the basileis
quently
congregated in
in the
the town
town square
square (agora)
(agora)and
andtried
triedlawsuits
lawsuitsininthe
thepresprescongregated
ence of
of all
all the
people. Such
Such aa scene
scene is
is depicted,
depicted, as
as we
we mentioned
earence
the people.
mentioned earlier, on
on Achilles'
Achilles' shield.
shield.88
lier,
In wartime
wartime one
one of
of the
the basileis
basileis(sometimes
(sometimestwo)
two)was
waschosen
chosenduring
during
In
the
people's assembly
fill the
position of
the people's
assembly to
to fill
the position
of commander
commander of
of the
the commucommunity's militia.
In military
campaigns and
and in
in battles
battles the
the commanders
commanders
nity's
militia. In
military campaigns
wielded vast
vast powers,
powers, including
including the
the right
of life
life and
and death
death over
over the
the
wielded
right of
cowardly and
and disobedient.
disobedient. But
But once
the campaign
at an
an end,
end, he
he
cowardly
once the
campaign was
was at
usually
renounced these
these powers.
powers. There
There were
cases, however,
when aa
usually renounced
were cases,
however, when
commander who
who distinguished
distinguished himself
with deeds
deeds of
of prowess
prowess and
and
commander
himself with
who also
also stood
stood out
out among
among the
the other
other basileis
basileisononaccount
accountofofhis
hiswealth
wealth
who
and the
the noble
noble lineage
lineage of
of his
his family
family succeeded
succeeded in
in prolonging
prolonging his
his exand
extraordinary powers.
powers. When
When his
his military
function was
coupled with
with his
traordinary
military function
was coupled
his
he became
became an
an actual
actual
function of
of supreme
supreme priest
priest and
and principal
function
principal judge,
judge, he
king; that
that is,
is, head
head of
of the
the community.
community. Alcinous
Alcinous holds
holds such
such aa position
position
king;
among the
the Phaecaean
Phaecaean basileis,
basileis,asasdoes
doesOdysseus
Odysseusamong
amongthe
thebasileis
basileis
among
of of
Ithaca and
and Agamemnon
among the
chiefs of
of the
the Achaean
army. The
The
Ithaca
Agamemnon among
the chiefs
Achaean army.
basileus,however,
however,was
wasnot
notvery
verysecure.
secure.Only
Onlya a
position
supreme basileus,
position of
of aa supreme
few managed
to hold
hold onto
onto their
for long,
long, and
and they
they were
were even
even
few
managed to
their power
power for
less likely
likely to
to pass
it on
on to
to their
their offspring.
offspring. This
This was
precluded
less
pass it
was usually
usually precluded
8.
8. The
The judges
judges are
are called
called "elders"
"elders" (gerontes
(gerontesininthis
thisepisode).
episode).However,
However,this
thisterm
termisis
used in
in the
the poems
poems as
as aa synonym
synonym for
for basileis.
used
basileis.

Greece
Greece in
in the
the Homeric
Homeric Epics
Epics

345
345

basileis,who
whotried
triedinin
by the
the rivalry
rivalry and
and hostile
hostile intrigues
intrigues of
of the
the other
other basileis,
by
every possible
possible way
way to
to prevent
prevent their
their rival
rival from
from acquiring
acquiring inordinate
inordinate
every
power.
power.
A
typical case
case history
history illustrating
illustrating the
the political
political relationships
relationships in
in HoA typical
Homeric times
times is
is represented
represented by
by the
the situation
situation that
that develops
develops during
during the
the
meric
absence of
of Odysseus
Odysseus from
from his
his native
native island
island of
of Ithaca.
Ithaca. The
The power
power on
on
absence
the island
island is
is seized
seized by
by the
the suitors
suitors of
of Odysseus's
Odysseus's wife,
wife, Penelope.
Penelope. The
The
the
one to
to succeed
succeed in
in overcoming
overcoming her
her obstinacy
obstinacy is
is to
to be
be the
the heir
heir of
of the
the
one
missing Odysseus.
Odysseus. Odysseus
Odysseus has
has aa son,
son, Telemachus,
Telemachus, who
who is
is already
already of
of
missing
age. One
One would
would think
think that
that he
he would
would be
be his
his father's
father's lawful
lawful heir
heir and
and
age.
would occupy
occupy the
the vacant
vacant "royal
"royal throne."
throne." Yet,
Yet, Telemachus
Telemachus does
does not
not
would
voice any
any pretensions
pretensions to
to the
the throne.
throne. To
To be
be sure,
sure, he
he admits
admits when
when conconvoice
versing with
with the
the suitors
suitors that,
that, on
on the
the whole,
whole, "it
"it is
is no
no bad
bad thing
thing to
to be
be
versing
chief, for
for it
it brings
brings both
both riches
riches and
and honour"
honour" (Odyssey
(OdysseyI, I,388).
388).But
Buta a
aa chief,
strange reservation
reservation follows:
follows: "there
"there are
are many
many men
men in
in Ithaca
Ithaca both
both old
old
strange
and young,
young, and
and some
some other
other may
take the
the lead
lead among
among them."
them." (The
(The
and
may take
original Greek
Greek reads
"many basileis,
basileis,young
youngand
andold.")
old.")Since
SinceOdysseus
Odysseus
original
reads "many
is no
no more,
more, one
one of
of them
them may
may be
be chosen:
chosen: "Nevertheless
"Nevertheless II will
will be
be chief
chief
is
in my
my own
own house,
house, and
and will
will rule
rule those
those [slaves]
[slaves] whom
whom Odysseus
Odysseus has
has won
won
in
(OdysseyI, I,388).
388).We
Weget
getthe
theimpression
impressionthat
thatTelemachus
Telemachusvalvalfor me"
me" (Odyssey
for
ues his
his property
property much
much more
more than
than the
the "royal"
"royal" power
power and
and the
the honors
honors
ues
flowing from
from it.
it.
flowing
It is
is also
also typical
typical that
that neither
neither Telemachus
Telemachus nor
nor Odysseus
Odysseus himself
himself ever
ever
It
accuse the
the suitors
suitors of
of usurpation,
usurpation, of
of seizing
seizing power
of treason
treason
accuse
power illegally,
illegally, of
to the
the "head
"head of
of state,"
state," and
and other
other such
such crimes.
crimes. Addressing
Addressing the
the suitors
suitors
to
with aa brief
accusatory statement,
statement, Odysseus
Odysseus blames
blames them
them only
only for
for
with
brief accusatory
stealing his
his property,
property, for
for the
the violence
violence inflicted
inflicted on
on his
his female
female slaves,
stealing
slaves,
and for
for their
their attempt
attempt to
to force
force his
his wife
wife into
into an
an unlawful
unlawful marriage,
marriage,
and
without saying
saying aa word
word about
about his
his insulted
insulted "royal
"royal dignity"
dignity" or
or the
the atatwithout
tempt on
on his
his power.
power.
tempt
Apparently, the
the usurpation
usurpation of
of "royal
"royal power"
power" was
was not
not considered
considered aa
Apparently,
crime, because
because there
there were
were no
no norms
norms or
or laws
laws establishing
establishing succession
succession to
to
crime,
the throne.
throne. In
In practice,
practice, any
any of
of the
the tribal
tribal or
or clan
clan leaders
leaders (basileis)
(basileis)could
could
the
become king,
king, as
as could
could even
even any
any rich
rich and
and noble
noble person
person who
who managed
managed
become
to gain
gain aa sufficient
sufficient number
number of
of supporters
supporters in
in the
the people's
people's assembly.9
assembly.9
to
However, the
the mere
mere act
act of
of proclaiming
new king
king did
did not
not firmly
firmly guarguarHowever,
proclaiming aa new
antee his
his power.
After aa short
short time,
time, the
the people
people could
could "change
"change their
their
antee
power. After
minds" and
and hand
hand the
the throne
throne over
over to
to another
another pretender.
pretender. (In
(In reality,
reality,
minds"
the decision
decision did
did not
not of
of course
course depend
depend on
on the
the will
will of
of the
the people
people but
but on
on
the
9. The
The confirmation
confirmation of
of aa new
new king
king in
in his
his office
office usually
usually took
took the
the form
form of
of an
an agreeagree9.
ment between
between the
pretender and
and the
the people,
people, whereby
whereby he
he promised
promised to
follow the
the cusment
the pretender
to follow
customary law
law and
and not
not to
to step
step out
out of
of the
the bounds
bounds of
of power
power established
established by
by custom.
custom. Such
Such
tomary
agreements were
were made
made even
even in
in later
later times,
times, in
in Sparta
Sparta and
and in
in some
some other
other Greek
Greek states.
agreements
states.

346

Yu. V.
V. Andreyev

the competing
competing groups
groups of
of the
the elite.)
elite.) Consequently,
Consequently, monarchy
monarchy did
did not
not
the
yet
IO
yet exist
exist as
as aa fully
fully developed
developed and
and firmly
firmly rooted
rooted institution.
institution.10
The Homeric
Il
The
Homeric period
period occupies
occupies aa special
special place
place in
in Greek
Greek history.
history.11
The
The class
class society
society and
and the
the state,
state, which
which already
already existed
existed in
in Greece
Greece during
during
the
the Mycenaean
the golden
golden age
age of
of the
Mycenaean civilization,
civilization, are
are here
here born
born again,
again, but
but
on
different forms.
was aa
on aa different
different scale
scale and
and in
in different
forms. In
In many
many aspects,
aspects, it
it was
was also
time when
time
time of
of decline
decline and
and cultural
cultural stagnation.
stagnation. But
But it
it was
also aa time
when
Greece
was gathering
gathering strength
Greece was
strength and
and was
was on
on the
the threshold
threshold of
of an
an enerenergetic revival.
revival. Behind
Behind the
the outward
outward appearance
appearance of
of quietude
quietude and
and immoimmogetic
bility, aa stubborn
stubborn struggle
struggle between
between the
the new
new and
and old
old raged
raged in
in Homeric
Homeric
bility,
society. An
An intense
intense dislocation
dislocation of
of traditional
traditional values
values and
and customs
customs of
of the,
the
society.
gentilic order
order took
took place
place together
together with
with aa no
no less
less intense
intense process
process of
of
gentilic
class and
and state
state formation.
formation. Extremely
Extremely important
important for
for the
the future
future develdevelclass
opment of
of Greek
Greek society
society was
of the
technological
opment
was the
the radical
radical renewal
renewal of
the technological
base
that the
the Homeric
age witnessed.
witnessed. This
reflected by
Homeric age
This was
was primarily
primarily reflected
by
base that
the widespread
iron and
and its
its introduction
introduction in
in industry.
industry. All
these
the
widespread use
use of
of iron
All these
important advances
advances paved
the way
way for
for the
the transition
transition of
of the
the Greek
Greek
important
paved the
poleis
towardan
anentirely
entirelynew
newpath
pathof
ofhistorical
historicaldevelopment.
development. On
Onthis
this
poleis toward
new road,
road, in
in the
the course
course of
of the
the next
three Or
or four
four centuries,
centuries, they
they were
were
next three
new
able to
to reach
reach heights
heights of
of cultural
cultural and
and social
social progress
progress heretofore
heretofore ununable
seen in
in human
human history,
history, leaving
leaving all
all their
their neighbors
neighbors to
to the
the east
east and
and west
west
seen
far behind.
behind.
far
10. Only
Only aa few
few Greek
Greek poleis,
includingSparta,
Sparta,had
hadroyal.
royaldynasties
dynastieswith
withfirmly
firmlyestabestab10.
poleis, including
lished
rules of
lished rules
of succession,
succession, although
although even
even here
the royal
power was
was strongly
strongly limited
limited by
here the
royal power
by
law.
most of
the community"
had been
law. In
In most
of the
the other
other city-states,
city-states, the
the office
office of
of "king
"king of
of the
community" had
been
eliminated in
in very
ancient times
times (in
(in the
the ninth
ninth or
or eighth
eighth centuries
centuries B.C.)
B.C.) and
and was
was replaced
replaced
eliminated
very ancient
an annually
archon, asaswell
by an
by
annually elected
elected archon,
wellasasby
byother
otherofficials.
officials.
11.
11. This
This period
period was
was typologically
typologically similar
similar to
to the
the period
period of
of the
the judges
judges (twelfth
(twelfth to
to eleveleventh centuries
centuries B.C.)
B.C.) in
in Palestine
Palestine and
and to
to the
the period
period of
of the
the Aryan
Aryan conquests
conquests in
in India
India (at
(at
enth
about
the same
(IMD).
about the
same time).
time). Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).

17
17
Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization
Yu.
Yu. B.
B. TSIRKIN

Many
Many states
states in
in the
the ancient
ancient world
world undertook
undertook the
the establishment
establishment of
of new
new
settlements in
colony (Latin,
settlements
in foreign
foreign lands.
lands. Such
Such aa settlement
settlement is
is called
called aa colony
(Latin,
colonia,from
from colo,
colo,"I "Icultivate,
cultivate,inhabit");
inhabit");thetheGreeks
Greeksusually
usuallycalled
calledit it
colonia,
apoikia
"to"to
live
oror
move
away
from
The
city
oror
apoikia(from
(from apoikeo,
apoikeo,
live
move
away
fromhome").
home").
The
city
the country
country of
of origin
origin of
of aa colony's
colony's founders
founders was
was called
called aa metropolis
the
metropolis
(Greek, "mother
"mother city").
city"). Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
colonization played
played aa
(Greek,
Greek colonization
particularly important
important role
role in
in the
the history
history of
of the
the ancient
ancient MediterraMediterraparticularly
nean regIon.
region.
nean

Phoenician Colonization
Colonization
Phoenician
As early
early as
as the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. Cretan
Cretan and
and Mycenaean
Mycenaean mermerAs
chants frequented
frequented Phoenician
Phoenician cities
cities and
and even
even established
established their
their tradtradchants
ing stations
stations there.
there. At
At about
about the
the same
same time,
time, the
the Phoenicians,
Phoenicians, in
in turn,
turn,
ing
settled on
on some
some of
the Aegean
Islands (from
where they
they were
were later
later
settled
of the
Aegean Islands
(from where
evicted by
by the
the Cretans)
Cretans) and
and worked
the mines
mines on
on the
the islands
islands of
of Thasos.
Thasos.
evicted
worked the
They even
even penetrated
penetrated the
the Greek
Greek mainland,
mainland, for
for example,
example, to
to Thebes
Thebes in
in
They
Boeotia. Archaeological
Archaeological discoveries
discoveries in
in Thebes
Thebes indicate
indicate that
that relations
relations
Boeotia.
existed with
with the
the east
east in
in the
the fourteenth
fourteenth century
century B.C.,
B.C., thus
thus confirming
confirming
existed
that there
there is
is aa grain
grain of
of truth
truth in
in the
the myths
myths attributing
attributing the
the foundation
foundation
that
of Thebes
Thebes to
to the
the Phoenician
Phoenician Cadmus.
Cadmus.1I It
It is
is quite
quite possible
possible that
that during
during
of
that time
time the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians also
also traveled
traveled to
to Sicily,
Sicily, but
but the
the Cretan
Cretan and,
and,
that
later,
Achaean
domination
of
the
seas
restrained
their
expansion.
later, Achaean domination of the seas restrained their expansion.
The
The situation
situation changed
changed at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the second
second millennium.
millennium. At
At that
that
time,
time, the
the countries
countries of
of the
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean experienced
experienced violent
violent
shocks
shocks caused
caused by
by the
the downfall
downfall of
of kingdoms
kingdoms that
that had
had formerly
formerly seemed
seemed
invincible and
and by
by great
great migrations
migrations of
of peoples.
The invasion
invasion of
of the
the
invincible
peoples. The
"Sea
Peoples" also
"Sea Peoples"
also reached
reached the
the Syro-Phoenician
Syro-Phoenician coast;
coast; among
among other
other
cities, Sidon
Sidon was
was destroyed,
destroyed, and
and the
the Sidonians
Sidonians fled
to Tyre,
Tyre, although
although
cities,
fled to
probably
their
city
was
soon
restored.
Although
the
great
kingdoms
probably their city was soon restored. Although the great kingdoms
declined, the
the small
small states
states revived
revived more
more quickly.
quickly. Tyre,
Tyre, which
which probably
probably
declined,
also had
had earlier
earlier contacts
contacts with
with the
the west,
west, now
now completely
completely took
took over
over the
the
also
functions of
of the
the ruined
ruined city
city of
of U
Ugarit.
functions
garit.
1.
1. In
In the
the Phoenician
Phoenician language
language qadm
qadmmeans
means"east."
"east."Editor's
Editor'snote
note(lMD).
(IMD).

348

Yu.
Yu. B.
B. Tsirkin
Tsirkin

The
flight of
The flight
of the
the Sidonians
Sidonians and
and others
others to
to Tyre
Tyre probably
probably contributed
contributed
to the
the importance
importance and
and power
power of
of this
this town,
town, but
but it
it also
also would
would have
have ininto
creased
creased demographic
demographic stress.
stress. Because
Because the
the productive
productive forces
forces were
were at
at
that
that time
time at
at aa comparatively
comparatively low
low level,
level, the
the only
only solution
solution to
to the
the problem
problem
of overpopulation
overpopulation would
would have
have been
to force
force the
the emigration
emigration of
of some
some of
of
of
been to
the inhabitants
inhabitants across
across the
the sea.
sea. The
The collapse
collapse of
of Mycenaean
domination
the
Mycenaean domination
Tyre. Its
Its
in the
the eastern
eastern Mediterranean
Mediterranean opened
opened up
up new
new possibilities
possibilities for
for Tyre.
in
ruling circles
circles capitalized
capitalized on
on the
the situation
situation by
by founding
founding strong
strong centers
centers
ruling
in foreign
foreign countries.
countries. These
These bases
bases were
were needed
needed for
for renewing
renewing and
and
in
broadening trade
trade and
and for
for exiling
exiling the
more unruly
and discontented
discontented
broadening
the more
unruly and
elements from
from the
the metropolis.
metropolis.
elements
The
of
The first
first stage
stage of
of Tyrian
Tyrian colonization
colonization occurred
occurred in
in the
the second
second half
half of
the
twelfth and
and first
first part
of the
the eleventh
eleventh centuries
centuries B.C.
The direction
direction
the twelfth
part of
B.C. The
was twofold.
twofold. One
One route
route led
led toward
toward the
the island
island of
of Rhodes
Rhodes and
and then,
then,
was
along the
the western
western coast
coast of
of Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, toward
toward the
the island
island of
of Thasos
Thasos
along
with its
its gold
gold mines;
mines; another
another led
led from
from Rhodes
Rhodes along
along the
the southern
southern edge
edge
with
of the
the Aegean
Aegean archipelago
archipelago toward
toward Sicily,
Sicily, thence
thence to
to the
the northern
northern proof
promontory of
of Africa,
Africa, and
and then
then at
at last
last along
along the
the northern
northern African
African coast
coast
montory
toward southern
southern Spain.
Spain. The
The gold
gold of
of Thasos
Thasos and
and the
the silver
silver of
of Spain
Spain
toward
were two
two main
main goals
goals of
of the
the colonists,
colonists, but
but on
on the
the way
way there
there the
the PhoeniPhoeniwere
cians founded
founded intermediary
intermediary bases;
bases; for
for example,
example, on
on the
the island
island of
of
cians
Melos in
in the
the Aegean;
Aegean; on
on Cytheros,
Cytheros, south
south of
of the
the Peloponnesus;
Peloponnesus; on
on the
the
Melos
eastern and
and southern
southern coasts
coasts of
of Sicily;
Sicily; and
and in
in northern
northern Africa
Africa (in
(in
eastern
Utica).
A Graeco-Roman
Graeco-Roman legend
legend tells
tells of
of the
the Tyrians
Tyrians thrice
thrice attempting
attempting
Utica). A
to settle
settle in
in southern
southern Spain-probably
Spainprobably meeting
meeting the
the resistance
resistance of
of the
the
to
local population.
Only on
on their
third attempt
attempt were
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians
local
population. Only
their third
were the
able to
found aa town
on aa small
small island
island near
near the
the coast,
coast, west
of the
the Pilable
to found
town on
west of
PilGibraltar). The
The town
town was
was charcharlars of
of Hercules
Hercules (the
(the modern
modern Straits
Straits of
of Gibraltar).
lars
acteristically called
called Gadir
"fortress wall",
the Romans
Romans called
called it
it Gades,
acteristically
Gadir "fortress
wall", the
Gades,
and now
now it
it is
is known
as Cadiz.
Probably during
attempts to
settle
and
known as
Cadiz. Probably
during these
these attempts
to settle
in
Spain, they
they founded
founded Lixus
Lixus in
in northwestern
northwestern Africa,
also to
west
in Spain,
Africa, also
to the
the west
of the
the Pillars
Pillars of
of Hercules.
Hercules.
of
At
At this
this stage
stage Phoenician
Phoenician colonization
colonization mainly
mainly had
had aa commercial
commercial
character. The
The principal
materials that
that the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians desired
desired were
were
principal materials
character.
precious
precious wares;
wares; what
what they
they sold
sold in
in exchange
exchange were
were oil,
oil, knickknacks,
knickknacks,
products
products of
of the
the sea,
sea, and
and textiles-all
textilesall goods
goods that
that leave
leave little
little archaeoarchaeological
trace. The
logical trace.
The trading
trading was
was probably
probably conducted
conducted via
via silent
silent exchange,
exchange,
each party
party exposing
exposing their
their wares
wares until
the other
other party
agreed to
to take
take
until the
party agreed
each
them. But
But in
in aa few
few cases
cases the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians themselves
themselves could
could exploit
exploit the
the
them.
mines,
mines, as
as on
on Thasos.
Thasos.
The Phoenicians
Phoenicians founded
founded trading
trading posts,
posts, temporary
temporary trading
trading stastaThe
tions, and
and anchorages.
anchorages. A
A very
very important
important role
role was
was played
temples,
played by
by temples,
tions,
whose founding
founding not
not uncommonly
uncommonly preceded
preceded the
the emergence
emergence of
of the
the
whose

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

349
349

cities (as
(as in
in Gadir
Gadir and
and in
in Lixus);
Lixus); no
no international
international law
law existed
existed at
at that
that
cities
time,
and aa temple
temple probably
probably gave
gave the
the merchants
merchants aa feeling
feeling of
of security
security
time, and
and divine
divine protection.
protection. Some
Some temples,
temples, as
as that
that on
on Thasos,
Thasos, could
could also
also
and
function as
as organizers
organizers of
of production.
production. But
But already
already at
at that
that early
early time
time
function
actual towns
towns with
with stable
stable populations
populations were
were emerging.
emerging. Such
Such towns
towns were
were
actual
Gadir in
in Spain
Spain and
and Utica
Utica in
in Africa.
Africa.
Gadir
There
There was
was an
an interval
interval of
of about
about two
two centuries
centuries between
between the
the first
first and
and
the second
second stage
stage of
of Phoenician
Phoenician colonization.
colonization. By
By the
second stage,
stage, the
the
the
the second
Iron
Iron Age
Age economies
economies had
had so
so developed
developed that
that they
they needed
needed aa great
great
amount
precious ones
amount of
of metals-not
metalsnot only
only precious
ones but
but also
also those
those for
for immediimmediate
ate use
use in
in production.
production. The
The economic
economic base
base of
of the
the first
first empires
empires in
in the
the
Near East
the unification
unification under
under aa single
Near
East was
was the
single authority
authority of
of different
different but
but
complementary
complementary economic
economic regions.
regions. Colonization
Colonization enabled
enabled the
the transfer
transfer
to the
the imperial
imperial economy
economy of
of those
those sources
sources of
of raw
raw material
material that
that were
were
to
beyond
reach of
beyond the
the reach
of the
the military
military expansion
expansion of
of the
the imperial
imperial rulers.
rulers.
From the
the end
end of
of the
the second
second millennium
B.C., the
the main
main point
point of
of conconFrom
millennium B.C.,
tact between
between the
Orient and
and the
the far
far west
west was
was Tyre.
Tyre.
tact
the Orient
B.C.
A sociopolitical
sociopolitical struggle
struggle arose
arose within
within Tyre
Tyre in
in the
the ninth
ninth century
century B.C.
A
The
The rural
rural population
population rebelled,
rebelled, and
and the
the slaves
slaves killed
killed their
their masters.
masters.
Rulers changed
changed rapidly
in Tyre,
Tyre, due
due to
to rivalry
nobility.
Rulers
rapidly in
rivalry within
within the
the nobility.
This gave
gave aa new
stimulus to
colonization.
This
new stimulus
to colonization.
Its beginning
beginning probably
should be
dated to
to the
the reign
reign of
of one
one of
of the
the
Its
probably should
be dated
usurpers,
ninth century
usurpers, Ithoba'l
Ithoba'l (second
(second quarter
quarter of
of the
the ninth
century B.C.).
B.C.). This
This
ruler
was interested
resettle his
his poporuler was
interested in
in founding
founding new
new towns
towns in
in order
order to
to resettle
tential enemies
the former
tential
enemies there,
there, including
including the
the supporters
supporters of
of the
former dynasty.
dynasty.
A legend
legend ascribes
ascribes to
to him
him the
the foundation
foundation of
of Bothrys
Bothrys in
in Phoenicia
Phoenicia itself
itself
A
and
Ausa in
and Ausa
in Africa.
Africa.
The possibilities
possibilities of
of Phoenician
Phoenician expansion
expansion in
in the
the eastern
eastern MediterraMediterraThe
nean were
limited. New
New great
great centralized
centralized empires
empires had
gained
nean
were limited.
had gained
strength,
strength, and
and in
in the
the Aegean
Aegean the
the Greeks
Greeks and
and the
the Thracians
Thracians had
had manmanaged to
oust the
from the
the islands
islands they
they formerly
formerly had
had held.
held.
aged
to oust
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians from
In Greece
Greece itself,
itself, during
during the
the process
of formation
formation of
of the
the
In
process of
the poleis,
poleis, the
Phoenicians could
could find
niche for
The Phoenicians
Phoenicians
Phoenicians
find no
no niche
for themselves.
themselves. The
settled in
in the
they did
did not
form any
any specific
specific organizations
organizations
settled
the towns,
towns, but
but they
not form
of their
their own
own and
and soon
soon became
hellenized. Sometimes
Sometimes they
they founded
founded
of
became hellenized.
special quarters
quarters within
within foreign
foreign cities
cities to
serve as
as trading
stations, such
such
special
to serve
trading stations,
as
in
Memphis.
In
the
eastern
Mediterranean
at
this
time,
the
Phoenias in Memphis. In the eastern Mediterranean at this time, the Phoenicians founded
founded proper
proper colonies
colonies only
only on
on the
south coast
coast of
of Cyprus.
Cyprus. The
The
the south
cians
main
field
of
Phoenician
colonization
during
this
second
stage
of
main field of Phoenician colonization during this second stage of dedevelopment
Mediterranean.
velopment was
was the
the western
western Mediterranean.
The
now fell
fell under
under Phoenician
influence. SarThe island
island of
of Sardinia
Sardinia now
Phoenician influence.
Sardinia
the way
dinia was
was important
important for
for its
its strategic
strategic location,
location, guarding
guarding the
way to
to cencentral Italy,
and Gaul
Gaul and
Islands, to
tral
Italy, Corsica,
Corsica, and
and also,
also, via
via the
the Balearic
Balearic Islands,
to

350

Yu.
Yu. B.
B. Tsirkin
Tsirkin

Spain. It
It was
was also
also rich
in metals
metals and
and had
fertile soil.
soil. During
During the
the
Spain.
rich in
had aa fertile
ninth
century aa number
number of
of Phoenician
Phoenician towns
appeared on
on the
southninth century
towns appeared
the southern
coasts of
Nora, Sulci,
ern and
and western
western coasts
of Sardinia:
Sardinia: Nora,
Sulci, Bithia,
Bithia, and
and Tharros.
Tharros.
At aa comparatively
comparatively early
early date
date the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians also
also gained
gained aa foothold
foothold
At
in the
the center
center of
of the
island.
the island.
in
The
Gozo) ,
The minor
minor islands
islands of
of Melita
Melita and
and Gaulus
Gaulus (now
(now Malta
Malta and
and Gozo),
which
which were
were situated
situated between
between Sicily
Sicily and
and Africa,
Africa, offered
offered another
another new
new
field for
for Phoenician
Phoenician colonization.
colonization. These
These islands
islands served
served as
as the
the main
main
field
connecting links
links between
the metropolis
metropolisand
andthe
thewesternmost
westernmostparts
partsofof
connecting
between the
the
Phoenician world.
world.
the Phoenician
The
between the
The strengthening
strengthening of
of the
the contacts
contacts between
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians and
and
southern Spain
Spain made
made it
it necessary
necessary to
to found
found new
new strong
strong points
points on
the
southern
on the
Iberian
Peninsula. During
During the
the eighth
eighth and
seventh centuries,
centuries, the
the PhoeIberian Peninsula.
and seventh
Phoenicians founded
founded aa number
number of
of settlements,
settlements, varying
varying in
in size
size and
and imporimpornicians
tance, on
on the
the southern
southern coast
coast of
of the
the peninsula
peninsula east
east of
of the
the Pillars
Pillars of
of
tance,
Hercules, that
that is,
is, on
on the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean coast.
coast. Some
Some of
of them
them were
were
Hercules,
relatively large
large cities,
cities, like
like Malaca
Malaca (now
(now Malaga)
Malaga) and
and Sexi;
Sexi; others
others were
were
relatively
small, and
and we
we do
do not
not know
know their
their ancient
ancient names.
refer
names. Archaeologists
Archaeologists refer
small,
to the
the latter
the names
names of
of the
the modern
modern nearby
nearby villages,
villages, such
such as
as
to
latter by
by the
Toscaneo and
and Chorreras.
Chorreras.
Toscaneo
With the
beginning of
of the
the Greek
Greek colonization
colonization of
of Sicily
Sicily in
in the
the eighth
eighth
With
the beginning
century B.C.,
B.C., the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians left
left the
southern and
and eastern
eastern coasts
and
century
the southern
coasts and
concentrated themselves
themselves in
in the
the western
western part
of the
the island.
island. The
The cities
cities
concentrated
part of
founded here-Motya,
hereMotya, Soloeis,
Soloeis, and
and Panormus-guaranteed
Panormusguaranteed connecconnecfounded
tions with
with the
the earlier
earlier colonized
colonized regions
regions of
of Sardinia
Sardinia and
and Africa.
Africa.
tions
North Africa
Meanwhile,
Meanwhile, in
in the
the central
central part
part of
of North
Africa where
where Utica
Utica had
had earearlier been
been founded,
founded, aa number
number of
of Phoenician
Phoenician towns,
towns, among
among them
them the
the
lier
famous
famous city
city of
of Carthage,
Carthage, now
now appeared.
appeared. In
In northwestern
northwestern Africa,
Africa,
south of
of Lixus,
Lixus, the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians settled
settled around
around aa bay
the
south
bay to
to which
which the
Greeks
name of
the "Trading
Greeks gave
gave the
the name
of Emporicus,
Emporicus, the
"Trading Bay."
Bay."
The second
second stage
stage of
of Phoenician
Phoenician colonization
lasted from
from the
ninth
The
colonization lasted
the ninth
through the
the seventh
seventh centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., reaching
reaching its
its peak
in the
the second
second
through
peak in
half of
of the
the ninth
ninth century.
century. It
It was
was aa period
when the
the Tyrians
Tyrians began
began
half
period when
colonizing Sardinia
Sardinia and
and dramatically
dramatically increased
increased their
their presence
in AfAfcolonizing
presence in
rica, founding
founding Carthage
Carthage and,
and, possibly,
possibly, other
other towns.
towns. The
The sphere
sphere of
of
rica,
their colonization
colonization had
had now
now shifted:
shifted: it
it included
included the
the far
far west
west of
of Sicily,
Sicily,
their
southern and
and western
western Sardinia,
Sardinia, southern
southern Spain,
Spain, the
the islands
islands Melita
Melita
southern
and Gaulus,
Gaulus, and
and the
the central
central and
and far
far western
western part
part of
of North
North Africa.
Africa.
and
The main
main goal
goal was
the same
same as
as before;
namely, the
the acquisition
acquisition of
of
The
was the
before; namely,
metals, not
not just
production.
metals,
just gold
gold and
and silver
silver but
but also
also metals
metals needed
needed for
for production.
Another aim
aim of
colonization at
at this
this stage
stage was
was the
the acquisition
acquisition of
Another
of the
the colonization
of
land:
the
Phoenicians
gravitated
more
and
more
from
Spain to
to the
the
land: the Phoenicians gravitated more and more from Spain
center of
of the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean basin:
basin: to
to fertile
fertile Sardinia
Sardinia and
and the
the prompromcenter
ontory
of
Tunis
in
North
Africa,
famous
for
its
fecund
earth.
Tyre
ontory of Tunis in North Africa, famous for its fecund earth. Tyre

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

3511
35

apparently
participation of
apparently remained
remained the
the only
only metropolis
metropolis (the
(the participation
of the
the
Sidonians
been proved),
proved), but
Sidonians has
has not
not been
but the
the number
number of
of emigrants
emigrants grew.
grew.
The
the colonization
The character
character of
of the
colonization itself
itself also
also changed.
changed. Crafts,
Crafts, agriagriculture,
culture, and,
and, of
of course,
course, fishing
fishing developed
developed in
in the
the colonies.
colonies. The
The number
number
of
of cities
cities increased.
increased. Small
Small settlements
settlements also
also emerged.
emerged. Some
Some specialized
specialized in
in
aa particular
particular branch
branch of
of economy.
economy. The
The Phoenicians
Phoenicians also
also began
began to
to exexplore
colonies.
plore the
the hinterland
hinterland of
of some
some of
of their
their colonies.
The
between the
the indigeThe character
character of
of the
the relations
relations between
the colonists
colonists and
and the
indigenous population
changed. The
The latter
latter had
had by
by that
that time
time developed
developed
nous
population changed.
sufficiently
sufficiently to
to enter
enter into
into the
the entire
entire range
range of
of economic,
economic, political,
political, and
and
cultural contacts
contacts with
with the
the foreigners.
foreigners. A
A process
process of
of feedback
feedback began
began
cultural
that led
to the
the creation
creation of
of local
local variants
variants of
of the
the Phoenician
Phoenician culture.
culture.
that
led to
Thus,
Thus, the
the local
local inhabitants
inhabitants came
came to
to be
be an
an important
important component
component of
of the
the
process
of colonization.
colonization.
process of
The
the colonies
to aa great
great extent
The emergence
emergence of
of the
colonies and
and to
extent their
their trade
trade
were indebted
to the
help or
the metropolitan
were
indebted to
the help
or even
even the
the initiative
initiative of
of the
metropolitan
government.
merchants but
but those
of
government. It
It was
was not
not the
the ships
ships of
of Tyrian
Tyrian merchants
those of
King Hiram
that sailed
King
Hiram of
of Tyre
Tyre that
sailed to
to far-off
far-off Tarshish
Tarshish (Tartessus)
(Tartessus) in
in
southern
were regarded
parts of
southern Spain.
Spain. Thus,
Thus, the
the emerging
emerging cities
cities were
regarded as
as parts
of
the Tyrian
Tyrian Empire,
although, at
at present,
is difficult
to establish
establish the
the
the
Empire, although,
present, it
it is
difficult to
degree
their dependence
the metropolis.
degree and
and forms
forms of
of their
dependence on
on the
metropolis.However,
However,it it
is known
known that
that aa governor
governor set
set up
by the
king of
of Tyre
Tyre was
resident in
in
is
up by
the king
was resident
Kition on
on the
the island
of Cyprus
Cyprus and
that an
by Utica
to stop
stop
Kition
island of
and that
an attempt
attempt by
Utica to
punitive expedition
paying
tribute called
called forth
forth aa punitive
expedition from
from Tyre.
Tyre. With
With the
the
paying tribute
gradual decline
decline of
of Tyre,
Tyre, its
its empire
empire weakened,
weakened, and
and its
its domination
domination begradual
became more
or less
less nominal.
nominal.
came
more or
Carthage was
founded under
under very
special circumstances.
circumstances. AccordAccordCarthage
was founded
very special
ing
the legend,
ing to
to the
legend, aa group
group of
of Tyrian
Tyrian aristocrats
aristocrats headed
headed by
by the
the king's
king's
sister
Elissa secretly
from Tyre
to Africa
Africa after
been dedesister Elissa
secretly fled
fled from
Tyre to
after having
having been
feated
At aa place
place not
too far
Utica, on
feated in
in aa political
political struggle.
struggle. At
not too
far from
from Utica,
on the
the
hill
of Byrsa
Byrsa in
in the
the vicinity
vicinity of
of an
an old
old sanctuary,
sanctuary, they
founded aa city
hill of
they founded
city
Qart-hadasht,the
the"New
"NewCity,"
City,"Carchedon
Carchedonofofthe
theGreeks,
Greeks,
they
they called
called Qart-I},adasht,
Carthage of
of the
the Romans.
Romans. Because
Because Carthage
Carthage was
was not
not founded
founded by
by the
the
Carthage
Tyrian government,
government, it
was never
never dependent
dependent on
on Tyre,
Tyre, although
although the
the
Tyrian
it was
spiritual ties
ties with
with the
the metropolis
metropoliswere
werestrong
strongasaslong
longasasCarthage
Carthage
spiritual
existed.
existed.

An
Orientalizing Civilization:
Civilization: Tartessus
Tartessus
An Orientalizing
The
linked the
civilized countries
The Phoenician
Phoenician colonies
colonies linked
the civilized
countries of
of the
the eastern
eastern
Mediterranean with
the usually
less developed
developed peoples
peoples of
of the
the central
central
Mediterranean
with the
usually less
and western
and the
the areas
areas facing
facing the
the Atlantic
Ocean.
and
western Mediterranean
Mediterranean and
Atlantic Ocean.
But
local populations,
populations, caught
in this
this process,
process, had
But when
when the
the local
caught up
up in
had
reached
reached aa relatively
relatively high
high level
level of
of economic
economic and
and social
social development,
development,

3522
35

Yu.
Yu. B.
B. Tsirkin
Tsirkin

there
there emerged
emerged the
the phenomenon
phenomenon of
of an
an "orientalizing
"orientalizing civilization."
civilization." The
The
local aristocracy,
aristocracy, having
reached aa high
high standing
standing relative
their comcomlocal
having reached
relative to
to their
patriots, was
no longer
longer content
content to
to adhere
adhere to
forms of
of
patriots,
was no
to the
the traditional
traditional forms
culture.
Not having,
their own
culture. Not
having, so
so far,
far, developed
developed their
own alternative
alternative forms,
forms,
these men
men (or,
(or, more
more precisely,
precisely, the
the artisans
artisans serving
serving them)
them) borrowed
borrowed
these
Oriental forms.
forms. In
In some
some cases
cases such
such borrowings
were not
of art
art
Oriental
borrowings were
not just
just of
forms but
but also
also of
of economic
economic institutions.
institutions.
forms
The contacts
contacts of
of Greece
Greece with
the Orient
Orient were
the PhoePhoeThe
with the
were not
not through
through the
nicians
nicians alone.
alone. The
The orientalizing
orientalizing culture
culture in
in Hellas
Hellas shows
shows traces
traces of
of ininfluence from
from Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. The
The Phoenicians
Phoenicians did
did play
an important
important part
part
fluence
play an
we adopt
adopt the
hypothesis of
of the
the
in the
the emerging
emerging culture
culture of
of Etruria.
Etruria. (If
(If we
in
the hypothesis
Oriental origin
origin of
of the
Etruscans themselves,
themselves, then
they must
must have
have
Oriental
the Etruscans
then they
brought
some Oriental
Oriental traits
traits from
from their
their eastern
eastern homeland
homeland with
with them.
them.
brought some
However, this
this hypothesis
hypothesis is
is far
far from
from being
being proved
proved and
and is
is not
not genergenerHowever,
ally accepted.)
accepted.) The
The orientalizing
orientalizing civilization
civilization in
in southern
southern Spain,
Spain, in
in the
the
ally
Tartessian kingdom
kingdom of
of the
the eighth
eighth to
to sixth
sixth centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., certainly
certainly
Tartessian
owes its
its origin
origin specifically
specifically to
to the
the Phoenicians.
Phoenicians.
owes
Contacts
Contacts between
between the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians and
and the
the southern
southern Iberian
Iberian PeninPeninsula
sula date
date from
from the
the first
first stage
stage of
of the
the Phoenician
Phoenician colonization.
colonization. At
At that
that
period, the
period,
the local
local inhabitants
inhabitants were
were not
not yet
yet ready
ready for
for establishing
establishing active
active
mutual
mutual relations.
relations.
At
millennium, the
part of
At the
the end
end of
of the
the second
second millennium,
the southwestern
southwestern part
of
Spain was
was dominated
dominated by
by the
the so-called
so-called Southwestern
Southwestern Bronze
Bronze Culture.
Culture.
Spain
These people
people may
to the
the present-day
present-day Basques.
Basques. This
This
These
may have
have been
been related
related to
society shows
shows little
little evidence
evidence of
of social
social stratification,
stratification, and
and its
its structure
structure
society
was probably
gentilic. Their
Their economy
economy was
not so
so much
much in
in contact
contact with
with
was
probably gentilic.
was not
that of
of the
the foreigners
foreigners coming
coming from
from the
the east
east as
as with
with those
those of
of the
the tribes
tribes
that
of northwestern
Europe. In
In the
the beginning
of the
the first
first millennium
millennium
of
northwestern Europe.
beginning of
B.C., new
new tribes
tribes appeared
appeared here,
possibly speaking
speaking an
an Indo-European
Indo-European
B.C.,
here, possibly
language. They
They brought
new type
type of
of pottery
pottery and
and new
new metallurgical
metallurgical
language.
brought aa new
and metalworking
metalworking techniques.
techniques. The
The new
new culture
culture overlaid
overlaid the
the old
old suband
substratum, and
and the
the Tartessian
Tartessian ethnos
ethnos was
was probably
probably the
the result
of aa
stratum,
result of
merger between
the newcomers
newcomers and
and the
the aboriginal
aboriginal population.
population.
merger
between the
The contacts
between the
The
contacts between
the Tartessians
Tartessians and
and Phoenicians
Phoenicians were
were at
at first
first
sporadic;
sporadic; with
with time,
time, they
they intensified
intensified and
and contributed
contributed to
to the
the further
further
social
Tartessians. In
half of
social development
development of
of the
the Tartessians.
In the
the second
second half
of the
the eighth
eighth
century B.C.,
the Tartessian
Tartessian kingdom
kingdom emerged
emerged in
in southern
southern Spain.
Spain. It
It
century
B.C., the
included aa number
of different
different tribes
at various
levels of
of socioecoincluded
number of
tribes at
various levels
socioeconomic development.
development. As
As to
to the
Tartessians proper,
proper, the
the social
social stratificastratificanomic
the Tartessians
tion among
among them
them was
was already
already considerable.
considerable. The
The elite
elite consisted
consisted of
of aa
tion
military aristocracy;
aristocracy; the
the rest
rest of
of society
society were
were considered
considered by
by aa Roman
Roman
military
author to
to have
constituted the
the "plebs"
"plebs" The
"plebs" included
included the
the
author
have constituted
The "plebs"
miners
and
craftsmen
and
probably
the
agriculturalists.
Slaves
no
miners and craftsmen and probably the agriculturalists. Slaves no
doubt
also
existed
in
the
Tartessian
kingdom,
but
we
have
no
specific
doubt also existed in the Tartessian kingdom, but we have no specific

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

353
353

information
slavery. The
The city
city seems
been the
the residence
information on
on slavery.
seems to
to have
have been
residence of
of
the aristocracy,
aristocracy, who
who dominated
dominated the
the rural
rural countryside,
countryside, but
but it
it was
also
the
was also
the
the center
center of
of the
the organization
organization of
of the
the plebs.
plebs. This
This reminds
reminds one
one of
of HoHomeric society.
society. The
The geometric
geometric style
style of
on the
Tartessian fufumeric
of decoration
decoration on
the Tartessian
nerary stelae
stelae and
and the
the repertory
repertory of
of the
the designs
designs also
also remind
one of
of the
the
nerary
remind one
geometric style
style in
in the
art of
of Homeric
Greece.
geometric
the art
Homeric Greece.
the late
Hellas, the
the city
city
However, as
However,
as opposed
opposed to
to the
late Homeric
Homeric society
society in
in Hellas,
of
part of
of Tartessus
Tartessus was
was part
of aa broad
broad federation:
federation: the
the Tartessian
Tartessian kingdom.
kingdom.
To
judge from
To judge
from the
the very
very scanty
scanty date
date of
of the
the sources,
sources, the
the king
king seems
seems to
to
have
enjoyed supreme
supreme authority
authority over
over the
the land
land of
of the
Tartessians
have enjoyed
the Tartessians
themselves and
and of
of their
their dependent
dependent tribes.
themselves
tribes.
One
One may
may state
state that
that in
in southern
southern Spain
Spain an
an early
early state
state had
had formed,
formed,
course, can
can in
in no
no way
way be
be compared
compared with
the great
great empires
empires of
which, of
of course,
which,
with the
of
the Near
Near East.
The Tartessian
Tartessian kingdom
kingdom dominated
dominated the
tribes of
the
East. The
the tribes
of
southern Spain,
Spain, where
where the
the Tartessians
Tartessians had
had founded
founded their
their own
own strongstrongsouthern
holds. These
These probably
probably enabled
enabled them
them to
control their
their dependents.
dependents.
holds.
to control
The
the mining
mining and
The economic
economic base
base of
of the
the Tartessian
Tartessian kingdom
kingdom was
was the
and
processing
metals and
wealth of
processing of
of metals
and the
the great
great agricultural
agricultural wealth
of the
the Baetis
Baetis
River
River valley
valley (present-day
(present-day Guadalquivir).
Guadalquivir). This
This enabled
enabled the
the Tartessians
Tartessians
to conduct
conduct an
an active
active trade
trade with
with the
emergence of
of
to
the Phoenicians.
Phoenicians. The
The emergence
the
favored the
mining and
and metallurgy,
the state
state favored
the development
development of
of mining
metallurgy, for
for
those
products the
those products
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians opened
opened aa capacious
capacious market
market in
in the
the
Near
As to
to the
took over
Near East.
East. As
the Tartessians
Tartessians themselves,
themselves, they
they took
over the
the orienoriental
of smelting
and founding
ore. The
tal methods
methods of
smelting and
founding ore.
The demands
demands of
of the
the PhoePhoemerchants made
made the
nician merchants
nician
the Tartessians
Tartessians also
also seek
seek wares
wares which
which were
were not
not
produced
produced domestically,
domestically, and
and this
this stimulated
stimulated external
external trade.
trade. The
The TarTartessians
tessians borrowed
borrowed from
from the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians the
the potter's
potter's wheel,
wheel, building
building
techniques,
oil.
techniques, olive
olive cultivation,
cultivation, and
and the
the production
production of
of olive
olive oil.
The
now felt
need for
The Tartessian
Tartessian oligarchy
oligarchy now
felt aa need
for newer
newer forms
forms of
of art,
art,
and
they found
found them
the Phoenicians,
and they
them through
through the
Phoenicians, while
while the
the local
local craftscraftsmen lent
certain motifs
to those
those of
of the
the colonists.
colonists. The
The Tartessians
Tartessians
men
lent certain
motifs to
evolved their
their own
own writing
writing system,
system, certainly
certainly under
under Phoenician
Phoenician influinfluevolved
ence, and
and also
also borrowed
borrowed some
some Phoenician
Phoenician cults
cults and
and rites.
rites.
ence,
Thus,
Thus, in
in Tartessus
Tartessus there
there emerged
emerged aa syncretic
syncretic orientalizing
orientalizing civilizacivilization. The
The main
recipients of
of the
the Oriental
Oriental influence
influence were
were the
the aristoaristotion.
main recipients
crats and
and those
artisans who
catered to
Other artisans
artisans and
and the
the
crats
those artisans
who catered
to them.
them. Other
agricultural population
were hardly
influenced by
Phoenicians,
agricultural
population were
hardly influenced
by the
the Phoenicians,
these
groups of
of the
"plebs" keeping
keeping more
to their
own native
native culture.
culture.
these groups
the "plebs"
more to
their own
Although orientalized
kingdom also
also
Although
orientalized to
to aa degree,
degree, the
the Tartessian
Tartessian kingdom
maintained
of their
own civilization.
civilization. Some
Some cultural
cultural phenomphenommaintained features
features of
their own
ena, although
although originally
originally borrowed
borrowed from
from the
the Phoenicians,
Phoenicians, experienced
experienced
ena,
further independent
independent development,
development, as
as .seen,
seen, for
for example,
example, with
with cerceraa further
tain types
of pottery.
the archaic
archaic handmade
handmade pottery
pottery was
was retained
retained
tain
types of
pottery. Also
Also the
by the
the Tartessians.
Tartessians. Their
chariots were
were of
of an
an original
original European,
European,
by
Their battle
battle chariots

Yu.
B. Tsirkin
Yu- &
Tsirkin

354
354

not
not Oriental,
Oriental, type.
type. Tartessian
Tartessian burial
burial rites
rites differed
differed from
from those
those of
of the
the
were often
given Phoenician
Phoenician amulets
Phoenicians,
Phoenicians, although
although the
the dead
dead were
often given
amulets
and vessels
for their
their sojourn
sojourn in
in the
hereafter.
and
vessels for
the hereafter.
About
600 B.C.
B.C. Greek
Greek colonies
colonies began
to appear
appear on
on the
the Tartessian
Tartessian
About 600
began to
no Greek
traced in
the Tartessian
shore.
Although no
shore. Although
Greek influence
influence can
can be
be traced
in the
Tartessian
culture, there
there were
were political
and economic
economic connections
connections with
with the
the Greeks,
Greeks,
political and
culture,
and Tartessus
Tartessus entered
entered into
into the
the complicated
complicated interplay
interplay of
of forces
forces in
in the
the
and
western Mediterranean.
Mediterranean. The
The result
result was
was that
that the
the Tartessian
Tartessian kingdom
kingdom
western
fell asunder,
asunder, probably
in the
century B.C.
B.C. under
the ononprobably in
the early
early fifth
fifth century
under the
fell
slaught of
the Carthaginians.
Carthaginians.
of the
slaught

Greek Colonization
Colonization
Greek
The
Greeks began
their colonial
colonial expansion
expansion later
than the
the PhoeniPhoeniThe Greeks
began their
later than
mark the
the golden
cians.
cians. The
The eighth
eighth to
to sixth
sixth centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. mark
golden age
age of
of Greek
Greek
period coincides
with the
the Archaic
Archaic Period
of
colonizing activity.
colonizing
activity. This
This period
coincides with
Period of
wasdeveloping.
developing.
Greek history,
when the
ancient Greek
Greek polls
Greek
history, the
the time
time when
the ancient
polis was
We must
must search
search for
for the
behind Greek
Greek colonization
colonization in
in the
the circirWe
the reasons
reasons behind
cumstances prevailing
prevailing in
in Greece
Greece during
during that
that time.
time.
cumstances
Among
the causes
we must
must first
of all
mention the
the general
of
Among the
causes we
first of
all mention
general law
law of
the
correspondence of
of population
size with
the overall
overall level
level of
the correspondence
population size
with the
of proproduction forces.
forces. According
According to
K. Marx,
in the
Greek and
and Roman
Roman
Marx; in
the Greek
duction
to K.
world,
an insufficient
development of
of the
forces made
the
insufficient development
the productive
productive forces
made the
world, an
granting of
of civil
civil rights
dependent upon
certain quantitative
correlagranting
rights dependent
upon aa certain
quantitative correlation
that could
could not
ignored. The
The only
only alternative
alternative was
forced emition that
not be
be ignored.
was forced
emigration. This
This was
reason for
for all
all cases
cases of
of colonization
in
was the
the main
main reason
colonization in
gration.
antiquity, although
although in
in every
every case
case there
there were
specific reasons.
were also
also specific
reasons.
antiquity,
The same
same is
is true
true of
of the
the great
great Greek
Greek colonization.
colonization. Typical
of Greece
Greece
The
Typical of
at all
all times
the poor
development of
of agricultural
agricultural technology,
technology,
at
times was
was the
poor development
cultivation, and
low fertility
size of
of
primitive
of soil
soil cultivation,
and low
fertility or
or small
small size
primitive methods
methods of
many
of the
situation where
many of
the regions
regions in
in Greece.
Greece. This
This led
led to
to aa situation
where part
part of
of
the population
population was
was unable
unable to
to subsist
in the
the homeland.
homeland. In
the Archaic
the
subsist in
In the
Archaic
Period
certain specific
specific social
social causes
causes also
also played
an important
important role.
role.
Period certain
played an
pre-urban society
much of
was usurped
usurped by
by
As
the pre-urban
As the
society decayed,
decayed, much
of the
the land
land was
the
aristocracy, which
which misused
misused its
its position
as heads
of clan
clan communes;
communes;
the aristocracy,
position as
heads of
agriculturalists were
forced to
leave the
the polls
they did
did not
not wish
wish toto
polis ifif they
agriculturalists
were forced
to leave
lose not
not only
only their
land but
also their
their free
free status.
status. As
As their
their economic
economic
their land
but also
lose
conditions deteriorated,
deteriorated, debt-bondage
debt-bondage increased.
increased. Moreover,
Moreover, the
the deconditions
development
of
chattel
slavery
made
it
still
more
difficult
for
the
peasvelopment of chattel slavery made it still more difficult for the peasants to
to find
find work
work in
in the
the towns.
towns. Of
Of course,
course, some
some of
of them
them found
found aa way
ants
way
to adjust
the new
conditions; that
why the
Hellenic crafts
crafts and
and
to
adjust to
to the
new conditions;
that was
was why
the Hellenic
trades
to grow.
grow. But
But aa great
great number
number of
of people
found
trades could
could continue
continue to
people found
no other
other way
out except
except by
emigrating to
foreign countries.
countries. In
In cities
cities
no
way out
by emigrating
to foreign
where
developing, the
the merchants'
merchants' desire
desire to
to gain
gain aa foothold
foothold
trade was
was developing,
where trade

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

355
355

along
was an
along the
the trade
trade routes
routes and
and to
to become
become established
established was
an important
important
reason for
for setting
setting up
colonies. Merchants
Merchants felt
felt secure
secure and
and protected
protected
reason
up colonies.
religiousand
andeconomic
economic
only in
in cities
cities connected
connected with
with the
only
the metropolis
metropolis bybyreligious
ties.
Such cities
cities became
their base
for trading
local populapopulaties. Such
became their
base for
trading with
with the
the local
tion on
on the
to the
the more
more important
important trading
trading centers.
centers. Initially,
the
the road
road to
Initially, the
tion
colonies bought
merchandise mainly
from their
their countrymen
countrymen who
colonies
bought merchandise
mainly from
who reremetropolis.They
Theyreceived
receivedmerchants
merchantsarriving
arrivingfrom
fromthe
the
mained in
in the
mained
the metropolis.
metropolis
metropolisand
andoffered
offeredtheir
theirgoods
goodstotothe
thelocal
localinhabitants.
inhabitants.
Another
politiAnother significant
significant factor
factor in
in the
the colonial
colonial movement
movement was
was the
the political
in the
the metropolis.
cal struggle
struggle raging
raging in
metropolis.During
Duringthe
theperiod
periodwhen
whenthe
thepolis
polis
was emerging,
this struggle
reached aa ferocity
never seen
before and
was
emerging, this
struggle reached
ferocity never
seen before
and
was frequently
most barbarous
Miletus,
was
frequently accompanied
accompanied by
by aa most
barbarous terror.
terror. In
In Miletus,
during
the ascendancy
the democrats,
democrats, for
for example,
of
during the
ascendancy of
of the
example, the
the children
children of
their adversaries
were trampled
trampled to
by bulls,
their
adversaries were
to death
death by
bulls, and
and the
the subsesubsequently
victorious aristocrats
burned the
together with
quently victorious
aristocrats burned
the democrats
democrats together
with
their
no means
means rare,
rare, the
the defeated
their children.
children. In
In such
such situations,
situations, by
by no
defeated facfaction had
only two
two alternatives:
alternatives: death
at home
or emigration
emigration to
some
tion
had only
death at
home or
to some
distant land.
land.
distant
In the
Greek society
during the
In
the course
course of
of the
the development
development of
of Greek
society during
the ArArchaic
Period, there
chaic Period,
there emerged
emerged groups
groups of
of low
low social
social standing
standing who
who frefrequently
founders of
the Parthenii
quently became
became founders
of colonies.
colonies. Thus,
Thus, once
once the
Parthenii in
in
Sparta, who
lacked civil
civil rights,
rights, failed
failed in
in their
attempt to
to gain
gain legal
legal
Sparta,
who lacked
their attempt
equality
with the
the Spartans,
they founded
in Italy.
Italy.
equality with
Spartans, they
founded Tarentum
Tarentum in
Another important
important reason
for emigrating
emigrating could
could have
defeat in
in
Another
reason for
have been
been defeat
war.
The defeated
had to
to choose
choose between
becoming aa dependent
dependent
war. The
defeated had
between becoming
population or
or emigrating.
emigrating. The
The latter
latter was
course chosen
chosen by
by the
the
population
was the
the course
Messenians
defeat by
by Sparta,
Messenians after
after their
their defeat
Sparta, when
when they
they sailed
sailed to
to the
the west.
west.
Some of
of the
the citizens
citizens of
of Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, who
did not
to submit
submit to
to the
the
Some
who did
not want
want to
Persian king,
king, did
same.
Persian
did the
the same.
The
picture spespeThe complex
complex interaction
interaction of
of all
all these
these factors
factors created
created aa picture
cially characteristic
characteristic of
of the
the Archaic
Period, the
the epoch
epoch of
of the
creation of
of
cially
Archaic Period,
the creation
Perhaps the
themost
mostimportant
important factors
factors were
werethe
thedissoludissoluthe Greek
Greek polis.
the
polis. Perhaps
tion of
of gentilic
gentilic (clan)
(clan) ties,
which involved
involved aa "release"
"release" of
of aa mass
mass of
of peasties, which
peastion
antry,
and
the
development
of
commodity-money
relations,
which led
led
antry, and the development of commodity-money relations, which
to
a
need
for
new
markets
and
new
sources
of
slave
labor.
When
the
to a need for new markets and new sources of slave labor. When the
received its
its
gentilic relations
relations became
became aa feature
feature of
of the
the past
past and
and the
the polis
gentilic
polis received
final form,
form, the
struggle acquired
acquired new
new forms.
forms. The
The time
of the
the
final
the political
political struggle
time of
great colonization
colonization came
came to
to an
an end.
end. Emigration
Emigration might
might still
still be
be necesgreat
necessary, but
but for
different reasons.
reasons.
sary,
for different
Different
part in
Different regions,
regions, districts,
districts, and
and cities
cities of
of Hellas
Hellas took
took part
in the
the
great colonization;
colonization; some,
some, like
like Achaea,
less developed
and mainly
mainly
great
Achaea, were
were less
developed and
agrarian, and
and others,
others, like
like the
the trading
trading industrial
industrial centers
centers of
of Miletus
Miletus and
and
agrarian,
Phocaea,
were more
advanced. According
According to
the character
character of
of the
the mePhocaea, were
more advanced.
to the
metropolis,the
thecolonial
colonialexpansion
expansionwas
wasdominated
dominatedbybyananagrarian
agrarianorora a
tropolis,

356

Yu.
Yu. B. Tsirkin
Tsirkin

commercial
commercial and
and industrial
industrial interest.
interest. The
The relative
relative importance
importance of
of one
one or
or
the other
other factor
factor should
should be
be explained
explained by
the degree
degree of
of socioeconomic
socioeconomic
the
by the
development of
of each
each particular
particular metropolis
metropolisand
andbybythe
thegeographical
geographical
development
environment of
of the
the colony
colony and
relation to
to the
the neighboring
neighboring populaenvironment
and its
its relation
population.
Actually, colonization
neither purely
commerwas neither
purely agrarian
agrarian nor
nor commertion. Actually,
colonization was
cial
in its
goal but
but always
had aa mixed
mixed character,
with
cial and
and industrial
industrial in
its goal
always had
character, with
one of
of the
two aspects
predominating.
one
the two
aspects predominating.
Trade
period began
began to
to reach
reach even
most backward
Trade during
during that
that period
even the
the most
backward
regions
also know
all ancient
ancient cities
cities were
based
of Greece,
Greece, but
but we
we also
know that
that all
were based
regions of
on land
ownership and
and agriculture.
A colony
colony could
could not
not survive
survive withwithon
land ownership
agriculture. A
out
some land
land surrounding
surrounding the
the settlement,
settlement, no
no matter
meager.
out some
matter how
how meager.
The colonists
colonists had
had their
on this
this land,
land, and
asThe
their lots
lots on
and sometimes
sometimes lots
lots were
were asmetropolis.
signed to
to each
each colonist
colonist before
colonists had
left the
had left
the metropolis.
signed
before the
the colonists
Such was
case during
during the
the preparation
of the
expediSuch
was the
the ,case
preparation of
the Corinthian
Corinthian expedition
which resulted
tion to
to Sicily,
Sicily, which
resulted in
in the
the foundation
foundation of
of Syracuse.
Syracuse. Which
Which asaspect of
of colonization
colonization was
was dominant
dominant would
would be
be decisive
decisive for
for the
the problem
problem
pect
of relations
relations with
the local
local population.
If the
the colony
colony was
to be
be mainly
mainly
of
with the
population. If
was to
agrarian, then
then the
the colonists
colonists did
did not
not need
need collaboration
collaboration with
with the
the indigindigagrarian,
enous population,
even aa hindrance.
hindrance. If
If the
colony was
enous
population, which
which was
was even
the colony
was
founded for
for trading
trading purposes,
it was
was imperative
imperative that
the surrounding
surrounding
founded
purposes, it
that the
population should
should be
be ready
ready to
to trade
trade with
the Greeks,
Greeks, which
meant
population
with the
which meant
that they
they had
had to
to be
be at
at aa sufficiently
sufficiently high
high level
level of
of social
social development,
development,
that
but
not too
too high.
high. Where
the Greeks
Greeks encountered
encountered highly
highly developed
developed
but not
Where the
centralized kingdoms,
kingdoms, the
the possibilities
possibilities for
for founding
founding new
new towns
were
towns were
centralized
extremely limited.
limited.
extremely
The
The preparatory
preparatory stages
stages of
of aa colonization
colonization enterprise
enterprise also
also depended
depended
on
whether their
predominant aim
was commercial
on whether
their predominant
aim was
commercial and
and industrial
industrial or
or
agrarian.
to find
agrarian. In
In order
order to
find out
out what
what the
the settlers
settlers could
could expect
expect in
in the
the
new land,
was sufficient
to reconnoiter
reconnoiter the
new
land, in
in some
some cases
cases it
it was
sufficient merely
merely to
the
area; however,
however, in
in other
other cases
cases it
it was
was necessary
necessary to
to establish
establish preliminary
preliminary
area;
economic
relations. The
economic relations.
The farmer-colonists
farmer-colonists sought
sought fertile
fertile soil,
soil, whereas
whereas
the
traders looked
esthe traders
looked for
for locations
locations suitable
suitable for
for commerce,
commerce, such
such as
as the
the esrivers which
which would
would enable
them to
to reach
the hinterland
hinterland of
tuaries
tuaries of
of rivers
enable them
reach the
of
the
tribes. The
The craftsmen
craftsmen were
interested in
in the
supply of
of the
the
the local
local tribes.
were interested
the supply
needed raw
raw material.
material. The
The Hellenes
Hellenes had
had some
some general
for selectselectneeded
general rules
rules for
ing places
places to
to settle.
settle. First
First of
of all,
all, the
the site
site of
of the
the new
new town
town had
had to
to be
be on
on
ing
the seashore,
not far
because the
the sea
the
seashore, or
or at
at least
least not
far from
from it,
it, because
sea was
was the
the only
only
connection with
metropolis.The
Thechosen
chosenplace
placeshould
shouldbebeeasily
easilydedeconnection
with the
the metropolis.
fensible, should
should have
supply of
of drinking
and, if
drinking water,
water, and,
if possible,
possible,
fensible,
have aa supply
should be
surrounded by
land that
that could
could feed
of the
the
be surrounded
by land
feed the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
should
colony.
The
land
did
not
necessarily
have
to
be
suitable
for
grain
culticolony. The land did not necessarily have to be suitable for grain cultivation, but
ought to
to be
good, at
at least,
for viticulture
planbut it
it ought
be good,
least, for
viticulture and
and olive
olive planvation,
tations;
that
is,
for
foodstuffs
customary
for
the
Greeks,
and
yielding
tations; that is, for foodstuffs customary for the Greeks, and yielding
products
products that
that could
could be
be exchanged
exchanged for
for goods
goods needed
needed by
by the
the settlers.
settlers.

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

357
357

The
brought with
of
The colonists
colonists brought
with them
them fire
fire from
from the
the sacred
sacred hearth
hearth of
their
native city
and, apparently,
also some
The expediexpeditheir native
city and,
apparently, also
some of
of the
the priests.
priests. The
tion was
headed by
by an
an oikistes,
oikistes,who
whoalso
alsobecame
becamehead
headofofthe
thenew
newtown.
town.
tion
was headed
After
his death,
he might
might become
become the
the object
object of
of aa cult.
cult.
After his
death, he
Regardless
Regardless of
of whether
whether an
an expedition
expedition was
was at
at the
the initiative
initiative of
of the
the enentire community
community or
or whether
whether it
it was
was arranged
arranged just
by some
some of
of its
its memmemjust by
tire
the colony
usually became
polis. In
bers, the
bers,
colony still
still usually
became an
an independent
independent polls.
In this,
this,the
the
Greek
Greek colonies
colonies differed
differed from
from the
the Tyrian
Tyrian ones.
ones. There
There were,
were, neverthenevertheto create
less, some
less,
some exceptions.
exceptions. Corinth
Corinth attempted
attempted to
create aa sea
sea empire;
empire; the
the
towns
by the
the Corinthians
were aa guarantee
towns founded
founded by
Corinthians were
guarantee of
of Corinth's
Corinth's
domination
and northwestern
northwestern sea
sea routes.
For some
domination over
over the
the western
western and
routes. For
some
ruled over
time
time Corinth
Corinth ruled
over the
the island
island of
of Corcyra.
Corcyra. But
But the
the attempt
attempt to
to
failed. Although
Although for
for aa long
Corinth sent
create aa colonial
colonial empire
create
empire failed.
long time
time Corinth
sent
aa deputy
deputy to
to Potidaea
Potidaea on
on the
the northern
northern coast
coast of
of the
the Aegean,
Aegean, this
this city
city was
was
actually independent
and sometimes
sometimes acted
acted against
against the
of the
the
independent and
the interests
interests of
actually
metropolis.
metropolis.
Independence
the colonies
was the
rule, but
Independence of
of the
colonies was
the rule,
but they
they always
always felt
felt
the metropolis.
spiritual
spiritual ties
ties with
with the
metropolis.AtAta atime
timewhen
whenthe
theconcept
conceptofofkinkinstructured society
society was
was still
still fresh
fresh in
in the
the minds
of people,
the inhabiinhabistructured
minds of
people, the
metropolisand
andthe
thecorresponding
correspondingcolony
colonyfelt
feltrelated,
related,asas
tants of
of the
the metropolis
tants
people closely
closely tied
tied together
together in
in the
the face
face of
of an
an alien
alien world.
Embodying
people
world. Embodying
this kinship
kinship was
the sacred
sacred hearth
hearth of
of the
the new
new city,
city, which
which kept
kept the
fire
this
was the
the fire
taken
from the
the hearth
hearth of
of the
the old
old city.
city. As
As aa rule,
rule, aa colony
colony did
did not
wage
not wage
taken from
metropolis;usually
usuallycities
citiesfounded
foundedbybythe
thesame
samemetropolis
metropolis
war against
against its
its metropolis;
war
supported each
each other.
other. Thus,
Thus, even
even as
as late
late as
as the
the second
second century
century B.C.,
supported
B.C.,
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Lampsacus
Lampsacus in
sought help
help
the
in northwestern
northwestern Asia
Asia Minor
Minor sought
from the
the citizens
citizens of
of Massalia
Massalia (modern
(modern Marseilles,
Marseilles, France)
France) in
in their
their nefrom
negotiations with
Rome, because
both cities
cities were
were founded
founded 500
500 years
years
gotiations
with Rome,
because both
metropolis,Phocaea.
Phocaea.Although
Althougha acolony
colonyand
anditsitsmemebefore by
the same
same metropolis,
before
by the
tropolisdid
did not
notform
form alliances
alliancesororshare
sharea acommon
commoncitizenship,
citizenship,any
any
tropolis
newly arrived
arrived metropolitan
became aa citizen
citizen of
of the
the colony,
colony,
newly
metropolitan inhabitant
inhabitant became
and any
any colonist
colonist returning
returning to
to his
native hearth
hearth was
was reinstated
to his
his
and
his native
reinstated to
original citizenship
citizenship without
without much
difficulty. Initially,
the new
colony
much difficulty.
Initially, the
new colony
original
and
copied the
community the
the colonists
colonists had
had left,
left, with
with the
the same
same phylae
the community
phylae and
copied
the
same
state
structure.
But
with
time,
as
a
result
of
internal
social
the same state structure. But with time, as a result of internal social
and political
political conflicts,
conflicts, everything
everything could
could change,
change, so
so that
that the
the paths
paths of
and
of
political
development
in
the
colonies
could
diverge
completely
from
political development in the colonies could diverge completely from
that of
of the
the metropolis.
that
metropolis.
Many
but by
by several
Many colonies
colonies were
were established
established not
not by
by one
one but
several metropoleis.
metropoleis.
Thus
Thus in
in Italy,
Italy, Cumae
Cumae was
was established
established by
by the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Chalcis
Chalcis and
and
Eretria
Eretria (both
(both on
on the
the island
island of
of Euboea)
Euboea) and
and perhaps
perhaps also
also by
by the
the
Cymaeans of
of Asia
Asia Minor.
Minor. Rhegium,
Rhegium, also
also in
in Italy,
was established
established by
Italy, was
by
Cymaeans
Chalcis and
and Messene;
Messene; Gela,
Gela, by
by people
people from
from Rhodes
Rhodes and
and Crete.
Crete. But
But
Chalcis
even if
if all
all the
the migrants
migrants sailed
sailed from
from the
the same
same city,
city, it
it did
did not
not mean
mean that
that
even

358

Yu.
Yu. B.
B. Tsirkin
Tsirkin

they had
been its
populations of
were still
they
had all
all been
its citizens.
citizens. The
The populations
of Greek
Greek cities
cities were
still
poleis of
ofHellas
Hellasfounded
founded several,
several,
quite
nevertheless, quite
quite small;
small; nevertheless,
quite aa few
few poleis
even many,
many, colonies.
colonies. According
According to
legend, Miletus
metropolis
was the
the metropolis
even
to legend,
Miletus was
for
for seventy-five
seventy-five colonies.
colonies. It
It is
is difficult
difficult to
to imagine
imagine that
that the
the mother-city
mother-city
could have
have had
had enough
enough people
people for
for so
so many
and still
still prepremany migrations
migrations and
could
serve its
its own
own existence.
existence. Therefore,
it seems
seems probable
that these
these cities
cities
Therefore, it
probable that
serve
were transit
transit distribution
distribution centers
centers where
where the
the expeditions
expeditions were
were initiated.
initiated.
were
The rule
in such
such cases
cases was,
apparently, to
consider the
migration cencenThe
rule in
was, apparently,
to consider
the migration
ter as
as the
the metropolis.
metropolis.IfIfthere
therewere
wereseveral
severalofofthem,
them,the
theimmediate
immediateiniiniter
tiator became
the metropolis.
metropolis.(This
(Thiswas
wasthe
thecase
caseofofEpidamnus,
Epidamnus,which
which
tiator
became the
was
founded by
Corcyra and
and Corinth:
Corinth: its
its metropolis
metropoliswas
wasCorcyra.)
Corcyra.)
by Corcyra
was founded
To
their lives
had to
To start
start their
lives in
in aa new
new land,
land, the
the colonists
colonists had
to possess
possess aa cercertain
the future
their enterprise.
tain degree
degree of
of confidence
confidence in
in the
future success
success of
of their
enterprise.
Therefore,
the actual
new
Therefore, besides
besides reconnoitering
reconnoitering the
actual environment
environment of
of aa new
region,
they also
also sought
sought to
to enlist
enlist divine
divine patronage.
Apollo proproregion, they
patronage. Apollo
nounced
on the
future of
of such
such expeditions
expeditions at
at his
oracle
nounced his
his prophecy
prophecy on
the future
his oracle
in Delphi.
Delphi. The
The temple
temple of
of Apollo
Apollo in
in Delphi,
Delphi, which
enjoyed wide
interwhich enjoyed
wide interin
national
and received
of information
information from
from all
received aa vast
vast flow
flow of
all
national connections
connections and
corners of
of the
known world,
world, gradually
gradually became
sort of
regulatory
the known
became aa sort
of regulatory
corners
center
for the
and directed
directed the
colonial expeditions.
expeditions.
center for
the migrants
migrants and
the flow
flow of
of colonial
The
proceeded in
three main
main directions:
The great
great Greek
Greek colonization
colonization proceeded
in three
directions:
the westernthe
western-the coast
the Ionian
Ionian Sea
(1)
(1) the
coast and
and islands
islands of
of the
Sea to
to northnorthwestern
Greece, Italy,
Italy, Sicily,
Sicily, southern
southern Gaul,
Gaul, and
and Spain;
Spain; (2)
(2) the
northwestern Greece,
the northeasternthe northern
coast of
of the
Sea, the
Hellespont, the
the
eastern-the
northern coast
the Aegean
Aegean Sea,
the Hellespont,
Propontis, the
Thracian Bosporus,
Bosporus, and
and the
shores of
of the
Black Sea
Sea
Propontis,
the Thracian
the shores
the Black
(Pontus
(Pontus Euxinus);
Euxinus); (3)
(3) the
the southeastern
southeastern and
and southern-the
southernthe southern
southern
coast of
of Asia
Asia Minor
and Africa.
Africa.
coast
Minor and
The first
first two
were the
main ones
pioneered by
by
The
two directions
directions were
the main
ones and
and were
were pioneered
people from
from the
two Euboean
Euboean cities:
cities: Chalcis
Chalcis and
and Eretria.
Eretria. In
In the
first
the two
the first
people
half of
the eighth
B.C. these
these cities
cities had
had already
already reached
reached aa high
high
half
of the
eighth century
century B.C.
level
level of
of development.
development. Situated
Situated on
on the
the coast
coast of
of aa strait
strait that
that was
was aa major
major
northern and
these cities
sea
sea lane
lane connecting
connecting northern
and middle
middle Greece,
Greece, these
cities held
held an
an
important share
share of
of trade
trade in
in Greece.
Greece. In
In addition,
addition, they
possessed
important
they possessed
copper
copper deposits
deposits and
and fairly
fairly fertile
fertile land,
land, which
which was
was concentrated
concentrated in
in the
the
hands
of the
the aristocrats.
aristocrats. The
The importance
importance of
of these
two cities
cities is
hands of
these two
is illusillustrated
by the
fact that
that when
when war
war broke
broke out
out between
between them
them in
in the
last
trated by
the fact
the last
third of
of the
eighth century
century B.C.,
B.C., many
many important
Greek cities
cities joined
joined
third
the eighth
important Greek
in, on
on one
one side
side or
or the
the other.
other. Before
Before this
this war,
war, both
both cities
cities jointly
enin,
jointly engaged
in
colonizing
enterprises.
In
this
they
were
followed
by
Corinth
gaged in colonizing enterprises. In this they were followed by Corinth
and Megara.
Megara. These
These cities
cities were
important centers
centers of
of trade
trade and
and indusindusand
were important
try,
but
their
lands
were
not
fertile,
so
their
inhabitants
sailed
overseas
try, but their lands were not fertile, so their inhabitants sailed overseas
not only
also to
find and
cultivate good
good land.
land. This
the
not
only to
to trade
trade but
but also
to find
and cultivate
This was
was the
reason
why
rural
dwellers
from
the
village
Tenea
took
part
in
the
Correason why rural dwellers from the village Tenea took part in the Corinthian colonization.
colonization. Other
Other centers
of Greece
followed the
lead of
the
inthian
centers of
Greece followed
the lead
of the

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

359
359

first cities.
cities. By
By the
the eighth
eighth and
and early
early seventh
seventh centuries
centuries backward
backward agriagrifirst
and Sparta,
Sparta,
cultural regions
regions and
and communities,
communities, such
such as
as Locris,
Locris, Achaea,2
Achaea,2 and
cultural
also
joined in
in the
the founding
founding of
of colonies.
colonies.
also joined
Initially,
Initially, the
the Hellenes
Hellenes turned
turned west,
west, starting
starting with
with the
the Euboeans.
Euboeans. A
A
settlement of
of Chalcidians
Chalcidians and
and Eretrians
Eretrians appeared
appeared in
in 774
774 B.C.
B.C. on
on
settlement
Pitecussa, aa small
small island
island near
near the
the western
western coast
coast of
of central
central Italy.
Italy. This
This
Pitecussa,
year can
can be
be considered
considered the
starting point
of the
the great
great colonization.
colonization.
year
the starting
point of
After some
some fifty
years, the
the Euboeans
Euboeans also
also settled
settled on
on the
the mainland,
mainland,
After
fifty years,
establishing Capua,
Capua, which
followed by
by other
other cities,
cities, including
including
establishing
which was
was followed
Naples. The
The region
region where
where these
these cities
cities were
were established
established (Campania)
(Campania)
Naples.
was the
the most
most fertile
fertile in
in Italy,
Italy, but
but the
the Euboean
Euboean colonization
colonization in
in the
the west,
west,
was
especially
Chalcidian, was
mainly oriented
oriented toward
trade.
the Chalcidian,
was probably
probably mainly
toward trade.
especially the
The Chaldcidians
Chaldcidians maintained
active trade
trade with
with the
the Etruscans
Etruscans and
and the
the
The
maintained active
western Phoenicians.
Phoenicians. In
In order
order to
to gain
gain control
control over
over the
the sea
sea route
route bewestern
between Etruria
Etruria and
and Greece,
Greece, they
they established
established their
their colonies
colonies on
on both
both
tween
sides
from Sicily
sides of
of the
the strait
strait separating
separating Italy
Italy from
Sicily (Strait
(Strait of
of Messina):
Messina): at
at
Rhegium and
Zancle. The
The Eretrians
founded aa colony
colony on
on the
the island
island of
Rhegium
and Zancle.
Eretrians founded
of
Corcyra, on the
the route
route from
from Greece
to Italy
Italy and
and Sicily.
Sicily. The
The Euboeans
Euboeans
Corcyra,on
Greece to
were also
also actively
actively involved
involved in
in colonizing
colonizing the
the eastern
eastern coast
coast of
of Sicily.
Sicily.
were
Syracuse became
became the
the major
major Greek
Greek city
city in
in Sicily.
Sicily. It
It was
was apparently
apparently
Syracuse
founded
in 733
Archias, aa
founded in
733 B.C.
B.C. by
by aa Corinthian
Corinthian expedition
expedition led
led by
by Archias,
member
member of
of the
the ruling
ruling Bacchiad
Bacchiad clan,
clan, who
who was
was forced
forced to
to leave
leave his
his city
city
because
of discord
discord at
at home.
On their
their way
way to
to Sicily,
Sicily, the
the Corinthians
Corinthians
home. On
because of
displaced the
the Eretrians
Eretrians from
from Corcyra.
Corcyra. When
When they
they arrived
arrived in
in Sicily,
Sicily,
displaced
they founded
founded aa settlement
settlement on
on the
the small
small island
island of
of Ortygia
Ortygia off
off the
the SiSithey
cilian coast.
coast, it
it was
was only
only somewhat
somewhat later
later that
that the
the city
city of
of Syracuse
Syracuse exexcilian
panded to
to Sicily
Sicily proper.
For aa long
time Ortygia
Ortygia remained
remained the
the
panded
proper. For
long time
fortress and
and the
the administrative
administrative center
center for
for the
the city.
city. Syracuse,
Syracuse, which
which
fortress
had an
an excellent
excellent harbor,
harbor, actively
actively developed
developed its
its crafts
crafts and,
and, later,
later, also
also
had
acquired fertile
fertile lands;
lands; soon
soon it
it became
became aa major
major center
center of
of Sicily
Sicily and
and of
of
acquired
all western
western Greeks.
Greeks. A
powerful state
state emerged
emerged under
under the
of SyraSyraall
A powerful
the rule
rule of
cuse that
that competed
competed with
with Carthage
Carthage and
and sought
sought hegemony
hegemony over
over all
all
cuse
western
Greeks.
western Greeks.
Other
Other Greeks
Greeks participated
participated in
in the
the colonization
colonization of
of Sicily
Sicily simultanesimultaneously with
with the
the Corinthians
Corinthians and
and Chalcidians.
Chalcidians. Thus
Thus the
the Megarians
Megarians
ously
founded Megara
Megara Hyblaea,
the north
north of
of Syracuse,
Syracuse, and
and colonists
colonists
founded
Hyblaea, to
to the
from Rhodes
Rhodes and
and Crete
Crete established
established Gela
Gela on
on the
the southern
southern coast
coast of
of the
the
from
island.
Eventually,
the
Greek
cities
of
Sicily
themselves
began
foundisland. Eventually, the Greek cities of Sicily themselves began founding more
more colonies
colonies on
on the
the island.
island. In
In their
their colonization,
colonization, the
the Greeks
Greeks had
had
ing
to
fight
the
natives,
the
Siculi
and
the
Sicani,
as
well
as
the
Phoenito fight the natives, the Siculi and the Sicani, as well as the Phoenicians, who
came under
under the
the rule
rule of
of Carthage.
Carthage.
cians,
who later
later came
2.
2. These
These are
are not
not the
the Mycenaean
Mycenaean Achaeans,
Achaeans, but
but the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Achaea
Achaea in
in the
the
northern part
part of
the Peloponnesus.
northern
of the
Peloponnesus.

360

Yu.
Yu. B.
B. Tsirkin
Tsirkin

The less
less developed
developed agrarian
agrarian towns
towns and
and regions
regions of
of Greece
Greece preferred
preferred
The
the fertile
Sybthe
fertile land
land of
of southern
southern Italy.
Italy. Achaea
Achaea founded
founded Croton
Croton and
and Sybaris, aa city
city which
later became
famous for
for its
its luxury;
luxury; the
the Spartans
Spartans
aris,
which later
became famous
founded
founded Tarentum;
Tarentum; the
the Locrians
Locrians established
established Locri
Locri Epizephyrii.
Epizephyrii.
Among the
the more
more developed
developed cities,
cities, only
only Colophon,
Colophon, in
in Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, disAmong
disparts. Under
patched an
patched
an expedition
expedition to
to these
these parts.
Under the
the threat
threat of
of aa Lydian
Lydian
Siris,
invasion,
invasion, some
some of
of the
the Colophonians
Colophonians sailed
sailed to
to Italy
Italy and
and founded
founded Siris,
city whose
whose wealth
wealth provoked
provoked the
the envy
envy of
of the
the poet
poet Archilochus,
Archilochus, who
who
aa city
compared the
the difficult
difficult life
life on
on the
the island
island of
of Thasos
Thasos with
with the
the free
free and
and
compared
untrammeled existence
existence of
of the
the citizens
citizens of
of Siris.
Siris. Soon,
Soon, so
so many
many cities
cities
untrammeled
appeared in
in southern
southern Italy
Italy that
that this
this part
part of
of the
the Apennine
Apennine Peninsula
Peninsula
appeared
(sometimes even
even including
including Sicily)
Sicily) began
began to
to be
called Magna
Magna Graecia.
Graecia.
(sometimes
be called
Greek colonies
colonies were
were established
established in
in southern
southern and
and middle
middle Italy,
Italy, as
as
Greek
well
as in
in Sicily,
Sicily, until
the beginning
of the
seventh century
century B.C.
B.C. After
After
beginning of
the seventh
well as
until the
that time,
time, new
new Hellenic
Hellenic cities
cities were
were founded
founded in
in these
these lands
lands by
by alreadyalreadythat
established
B.C., there
there were
were only
only isolated
isolated
established colonies.
colonies. In
In the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.C.,
attempts by
by representatives
representatives from
from the
the original
original metropoleis
metropoleistotoestablish
establish
attempts
colonies in
in this
this part
part of
of the
the Mediterranean;
Mediterranean; men
men from
from Cnidus
Cnidus settled
settled
colonies
the Lipari
Lipari Islands,
Islands, and
and men
men from
from Samos
Samos settled
settled in
in Dicaearchia.
Dicaearchia.
the
The Phocaeans
Phocaeans preferred
preferred to
to proceed
proceed farther
farther west.
west. At
At the
the turn
turn of
of
The
the seventh
seventh to
to sixth
sixth century,
century, the
Phocaean colonization
colonization followed
followed two
the
the Phocaean
two
directions. The
The first
first was
was along
along the
the coast
coast of
of Italy
Italy and
and then
then along
along the
the
directions.
southern coast
coast of
of Gaul
Gaul and
and northeastern
northeastern Spain.
Spain. They
They founded
founded aa numnumsouthern
ber of
of bases
bases on
on the
the route
route from
from the
the metropolis
metropolistotothe
thecolony
colonyofofMassilia
Massilia
ber
in Gaul
Gaul and
and to
to Emporion
Emporion in
in northeastern
northeastern Spain.
Spain. The
The second
second route
route
in
is, via
via Corsica
Corsica and
and the
the Balaeric
Balaeric
passed along
along the
the "island
"island bridge"
bridge"that
passed
-that is,
Islands, directly
directly to
to southeastern
southeastern Spain,
Spain, where
where the
the Tartessians
Tartessians had
had
Islands,
fought the
the Phoenicians
Phoenicians for
for centuries
centuries and
and thus
thus saw
saw the
the Greeks
Greeks as
as allies.
fought
allies.
With
the approval
approval of
of the
the king
of Tartessus,
Tartessus, the
the Phocaeans
Phocaeans established
established
king of
With the
number of
of colonies,
colonies, including
including Menestheou
Menestheou Limen,
Limen, located
located beyond
beyond
aa number
the
Straits of
of Gibraltar,
on the
Atlantic coast.
coast. This
settlement became
became
the Straits
Gibraltar, on
the Atlantic
This settlement
the
limit of
of Greek
colonization.
the westernmost
westernmost limit
Greek colonization.
As
B.C. the
the Chalcidians
Chalcidians and
and Eretrians
Eretrians bebeAs early
early as
as the
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.
gan
colonization in
in the
northeastern direction
direction by
settling on
on aa large
large
by settling
gan colonization
the northeastern
peninsula
peninsula in
in the
the northwestern
northwestern part
part of
of the
the Aegean
Aegean Sea.
Sea. The
The peninsula
peninsula
was
was named
named Chalcidice
Chalcidice because
because the
the colonies
colonies were
were founded
founded by
by the
the ChalChalcidians.
cidians. To
To the
the east
east of
of Chalcidice,
Chalcidice, the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Paros
Paros created
created
their
their colony
colony on
on the
the large
large island
island of
of Thasos,
Thasos, not
not far
far from
from the
the coast
coast of
of
Thrace.
They
later
also
attempted
to
settle
on
the
Thracian
coast.
It
Thrace. They later also attempted to settle on the Thracian coast. It
seems that
Thrace attracted
attracted them
them on
on account
account of
of its
its gold
gold deposits.
deposits.
seems
that Thrace
Among the
the Parians
Parians who
settled on
on Thasos
Thasos was
was the
famous poet
poet ArchiArchiAmong
who settled
the famous
lochus,
whose poems
eloquently describe
describe the
difficult life
life of
colonist.
loch
us, whose
poems eloquently
the difficult
of aa colonist.
beginning of
At the
At
the end
end of
of the
the eighth
eighth and
and beginning
of the
the seventh
seventh centuries,
centuries, the
the
Greeks crossed
crossed the
the Hellespont
Hellespont and
and proceeded
north. Here
Here the
the poleis
Greeks
proceeded north.
poleis

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

361

of
Mytilene, Phocaea,
Phocaea, Miletus,
Coloof eastern
eastern Greece
Greece (Samos,
(Samos, Chios,
Chios, Mytilene,
Miletus, Colophon),
began to
leading role.
phon), as
as well
well as
as Megara,
Megara, began
to play
play the
the leading
role. Soon,
Soon, aa chain
chain
of Hellenic
colonies spread
spread along
along the
the European
European and
and Asiatic
Asiatic shores
shores of
of
of
Hellenic colonies
the
into the
the Hellespont,
Hellespont, the
the Propontis,
Propontis, and
and into
the Thracian
Thracian Bosporus.
Bosporus.
Among these
Megarian colony
colony of
Among
these was
was the
the Megarian
of Byzantium,
Byzantium, located
located on
on the
the
Bosporus,
Bosporus, the
the strait
strait that
that leads
leads into
into the
the Black
Black Sea;
Sea; this
this city
city had
had aa
in late
late antiquity
Ages.
glorious
glorious future
future before
before it
it in
antiquity and
and in
in the
the Middle
Middle Ages.
The
The Iranian-speaking
Iranian-speaking Scythians,
Scythians, who
who lived
lived along
along the
the coast
coast of
of the
the
Black
Black Sea,
Sea, called
called this
this sea
sea Akhshaina
Akhshaina "Dark,"
"Dark," but
but the
the Greek
Greek rendering
rendering
of
like "Inhospitable
of this
this name,
name, Pontus
Pontus Axinus,
Axinus, sounded
sounded like
"Inhospitable Sea,"
Sea," in
in
Greek.
island chains,
in the
Aegean could
Greek. The
The lack
lack of
of island
chains, which
which in
the Aegean
could facilitate
facilitate
navigation,
perhaps also
navigation, and
and perhaps
also the
the suffering
suffering of
of the
the heroes
heroes whose
whose advenadventures were
were thought
thought to
to have
have taken
taken place
place in
this region,
region, reinforced
reinforced the
the
tures
in this
Greek idea
of the
the inhospitability
inhospitability of
of the
the waters
waters and
and coasts
coasts of
of the
the Black
Black
Greek
idea of
Sea. Since
Since the
the Hellenes
Hellenes believed
believed in
in the
the magic
of names,
names, they
they felt
that
Sea.
magic of
felt that
such aa name
name boded
boded ill.
ill. But
during the
the seventh
seventh to
to sixth
sixth centuries
centuries B.C.
such
But during
B.C.
they
they became
became convinced
convinced of
of the
the wealth
wealth of
of these
these shores
shores and
and changed
changed the
the
local name
name to
to their
own new
new name:
name: Pontus
Pontus Euxinus,
"Hospitable Sea."
Sea."
local
their own
Euxinus, "Hospitable
By
this name
name the
the Black
Sea is
known in
in history.
history.
By this
Black Sea
is known
On
the shores
On the
shores of
of the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea colonies
colonies were
were founded
founded mainly
mainly by
by the
the
cities
Megara and
cities of
of Megara
and Miletus.
Miletus. The
The Phocaeans
Phocaeans also
also tried
tried at
at first
first to
to gain
gain
aa foothold
foothold there,
there, but
but their
their colonies
colonies were
were soon
soon taken
taken over
over by
by the
the MileMilesians.
sians. The
The Megarians
Megarians were
were active
active mainly
mainly near
near the
the outlet
outlet from
from the
the
Thracian
Bosporus, east
the cities
Thracian Bosporus,
east and
and northeast
northeast of
of which
which appeared
appeared the
cities of
of
Heraclea Pontica,
Mesembria, and
and Callatis.
Callatis. Only
Only much
much later
later did
did the
the
HeracIea
Pontica, Mesembria,
Megarians from
from Heraclea
(on the
southern coast
coast of
of the
Black
Megarians
HeracIea Pontica
Pontica (on
the southern
the Black
Sea) cross
cross the
the Pontus
Pontus Euxinus
Euxinus and
and found
Chersonesus Tauricus
Tauricus in
in
Sea)
found Chersonesus
southwestern Crimea
Crimea (on
outskirts of
of modern
Sevastopol).
southwestern
(on the
the outskirts
modern Sevastopol).
Almost
Almost all
all the
the other
other cities
cities of
of the
the southern,
southern, western,
western, northern,
northern, and
and
eastern Black
Sea regions
were founded
founded by
The major
major Mileeastern
Black Sea
regions were
by Miletus.
Miletus. The
Milecity
sian
sian colony
colony on
on the
the southern
southern coast
coast was
was considered
considered to
to be
be Sinope,
Sinope, the
the city
that
headed the
poleis33(Pot
that headed
the Pontus
Pontus union
union of
of poleis
(Potor
orPut
Putininthe
theBible).
Bible).AdAdvancing along
vancing
along the
the western
western coast
coast of
of Pontus
Pontus Euxinus,
Euxinus, the
the Milesians
Milesians
founded Apollonia,
Tomi, and
and Istros,
Istros, and
emerged in
the
founded
Apollonia, Odessus,
Odessus, Tomi,
and emerged
in the
northern
northern region
region of
of the
the Black
Black Sea.
Sea. The
The first
first place
place settled
settled here
here by
by the
the
Milesians was
an island,
island, later
later called
called Berezan
(now Schmidt's
Island),
Milesians
was an
Berezan (now
Schmidt's Island),
12 kilometers
kilometers from
from the
the mainland.
mainland. The
The settlement
settlement on
on this
this island
island seems
seems
12
to
have been
to have
been established
established in
in 643
643 B.C.
Its inhabitants
engaged princiB.C. Its
inhabitants engaged
principally in
in commerce,
commerce, although
although crafts
crafts and
and farming
farming were
were also
also developed.
developed.
pally
Once
familiarized
with
the
local
conditions
and
with
the
natives,
Once familiarized with the local conditions and with the natives, the
the
Greeks
Greeks also
also settled
settled on
on the
the mainland.
mainland. There,
There, in
in the
the mouth
mouth of
of the
the
3.
the allied
poleis exported
3. Sinope
Sinope and
and the
allied poleis
exportediron
ironfrom
fromthe
theChalybes
Chalybesof
ofAsia
AsiaMinor.
Minor.They
They
were
beginning of
century B.C.
B.C. Editor's
were founded
founded at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the seventh
seventh or
or beginning
of the
the sixth
sixth century
Editor's
note (IMD).
(IMD).
note

362

Yu.
Yu. B.
B. Tsirkin
Tsirkin

southern
B.C.,
southern Bug
Bug River,
River, at
at the
the very
very beginning
beginning of
of the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.C.,
The Greeks
Greeks founded
founded albia,
Olbia, which
which became
became the
the major
major Greek
Greek center
center in
in
The
the northwestern
northwestern region
region of
of the
the Black
Black Sea.
Sea. Other
Other settlements
settlements sprung
sprung
the
up
around this
city and
and began
began establishing
establishing close
close ties
ties with
with the
the local
local
up around
this city
Scythian population.
the west
west of
of albia,
Olbia, at
at the
the mouth
mouth of
of the
the
Scythian
population. To
To the
Dniester River,
River, the
the Greeks
Greeks founded
founded Tyras.
Tyras. Another
Another center
center of
of Greek
Greek
Dniester
colonization was
was on
on the
the Cimmerian
Cimmerian Bosporus
Bosporus (Kerch
(Kerch Strait).
Strait). Beside
Beside
colonization
the
Milesians there
were other
other Greeks,
Greeks, from
from Teos
Teos and
and Mytilene,
Mytilene, who
who
there were
the Milesians
settled here,
here, but
but their
their settlements
settlements were
insignificant. It
It seems
seems that
the
settled
were insignificant.
that the
Greeks reached
reached this
this area
area during
during the
the last
last decades
decades of
of the
the seventh
seventh cencenGreeks
tury B.C.
B.C. The
The city
city of
of Panticapaeum
Panticapaeum (modern
(modern Kerch),
Kerch), the
the most
most imporimportury
tant Hellenic
Hellenic city
city for
for the
the eastern
eastern Crimea
Crimea and
and the
the Taman
Taman Peninsula,
Peninsula,
tant
was founded
founded on
on the
the Crimean
Crimean side
side of
of the
strait. Other
Other cities
cities also
also apapthe strait.
was
peared
here in
in the
the sixth
sixth century:
century: Myrmecium,
Myrmecium, Nymphaeum,
and
peared here
Nymphaeum, and
Theodosia and,
and, on
on the
the Caucasian
Caucasian shore
shore (the
(the Asiatic
Asiatic shore,
shore, to
the
Theodosia
to the
Greeks), Phanagoria,
Phanagoria, Cepi,
Cepi, Hermonassa,
Hermonassa, and
and Gorgippia
Gorgippia (modern
(modern
Greeks),
To the
the south
south of
of the
the Bosporus
Bosporus sphere
sphere of
of influence,
influence, on
on the
the
Anapa).4 To
Anapa).4
eastern shore
shore of
of the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea there
there emerged
emerged the
cities
eastern
the Hellenic
Hellenic cities
Pityous (Pitsunda),
(Pitsunda), Dioscurias
(Sukhumi), and
and Phasis
Phasis (Poti).
(Poti). In
In this
this
Pityous
Dioscurias (Sukhumi),
manner,
the entire
entire coast
coast of
of the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea was
covered by
by aa dense
dense netnetmanner, the
was covered
work of
of Greek
Greek colonies.
colonies.
work
The southern
southern direction
direction had
had never
never been
been important
important during
during the
the main
main
The
by
colonizing
colonizing period,
period, no
no matter
matter how
how much
much the
the Greeks
Greeks were
were attracted
attracted by
trade
with Oriental
trade with
Oriental countries
countries and
and Africa.
Africa. This
This is
is quite
quite natural:
natural: the
the
eastern coast
coast of
of the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean was
was in
in the
hands of
of the
the PhoeniPhoenieastern
the hands
cians.
cians. The
The wars
wars between
between Assyria
Assyria and
and Egypt
Egypt discouraged
discouraged foreign
foreign
trade, not
not to
to speak
speak of
of founding
founding settlements,
settlements, and
and to
to the
the west
west of
of Egypt,
Egypt,
trade,
the Hellenes
Hellenes encountered
encountered resistance
resistance from
from the
the Carthaginians.
Carthaginians. Only
Only in
in
the
the region
of Cyrenaica,
Cyrenaica, between
between Egypt
Egypt and
and the
Carthaginian domindominthe
region of
the Carthaginian
ions, were
the Greeks
Greeks able
able to
found aa few
few cities
cities of
of their
their own.
own. The
first
to found
The first
ions,
were the
was Cyrene,
Cyrene, founded
founded by
by the
the Therans
Therans (who,
(who, in
in turn,
turn, descended
descended from
from
was
the Spartans)
Spartans) in
in 631-630
631-630 B.C.;
B.C.; the
the other
other was
was Barca,
Barca, built
in the
the sixth
sixth
the
built in
century by
by the
the Cyreneans
Cyreneans and
and Cretans.
Cretans. All
All our
our knowledge
knowledge about
about the
the
century
colonization of
Cyrenaica indicates
indicates that
were purely
purely
of Cyrenaica
that the
the colonies
colonies were
colonization
agrarian in
in character,
character, despite
despite the
the fact
fact that
that the
colonization took
took place
place
agrarian
the colonization
relatively late.
late.
relatively
Quite different
different was
was the
the activity
activity of
of the
the Greeks
Greeks in
in Egypt.
Egypt. They
They acted
acted
Quite
here
here in
in the
the capacity
capacity of
of hired
hired soldiers
soldiers and
and merchants.
merchants. When
When Egypt
Egypt
rule, the
pharaohs, seeking
gained its
its freedom
freedom from
from Assyrian
Assyrian rule,
the Sai'te
Saite pharaohs,
seeking
gained
4.
4. Around
Around 480
480 B.C.,
B.C., all
all these
these poleis
poleis united
unitedtotoform
form the
themighty
mightyBosporus
Bosporuskingdom
kingdom
explored the
the region
region of
the Sea
of
with its
with
its capital
capital in
in Panticapaeum.
Panticapaeum. The
The Bosporites
Bosporites also
also explored
of the
Sea of
Azov, which
called Lake
Lake Maeotis,
Maeotis, and
and established
established aa settlement
settlement at
at its
its northwestern
northwestern
Azov,
which they
they called
corner,
it Tanais,
at the
the mouth
mouth of
of the
of the
the same
same name
name (now
(now the
the Don).
corner, calling
calling it
Tanais, at
the river
river of
Don).
This
settlement became
became the
farthest northeastern
northeastern colony
colony of
of the
the Greeks.
This settlement
the farthest
Greeks.

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

363

allies
allies in
in the
the Greeks,
Greeks, offered
offered them
them an
an opportunity
opportunity to
to settle
settle in
in Egypt.
Egypt.
The
main Greek
The main
Greek settlement
settlement became
became Naucratis,
Naucratis, apparently
apparently founded
founded
toward
toward the
the end
end of
of the
the seventh
seventh century.
century. This
This city
city was
was aa very
very unusual
unusual
colony. It
It had
had no
no less
less than
than twelve
twelve metropoleis
metropoleis(Chios,
(Chios,
Teos,
Phosort of
of colony.
sort
Teos,
Phocaea, Clazomenae,
Clazomenae, Rhodes,
Rhodes, Cnidus,
Cnidus, Halicarnassus,
Halicarnassus, Phaselis,
Phaselis, Mytilene,
Mytilene,
caea,
Miletus, Aegina,
Aegina, and
and Samos),
Samos), but
but at
at the
the same
same time
time it
it was
was under
under the
the
Miletus,
strict control
control of
of Egyptian
Egyptian authorities.
authorities. The
The degree
degree of
of internal
internal autonautonstrict
omy of
of this
this city
city varied
varied depending
depending on
on the
the policies
policies of
of Egypt
Egypt (and,
(and, later,
later,
omy
on the
the policies
policies of
of the
the Persian
Persian satraps
satraps in
in Egypt),
Egypt), but
but Naucratis
Naucratis was
on
was
never an
an independent
independent polls.
Possessing no
no farming
farming territory,
territory, it
it rerenever
polis. Possessing
mained strictly
strictly aa commercial
commercial and
and industrial
industrial settlement,
settlement, aa center
center of
of imimmained
portation of
of all
all sorts
sorts of
of Greek
Greek goods
goods into
into Egypt
Egypt and
and of
of exportation
exportation of
of
portation
Egyptian merchandise
merchandise and
and its
its imitations
imitations to
to all
all countries
countries of
of the
the ancient
ancient
Egyptian
world. Probably
Probably the
the short-lived
short-lived Greek
Greek colonies
colonies (or
(or stations)
stations) on
on the
the
world.
Syrian coast
coast at
at the
the modern
sites of
of Sukas
Sukas and
and AI-Mina
Al-Mina had
had aa status
status
Syrian
modern sites
similar to
to that
that of
of Naucratis.
Naucratis. The
The hostility
hostility of
of the
the mountain
mountain dwellers
dwellers
similar
prevented widespread
widespread Greek
Greek colonization
colonization of
of the
the southern
southern coast
coast of
of
prevented
Asia Minor.
Minor. The
The Greeks
Greeks were
were able
able to
to establish
establish here
only aa few
few bases
bases
Asia
here only
on the
the trading
trading route
route from
from Greece
Greece to
to the
the Orient.
Orient.
on
We
mentioned that
beWe have
have already
already mentioned
that some
some colonies
colonies eventually
eventually became
metropoleis.Thus
ThusthetheBosporites
Bosporitesfounded
foundedTanais,
Tanais,thetheSybarites
Sybarites
came metropoleis.
founded
founded Poseidonia,
Poseidonia, the
the Massalians
Massalians founded
founded Nicaea
Nicaea (now
(now Nice),
Nice), and
and
so
so forth.
forth. On
On occasion,
occasion, the
the new
new metropoleis
metropoleiswere
werehelped
helpedbybytheir
theirown
own
metropoleis.
metropoleis.Thus,
Thus,Corcyra
Corcyraestablished
establisheda colony
a colonywith
withthethehelp
helpofofCorCorinth,
inth, and
and the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Gela
Gela founded
founded Agrigentum
Agrigentum together
together with
with
the
A
the Rhodians.
Rhodians. In
In other
other instances,
instances, the
the colonies
colonies acted
acted on
on their
their own.
own. A
secondary
differsecondary colonization
colonization (or
(or subcolonization)
subcolonization) was
was frequently
frequently of
of aa different character
character than
than the
the primary.
primary. Thus
Thus the
the Phocaean
Phocaean colonization
colonization in
in
ent
the
Masthe west
west had
had aa commercial
commercial and
and industrial
industrial character,
character, whereas
whereas the
the Massalian
salian subcolonization
subcolonization was
was more
more agrarian.
agrarian. The
The Achaean
Achaean colonization
colonization
in Italy
Italy was
was clearly
clearly marked
marked by
by its
its agrarian
agrarian character,
character, but
but Achaean
Achaean
in
Sybaris
Sybaris established
established its
its colonies
colonies as
as bases
bases for
for trade
trade with
with Etruria
Etruria and
and
other regions
regions of
of Italy
Italy in
in order
order to
to bypass
bypass the
the Chalcidians,
Chalcidians, who
who were
were
other
firmly rooted
rooted on
on the
the Strait
Strait of
of Messina.
Messina.
firmly
In
half centuries,
In the
the course
course of
of two
two and
and aa half
centuries, the
the Greeks
Greeks founded
founded aa netnetwork of
of settlements
settlements along
along aa significant
significant portion
portion of
of the
the Mediterranean
Mediterranean
work
coast,
coast, in
in the
the entire
entire Black
Black Sea
Sea region,
region, and
and in
in the
the greater
greater part
part of
of the
the Sea
Sea
of Azov
Azov region.
region. Greek
Greek colonies
colonies spanned
spanned an
an enormous
enormous territory,
territory, from
from
of
Menestheou Limen,
Limen, beyond
beyond the
the Pillars
Pillars of
of Hercules
Hercules (Straits
(Straits of
of
Menestheou
Gibraltar),
MasGibraltar), to
to Tanais,
Tanais, at
at the
the mouth
mouth of
of the
the river
river Don,
Don, and
and from
from Massalia
salia and
and Adria
Adria to
to Naucratis.
Naucratis. Using
Using these
these cities
cities as
as their
their bases,
bases, traders
traders
foreignand travelers
travelers penetrated
penetrated farther,
farther, into
into the
the very
very heartland
heartland of
of aa foreignand
speaking world
world ("barbarian
("barbarian world"
world" to
to the
the Greeks).
Greeks). They
They traveled
traveled upupspeaking
river
on the
the Dnieper,
Dnieper, the
the Rhone,
Rhone, the
the Danube,
Danube, and
and the
the Nile,
and even
even
river on
Nile, and

364

Yu.
Yu. B. Tsirkin
Tsirkin

reached
reached the
the perilous
perilous waters
waters of
of the
the ocean.
ocean. The
The most
most enterpnsmg
enterprising
among the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of metropoleis
metropoleistraveled
traveledtoto
distantlands
landsininorder
order
among
distant
to establish
Such persons
great contribution
the
to
establish colonies.
colonies. Such
persons made
made aa great
contribution to
to the
rapid
development of
of the
the colonies.
colonies. Many
Many new
new cities
cities quickly
quickly became
became
rapid development
highly
developed economic
economic centers,
centers, far
far surpassing
surpassing their
their metropoleis.
metropoleis.
highly developed
Achaea
remained aa poor,
for aa long
long time
time to
to come,
Achaea remained
poor, backward
backward region
region for
come,
while the
colony of
of Sybaris
Sybaris became
became one
one of
of the
the wealthiest
wealthiest cities
cities
while
the Achaean
Achaean colony
in Italy.
Italy. The
The prosperity
of this
city was
was so
so great
great that
that despite
despite its
itsrelatively
relatively
prosperity of
this city
in
short existence
existence (it
was destroyed
destroyed by
by the
the rival
rival inhabitants
inhabitants of
of Croton,
Croton, also
also
short
(it was
of Achaean
origin, in
in 510
510 B.C.),
luxurious life
life of
of the
Sybarites beof
Achaean origin,
B.C.), the
the luxurious
the Sybarites
became legendary.
legendary. Many
Many cities
cities founded
founded by
the Greeks
Greeks still
still exist
exist today;
today;
by the
came
for example,
example, Istanbul
Istanbul (ancient
(ancient Byzantium),
Byzantium), Marseilles
Marseilles (Phocaean
(Phocaean
for
Massalia),
still continues
continues the
original Greek
Greek desigdesigMassalia), Naples
Naples (this
(this name
name still
the original
nation Neapolis),
Kerch (Panticapaeum),
(Panticapaeum), Sinope,
Sinope, Poti
Poti (Phasis),
(Phasis), and
and
nation
Neapolis), Kerch
Sukhumi (Dioscurias).
(Dioscurias).
Sukhumi
The relation
between the
native "BarbarThe
relation between
the Greek
Greek colonists
colonists and
and the
the native
"Barbarbut both
both groups
groups consistently
ian"
ian" inhabitants
inhabitants varied,
varied, but
consistently influenced
influenced one
one
another. Hellenic
Hellenic influence
influence accelerated
accelerated the
the economic,
economic, social,
social, and
and culanother.
cultural development
of the
the Barbarians;
Barbarians; for
example, the
the Celts
Celts in
tural
development of
for example,
in Gaul
Gaul
and the
Scythians north
of the
Black Sea.
Sea. On
On the
the other
other hand,
and
the Scythians
north of
the Black
hand, the
the new
new
environments influenced
influenced the
the Greeks.
Greeks. This
This is
is especially
especially apparent
apparent in
in
environments
the
culture of
of the
the colonists.
colonists. Historians
Historians specializing
specializing in
in the
the study
study of
of culthe culture
cultures
classify the
art of
of the
the Greek
Greek cities
cities of
of the
the northern
northern Black
Black Sea
Sea
tures classify
the art
region
and of
of Magna
Magna Graecia
Graecia as
as separate
separate and,
and, in
in many
many respects,
respects, disdisregion and
tinctive
variants of
of Greek
culture as
as aa whole.
tinctive variants
Greek culture
whole.
The colonization
The
colonization also
also had
had an
an important
important influence
influence on
on the
the metropoleis;
metropoleis;
Greek
Whatever the
Greek trade
trade acquired
acquired aa truly
truly international
international character.
character. Whatever
the
original
the founding
original aim
aim of
of the
founding of
of the
the colony
colony in
in some
some far-off
far-off land,
land,
whether
for trade
settlements founded
founded there
there could
could
whether for
trade or
or farming,
farming, the
the settlements
not
have existed
without some
with Greece.
Greece. From
From there
not have
existed without
some links
links with
there the
the
Greeks
received merchandise
they considered
Greeks received
merchandise they
considered indispensable
indispensable for
for aa
normal life:
life: grapes
grapes and
and wine,
olive oil,
oil, handicrafts,
handicrafts, and
and artworks.
artworks.
normal
wine, olive
Some of
of these
were resold
resold to
to the
local population,
involving
these products
products were
the local
population, involving
Some
metropoleis
it,
too, in
They exported
exported to
it, too,
in international
international commerce.
commerce. They
to the
the metropoleis
such vital
vital wares
as grain,
grain, metals,
metals, timber,
timber, slaves,
slaves, and
and fish.
This natunatusuch
wares as
fish. This
rally
the development
development of
of commodity-money
commodity-money relations,
the
relations, to
to the
rally led
led to
to the
growth
of
artisan
and
trader
groups
in
the
archaic
poleis,
and
to
the
growth of artisan and trader groups in the archaic poleis, and to the
strengthening
of
their
social
role.
strengthening of their social role.
Slaves
Slaves were
were among
among the
the important
important commodities
commodities shipped
shipped to
to Greece
Greece
from the
increasing number
economic
from
the periphery.
periphery. Their
Their increasing
number created
created the
the economic
possibility for
possibility
for the
the abolishment
abolishment of
of slavery
slavery (bondage)
(bondage) for
for debts.
debts. Foreign
Foreign
slaves became
factor in
in the
Greek way
way of
of life.
life. This
This led
led to
to aa further
further
slaves
became aa factor
the Greek
separation between
between Greek
Greek and
and foreigner,
foreigner, to
to the
the solidarity
solidarity of
of the
free
separation
the free
against
the
unfree.
against the unfree.

Phoenician
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek Colonization
Colonization

365

As the
process of
of colonization
colonization went
went on,
on, the
the metropolis
As
the process
metropoliswas
wasbeing
beingleft
left
by the
the poor,
poor, who
more to
lose at
at home.
One of
of the
most
who had
had nothing
nothing more
to lose
home. One
the most
by
important results
results of
of the
the great
great colonization
colonization was
the fact
fact that
that the
relaimportant
was the
the relative
overpopulation of
of the
homeland had
had been
been overcome.
overcome. For
For aa cercerthe homeland
tive overpopulation
tain period,
of people
was brought
brought into
into accord
accord with
with the
the
the number
number of
people was
tain
period, the
level of
of development
development of
of production
forces, and
and the
the middle
middle strata
strata of
level
production forces,
of
the
These were
were exactly
exactly the
the social
social
the population
population grew
grew in
in importance.
importance. These
groups
that stood
stood up
for their
their economic,
economic, social,
social, and
and political
aims with
groups that
up for
political aims
with
more and
resolution.
more
and more
more resolution.
Thus,
hand, an
Thus, colonization
colonization brought
brought about,
about, on
on the
the one
one hand,
an aggravation
aggravation
of
metropolisand,
and,ononthe
theother
other
of the
the social
social and
and political
political conflicts
conflicts in
in the
the metropolis
hand,
hand, the
the preconditions
preconditions for
for the
the stabilization
stabilization of
of the
the society,
society, for
for its
its uniunidirected against
fication
fication into
into aa natural
natural association
association directed
against the
the slaves-a
slavesa definidefiniclassical polity
polity that
back to
to Marx
Engels.
tion
tion of
of the
the classical
that goes
goes back
Marx and
and Engels.
Finally, we
Finally,
we must
must note
note that
that the
the familiarization
familiarization of
of the
the Greeks
Greeks with
with
faraway
lands widened
widened their
cultivated their
their curiosity
faraway lands
their outlook,
outlook, cultivated
curiosity and
and ininthat was
foreign and
them thinkterest
in all
terest in
all that
was foreign
and unconventional,
unconventional, and
and set
set them
thinking
about aa wide
wide range
range of
of new
new subjects.
subjects. The
The Greeks
Greeks learned
that
ing about
learned that
although
not inhabited
it
although the
the outside
outside world
world was
was not
inhabited by
by awful
awful monsters,
monsters, it
varied than
had believed;
was more
was
more varied
than they
they had
believed; this
this became
became the
the psychologipsychological foundation
foundation of
of Hellenic
sciences and
and Hellenic
rationalism.
Hellenic sciences
Hellenic rationalism.
cal
In
lecture, we
point out
subIn closing
closing this
this lecture,
we should
should point
out that
that the
the different
different subregions of
the Phoenician
regions
of the
the Mediterranean,
Mediterranean, as
as aa result
result of
of the
Phoenician and
and Greek
Greek
colonizations, began
began to
to undergo
single historical
historical process.
process.
undergo aa single
colonizations,

18
18
India,
Central Asia,
Asia, and
and Iran
India, Central
Iran
in
the First
First Half
Half of
of the
in the
the
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
First
B.C.
G.
G. F.

IL'YIN AND I.
M. DIAKONOFF
I. M.

The
The Aryan
Aryan Question
Question
Today,
northern and
part of
Today, almost
almost all
all of
of northern
and part
of southern
southern India
India are
are inhabinhabited by
speaking Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan languages
(Punjabi, Gujarati,
Gujarati,
ited
by peoples
peoples speaking
languages (Punjabi,
Hindi,
Marathi, Bengali,
In Kashmir,
Kashmir, in
in the
the western
western
Hindi, Marathi,
Bengali, and
and others).'
others).1 In
foothills
of the
the Himalayas,
there is
foothills of
Himalayas, there
is also
also an
an Indo-European
Indo-European DardicDardicspeaking population.
population. Dravidian
languages (Telugu,
(Telugu, Tamil,
Kannada,
speaking
Dravidian languages
Tamil, Kannada,
most parts
parts of
Malayalam,
Malayalam, and
and others)
others) are
are spoken
spoken in
in most
of southern
southern India;
India;
Munda
by aa relic
relic population
population in
middle India;
Munda languages
languages are
are spoken
spoken by
in middle
India;
and Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman languages
languages are
are spoken,
spoken, alongside
alongside Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan
and
ones,
by the
ones, by
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the Himalayan
Himalayan foothills.
foothills. Moreover,
Moreover, in
in
southern India
India there
there lives,
lives, or
or lived,
lived, aa small
small number
of aboriginal
aboriginal
southern
number of
tribes
speaking Veddoid
(The term
is not
the
term is
not related
related to
to the
tribes speaking
Veddoid languages.
languages. (The
Veda, denoting
denoting the
thereligious
religiousbooks
booksof
ofancient
ancient India.)
India.)The
The ananword Veda,
word
cestors of
of the
speakers of
of all
all these
languages migrated
Inthe speakers
these different
different languages
migrated to
to Incestors
dia at
at various
most ancient
ancient were
dia
various times.
times. The
The most
were the
the Veddoid
Veddoid tribes.
tribes.
The
by Indo-Aryan-speaking
The island
island of
of Sri
Sri Lanka
Lanka22 is
is inhabited
inhabited by
Indo-Aryan-speaking SinSinhalese
and by
by Dravidian-speaking
Dravidian-speaking Tamils.
Tamils.
halese and
The southern
Iranian plateau
plateau was
by Elamites,
The
southern Iranian
was originally
originally inhabited
inhabited by
Elamites,
ling~istically related
related to
to the
the Dravidians.
Dravidians. The
who were,
were, perhaps,
perhaps, linguistically
who
The
northern and
western parts
parts of
of the
plateau were
probably ococnorthern
and western
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
were probably
cupied
by tribes
tribes speaking
related to
to the
the Eastern
cupied by
speaking languages
languages related
Eastern Caucasian
Caucasian
family. At
At present,
present, Iran,
Iran, Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, and
and part
of Central
Central Asia
part of
Asia are
are ininfamily.
groups speaking
Iranian languages,
languages, which,
which, like
like the
habited
by ethnic
ethnic groups
habited by
speaking Iranian
the
Indo-Aryan ones,
linguistic family:
family: PerPerIndo-Aryan
ones, belong
belong to
to the
the Indo-European
Indo-European linguistic
sians, Tadjiks,
Tadjiks, Pathans
Pathans (i.e.,
(i.e., Afghans
Afghans speaking
speaking Pashto),
Pashto), and
and different
different
sians,
mountain-dwelling
speaking East
East Iranian
Iranian and
and Kafir
languages.
Kafir languages.
mountain-dwelling tribes
tribes speaking
1.
1. The
The first
first section
section was
was written
written jointly
jointly by
by both
both authors.
authors. The
The next
next four
four sections
sections were
were
M. Diakonoff.
written
by G.
written by
G. F.
F. II'yin,
Il'yin, and
and the
the last
last two
two by
by I.
I. M.
Diakonoff.
2.
Sri Lanka,
Sacred Island
name of
the island
2. Sri
Lanka, "The
"The Sacred
Island Lanka,"
Lanka," is
is the
the Sanskrit
Sanskrit name
of the
island formerly
formerly
the island
by the
known by
by its
known
its garbled
garbled Sinhalese
Sinhalese name
name Ceylon.
Ceylon. Since
Since the
island is
is also
also inhabited
inhabited by
the
Tamils,
the ancient
was selected
Tamils, who
who call
call the
the island
island Ham,
Ham, or
or IIanka,
Ilanka, the
ancient sacred
sacred name
name was
selected as
as its
its
new,
by way
new, official
official denomination,
denomination, by
way of
of compromise.
compromise.

India, Central Asia, and Iran

367

A Turkic-speaking
A
Turkic-speaking population
population first
first appeared
appeared here
here during
during the
the Middle
Middle
The Indo-Aryan,
Indo-Aryan, Dardo-Kafir,
Dardo-Kafir, and
and Iranian
Iranian languages
languages form
Ages. The
Ages.
form aa
common
Indo-Iranian subfamily
subfamily of
of the
the Indo-European
common Indo-Iranian
Indo-European languages.
languages.
The
homeland of
the Indo-European
is usually
The ancestral
ancestral homeland
of the
Indo-European speakers
speakers is
usually
to have
the deciduous
deciduous forests
forests of
considered
considered either
either to
have been
been in
in the
of the
the eastern
eastern
portion of
the vast
vast steppes
north of
of
portion
of central
central and
and southern
southern Europe
Europe or
or in
in the
steppes north
the
the Black
Black and
and Caspian
Caspian seas.
seas.33
The
Indo-European unity
unity is
is
The beginning
beginning of
of the
the disintegration
disintegration of
of Indo-European
dated, with
considerable degree
degree of
of probability,
to the
the fourth
fourth millenmillendated,
with aa considerable
probability, to
nium B.C.
B.C. From
time on,
nium
From that
that time
on, the
the Indo-European
Indo-European tribes
tribes spread
spread south
south
the Balkans
to Asia
Asia Minor
(the Hittites
Hittites and
to
Minor (the
and Luwians),
Luwians), southwest
southwest to
to the
Balkans
(the
(the Greeks
Greeks and
and Thracians),
Thracians), and
and east
east (the
(the Indo-Iranians).4
Indo-Iranians).4 These
These
Indo-European tribes
tribes lived
under comparatively
comparatively primitive
primitive condicondiIndo-European
lived under
tions,
on the
of the
the ancient
ancient world.
world.
the periphery
periphery of
tions, on
Historical linguistics
illuminate the
the natural
natural environment
Historical
linguistics allow
allow us
us to
to illuminate
environment
and
of the
and, in
in part,
part, the
the spiritual
culture, as
as well
and the
the level
level of
the material
material and,
spiritual culture,
well
asto
lesser degree-the
degreethe social
structure of
Indo-European
as-to aa lesser
social structure
of the
the Indo-European
tribes;
tribes; for
for aa somewhat
somewhat later
later period,
period, this
this can
can also
also be
be done
done in
in regard
regard to
to
the original
original Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian tribes.
this time
the
tribes. Without
Without at
at this
time dwelling
dwelling on
on the
the
question
pan-European tribal
us say
say
question of
of the
the pan-European
tribal and/or
and/or linguistic
linguistic unity,
unity, let
let us
aa few
few words
words about
about the
the tribes
tribes during
during the
the time
time of
of the
the Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan unity,
unity,
which,
which, according
according to
to linguistic
linguistic data,
data, must
must be
be dated
dated around
around the
the middle
middle
of
the third
millennium B.C.
B.C. The
of the
third millennium
The existence
existence of
of this
this unity
unity isis indicated
indicated by
by
the
great similarity
languages of
of the
the ancient
the great
similarity between
between the
the languages
ancient Iranians
Iranians and
and
Indo-Aryans,
as well
by many
similarities in
in culture
religion.
Indo-Aryans, as
well as
as by
many similarities
culture and
and religion.
Their
had occurred
by the
Their separation
separation had
occurred by
the middle
middle of
of the
the second
second millenmillennium, when
when some
some of
of the
the tribes
tribes settled
settled in
in Iran
Iran and
and the
the rest
rest continued
continued
nium,
their advance
advance to
to India.
India.
their
Among
arya,
Among the
the Indo-Iranians
Indo-Iranians (and
(and only
only among
among them)
them) the
the term
term arya,
self"noble, wellborn,"
wellborn," was
widely used.
This term
term apparently
apparently was
was aa self"noble,
was widely
used. This
designation by
by those
those tribal
tribal members
members who
who held
leading position
in
designation
held aa leading
position in
the then-existing
then-existing tribal
tribal unions.
For this
this reason
reason scholars
scholars often
use the
the
the
unions. For
often use
3.
Recently, aa new
been proposed
postulates that
the homeland
3. Recently,
new hypothesis
hypothesis has
has been
proposed that
that postulates
that the
homeland
of Indo-European
Indo-European speakers
speakers is
is to
to be
be sought
sought in
the Armenian
highland (eastof
in Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, the
Armenian highland
(eastern
However, many
many linguists
ern Anatolia),
Anatolia), and
and Transcaucasia.
Transcaucasia. However,
linguists and
and practically
practically all
all archaeolarchaeologists do
do not
not accept
especially implausible
is the
localization of
of the
the
ogists
accept this
this hypothesis;
hypothesis; especially
implausible is
the localization
Indo-European
homeland in
Anatolia. According
to this
this new
new hypothesis,
hypothesis, the
the
Indo-European homeland
in eastern
eastern Anatolia.
According to
speakers
of the
main part
the different
different Indo-European
Indo-European languages
are thought
to
the main
part of
of the
languages are
thought to
speakers of
have moved
moved first
first east
east and
and then
then west,
west, through
Central Asia
and then
Europe.
have
through Central
Asia and
then eastern
eastern Europe.
Their migration
from Transcaucasia
Transcaucasia to
is thought
thought to
taken place
in
Their
migration from
to Central
Central Asia
Asia is
to have
have taken
place in
boats,
which is
is highly
highly improbable
improbable for
for so
so early
early aa period.
period. As
As to
to Indo-Iranians,
Indo-Iranians, they
they are
are
boats, which
thought to
to have
have arrived
arrived from
from the
the north
north according
according to
to all
all hypotheses.
hypotheses.
thought
to the
4. A
A later
to be
be that
4.
later migration
migration is
is considered
considered to
that to
to Italy
Italy (the
(the Italics)
Italics) and
and to
the western
western
regions
Europe (Celts,
(Celts, Germanic
Germanic peoples),
Baltic rereregions of
of Europe
peoples), as
as well
well as
as to
to the
the forests
forests of
of the
the Baltic
gion (Lithuanians,
and Poland,
and farther
east (Slavs).
Poland, Byelorussia,
Byelorussia, and
farther east
(Slavs).
gion
(Lithuanians, Latvians)
Latvians) and

368

G. F.
Diakonoff
F. Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff

term
term Aryan
Aryan for
for tribes
tribes that
that were
were Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian by
by language.
language. Those
Those who
who
remained in
in Iran
Iran 55 are
are called
called Iranians,
Iranians, and
and those
those who
migrated to
to InInremained
who migrated
dia are
are called
called Indo-Aryans;
Indo-Aryans; their
their languages
languages are
are called
called Iranian
Iranian and
and
dia
Indo-Aryan, respectively.
respectively. An
An intermediate
intermediate position
belongs to
the
Indo-Aryan,
position belongs
to the
Dardo-Kafir languages,
languages, and
and it
it is
is thought
thought that
that the
the speakers
speakers of
of DardoDardoDardo-Kafir
Kafir (or,
at least,
least, Kafir)
Kafir) reached
the Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian region
region before
both
Kafir
(or, at
reached the
before both
the Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryans and
and the
the Iranians.
Iranians. Consequently,
Consequently, the
the term
term Aryan
Aryan is
the
is
linguistic and,
and, in
in part,
part, social,
social, but
but by
by no
means racial:
racial: there
never
linguistic
no means
there never
existed an
an "Aryan"
"Aryan" race
in Europe,
Europe, nor
anywhere else.
else. During
the mirace in
nor anywhere
During the
miexisted
gration of
of tribes,
tribes, an
an assimilation
assimilation of
of languages
languages of
of the
the Indo-European
Indo-European
gration
family by
by local
tribes of
of different
different ethnic
ethnic and
and anthropological
anthropological types
types
family
local tribes
took place.
place. It
It is
is not
not even
even clear
clear whether
whether the
the first
first tribes
tribes speaking
speaking
took
the ancestral
ancestral Indo-European
Indo-European language
language were
were anthropologically
anthropologically homothe
homogeneous.
geneous.
It
the Indo-European
It is
is certain
certain that
that all
all the
the three
three eastern
eastern groups
groups of
of the
Indo-European
tribes-the
the Indo-Aryans,
tribesthe Dardo-Kafirs,
Dardo-Kafirs, the
Indo-Aryans, and
and the
the Iranians-had
Iranianshad to
to
enter
plateau; that
enter or
or cross
cross the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau;
that is,
is, the
the territories
territories of
of the
the modmodern
There is
ern states
states of
of Iran
Iran and
and Afghanistan.
Afghanistan. There
is unfortunately
unfortunately no
no unanunanimity on
on the
the problem
of their
their origin
origin or
or by
what route
route they
they reached
reached the
the
imity
problem of
by what
edges
edges of
of the
the plateau.
There are
are no
no written
sources, and
and archaeologists
archaeologists
plateau. There
written sources,
and linguists
linguists are
are still
still interpreting
interpreting the
the available
available data
data on
on the
the material
material
and
culture in
in different
different ways.
culture
ways.
We
We can
can say
say with
with confidence
confidence that
that the
the Indo-Iranians
Indo-Iranians were
were pastoral
pastoral papatriarchal
tribes who
knew agriculture
raised not
triarchal tribes
who also
also knew
agriculture and,
and, incidentally,
incidentally, raised
not
only sheep
sheep but
also cattle.
cattle. They
They were
familiar with
plows and
and with
with
only
but also
were familiar
with plows
wheeled
probably harnessed
wheeled carts,
carts, probably
harnessed to
to oxen.
oxen. They
They were
were certainly
certainly also
also
familiar
with the
the camel.
familiar early
early on
on with
with the
the horse
horse and
and later
later with
camel. They
They may
may
have
had lightweight,
lightweight, horse-drawn
horse-drawn battle
chariots. Horseback
Horseback riding
riding
battle chariots.
have had
of course)
was known
the second
mil(without
(without stirrups,
stirrups, of
course) was
known at
at least
least since
since the
second millennium
but military
military cavalry
cavalry troops
troops probably
probably appeared
appeared only
only
lennium B.C.,6
B.C.,6 but
later.
later.
An
pasAn important
important question
question is
is whether
whether the
the migration
migration date
date of
of the
the pastoral-agricultural tribes
tribes into
into India
India and
and Iran
Iran can
can be
be determined
determined by
by arartoral-agricultural
chaeological data.
data. There
There are
are cases
cases when
such migrations
migrations have
been
when such.
have been
chaeological
recorded by
by written
written sources.
sources. It
It is
is in
in such
such cases
cases that
that archaeology,
archaeology, more
more
recorded
often than
than not,
not, fails
fails to
to discover
discover any
any evidence
evidence of
of these
The
often
these migrations.
migrations. The
5.
5. The
The ancient
ancient name
name of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau was
was Ariana.
Ariana. The
Theterm
term Iran
Iranisisaanewer
newer
form
word, Ariana.
Ariana. As
Aswe
wementioned
mentioned before,
before, ininancient
ancient history
history the
the term
term
form of
of the
the same
same word,
Iran is
is used
used in
in aa broad
sense to
to designate
designate the
the entire
entire territory
territory of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau,
plateau, and
and
Iran
broad sense
not just
the modern
state of
Iran.
not
just the
the territory
territory of
of the
modern state
of Iran.
6. Archaeological
Archaeological and
and osteological
osteological data
data from
from sites
sites in
in the
the Ukraine
Ukraine suggest
suggest that
that horsehorse6.
back
back riding
riding may
may actually
actually have
have originated
originated much
much earlier
earlier (fourth
(fourth millennium
millennium B.C.)
B.C.) on
on the
the
steppes
the Black
though its
transport and
military applications
were not
steppes north
north of
of the
Black Sea,
Sea, though
its transport
and military
applications were
not
immediately appreciated.
appreciated. Editor's
Editor's note
note (PLK).
immediately
(PLK).

India, Central
Asia, and
India,
Central Asia,
and Iran
Iran

369

exceptions are
are the
cases when
when migrations
migrations were
accompanied by
mass
exceptions
the cases
were accompanied
by mass
slaughter and
and fires.
fires. More
More often,
often, however,
however, new
new settlers
settlers quickly
quickly and
and
slaughter
painlessly adopted
adopted the
the culture
culture of
of the
the natives,
which was
was better
better
painlessly
natives, which
adapted
to the
the local
local conditions.
conditions. In
In Iran,
attempts to
to determine
determine
adapted to
Iran, also,
also, attempts
the date
date of
of arrival
arrival of
of the
archaeological materials
materials
the
the Aryan
Aryan tribes
tribes from
from archaeological
have
failed to
to convince
convince scholars.7
scholars.7 Therefore,
Therefore, it
it is
is clear
clear that
that the
the IndoIndohave failed
Iranians probably
did not
not advance
advance south
south in
in aa single,
single, sudden
sudden invasion
invasion
Iranians
probably did
but in
in gradual
gradual stages
stages separated
separated by
by generations.
generations.
but
In searching
have taken,
taken, we
In
searching for
for possible
possible routes
routes they
they could
could have
we must
must rereject the
ject
the then-existing
then-existing areas
areas of
of subtropical
subtropical forests
forests that
that were
were unsuitable
unsuitable
for driving
driving cattle-namely,
cattlenamely, the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea coast
coast and
and the
the southern
southern coast
coast
for
of
of the
the Caspian
Caspian Sea-as
Seaas well
well as
as the
the highest
highest mountain
mountain passes,
passes, those
those of
of
the Greater
Greater Caucasus,
Hindu Kush,
Kush, and
the Pamirs.
passes,
the
Caucasus, the
the Hindu
and the
Pamirs. Such
Such passes,
it
is true,
light horseback
it is
true, are
are accessible
accessible to
to aa light
horseback troop
troop without
without aa baggage
baggage
train, but
but they
they would
would have
have been
been inaccessible
inaccessible to
to heavy,
heavy, primitive
carts
train,
primitive carts
carrying
carrying baggage
baggage and
and children
children and
and also
also would
would have
have been
been very
very diffidifficult to
to drive
drive cattle
cattle over.
over. We
We must
also discount
discount the
the regions
regions where
where
cult
must also
year-round cattle
cattle grazing
grazing with
with supplemental
supplemental farming
farming is
is not
not possible,
year-round
possible,
that
regions with
that is,
is, in
in regions
with less
less than
than 250-200
250-200 millimeters
millimeters of
of annual
annual
precipitation.
precipitation.
Only
be considered.
Only two
two routes
routes remain
remain to
to be
considered. Without
Without excluding
excluding the
the
possibility
(Aryan) groups
possibility that
that isolated
isolated Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian (Aryan)
groups may
may have
have infilinfiltrated
the Caspian
trated along
along the
the western
western shore
shore of
of the
Caspian route
route through
through eastern
eastern
Transcaucasia,
high mountains
mountains of
Iranian AzerTranscaucasia, and
and farther
farther over
over the
the high
of Iranian
Azerbaijan,
must still
- Hari Rud
baijan, we
we must
still regard
regard the
the valley
valley of
of the
the Tedzhen
Tedzhen-Hari
Rud River
River
(in
the main
(in modern
modern Turkmenia
Turkmenia and
and Afghanistan)
Afghanistan) as
as the
main route
route of
of penepenetration
tration to
to the
the south
south of
of Kafir,
Kafir, Indo-Aryan,
Indo-Aryan, and,
and, later,
later, Iranian-speaking
Iranian-speaking
tribes.
tribes.
It
very likely
likely that
in their
homeland, aa patriarchal
patriarchal structure
It seems
seems very
that in
their homeland,
structure
of
(also involving
primitive sosoof society
society (also
involving slavery),
slavery), as
as aa late
late stage
stage of
of the
the primitive
ciety, was
characteristic of
of the
the Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian tribes
tribes and,
and, to
to aa certain
certain dedeciety,
was characteristic
gree,
basis of
gree, of
of some
some related
related Indo-European
Indo-European tribes.
tribes. On
On the
the basis
of linguistic
linguistic
data and
the evidence
evidence of
of later
later religious
religious texts,
texts, it
it is
is also
with
data
and the
also possible
possible with
7. Until
Until recently,
recently, it
it was
was very
very common
common to
to identify
the earliest
earliest speakers
speakers of
"Aryan"
7.
identify the
of "Aryan"
languages with
with the
the makers
makers of
of gray
gray ware
ware at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the third
third millennium
millennium (in
(in southsouthlanguages
second half
half of
the second
millennium (in
(in southern,
southern, or
or
western Central
Central Asia),
Asia), and
and in
in the
the second
of the
second millennium
western
Iranian, Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan). However,
identifications are
are today
today disputed.
The AndroAndroIranian,
However, these
these identifications
disputed. The
novo archaeological
archaeological culture,
culture, attested
attested in
Kazakhstan, Soviet
Soviet Central
Central Asia,
Asia, and
and southern
southern
novo
in Kazakhstan,
Siberia in
the second
second half
of the
the second
second millennium,
millennium, contains
contains many
many cultural
cultural features
features
Siberia
in the
half of
that connect
connect it
the culture
culture reflected
reflected in
the Rig
VedaofofIndia
Indiaand
andthe
theAvesta
AvestaofofIran
Iran
that
it with
with the
in the
Rig Veda
and, thus,
can with
considerable probability
ascribed to
to the
the future
future Eastern
Iranians;
and,
thus, can
with considerable
probability be
be ascribed
Eastern Iranians;
the
same may
true of
of the
similar Srubnaya
Srubnaya culture
culture to
to the
the west
west of
of the
Andronovo
the same
may be
be true
the very
very similar
the Andronovo
so, that
that should
should mean
that the
the Dardo-Kafirs,
Dardo-Kafirs, the
the Indo-Aryans,
and at
at least
least
area. But
if so,
area.
But if
mean that
Indo-Aryans, and
the
left these
these territories
that period-unless
periodunless the
the
the Western
Western Iranians
Iranians must
must have
have left
territories before
before that
people
of the
the Andronovo
Andronovo culture
culture were
were the
forebears of
of all
all Indo-Iranians.
Indo-Iranians.
people of
the forebears

3700
37

C.
F. Il'yin and I. M.
Diakonoff
G. F.
M. Diakonoff

some
period some
the more
some confidence
confidence to
to reconstruct
reconstruct for
for this
this period
some of
of the
more comcomplex
of the
the social
social structure
structure common
common to
to Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryans and
and
plex peculiarities
peculiarities of
to aa portion
portion of
of the
Iranians dating
dating back
have
to
the Iranians
back to
to aa time
time when
when they
they must
must have
lived in
in eastern
eastern Iran
Iran or
or farther
farther north.
north. The
The evidence
evidence points
points to
to aa relarelalived
tively well
well developed
developed and
and quite
quite firmly
firmly settled
settled (though,
on occasions,
occasions,
(though, on
tively
mobile enough)
enough) cattle-breeding
cattle-breeding and
and farming
farming society
society with
permanent
with permanent
mobile
troops of
of warriors
warriors and
and aa priesthood.
priesthood. From
From here
stem the
the numerous
numerous
troops
here stem
patriarchal
and legal
legal institutions,
institutions, common
common to
to the
the Eastern
Eastern Iranians
Iranians
patriarchal and
and Indo-Aryans,
Indo-Aryans, above
above all
all the
the same
same division
division of
of society
society into
into priests,
and
priests,
warriors,
and farmers-cattlemen
farmers-cattlemen with
different social
social and
and cultic
cultic funcfuncwith different
warriors, and
tions, and
and aa fairly
fairly complex
complex system
system of
of everyday
everyday customs.
customs. Some
Some scholscholtions,
ars, apparently
apparently without
sufficient reason,
date this
this three-way
three-way division
division
without sufficient
reason, date
ars,
of society
society back
to the
time of
of the
the ancestral
ancestral Indo-European
Indo-European unity.
unity. But
But
of
back to
the time
this division
into three
estates or
or cultic
groups is,
is, in
in fact,
fact, not
not attested
attested
this
division into
three estates
cultic groups
by
our sources
sources for
for all
all Iranians;
Iranians; for
"Western" Iranians
Iranians (the
(the Medes
Medes
by our
for the
the "Western"
and Persians)
Persians) this
this division
division is
is not
not attested
attested until
of ancient
ancient
and
until aa later
later period
period of
history.
Actually, these
these seem
seem to
to be
features that
must have
developed
that must
have developed
history. Actually,
be features
while
Indo-Aryans lived
close to
group of
of Iranian-speaking
Iranian-speaking
the Indo-Aryans
lived close
to aa group
while the
tribes under
under the
the conditions
conditions of
of aa sufficiently
sufficiently well-developed
well-developed civilizacivilizatribes
tion, at
at an
an early
stage of
of stratification
stratification by
and estate
(or class).
tion,
early stage
by property
property and
estate (or
class).
Along
the entire
entire migratory
migratory route
of Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian tribes
tribes from
from their
their
route of
Alorig the
homeland
to Hindustan,
Hindustan, aa similar
similar civilization
civilization is
is attested
attested only
only among
among
homeland to
the
ancient cultures
southern Central
Central Asia
Asia and
eastern Iran,
Iran, such
such
the ancient
cultures of
of southern
and eastern
as Namazga-depe,
Anau, Mundigak,
Mundigak, and
and others
others mentioned
in Lecas
Namazga-depe, Anau,
mentioned in
Lecture 10.
10. If
If we
we accept
accept that
that the
the Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryans advanced
advanced gradually
gradually to
to the
the
ture
southeast, then
we can
can allow
allow for
for their
Hindustan
southeast,
then we
their penetration
penetration toward
toward Hindustan
already about
about the
of the
Proto-Indus culture.
culture. At
At the
the time
time when
when
already
the time
time of
the Proto-Indus
Veda,end
endof
ofthe
thesecsecthe first
first Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan religious
religious texts
texts emerged
emerged (Rig
(Rig Veda,
the
ond
millennium
B.C.),
the
Indo-Aryans
had,
in
any
case,
moved
far
ond millennium B.C.), the Indo-Aryans had, in any case, moved far
east
of
the
Indus
Valley.
Thus
they
were
no
longer
on
the
Tedzhen
east of the Indus Valley. Thus they were no longer on the Tedzhen
route, and
and their
their closest
closest relatives-the
relativesthe Iranian
Iranian tribesmust
have
route,
tribes-must have
course,
we
cannot
preclude
the
started
their
own
advance
along
it.
Of
started their own advance along it. Of course, we cannot preclude the
possibility
that
some
lagging
groups
of
Indo-Aryans,
and
especially
of
possibility that some lagging groups of Indo-Aryans, and especially of
the
Dardo-Kafirs,
remained
within
the
Iranian
plateau,
and
the
same
the Dardo-Kafirs, remained within the Iranian plateau, and the same
might
of indigenous
indigenous relic
most ancient
ancient
be true
true of
relic tribes
tribes belonging
belonging to
to the
the most
might be
8
8
population
of
that
land.
population of that land.
Not
Not so
so long
long ago,
ago, the
the picture
picture of
of the
the arrival
arrival of
of Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryans in
in India
India
was
as that
of aa conquering
conquering invasion
invasion by
superior race,
which
was drawn
drawn as
that of
by aa superior
race, which
in part
extirpated and
and in
in part
part enslaved
enslaved and
and assimilated
assimilated the
popuin
part extirpated
the local
local popu8.
8. It
It is
is interesting
interesting to
to note
note that
that no
no traces
traces of
of aa pre-Indo-Iranian
pre-Indo-Iranian substratum
substratum can
can be
be
discovered
discovered in
in the
the ancient
ancient Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan languages.
languages. This
This might
might be
be due
due to
to the
the Iranian
Iranian
population
overlapping not
not an
an unrelated
unrelated linguistic
linguistic substratum
substratum but
but aa related
related one;
one; for
for
population overlapping
example, Dardo-Kafir
Dardo-Kafir or
or Indo-Aryan.
Indo-Aryan.
example,

India, Central Asia, and Iran

371

lation, which
which was,
was, supposedly,
supposedly, dwelling
The
lation,
dwelling in
in complete
complete barbarism.
barbarism. The
discovery of
of the
the Indus
Indus Valley
civilization in
in the
1920s proved
proved that
that the
the
discovery
Valley civilization
the 1920s
culture
the pre-Aryan
in the
the northeast
country
culture of
of the
pre-Aryan population
population in
northeast of
of the
the country
As was
Lecwas superior
was
superior to
to that
that of
of the
the newcomers.
newcomers. As
was mentioned
mentioned in
in Lecture
Aryans bore
bore no
no direct
responsibility for
ture 10,
10, it
it seems
seems that
that the
the Aryans
direct responsibility
for the
the
downfall
of the
the Indus
civilization.
Indus Valley
Valley civilization.
downfall of
There are
are no
no data
data that
that would
would confirm
confirm that
that anyone-time
any one-time mass
mass invainvaThere
sion of
of conquering
conquering Aryans
into India
took place.
place. Apparently
Apparently no
later
Aryans into
India took
no later
sion
than the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
Indo-Aryanthan
B.C., Indo-Aryanspeaking tribes
India in
in aa slow
slow and
and gradual
gradual process.
process.
speaking
tribes began
began to
to infiltrate
infiltrate India
Of course,
course, the
relations between
between the
the newcomers
newcomers and
and the
the local
inhabiOf
the relations
local inhabitants were
not always
always friendly,
were the
the relations
between
friendly, but
but neither
neither were
relations between
tants
were not
the different
different indigenous
indigenous groups
groups themselves.
themselves. But
the end,
end, as
as aa rethe
But in
in the
result of
of ethnic
ethnic displacements
displacements and
and mutual
mutual contacts,
contacts, an
an assimilation
assimilation of
of
sult
the new
by the
the native
Indian population
began to
to take
take place,
the
new arrivals
arrivals by
native Indian
population began
place,
the local
at the
the same
same time
adopting the
the language
of the
the
the
local inhabitants
inhabitants at
time adopting
language of
newcomers.
newcomers.
Sources of
of Indian
Indian History:
History: End
End of
of the
the Second
Second to
to First
First Half
Half
Sources
of
the First
B.C.
of the
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
As
said earlier,
earlier, it
still remains
remains difficult
difficult to
assert aa direct
direct continuity
continuity
As we
we said
it still
to assert
between
the Indus
civilization and
and the
subsequent history
of HinHinIndus civilization
the subsequent
history of
between the
dustan. This
This is
is perhaps
perhaps due
due to
to the
of sources,
sources, and,
and,
dustan.
the limited
limited number
number of
such as
as they
they are,
are, they
they have
yet been
sufficiently investigated.
The
such
have not
not yet
been sufficiently
investigated. The
character
these sources
the source
character of
of these
sources is
is also
also quite
quite different.
different. Although
Although the
source
of our
our knowledge
knowledge about
about ancient
ancient India
of the
the third
third to
to second
second millenmillenof
India of
nium
stems almost
almost exclusively
exclusively from
from archaeological
archaeological data,
innium B.C.
B.C. stems
data, the
the information
from literary
literary sources
sources is
is of
of decisive
decisive significance
significance for
for the
the
formation from
history
of the
the second
second millennium
to the
the first
first half
first
history of
the end
end of
of the
millennium to
half of
of the
the first
millennium B.C.
B.C. Moreover,
Moreover, these
these latter
latter sources
sources originate
originate essentially
essentially
millennium
from another
region, the
Ganges Valley.
from
another historical
historical region,
the Ganges
Valley.
The
sources
in
question
are
very
Indian religious
The sources in question are very ancient
ancient Indian
religious literary
literary
text collections.
collections. They
They comprise
comprise religious
religious hymns,
hymns, sacrificial
sacrificial and
and magimagitext
cal formulae,
formulae, descriptions
descriptions of
of rituals,
rituals, and
and interpretations
interpretations of
of and
and comcomcal
ments
on sacred
sacred texts.
texts. The
The Indians
Indians bracket
them all
as the
the Veda
ments on
bracket them
all as
Veda
("Knowledge"); in
in modern
modern literature
literature the
plural, the
the Vedas,
Vedas, also
alsoisis
("Knowledge");
the plural,
to which
which
used.
The period
first half
the first
used. The
period of
of the
the first
half of
of the
first millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., to
the Veda
Veda probably
probablydate,
date,isisfrequently
frequently called
called Vedic.
Vedic.Although
Although most
mostof
of
the
this
is primarily
with religious
also
this literature
literature is
primarily concerned
concerned with
religious matters,
matters, it
it also
gives some
some information
information about
about culture
culture and
and economy;
economy; references
to
references to
gives
events
political history
rare and
The value
value of
of
of political
history are
are extremely
extremely rare
and sparse.
sparse. The
events of
Vedaisisconsiderably
considerablydepreciated
depreciated by
bythe
theuncertain
uncertain dating
datingof
ofits
itsininthe
the Veda

3722
37

G. F. Il'yin
/l'yin and I. M.
M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

dividual
passages. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, most
dividual texts
texts and
and passages.
most scholars
scholars agree
agree that
that the
the
mythological
of the
the Veda-the
Vedathe Samhitas-were
mythological portions
portions of
Samhitaswerecompiled
compiledinin
the eleventh
to ninth
ninth centuries
the
eleventh to
centuries B.C.
B.C. (the
(the oldest
oldest Samhita
Samhitaisisthe
theRig
RigVeda);
Veda);
the
the explanations
explanations of
of rituals
rituals (Brahmanas),
(Brahmanas),ininthe
theeighth
eighthtotoseventh
seventhcencenturies
religiousturies B.C.;
B.C.; and
and the
the most
most ancient
ancient interpretations
interpretations of
of aa religiousAranyakas and
and the
the Upanishads),
Upanishads),in inthethe
philosophical character
philosophical
character (the
(the Aranyakas
middle and
the later
part of
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
middle
and the
later part
of the
B.C. Such
Such time
time
ranges are,
are, of
too broad
historian to
ranges
of course,
course, too
broad for
for aa historian
to arrive
arrive at
at conclusions
conclusions
that
first millennium
B.C. belong
that would
would satisfy
satisfy everyone.
everyone. Also
Also to
to the
the first
millennium B.C.
belong
Indian epic
poetry, aa source
whose evalevalthe beginnings
beginnings of
the
of ancient
ancient Indian
epic poetry,
source whose
uation by
by the
historian involves
very considerable
uation
the historian
involves very
considerable methodological
methodological
difficulties.
difficulties.

The
Indo-Aryans in
the Ganges
Ganges Valley
Valley
in the
The Indo-Aryans
The most
process in
the history
history of
of India
India between
between the
the secsecThe
most important
important process
in the
ond
the middle
middle of
the first
first millennium
B.C. was
ond and
and the
of the
millennium B.C.
was the
the settling
settling of
of the
the
Indo-Aryans in
in the
Ganges Valley
and its
its economic
economic development.
development. BeBeIndo-Aryans
the Ganges
Valley and
fore
the valley
valley was
was covered
with jungle.
jungle.
fore the
the Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan settlement,
settlement, the
covered with
There
had existed
existed here
here sparse
sparse settlements
settlements of
of hunters
hunters and
and farmers
There had
farmers bebelonging,
according to
to the
archaeologists, to
to the
so-called culture
the archaeologists,
the so-called
culture of
of
longing, according
copper
copper hoards;
hoards; these
these people
people are
are supposed
supposed to
to have
have penetrated
penetrated the
the
Ganges Valley
Valley from
from the
the southeast.
southeast. It
It is
is possible
that Himalayan
Himalayan tribes
tribes
Ganges
possible that
also began
began descending
descending into
into the
Ganges Valley
at the
the end
end of
of the
second
the Ganges
Valley at
the second
also
millennium B.C.
B.C. But
the main
direction of
of the
colonization was
was from
from
millennium
But the
main direction
the colonization
the
to the
the southeast,
southeast, from
from modern
Punjab and
and Rajasthan,
Rajasthan,
the northwest
northwest to
modern Punjab
along the
the Yamuna
and the
the Ganges
Ganges rivers.
rivers. This
This is
is indicated
indicated by
the
Yamuna and
by the
along
spread toward
toward the
the east
east of
of the
the gray-painted
gray-painted ware
culture, which
arspread
ware culture,
which arVeda.Toward
Toward
chaeologists associate
associate with
the Aryas,
Aryas, the
creators of
of the
the Veda.
chaeologists
with the
the creators
the
middle of
of the
B.C., the
the Ganges
Ganges Valley
essenthe middle
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.,
Valley was
was essentially settled,
settled, although
although considerable
considerable areas,
areas, especially
especially the
more remote
remote
the more
tially
districts, remained
remained as
as jungle
jungle and
and marshes.
marshes.
districts,
The
The main
main technological
technological achievement
achievement ensuring
ensuring successful
successful settlesettlement was
was the
mastery of
of iron
iron technology.
This metal
metal was
apparently
ment
the mastery
technology. This
was apparently
not brought
brought to
to India
India by
the Aryans,
Aryans, but,
but, rather,
iron metallurgy
metallurgy denot
by the
rather, iron
developed
independently; an
an ironworking
ironworking center
center has
has been
discovhere independently;
been discovveloped here
ered
beginning of
ered in
in eastern
eastern India
India (West
(West Bengal)
Bengal) and
and is
is dated
dated to
to the
the beginning
of
the
first millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. In
In southern
southern India
India (Mysore)
(Mysore) iron
iron appeared
appeared as
as
the first
early as
as the
the twelfth
eleventh centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., perhaps
early for
for
twelfth to
to eleventh
perhaps too
too early
early
any close
contacts with
the northwest
northwest of
of the
the country.
country.
any
close contacts
with the
the main
main economic
Valley
Farming became
became the
Farming
economic activity
activity in
in the
the Ganges
Ganges Valley
middle of
plow pulled
pulled by
by oxen
toward
B.C. A
A plow
oxen
toward the
the middle
of the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
was
cultivation tool.
Canals for
for artificial
artificial irrigation
irrigation were
were
was the
the principal
principal cultivation
tool. Canals
known;
also in
in use.
cereal
known; water-lifting
water-lifting wheels
wheels with
with buckets
buckets were
were also
use. The
The cereal

India, Central
Central Asia,
and Iran
Iran
India,
Asia, and

373
373

crops
were barley,
millets.
crops were
barley, wheat,
wheat, different
different leguminous
leguminous plants,
plants, and
and millets.
The
cultivation
of
rice
was
on
the
increase.
Cotton
was
grown
and
The cultivation of rice was on the increase. Cotton was grown and
sugarcane utilized.
The oleaginous
oleaginous cultures
cultures were
and sesame.
sesame.
sugarcane
utilized. The
were flax
flax and
rearing maintained
Among the
Livestock
Livestock rearing
maintained its
its importance.
importance. Among
the domestic
domestic
animals
animals then
then known
known were
were cattle,
cattle, buffalo,
buffalo, sheep,
sheep, goats,
goats, donkeys,
donkeys, and
and
camels. Horses
appeared only
the second
second millencamels.
Horses appeared
only in
in the
the second
second half
half of
of the
millennium,
possibly with
to India.
nium, possibly
with the
the migration
migration of
of the
the Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryans to
India. They
They
were
raised mainly
were raised
mainly in
in the
the northwest
northwest of
of the
the country.
country. Even
Even later,
later, horse
horse
breeding
hold in
the Ganges
breeding did
did not
not take
take hold
in the
Ganges Valley
Valley or
or in
in southern
southern India,
India,
because
there are
not conducive
the breedbecause the
the climatic
climatic conditions
conditions there
are not
conducive for
for the
breeding of
for their
they were
ing
of horses
horses or
or for
their economic
economic use;
use; they
were used
used mainly
mainly for
for
military purposes.
purposes. For
For the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
the Ganges
Ganges Valley,
just as
as for
for
of the
Valley, just
military
the
husbandry; in
prayers adthe Iranians,
Iranians, cattle
cattle were
were central
central to
to animal
animal husbandry;
in prayers
addressed
to the
the most
dressed to
the gods,
gods, the
most frequent
frequent request
request was
was to
to grant
grant an
an abunabundance
dance of
of cattle.
cattle.
In
the Vedic
Period, large
In the
Vedic Period,
large cities,
cities, like
like those
those of
of the
the golden
golden age
age of
of the
the
Indus
civilization, are
are not
not attested.
attested. Actual
cities appeared
appeared in
the easteastIndus civilization,
Actual cities
in the
ern part
the Ganges
Ganges Valley
Valley comparatively
comparatively late.
late. So
So far,
far, no
no city
city that
that
ern
part of
of the
can be
be dated
dated before
before the
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.
has been
been discovered.
discovered. Even
Even
can
B.C. has
the
urban centers
centers cannot
cannot compare
compare with
Mohenjo-daro or
or HaHalater urban
with Mohenjo-daro
the later
rappa.
such as
as they
they were,
were, these
cities were
were not
merely adadrappa. However,
However, such
these cities
not merely
ministrative
but also
ministrative centers
centers but
also industrial
industrial ones.
ones. Certainly,
Certainly, almost
almost all
all that
that
was needed
needed for
for aa farming
farming economy
economy was
produced in
villages
was
was produced
in the
the villages
themselves, except
except for
weapons and
and other
other costly
goods
for weapons
costly high-quality
high-quality goods
themselves,
required
the elite
elite (means
(means of
of transportation,
transportation, ornaments,
textiles,
required by
by the
ornaments, textiles,
pottery, etc.);
etc.); these
manufactured in
cities. The
available
in the
the cities.
The available
pottery,
these were
were manufactured
sources mention
founders, blacksmiths,
blacksmiths, jewelers,
weavers of
sources
mention metal
metal founders,
jewelers, weavers
of
mats and
and baskets,
baskets, butchers,
and viticulturists.
There were
were
mats
butchers, barbers,
barbers, and
viticulturists. There
also artisans
artisans specializing
specializing in
in narrower
fields: wheelwrights,
wheelwrights, bowstring
bowstring
narrower fields:
also
makers, embroiderers,
embroiderers, and
and so
so forth.
forth. This
This proves
proves the
existence of
of aa
makers,
the existence
marked division
of labor
specialization in
crafts.
marked
division of
labor and
and specialization
in the
the crafts.
We
also know
know about
We also
about the
the existence
existence of
of professional
professional merchants
merchants and
and
moneylenders. Cattle
so
moneylenders.
Cattle were
were regarded
regarded as
as standards
standards of
of value,
value, and
and so
were
nishka. At
Atthe
the
were common
common golden
golden or
or silver
silver neck
neck ornaments,
ornaments, called
called nishka.
end of
of the
the sixth,
sixth, beginning
of the
fifth centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., the
the first
first precurprecurend
beginning of
the fifth
sors
made their
bars bearing
bearing aa mark
sors of
of coins
coins made
their appearance:
appearance: small
small silver
silver bars
mark
certifying
their quality.
mostly along
land and
certifying their
quality. Trade
Trade was
was conducted
conducted mostly
along land
and
river routes.
routes. The
mention of
with aa hUi.dred
we find
in
river
The mention
of ships
ships with
hundred oars
oars that
that we
find in
the
the Rig
Rig Veda
Veda(unless
(unlessthis
thisisispoetic
poetichyperbole)
hyperbole)suggests
suggeststhe
theexistence
existenceof
of
seafaring.
Near East
seafaring. Commercial
Commercial relations
relations with
with countries
countries of
of the
the Near
East concontinued, according
according to
to indirect
indirect evidence.
evidence.99 Linguistic
Linguistic analysis
analysis of
of the
the tertertinued,
9.
9. Assyrian
Assyrian kings
kings of
of the
the eighth
eighth to
to seventh
seventh centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. were
were able
able to
toobtain
obtain elephant
elephant
skins
and ivory
reaches of
rivers, obviously
skins and
ivory in
in the
the lower
lower reaches
of the
the Tigris
Tigris and
and the
the Euphrates
Euphrates rivers,
obviously

374
374

C.
Diakonoff
G. F.
F. Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff

minology
minology used
used in
in Western
Western Asia
Asia shows
shows that
that India
India exported
exported varieties
varieties of
of
precious
precious wood
wood and
and spices.
spices.

Social and
and State
State Structure
Structure in
India in
in the
the First
First Half
Half
Social
in Northern
Northern India
of the
the First
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
of
B.C.
A
A legend
legend about
about the
the "four
"four ages"
ages" was
was widely
widely known
known among
among the
the ancient
ancient
Indians.
Indians. According
According to
to the
the legend,
legend, during
during the
the first
first of
of these
these ages,
ages, the
the
"Perfect" (Krita
(Krita Yuga)
Yuga),, people
lived happily,
happily, knowing
knowing no
no sickness,
sickness,
"Perfect"
people lived
heavy
private property,
property, or
heavy labor,
labor, private
or social
social inequality;
inequality; everyone
everyone was
virwas virtuous, and
and thus
thus there
there was
no need
need for
for punishment
or government.
government. In
In
was no
punishment or
tuous,
each of
of the
the subsequent
subsequent agesagesTreta,
andKali-the
Kalithevirtue
virtueof
of
each
Treta, Dvapara,
Dvapara, and
the people
people diminished
diminished every
every time
time by
one-fourth, and
and the
the living
living condicondithe
by one-fourth,
tions worsened
accordingly. The
The fourth
fourth age,
age, Kali
Kali Yuga,
Yuga, the
the age
age in
in
tions
worsened accordingly.
which we
we ourselves
ourselves now
now live,
live, was
was considered
considered especially
especially bad;
bad; it
it was
was
which
called "dark"
"dark" and
and "sinful."
"sinful." The
The former
former norms
norms of
of virtue
virtue and
and rules
rules of
of
called
life were
were constantly
constantly being
being transgressed,
transgressed, because
because people
became filled
filled
life
people became
with all
all kinds
kinds of
of vices.
vices. They
They began
began to
to oppress,
oppress, cheat,
cheat, and
and insult
insult one
one
with
another. Only
Only aa king
king could
could now
now restrain
restrain people
people from
from mutual
mutual destrucdestrucanother.
tion. And
And he
he could
could only
only do
do so
so by
by means
means of
of severe
severe punishment:
punishment: thus
thus
tion.
arises the
the state.
state.
arises
This
Krita
This tale
tale distortedly
distortedly represents
represents aa real
real historical
historical process.
process. In
In the
the Krita
Yuga
Yuga we
we can
can perceive
perceive an
an idealized
idealized depiction
depiction of
of the
the primitive
primitive commucommunity
nity structure.
structure. During
During the
the Treta
Treta and
and Dvapara
Dvaparaages,
ages,private
privateproperty
property
and
being. The
Kali age
and social
social inequalities
inequalities came
came into
into being.
The Kali
age is
is aa period
period of
of
developed
nodeveloped class
class society
society with
with exacerbated
exacerbated social
social contradictions.
contradictions. We
We nohere an
with the
the ancient
tice
tice here
an obvious
obvious similarity
similarity with
ancient Greek
Greek myth
myth about
about the
the
golden,
golden, silver,
silver, copper,
copper, and
and iron
iron ages,
ages, but
but without
without the
the symbolism
symbolism of
of
metals.
metals.
Vedic
Vedic literature
literature contains
contains the
the earliest
earliest written
written data
data on
on the
the social
social dedetribes. The
time was
velopment of
velopment
of the
the Gangetic
Gangetic tribes.
The time
was still
still remembered
remembered
when
(gana), owned
owned their
their proppropwhen the
the ancestors,
ancestors, united
united in
in communities
communities (gana),
erty jointly,
worked together
together under
their chieftains
chieftains (ganapati),
erty
jointly, worked
under their
(ganapati),divided
divided
the
before the
the gods
gods as
the fruits
fruits of
of their
their labor
labor equally,
equally, and
and appeared
appeared before
as aa
unity. But
But all
all had
had changed.
changed. The
The average
average free
free Indian
Indian seems
seems economeconomunity.
ically to
to have
been an
an independent
independent proprietor
or head
head of
of aa family.
family.
proprietor or
ically
have been
Evidence of
of this
this is,
is, for
for example,
example, the
the performance
performance of
of sacrificial
sacrificial rituals,
rituals,
Evidence
in most
most cases,
cases, by
by private
private individuals;
individuals; such
such individuals
individuals were
were able
able to
to asin
assume the
the often
often significant
significant costs
costs of
of these
these ceremonies.
ceremonies. Already
during
sume
Already during
the early
early Vedic
usury was
such aa great
great evil
evil that
that people
people prayed
prayed
the
Vedic Period,
Period, usury
was such
to
the gods
gods for
for deliverance
deliverance from
from debt.
debt. Cultivated
Cultivated land
land was
was possessed
possessed
to the
shipped from India. Attempts to introduce cotton cultivation in Assyria also probably
indicate contacts and relations with India.

India, Central
Central Asia,
Asia, and
India,
and Iran
Iran

375
375

and
privately by
members. Some
and used
used privately
by free
free community
community members.
Some relatively
relatively late
late
information
donated, but
to kings.
kings.
information speaks
speaks about
about land
land being
being donated,
but only
only to
There
There is
is still
still no
no information
information about
about sale
sale and
and purchase
purchase of
of land.
land.
Vedasreflect
reflecteven
evenitsitsexexA
social stratification
stratification was
was taking
taking place;
place; the
the Vedas
A social
treme form:
form: the
the appearance
appearance of
of slaves
slaves and
and slave-owners.
slave-owners. Already
the
treme
Already the
Rig
Veda mentions
mentions that
that aa person
person could
could own
own asas many
many asas aa hundred
hundred
Rig Veda
slaves; later
later writings
writings indicate
indicate many
hundreds and
and even
even thousands.
thousands. Of
Of
slaves;
many hundreds
course, we
we must
must make
make allowance
allowance for
for poetic
exaggeration.
course,
poetic exaggeration.
The
meaning of
term dasa,
dasa,"slave,"
"slave,"was
was
The original
original meaning
of the
the ancient
ancient Indian
Indian term
the first
first slaves
"foe,"
"foe," "alien,"
"alien," "barbarian."
"barbarian." We
We can
can assume
assume that
that the
slaves were
were
prisoners
prisoners taken
taken in
in battle,
battle, as
as well
well as
as persons
persons belonging
noncombelonging to
to the
the noncombatant
population of
Although the
preconditions necnecbatant population
of defeated
defeated tribes.
tribes. Although
the preconditions
essary
the appearance
by the
essary for
for the
appearance of
of slavery
slavery were
were laid
laid down
down by
the developing
developing
inequality
within the
itself, the
the members
members of
of aa
inequality within
the primitive
primitive community
community itself,
community
were for
united by
by traditional
community were
for some
some period
period of
of time
time still
still united
traditional
tribal ties.
first, the
the preconditions
preconditions led
led to
to enslavement
enslavement of
tribal
ties. Therefore,
Therefore, at
at first,
of
strangers. Only
later did
enslavement of
tribespeople by
by their
strangers.
Only later
did enslavement
of tribespeople
their own
own
group occur.
Brahmanas mention
mentionthe
thesale
saleof
ofchildren
childreninto
intoslavery
slavery
group
occur. The
The Brahmanas
by impoverished
impoverished free
free persons
persons (even
(even by
by the
the wellborn).
wellborn). However,
war
by
However, war
seems to
have remained
main source
We have
have no
no inforseems
to have
remained the
the main
source of
of slaves.
slaves. We
information about
slave trade.
as well
well as
the existence
human
mation
about slave
trade. All
All this,
this, as
as the
existence of
of human
sacrifice,
to assume
assume that
the overall
of slavery
slavery
sacrifice, allow
allow us
us to
that the
overall development
development of
was
still low.
low. Obviously,
we are
with patriarchal
slavery.
was still
Obviously, we
are dealing
dealing here
here with
patriarchal slavery.
The
disintegration of
the primitive
primitive community
was the
the cause
The disintegration
of the
community was
cause not
not
only
but also
inequality. In
In ancient
it
only of
of slavery
slavery but
also of
of general
general social
social inequality.
ancient India
India it
found
reflection in
in the
division of
into varnas,
found its
its reflection
the division
of society
society into
varnas, or
or estates,
estates,
four varnas:
castelike
castelike in
in their
their exclusiveness.
exclusiveness. There
There were
were four
varnas: the
the BrahBrahmans, the
priestly lineages;
lineages; the
Kshatriyas, the
mans,
the members
members of
of priestly
the Kshatriyas,
the warriors;
warriors;
the Vaisyas,
Vai~yas, the
free community
the
the other
other remaining
remaining free
community members;
members; and
and the
the
Shudras,
restricted rights.
rights. The
traditional occupation
of
Shudras, people
people with
with restricted
The traditional
occupation of
the first
was the
the performance
the
first varna
varna was
performance of
of priestly
priestly duties;
duties; the
the second
second
group
group engaged
engaged in
in military
military matters
matters and
and government;
government; and
and the
the third
third
varna consisted
consisted of
of farmers,
farmers, herdsmen,
herdsmen, merchants
merchants and
and moneylenders.
moneylenders.
varna
The last
last varna's
varna's duty
duty was
was toto serve
serve the
the members
members of
of the
the other
other three.
three.
The
Membership in
in aa varna
varna was
was determined
determined by
by birth
and was
was inherited.
inherited.
Membership
birth and
varnas, especially
especially between
between aa
Marriage between
members of
of different
different varnas,
Marriage
between members
man from
from aa lower
lower and
and aa woman
woman from
from aa higher
higher varna,
varna, was,
in prinprinman
was, in
ciple, illegal.
illegal. The
The ancient
ancient Indians
Indians explained
explained the
the inequality
between
ciple,
inequality between
the varnas
varnas by
by an
an inherent
inherent difference
difference between
between people
people according
according to
to the
the
the
degree of
of their
their natural
natural nobility.
nobility. The
The Brahmans
Brahmans were
were considered
considered to
be
degree
to be
the highest.
highest. They
They were
were followed
followed by
the Kshatriyas.
Below them
them were
were
the
by the
Kshatriyas. Below
the Vaisyas.
Vaisyas. The
The Shudras
Shudras were
were at
at the
the very
very bottom
and embodied
embodied the
the
the
bottom and
basest qualities
qualities of
of the
the soul.
soul. Accordingly,
Accordingly, it
was explained
explained that
that the
the
basest
it was
Brahmans
originated from
from the
the mouth
of the
the mythical
first human
human
Brahmans originated
mouth of
mythical first

376

G. F.
Diakonoff
F. Jl'yin
Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff

being, who
by the
the gods.
The Kshatriyas
his
being,
who was
was sacrificed
sacrificed by
gods. The
Kshatriyas came
came from
from his
arms;
arms; the
the Vaisyas
Vaisyas from
from his
his hips;
hips; and
and the
the Shudras
Shudras from
from the
the soles
soles of
of his
his
later times,
to the
feet.
feet. In
In later
times, the
the creation
creation of
of the
the varnas
varnas was
was attributed
attributed to
the
god Brahma,
Brahma, who
created them
from the
same parts
parts of
of his
his own
own body.
body.
who created
them from
the same
god
The
varnas was
was the
the
The most
most striking
striking feature
feature of
of the
the ancient
ancient system
system of
of varnas
contrasting
contrasting of
of the
the three
three higher ones
ones with
with the
the fourth.
fourth. The
The members
members of
of
the
persons who
had lost
the latter
latter were
were the
the descendants
descendants of
of aliens
aliens or
or of
of persons
who had
lost
their
protection and
their land,
land, together
together with
with the
the protection
and support
support of
of their
their kinsmen
kinsmen
and
and members
members of
of their
their community.
community. This
This group
group also
also included
included people
people of
of
subjugated and
and dependent
dependent tribes.
tribes. The
The low
low status
status of
of the
the Shudras
Shudras was
subjugated
was
not undergo
emphasized
by the
the fact
emphasized by
fact that
that in
in their
their childhood,
childhood, they
they did
did not
undergo
the consecration
consecration or
or passage
passage rite
rite (initiation)
(initiation) that
as aa secthe
that was
was viewed
viewed as
second birth.
The members
members of
of the
the first
first three
three varnas
varnas were
were called
called twiceond
birth. The
twiceborn. This
This circumstance
circumstance imposed
imposed aa number
number of
of limitations
limitations on
on the
the
born.
Shudras in
in religious
religious worship.
worship. They
They were
were banned
banned from
from reading
and
Shudras
reading and
listening to
the readings
readings of
of the
the Vedas
Vedasand
andfrom
fromparticipating
participatingininsacrisacrilistening
to the
fices and
and memorial
memorial services
services for
for the
the dead.
dead. They
They were
were also
also limited
limited in
in
fices
their social
social rights:
could not
in the
the
their
rights: they
they could
not hold
hold responsible
responsible positions
positions in
government machinery,
machinery, had
right to
own land,
land, and
and occupied
government
had no
no right
to own
occupied subsubservient positions
positions in
in economic
economic activities.
activities.
servient
The
known in
The division
division into
into estates
estates was
was also
also known
in other
other ancient
ancient societies,
societies,
but in
was uniquely
uniquely clear-cut
but
in ancient
ancient India
India it
it was
clear-cut and
and stable.
stable. This
This can
can be
be
explained by
need for
for the
class to
to exercise
exercise
explained
by aa particularly
particularly keen
keen need
the ruling
ruling class
extraeconomic
of the
the working
people due
to the
the specific
extraeconomic coercion
coercion of
working people
due to
specific conconditions of
of the
the country.
country. The
The natural
natural environment
environment of
of India
India was
was rich
rich in
in
ditions
food resources,
and the
the products
easy to
obtain (plenty
(plenty
products were
were relatively
relatively easy
to obtain
food
resources, and
of game
game and
and fish,
fish, wild
wild cereals,
cereals, nuts,
nuts, fruits,
fruits, berries,
berries, and
and so
so on),
and the
the
of
on), and
requirements
for shelter
given the
Indian climate,
climate,
requirements for
shelter and
and clothing,
clothing, given
the mild
mild Indian
were minimal.
In these
these circumstances,
circumstances, the
only way
way to
to force
force one
one
were
minimal. In
the only
group of
of people
for another
another was
was by
extraeconomic means.
In
group
people to
to work
work for
by extraeconomic
means. In
the
of some
some workers,
this was
accomplished by
by direct
direct enslavethe case
case of
workers, this
was accomplished
enslavement,
but for
who, for
were not
ment, but
for others
others who,
for one
one reason
reason or
or another,
another, were
not enenslaved, aa whole
whole system
system of
of social
social and
and ideological
ideological compulsion
compulsion gradually
gradually
slaved,
developedthe estate
estate and
and later
later the
the caste
caste system.
system. Moreover,
in an
an enendeveloped-the
Moreover, in
vironment
frequent collapses
states and
and tribal
tribal
vironment of
of ethnic
ethnic diversity,
diversity, frequent
collapses of
of states
unions, and
and the
the creation
creation of
of others
others in
in their
their place,
the ruling
ruling strata
strata of
of
place, the
unions,
society needed
most rigid
rigid system
system of
of estates.
estates. This
only way
to
society
needed aa most
This was
was the
the only
way to
ensure the
organizational structure
structure necessary
ensure
the organizational
necessary to
to preserve
preserve the
the privipriviand to
tomaintain
maintain aaclass
classand
and estate
estate solidarity,
solidarity,
leges
the higher
of the
higher varnas
varnas and
leges of
regardless
of
changes
in
the
correlation
of
forces
between
the
tribes
regardless of changes in the correlation of forces between the tribes
or
in
the
boundaries
between
the
states
or
political
disasters.
or in the boundaries between the states or political disasters.
The
The bodies
bodies of
of state
state power
power arose
arose gradually,
gradually, emerging
emerging imperceptibly
imperceptibly
together with
with the
the exacerbation
contradictions, from
together
exacerbation of
of social
social contradictions,
from tribal
tribal

India, Central Asia, and Iran

377
377

and community
and
community bodies.
bodies. The
The popular
popular consciousness
consciousness nevertheless
nevertheless prepreserved
(as we
the memory
time when
served (as
we mentioned
mentioned above)
above) the
memory of
of aa time
when such
such
power did
did not
not exist.
exist.
power
Toward
the middle
middle of
millennium B.C.,
the states
Toward the
of the
the first
first millennium
B.C., the
states of
of the
the
Ganges
their final
Ganges Valley
Valley assumed
assumed their
final form.
form. The
The majority
majority were
were monarmonarchies;
institutions typical
of the
primitive community
community structure,
chies; institutions
typical of
the primitive
structure, such
such
as
people's courts,
lost all
all
as tribal
tribal assemblies,
assemblies, community
community meetings,
meetings, and
and people's
courts, lost
their earlier
importance or
their
earlier importance
or vanished
vanished entirely.
entirely.
The
king (raja)
was the
property and,
The king
(raja) was
the supreme
supreme manager
manager of
of state
state property
and,
above
he commanded
army, headed
headed the
the government,
above all,
all, of
of land;
land; he
commanded the
the army,
government,
and
was regarded
the principal
the dharma
and was
regarded as
as the
principal protector
protector of
of the
dharma (rules
(rules of
of
virtuous
virtuous life).
life). The
The royal
royal power
power was
was hereditary,
hereditary, although
although sometimes
sometimes aa
formal confirmation
confirmation of
of his
candidacy was
was required
required by
by aa popular
popular asformal
his candidacy
assembly-a
semblya relic
relic from
from the
the time
time when
when the
the raja
raja was
wasaa tribal
tribal or
or clan
clan chiefchieftain. In
was exalted
tain.
In accordance
accordance with
with his
his role,
role, the
the king's
king's person
person was
exalted in
in
many ways,
ways, and
and his
coronation developed
developed into
of
many
his coronation
into aa magnificent
magnificent ritual
ritual of
aa sacral
sacral character.
character. Vestiges
Vestiges of
of tribal
tribal democracy
democracy survived
survived better
better in
in rerepublics,
like the
the ancient
sangha.
publics, called,
called, like
ancient communities,
communities, gana
gana or
or sangha.
The
The machinery
machinery of
of the
the state
state was
was still
still simple,
simple, but
but some
some permanent
permanent
posts had
had developed:
developed: the
priest, the
of the
posts
the court
court priest,
the commander
commander of
the troops,
troops,
the
tax collector.
Vedaeven
evenmentions
mentionsspyspythe treasurer,
treasurer, and
and the
the tax
collector. The
The Rig
Rig Veda
ing
ing service.
service. The
The oldest
oldest known
known tax
tax was
was the
the bali,
ball, which
whichwas
wasoriginally
originally
probably
voluntary contribution
contribution by
the community
community members
members to
to supsupprobably aa voluntary
by the
port
cult, but
know it
obliport the
the tribal
tribal chief
chief and
and the
the tribal
tribal cult,
but we
we know
it was
was an
an obligatory tax
tax equal
equal to
to one-sixth
one-sixth of
of the
the harvest.
harvest.
gatory
The
was
The states
states of
of that
that time
time were
were not
not large,
large, and
and the
the political
political map
map was
complex
complex and
and constantly
constantly changing.
changing. The
The process
process of
of aa few
few large
large states
states
absorbing
middle of
first milmilabsorbing smaller
smaller ones
ones began
began only
only toward
toward the
the middle
of the
the first
others' land,
lennium.
lennium. Tribes
Tribes frequently
frequently changed
changed territory,
territory, seized
seized others'
land, and
and
lost
lost their
their own.
own. Some
Some perished
perished or
or dispersed;
dispersed; others,
others, through
through military
military
victories, grew
grew at
at the
the expense
expense of
of the
the weaker
weaker tribes.
tribes. States
States emerged
emerged
victories,
and
and fen
fell apart,
apart, and
and their
their names,
names, as
as well
well as
as their
their territories
territories and
and reignreigning dynasties,
dynasties, changed.
changed. Thus
Thus it
it is
is not
yet possible
to write
write aa coherent
coherent
ing
not yet
possible to
political history
history of
of the
Vedic Period.
Period.
political
the Vedic
These
known from
These states
states and
and some
some of
of their
their kings
kings are
are not
not known
from any
any ininscriptions
documents, but
scriptions of
of theirs,
theirs, or
or from
from documents,
but from
from dispersed
dispersed accidenaccidental references
tal
references in
in religious
religious literature;
literature; they
they are
are sometimes
sometimes named
named in
in
very
heterogeneous
sources,
as,
for
instance,
in
Jainist,
Buddhist,
and
very heterogeneous sources, as, for instance, in Jainist, Buddhist, and
Brahmanist ones,
ones, but
but the
the facts
facts mentioned
mentioned are,
are, on
on the
the whole,
whole, compatcompatBrahmanist
ible with
must have
ible
with each
each other.
other. This
This shows
shows that
that there
there must
have existed
existed aa sort
sort of
of
historical
tradition in
in this
this part
part of
of India.
India.
historical tradition
The
The most
most important
important kingdoms
kingdoms seem
seem to
to have
have been
been Koshala
Koshala (in
(in the
the
present-day
Uttar Pradesh)
present-day state
state of
of Uttar
Pradesh) and
and Magadha
Magadha (in
(in the
the present-day
present-day

378

G. F.
F. IVyin
Il'yin and
and I.
I. M.
M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

state of
of Bihar).
characterized by
an even
even higher
higher
state
Bihar). The
The Indus
Indus region
region was
was characterized
by an
political and
because it
was more
political
and social
social instability,
instability, because
it was
more exposed
exposed to
to external
external
dangers.
southern India,
India, available
available data
data are
are not
yet sufficient
sufficient to
to
not yet
dangers. For
For southern
provide even
historical appraisal.
provide
even aa sketchy
sketchy historical
appraisal.
Vedic
and Culture
Culture
Vedic Religion
Religion and
The religion
religion of
the Ganges
Ganges Valley
tribes still
bore aa great
The
of the
Valley tribes
still bore
great similarity
similarity
religion of
the ancient
the cult
to the
to
the religion
of the
ancient Iranians.
Iranians. The
The cult
cult of
of fire
fire and
and the
cult
of
were distinctive
both religions,
was the
of ancestors
ancestors were
distinctive features
features of
of both
religions, as
as was
the
use,
use, during
during major
major rituals,
rituals, of
of aa specially
specially prepared
prepared potion:
potion: soma.
soma. (The
(The
Iranians called
Iranians
called it
it haoma.)
haoma.)Many
Manyexamples
examplesofofsimilarities
similaritiesininterminolterminology
identical deities
both
and identical
deities and
and mythical
mythical heroes
heroes can
can be
be found
found in
in both
ogy and
religions.
religions.
other ancient
peoples, the
the Indians
Indians believed
believed that
that the
the life
naLike
Like other
ancient peoples,
life of
of nature and
and of
proceeds according
according to
to the
the precepts
precepts of
the gods,
ture
of society
society proceeds
of the
gods, or
or
devas, beings
beings similar
similar to
to humans
humans but
but possessing
possessing supernatural
supernatural powers.
powers.
devas,
The most
important gods
gods were
Indra, the
the Thunderer
god and
and WarWarThe
most important
were Indra,
Thunderer god
rior
raja of
of the
the gods;
gods; Agni,
Agni, the
the god
god of
of Fire,
Fire, protector
protector of
of the
the
rior god,
god, the
the raja
home,
intercessor between
between humans
and gods;
gods; and
and Surya,
Surya, the
god of
of
humans and
the god
home, intercessor
the
Sun, the
enemy of
of darkness
darkness and
and cold.
cold. Female
Female deities
deities were
already
the Sun,
the enemy
were already
Vedas.Apart
Apartfropl
fromthe
the
losing their
their importance
importance in
in the
the religion
religion of
of the
the Vedas.
losing
devas, the
recognized another
another group
group of
of deities-the
deitiesthe asuras;
devas,
the Indians
Indians recognized
asuras;
but
these deities,
deities, such
such as,
as, for
for example,
example, Varuna,
the god
of Heaven,
Heaven,
but these
Varuna, the
god of
and Mithra,
of Light
Light and
and of
of Treaties,
as furfurand
Mithra, the
the god
god of
Treaties, were
were perceived
perceived as
ther
from humanity
humanity and
and played
lesser role.
ther removed
removed from
played aa lesser
role.
Because
that the
the world
and that
thrive
Because it
it was
was believed
believed that
world exists
exists and
that people
people thrive
only thanks
thanks to
the gods,
gods, and
and because
the gods
gods live
live by
sacrificial offerofferbecause the
by sacrificial
only
to the
believers. To
To please
please the
the gods
ings,
the main
ings, sacrifices
sacrifices were
were the
main duty
duty of
of believers.
gods
people
slaughtered animals,
animals, burned
grain, and
and poured
melted butter,
butter,
burned grain,
poured melted
people slaughtered
intothe
thefire.
fire.The
Thegod
godof
ofthe
theMoon,
Moon,Soma,
Soma,was
wasalso
alsoconconmilk,
and soma
milk, and
soma into
sidered the
the god
god of
of this
endowed the
the gods
gods with
with ununthis potion,
potion, which
which endowed
sidered
limited life
life and
and power.
Some rituals
rituals were
were very
very complex
complex and
and costly;
costly;
limited
power. Some
performing
them and
and reading
reading the
the appropriate
appropriate texts
texts and
and formulae
formulae reperforming them
required persons
special training.
The importance
importance of
of the
the Brahman
Brahman
quired
persons with
with special
training. The
varna
in the
importance of
of its
its members
in worship
worship and
and in
in
varna resided
resided in
the importance
members in
their mastery
mastery of
of the
the "sacred
"sacred knowledge"
(veda). The
The expenses
expenses inintheir
knowledge" (veda).
curred in
in aa ritual
ritual were
were defrayed
defrayed by
by the
the ritual's
ritual's beneficiary.
beneficiary. The
The king
king
curred
bore
the expenses
expenses of
of the
the state
state cult.
cult. There
There were
were no
no temple
temple economies
economies or
or
bore the
actual temples
as permanent
of worship
in the
the Vedic
religion.
actual
temples as
permanent places
places of
worship in
Vedic religion.
The
ancient Indians
had the
the notion,
preserved in
modern HinThe ancient
Indians had
notion, preserved
in modern
Hinduism,
body is
mortal but
but the
duism, that
that the
the body
is mortal
the soul
soul eternal;
eternal; after
after death,
death, the
the
soul
body-to which
which body
body depends
soul transmigrates
transmigrates to
to another
another bodyto
depends on
on the
the

India, Central Asia, and Iran

379
379

person's
behavior in
his past
Thus, the
concept of
of "action"
person's behavior
in his
past life.
life. Thus,
the concept
"action" (karma)
(karma)
not only
only means
behavior but
also retribution,
retribution, so
so that
that both
are inevitainevitanot
means behavior
but also
both are
bly one
one and
and the
the same.
same. The
The soul
soul of
of aa virtuous
virtuous person
person is
is reborn
reborn among
among
bly
higher beings,
and that
of aa sinner
sinner among
among lower
beings. The
The social
social
higher
beings, and
that of
lower beings.
teaching lies
liesin
in the
the fact
fact that
that the
the oppression
oppression
significance of
of the
the karma
significance
karma teaching
of aa working
working person
thought to
to be
be retribution
retribution for
for "sinful"
"sinful" behavior
behavior
of
person is
is thought
in his
his or
or her
life, so
so that
that their
their condition
condition is
is their
their own
own fault.
fault. In
In
in
her former
former life,
turn, the
the privileged
privileged situation
situation of
of the
the noble
noble and
and wealthy
wealthy is
simply their
their
turn,
is simply
What is
reward for
for their
their virtuousness
virtuousness in
in previous
previous lives.
reward
lives. What
is sin
sin and
and what
what is
is
virtue
defined by
the prevailing
prevailing ideology,
which was
to
virtue were
were defined
by the
ideology, which
was declared
declared to
have been
The teaching
of karma
turned out
out totobe
be
been given
given by
by the
the gods.
gods. The
teaching of
karma turned
have
so
for the
the ruling
tool with
with which
to influence
influence
ruling class
class as
as aa tool
which to
so convenient
convenient for
people
that it
moral and
and ethical
ethical foundation
foundation of
of all
all Indian
Indian
people that
it became
became the
the moral
religions and
and is
is maintained
to the
the present
present time:
religions
maintained up
up to
time:
The
study of
of the
the real
real world
appeared in
The first
first seeds
seeds of
of the
the scientific
scientific study
world appeared
in
India
during this
but characteristically
characteristically still
still within
within the
India during
this period,
period, but
the discidisciVeda: phonetics,
phonetics,grammar,
grammar,etyetyplines dedicated
dedicated to
to the
the study
study of
of the
the Veda:
plines
mology, and
and astronomy.
astronomy. Thinking
Thinking remained
remained primarily
primarily religious.
religious. Yet,
mology,
Yet,
advances in
in the
the field
field of
of mathematics
mathematics were
were impressive:
impressive: the
the Indians
Indians
advances
knew the
the theorem
theorem bearing
bearing the
the name
of Pythagoras
Pythagoras long
long before
before the
the
knew
name of
Greeks (but,
(but, apparently,
apparently, later
later than
than the
the Babylonians).
Babylonians). We
We have
Greeks
have evievidence of
of the
the existence
existence of
of professional
professional physicians
physicians who
who were
were able
able to
to dididence
agnose and
and treat
treat more
than aa hundred
hundred ailments,
ailments, being
being familiar
familiar with
with
agnose
more than
the healing
healing effects
effects of
of many
many natural
natural substances.
substances.
the
The ancient
ancient Indians
Indians did
did not
not erect
erect temples
temples or
or complex
complex funerary
funerary
The
structures, although
although their
their rituals
rituals were
were both
both elaborate
elaborate and
and costly.
costly.
structures,
Their
Their way
way of
of life
life was
was still
still simple,
simple, including
including that
that of
of the
the wellborn,
wellborn, and
and
the
the towns
towns did
did not
not differ
differ much
much from
from villages.
villages. There
There were
were no
no palaces,
palaces,
and
accomplishments of
Indians in
be considered
and the
the accomplishments
of the
the Indians
in the
the arts
arts can
can be
considered
modest.
modest.
What
What has
has reached
reached us
us from
from the
the Vedic
Vedic Period
Period is
is religious
religious literature.
literature.
The genres
genres of
of this
this literature
literature are
are manifold:
manifold: hymns
to gods,
praises by
The
hymns to
gods, praises
by
the
priests to
generous donors,
donors, sacrificial
sacrificial formulae,
formulae, incantations,
incantations, dethe priests
to generous
descriptions of
of rituals,
rituals, and
and mystic
mystic religious
religious treatises.
treatises. Some
Some texts
texts are
are
scriptions
characterized by
by colorfulness
colorfulness and
and aa wealth
wealth of
of artistic
artistic devices.
devices. In
the
characterized
In the
period under
under consideration,
consideration, the
Veda had
had not
notyet
yetbeen
been rendered
rendered inin
period
the Veda
writing but
was orally
orally transmitted
transmitted from
from teacher
teacher to
to student;
student; so
so far,
far, no
no
but was
writing
written
literature,
nor
any
written
record,
from
the
Vedic
Period
has
written literature, nor any written record, from the Vedic Period has
been discovered.
discovered. The
The ancient
ancient writing
writing of
of the
civilization died
died
been
the Indus
Indus civilization
out
with
the
culture
of
Mohenjo-daro
and
Harappa.
The
first
known
out with the culture of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The first known
texts in
in Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan syllabic
syllabic writing,
writing, apparently
unrelated to
to the
the anantexts
apparently unrelated
cient writing
writing system
system of
of the
Indus civilization,
civilization, date
date from
from as
as late
as the
the
the Indus
late as
cient
fourth to
to third
third centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, itit isis probable
probable that
that the
the earliearlifourth

380

C.
F. Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
G. F.

est
est Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan writing
writing evolved
evolved earlier,
earlier, probably
probably no
no later
later than
than the
the
first quarter
quarter of
of the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
leaves and
and similar
similar perperfirst
B.C. Palm
Palm leaves
ishable material
material must
must have
have been
been used
for this
writing.
ishable
used for
this writing.
the First
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
B.C.
Iran and
and Central
Central Asia
Asia in
in the
the First
First Half
Half of
of the
Iran

Until recently,
recently, it
it was
was believed
that aa long
interval of
of time
Until
believed that
long interval
time passed
passed bebetween the
tween
the arrival
arrival of
of Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryans in
in Hindustan
Hindustan and
and the
the arrival
arrival of
of
Iranians in
in Iran.
Iran. However,
However, circumstantial
leads us
believe
Iranians
circumstantial evidence
evidence leads
us to
to believe
that the
the Iranians
came to
to Iran
Iran in
in the
the immediate
immediate wake
wake of
of the
the depardeparthat
Iranians came
ture of
of the
the Indo-Aryans,
Indo-Aryans, or
or even
even that
that for
for some
some time
time they
they may
may have
have
ture
inhabited the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau simultaneously.
simultaneously. A
A certain
certain group
group of
of
inhabited
Indo-Aryans (possibly,
(possibly, Dardo-Kafirs)
Indra and
other
Indo-Aryans
Dardo-Kafirs) who
who worshiped
worshiped Indra
and other
Indo-Iranian devas
devas came
came into
into contact
contact with
with the
the Western
Western Asiatic
Asiatic HurHurIndo-Iranian
rians (in
(in all
all probability,
probability, in
in modern
modern Iranian
Iranian Azerbaijan)
Azerbaijan) and,
and, as
as we
rians
we
have seen
seen (see
(see Lecture
Lecture 11),
11), contributed
contributed an
an Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian dynasty
to
have
dynasty to
one of
of the
the most
most important
important Hurrian
Hurrian states,
states, Mitanni.
Mitanni.
one
The
Persians and
Medes,
The "Western"
"Western" Iranians,
Iranians, ancestors
ancestors of
of the
the Persians
and the
the Medes,
had by
twelfth century
their future
had
by the
the twelfth
century B.C.
B.C. still
still not
not reached
reached their
future habitat.
habitat.
But it
it is
is possible
that the
the eastern
eastern part
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau,
plateau, along
along the
the
But
possible that
part of
Tedzhen-Hari Rud
Rud Valley,
already been
settled by
Iranian tribes
tribes
Tedzhen-Hari
Valley, had
had already
been settled
by Iranian
B.C. Thus,
Thus, it
it may
may be
toward the
the middle
middle of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
toward
be asassumed that
that the
inhabitants of
of the
the pre-urban
pre-urban settlements
settlements of
of southern
southern
sumed
the inhabitants
Turkmenia (Namazga
(Namazga V),
V), eastern
eastern Iran,
Iran, and
and Afghanistan
Afghanistan were,
in the
the
Turkmenia
were, in
middle of
of the
the second
second millennium,
millennium, either
either Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryans or
or Iranians
Iranians by
middle
by
language. Another
Another southern
southern Turkmenian
Turkmenian culture,
culture, Yaz
(dating to
to
language.
Yaz II (dating
later than
the ninth
ninth century
century B.C.),
B.C.), was
Iranian. Somewhere
Somewhere
later
than the
was probably
probably Iranian.
in the
the great
great expanse
expanse of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau,
Western Iranian-speaking
Iranian-speaking
in
plateau, Western
tribes adopted
adopted the
the light
light battle
chariots which,
which, in
in the
the future,
future, were
were
battle chariots
tribes
to
play aa considerable
considerable role
role in
in their
their culture.
culture. The
Eastern IranianIranianThe Eastern
to play
speaking tribes
tribes (the
(the Sogdians,
Sogdians, the
Khoresmians, the
the
the Bactrians,
Bactrians, the
speaking
the Khoresmians,
Sacae, the
the Scythians,
Scythians, and
and others)
others) continued
continued at
at that
that time
and during
during
Sacae,
time and
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. to
to inhabit
inhabit the
the entire
entire expanse
expanse of
of the
the steppes
steppes
the
from the
the Black
Black Sea
Sea to
to Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and the
northern border
border of
of the
the
from
the northern
Iranian plateau.
plateau. By
the beginning
beginning of
our era
era these
these tribes
had hardly
hardly
Iranian
By the
of our
tribes had
made any
any advance
advance into
into the
the territory
territory of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
(in the
the
made
plateau (in
broad
sense)
and
remained,
with
the
exception
of
the
Bactrians,
in
broad sense) and remained, with the exception of the Bactrians, in
Central
Asia,
Kazakhstan,
and
eastern
Europe.
Central Asia, Kazakhstan, and eastern Europe.
In
the culture
culture of
the inhabitants
In appraising
appraising the
of the
inhabitants of
of Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and
Iran
with the
purpose of
Iran with
the purpose
of discovering
discovering some
some reflection
reflection of
of their
their ethnic
ethnic
history,
it is
is of
of great
great interest
interest to
to observe
observe the
the changes
changes in
in funerary
funerary riturituhistory, it
als. These
These rituals
apparently developed
developed (at
(at least
some of
of the
the ininrituals apparently
least for
for some
als.
habitants
habitants of
of the
discussed region)
from cremation
(also brought
to
the discussed
region) from
cremation (also
brought to
Hindustan by
the Indo-Aryans)
Indo-Aryans) to
to the
the later
later Iranian
Iranian ritual
ritual of
of leaving
leaving
Hindustan
by the

India,
Asia, and
India, Central
Central Asia,
and Iran
Iran

381

corpses
be torn
pieces by
birds and
prey, whereupon
corpses to
to be
torn to
to pieces
by birds
and animals
animals of
of prey,
whereupon
only
only the
the remaining
remaining scattered
scattered bones
bones were
were buried.
buried. The
The belief
belief underunderlying
elelying this
this ritual
ritual was
was the
the tabu
tabu against
against defiling
defiling the
the purity
purity of
of the
the elementsfire, water,
water, and
and the
the fertile
fertile soil;
soil; this
this was
was probably
probably due
due to
to the
the
ments-fire,
existence of
of aa cult
cult of
of fertile
fertile soil,
soil, water,
water, and
and fire.
fire.
existence
The
The ritual
ritual of
of exposing
exposing corpses
corpses has
has been
been attested
attested by
by written
written and
and ararchaeological sources
sources only
only for
for aa much
much later
later period.
period. The
The practice
of crepractice of
crechaeological
mation was
was recorded
recorded for
for graves
graves of
of the
the fourteenth
fourteenth to
to thirteenth
thirteenth
mation
centuries B.C.
B.C. between
between the
the mouths
mouths of
of the
the Kafirnigan
and Surkhan
Surkhan
centuries
Kafirnigan and
Darya
rivers in
in present-day
present-day Tadzhikistan.
Tadzhikistan. In
the period
period of
of the
the
Darya rivers
In the
Namazga VI
laid in
Namazga
VI culture
culture aa fire
fire continued
continued to
to be
be laid
in the
the grave,
grave, but
but the
the
body was
was not
not cremated;
cremated; it
it was
was laid
laid on
on its
its side
side in
in an
an embryonic
embryonic posibody
position.
tion. In
In southern
southern Tadzhikistan
Tadzhikistan at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium
B.C.
B.C. cremation
cremation was
was replaced
replaced by
by the
the ritual
ritual of
of burial.
burial. The
The internment
internment of
of
bent skeletons
skeletons together
together with
with funerary
funerary gifts
gifts was
was also
also still
still practiced
practiced in
in
bent
central
central Iran
Iran and
and most
most of
of Central
Central Asia
Asia at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the second,
second, bebeginning
millennia B.C.
B.C. and
and later.
later. But
But in
in southern
southern TadzhikiTadzhikiginning of
of the
the first
first millennia
stan
the first
first third
first millennium,
burials were
were conducted
stan in
in the
third of
of the
the first
millennium, burials
conducted
as follows.
follows. At
At the
the bottom
of aa pit
pit aa stone
stone box
box was
was placed
placed into
into which
which the
the
as
bottom of
dismembered corpse
corpse was
was laid,
laid, without
without any
any accompanying
accompanying inventory,
inventory,
dismembered
and
and covered
covered with
with reeds.
reeds. Such
Such aa burial
burial reflects
reflects an
an attempt
attempt to
to preserve
preserve
the purity
purity of
of fertile
fertile soil
soil from
from the
the contaminating
contaminating contact
contact with
with the
the
the
corpse. Thus
Thus the
the Iranian
Iranian custom
custom of
of protecting
the natural
natural elements
elements
protecting the
corpse.
from aa dead
dead body's
body's decay,
decay, also
also undoubtedly
undoubtedly related
related to
to the
the worship
worship of
of
from
fire, came
came into
into being
being apparently
apparently in
the settled
settled southern
southern regions
regions of
of
fire,
in the
Central Asia
Asia or
or in
in eastern
eastern Iran
Iran during
during the
the first
third of
of the
the first
Central
first third
first milmillennium B.C.
By the
the middle
middle of
of the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.C.,
B.C., this
this custom
custom
lennium
B.C. By
spread to
to Media
and Persia,
Persia, but
but it
it was
was still
still new
new there
there and
and not
not pracpracspread
Media and
ticed by
by everyone.
everyone. The
The ritual
ritual that
that requires
requires that
that the
the elements
elements be
kept
be kept
ticed
pure
closely connected
connected with
with the
the Avestan
civilization.
pure is
is closely
Avestan civilization.

The Avesta
and Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism
The
Avesta and
The
Iranian religion
The sacred
sacred book
book of
of the
the Iranian
religion of
of Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is
is called
called the
the
Avesta
Avesta and
and isiswritten
written in
inaalanguage
language with
withcharacteristics
characteristics of
of both
both Eastern
Eastern
Iranian
Iranian (like
(like Khoresmian,
Khoresmian, Sogdian,
Sogdian, and
and Bactrian)
Bactrian) and
and Western
Western IraIranian (like
(like Median,
Persian, and
The precise
precise time
time and
place
nian
Median, Persian,
and Parthian).
Parthian). The
and place
of its
are unknown.
unknown. All
All that
can be
be said
said is
is the
To
of
its creation
creation are
that can
the following.
following. To
Avesta
antedate
the
emergence
of
the
great
begin
with,
all
parts
of
the
begin with, all parts of the Avesta antedate the emergence of the great
Persian empire
empire in
in the
the second
second half
of the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.C.,
B.C., because
because no
no
Persian
half of
part
of it
it contains
any traces
of knowledge
of the
the Median
Median or
Persian
part of
contains any
traces of
knowledge of
or Persian
empires or
or any
any awareness
awareness of
of the
the elaborate
elaborate Persian
administrative terterPersian administrative
empires
minology, although
although the
the latter
latter deeply
deeply influenced
influenced all
all languages
languages from
from
minology,
Greece to
to India
between the
the sixth
sixth and
and fourth
fourth centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. Second,
Second,
Greece
India between

382

G."F.
Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff
G. F. IVyin

the
Avesta took
the compilation
compilation of
of the
the Avesta
took quite
quite aalong
long time.
time.Third,
Third, the
the most
most
important
the Avesta,
theGathas,
Gathas,verse
versesermons
sermonsbyby
theteacher
teacher
important part
part of
of the
Avesta, the
the
of the
doctrine, Zarathushthra
(Zoroaster), appeared
appeared as
as aa result
result of
of
the doctrine,
Zarathushthra (Zoroaster),
of aa
religious
and philosophical
could have
religious and
philosophical reform
reform that
that could
have taken
taken place
place only
only
within
stratified society,
if still
still quite
archaic. We
shall
quite archaic.
We shall
within aa civilized
civilized stratified
society, even
even if
further on
that these
these considerations
force us
us to
to date
the Avesta
Avesta bebesee further
on that
considerations force
date the
see
tween the
the ninth
and the
the beginning
of the
the seventh
seventh centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. (alninth and
beginning of
(altween
though other
other dates
dates have
have been
suggested, ranging
ranging from
from the
Neolithic
though
been suggested,
the Neolithic
period
to the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.C.).
period to
B.C.).
The farming
The
farming cultures
cultures of
of the
the southern
southern frontier
frontier of
of Central
Central Asia
Asia and
and
the northeastern
northeastern part
part of
Iran were
expanding after
B.C. A
A gradgradthe
of Iran
were expanding
after 1000
1000 B.C.
ual transition
transition from
from bronze
to iron
iron was
taking place.
Wide use
bronze to
was taking
place. Wide
use was
was
ual
made
of the
mountain streams
streams in
in the
foothills and
and of
the
made of
of the
the waters
waters of
the mountain
the foothills
of the
rivers,
such as
as the
the Tedzhen,
Tedzhen, the
the Murghab,
Murghab, and
and the
Amu Darya.
Darya. These
These
rivers, such
the Amu
cultures
are known
existed between
and seventh
seventh or
or
cultures are
known to
to have
have existed
between the
the tenth
tenth and
B.C. in
in ancient
ancient Hyrcania
Hyrcania (at
(at the
the southeastern
southeastern corner
corner of
of
sixth centuries
centuries B.C.
sixth
the
Sea), in
in Parthia,
south of
of modern
Turkmenia (probably
(probably
the Caspian
Caspian Sea),
Parthia, south
modern Turkmenia
also
in Areia,
or Haraiva-the
Haraivathe Tedzhen-Hari
TedzhenHari Rud
Valley), in
in MarMarAreia, or
Rud Valley),
also in
giana (the
(the Merv,
Merv, or
or Mary,
oasis), in
Sogdiana, in
(where the
the
Mary, oasis),
in Sogdiana,
in Bactria
Bactria (where
giana
Amu Darya
Darya flows
from the
the east
east to
to the
and in
in Drangiana
Drangiana (south(southAmu
flows from
the west),
west), and
western
Afghanistan).
western Afghanistan).
The
we have
have from
The scattered
scattered and
and obscure
obscure information
information we
from the
the Greek
Greek auauthors leads
us to
believe that
important political
existed in
in these
these
that important
political units
units existed
thors
leads us
to believe
regions
the Median
Median and
and Persian
empires. This
This seems
seems to
corPersian empires.
to be
be corregions before
before the
roborated
by data
the Avesta.
Avesta. Can
Canthese
theseunits,
units,dated
datedtoto
roborated by
data gleaned
gleaned from
from the
about the
the eighth
to seventh
seventh centuries,
centuries, be
as states?
states? Against
Against
about
eighth to
be defined
defined as
such
such aa definition
definition is
is the
the fact
fact that
that no
no written
written texts
texts have
have yet
yet been
been found
found
in these
these regions
from so
so early
early aa period;
states that
not use
use
in
regions from
period; but
but states
that did
did not
writing are
are known
known (in
(in Africa,
Africa, for
for example).
example). Moreover,
Moreover, let
let us
us not
not forforwriting
get that
Elamite hieroglyphic
script was
to the
inhabiget
that the
the Elamite
hieroglyphic script
was known
known to
the inhabitants
of the
the Iranian
Iranian plateau
ever since
since the
the beginning
of the
third
plateau ever
beginning of
the third
tants of
millennium.
millennium.
The entire
entire history
of the
the ancient
ancient Orient
Orient shows
shows that
that ancient
ancient states
states
The
history of
did not
grow out
out of
of tribal
tribal unions,
immediately assuming
assuming the
form of
of
did
not grow
unions, immediately
the form
empires. Rather,
Rather, states
states emerged
emerged from
from territorial
territorial communities
communities that
that
empires.
naturally came
came under
the influence
influence of
of aa single
single center
center (in
(in aa mountain
mountain
naturally
under the
valley, along
along aa master
master irrigation
irrigation canal,
canal, etc.)
etc.) and
formed city-states,
city-states, or
or
valley,
and formed
nomes. We
We must
assume that
in eastern
eastern Iran
Iran and
and in
in Central
Central Asia,
Asia, just
just
nomes.
must assume
that in
as in
in western
western Iran,
Iran, large
large political
small urban"
urban
as
political units
units were
were preceded
preceded by
by small
settlements and
and small
small pre-state
and state
state nuclei.
nuclei.10
settlements
pre-state and
IO
10.
Recently, Soviet
uncovered evidence
evidence for
an impressive
10. Recently,
Soviet archaeologists
archaeologists have
have uncovered
for an
impressive numnumber"
ber of
of Bronze Age
Age urban
urban settlements
settlements in
in Margiana (the
(the now desiccated
desiccated lower
lower course
course
of
Murghab River)
of the
the Murghab
River) and
and in
in Bactria
Bactria (northwestern
(northwestern Afghanistan
Afghanistan and
and southern
southern
Uzbekistan).
Uzbekistan). The
The material
material culture
culture of
of the
the settlements
settlements in
in Margiana
Margiana and
and Bactria
Bactria is
is quite
quite

India, Central Asia, and

and Iran
Iran

383

Avestan
Avestan data,
data, however,
however, indicate
indicate the
the existence
existence of
of at
at least
least one
one large
large
and
unit at
and stable
stable political
political unit
at aa time
time when
when small
small city-states
city-states no
no longer
longer
existed, but
still in
in the
the pre-Achaemenid
pre-Achaemenid Period;
Period; that
is, before
before the
the
existed,
but still
that is,
middle
political unit
middle of
of the
the sixth
sixth century.
century. Actually,
Actually, this
this political
unit must
must not
not have
have
immediately
Period, because
because there
immediately preceded
preceded the
the Achaemenid
Achaemenid Period,
there are
are no
no
ancient
ancient data
data indicating
indicating aa direct
direct conquest
conquest of
of this
this older
older polity
polity by
by Media
Media
or Persia.
Persia.
or
One
of the
Avesta, aahymn
One of
of the
the most
most ancient
ancient sections
sections of
the Avesta,
hymn totothe
thegod
god
Mithra,
the patron
testifies to
the fact
fact that
that when
the hymn
Mithra, the
patron of
of Treaties,
Treaties, testifies
to the
when the
hymn
was
was composed
composed (presumably,
(presumably, in
in the
the ninth
ninth to
to seventh
seventh centuries)
centuries) there
there
existed
existed aa state,
state, or
or rather
rather aa military
military federation
federation of
of tribes
tribes and
and commucommunities,
nities, called
called Aryoshayana
Aryoshayana occupying
occupying the
the Tedzhen-Hari
Tedzhen-Hari Rud
Rud and
and
Murghab river
valleys (lying
(lying partly
partly inside
inside modern
modern Turkmenia
Turkmenia and
and
Murghab
river valleys
partly
inside Afghanistan),
Afghanistan), as
as well
well as
as the
the middle
middle course
course of
of the
the Amu
Amu
partly inside
Darya
as
Darya and
and some
some surrounding
surrounding regions,
regions, perhaps
perhaps even
even as
as far
far as
11
Khoresm (the
Amu Darya).
Darya).ll
This
was
Khoresm
(the lower
lower course
course of
of the
the Amu
This federation
federation was
also
Aryanam-Vaejo, aa name
to Khoresm
also called
called Aryanam-Vaejo,
name later
later transferred
transferred to
Khoresm and,
and,
still later,
name for
for the
the distant
northern
still
later, becoming
becoming aa half-mythical
half-mythical name
distant northern
homeland of
the Aryans.
to legend,
legend, this
this union
union or
or federafederahomeland
of the
Aryans. According
According to
tion was
was created
created by
by aa person
person named
named Kavata,
who bore
bore the
the title
title of
of Kavi
tion
Kavata, who
Kavi
("singer" or
or "soothsayer")
"soothsayer") and
and apparently
apparently hailed
hailed from
from Drangiana
in
("singer"
Drangiana in
southwestern Afghanistan.
Afghanistan. His
His tribal
tribal origin
origin is
unclear (except
(except for
for the
the
southwestern
is unclear
fact that
that he
he was
was Iranian-speaking).
Iranian-speaking). Aryoshayana
Aryoshayana was
was later
later conquered
conquered
fact
by aa chief
chief of
of the
the Tura
Tura nomads
nomads (Turanians,
(Turanians, one
one of
of the
the Scythian-Sacae
Scythian-Sacae
by
12
tribes, also
also Iranian,
Iranian, perhaps
perhaps Khoresmian?),
Khoresmian?), called
called Frangrasyan.
Frangrasyan.12
tribes,
Frangrasyan,
Frangrasyan, however,
however, was
was killed
killed near
near aa "deep
"deep lake
lake of
of salty
salty waters"
waters"
(the Aral
Sea?) by
Kavata's descendant,
descendant, the
the Kavi
Kavi Khausrava,
Khausrava, who
then
(the
Aral Sea?)
by Kavata's
who then
unified all
of Aryoshayana.
Aryoshayana.
unified
all of
We
have some
idea of
We have
some superficial
superficial idea
of the
the social
social structure
structure of
of ArAryoshayana
Avesta. There
patriarchal slaves,
slaves, though
There were
were patriarchal
though
yoshayana from
from the
the Avesta.
in small
the Indo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan society,
that of
in
small numbers.
numbers. Like
Like the
society, that
of AryoshayAryoshayana
was divided
into three
priests, and
and farmersana was
divided into
three estates:
estates: warriors,
warriors, priests,
farmerscattlemen.
cattlemen. The fundamental
fundamental economic
economic unit, as
as in Western Asia, was
similar
similar and
and exhibits
exhibits striking
striking parallels
parallels with
with materials
materials uncovered
uncovered farther
farther south
south in
in Pakistani
roots of
Zorostani Baluchistan
Baluchistan and
and in
in southeastern
southeastern Iran.
Iran. It
It is
is possible
possible that
that the
the roots
of later
later Zoroastrianism
in these
astrianism are
are to
to be
be sought
sought in
these second-millennium
second-millennium settlements
settlements of
of Margiana,
Margiana, such
such
as
Gonur-depe. Editor's
Editor's note
(PLK).
as Togolok
Togolok 21
21 and
and Gonur-depe.
note (PLK).
that the
names of
of the
the countries
mentioned by
Avesta, and
11.
Note that
11. Note
the names
countries mentioned
by the
the Avesta,
andlater
laterby
bythe
the
Old Persian
inscriptions, referred
referred originally
originally to
inhabiting territories
territories smaller
smaller than
than
Old
Persian inscriptions,
to tribes
tribes inhabiting
the
limits of
of these
these later
later countries,
countries, and
and sometimes
sometimes even
even different
different territories.
territories. Therefore,
Therefore,
the limits
it is
is possible
possible that
that we
we exaggerate
exaggerate the
the extent
extent of
of Aryoshayana;
Aryoshayana; that
that Khoresm
was part
part of
of it
it
Khoresm was
it
is especially
especially doubtful.
doubtful.
is
usage, widespread
widespread even
12.
12. In
In the
the later
later legends
legends he
he is
is called
called Afrasyab.
Afrasyab. The
The usage,
even in
in
the twentieth
twentieth century,
century, of
of applying
applying the
the denomination
denomination "Turanian"
"Turanian" to
to Turkic-speaking
Turkic-speaking
the
peoples, is
is based
based on
on an
an old
old error.
error.
peoples,

384

G. F.
F. Il'yin and I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

the
the extended-family
extended-family patriarchal
patriarchal community,
community, the
the "house"
"house" (dmana).
(dmana). AA
group
houses-the gens,
the rural
rural community
group of
of housesthe
gens, or
or the
community (vis)-was
(vis)was also
also
headed
by
a
kind
of
patriarch.
The
next
level,
the
tribe,
apparently
headed by a kind of patriarch. The next level, the tribe, apparently
had
lost some
some of
of its
its importance
importance by
by this
time. Still
Still higher
higher stood
stood the
the
had lost
this time.
"country" (dahyu,
(dahyu, or
or danghyu)
danghyu),
which was
was somewhat
somewhat larger
larger than
than aa
"country"
, which
nome in
in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia but
but similar
similar to
to it
it in
in structure.
structure. The
The country
country was
nome
was
(sastar),
who ruled
ruled with
with the
the council
council of
of
headed by
chief (sastar)
headed
by aa military
military chief
, who
elders or
or aa people's
assembly.
elders
people's assembly.
preacher who
who created
new religious
religious and
philoZarathushthra,
Zarathushthra, the
the preacher
created aa new
and philosophical system,
system, lived
in Aryoshayana
Aryoshayana at
at the
the court
court of
of aa later
later (and,
(and, apapsophical
lived in
parently, considerably
considerably less
less powerful)
ruler, Kavi
Kavi Vishtaspa.
Vishtaspa. We
do not
not
We do
parently,
powerful) ruler,
know
the dates
dates of
of Zarathushthra's
Zarathushthra's life,
life, although
although many
many attempts
attempts have
have
know the
been
lately to
calculate them.
A comparatively
legend
been made
made lately
to calculate
them. A
comparatively reliable
reliable legend
placed
lifetime at
at ten
generations before
Alexander the
Great;
ten generations
before Alexander
the Great;
placed his
his lifetime
that is,
is, in
in the
the seventh
seventh century.
century.
that
The
reliable information
The only
only reliable
information about
about the
the teachings
teachings of
of Zarathushthra
Zarathushthra
comes from
from his
sermons, the
the Gathas.
comes
his poetic
poetic sermons,
Gathas.From
Fromthem
themwe
welearn
learnthat
that
Zarathushthra condemned
condemned the
sacrifices (especially
(especially by
the
Zarathushthra
the wasteful
wasteful sacrifices
by the
Iranian nomads)
nomads) of
of cattle
cattle so
so vital
vital to
to the
the farmers.
farmers. They
They were
were offered
offered
Iranian
to the
the daevas
daevas (the
(the devas
devasofofthe
theIndians),
Indians),whom
whomheheregarded
regardedasasfalse
false
to
gods. But
But almost
almost nowhere
did he
mention these
these deities
deities by
by name.
name. He
He
nowhere did
he mention
gods.
preached
of aa supreme
supreme creator-god,
creator-god, Ahura
Mazda (later
(later
preached the
the worship
worship of
Ahura Mazda
called Ahuramazda,
Ormazd; in
in Iranian
Iranian ahura
ahura means
means the
same as
the same
as
called
Ahuramazda, Ormazd;
asurain
in Indo-Aryan:
Indo-Aryan: one
oneof
of two
twoclans
clansof
ofdeities).
deities).1313Ahura
Ahura Mazda,
Mazda, sursurasura
rounded by
the good
good spirits
spirits that
personify virtues
and the
the good
good elerounded
by the
that personify
virtues and
elements of
of nature
nature (fire,
(fire, air,
air, water,
water, and
and fertile
fertile soil),
soil), struggles
struggles against
against
ments
Anghro Mainyu
Mainyu (Ahro
(Ahro Manyu,
Manyu, Ahriman),
Ahriman), who
who leads
leads the
the spirits
spirits that
that
Anghro
personify
evil. The
duty of
of each
each believing
believing farmer
farmer is
is to
the
personify evil.
The duty
to protect
protect the
cattle (which
(which have
have their
spirit), to
adhere to
to
cattle
their own
own patron
patron spirit),
to till
till the
the land,
land, to
to adhere
virtue,
and not
to defile
defile the
good natural
natural elements.
elements. Then,
Then, after
after death,
death,
not to
the good
virtue, and
he will
will enter
enter paradiseGaro-dmanaalong
narrow path
leading
he
paradise-Garo-dmana-along aa narrow
path leading
souls," as
as narrow
narrow as
as aa thin
thin hair
hair or
or aa knife's
edge.
across the
"bridge of
of souls,"
the "bridge
knife's edge.
across
A miraculous
miraculous savior,
savior, the
the descendant
descendant of
of Zarathushthra,
Zarathushthra, will
will corne
come at
at
A
the
end of
of time
and Anghro
Anghro Mainyu
Mainyu will
defeated. However,
However, this
this
the end
time and
will be
be defeated.
latter belief,
like the
the instruction
instruction to
to the
the faithful
faithful to
to kill
animals
kill harmful
harmful animals
latter
belief, like
and insects
insects and
and to
leave corpses
corpses out
out for
for the
the birds
birds to
to devour
in an
an
and
to leave
devour in
effort to
to avoid
avoid defiling
defiling the
elements, was
was certainly
certainly introduced
introduced only
only
effort
the elements,
after
Zarathushthra.
after Zarathushthra.
preacher-reformers of
Like
Like other
other preacher-reformers
of antiquity,
antiquity, Zarathushthra
Zarathushthra focused
focused
preaching. As
his
his attention
attention on
on religious-philosophical
religious-philosophical and
and moral
moral preaching.
As aa rere13.
was not
the first
13. Zarathushthra
Zarathushthra was
not the
first to
to worship
worship Ahura
Ahura Mazda:
Mazda: aa deity
deity with
with this
this name
name
(Akkadian Assara-Mazash)
Assara-Mazash) was
was apparently
apparently worshiped
in Iran
Iran much
much earlier.
earlier. It
It is
is genergener(Akkadian
worshiped in
ally assumed
assumed that
that this
this epithet
epithet ("the
("the wise
wise ahura
ahuraor
or alUra")
asura")was
wasapplied
appliedtotothe
thegod
godwhom
whom
ally
the Indo-Aryans
Indo-Aryans called
called Varuna.
Varuna.
the

India,
India, Central
Central Asia,
Asia, and
and Iran
Iran

385

suIt,
suit, it
it became
became possible
possible to
to merge
merge the
the most
most commonly
commonly comprehensible
comprehensible
the ancient,
cults of
of Indoelements
elements of
of his
his teaching
teaching with
with the
ancient, traditional
traditional cults
IndoIranian gods.
gods. For
For the
the same
same reason,
reason, later
later Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism also
also prepreIranian
served many
many traits
traits of
of the
the most
most archaic
archaic rites.
rites.
served
At
At the
the end
end of
of his
his long
long life,
life, Zarathushthra
Zarathushthra was
was killed
killed by
by the
the Hyaona
Hyaona
(perhaps the
the Bactrian
Bactrian nomadic
nomadic tribes
tribes later
later known
known as
as the
the Chionites),
Chionites),
(perhaps
who
of Kavi
Kavi Vishtaspa;
Vishtaspa; this
this kingdom
kingdom also
also
who fought
fought against
against the
the kingdom
kingdom of
perished.
perished.
In the
the legends
legends of
of later
later times,
times, Kavi
Kavi Vishtaspa
Vishtaspa (and
(and Zarathushthra's)
Zarathushthra's)
In
kingdom
lokingdom was
was erroneously
erroneously identified
identified with
with the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Bactria,
Bactria, located
upper course
Amu Darya
cated along
along the
the middle
middle and
and upper
course of
of the
the Amu
Darya River.
River.
(The
capital, Bactra,
or Balkh,
of
(The capital,
Bactra, or
Balkh, was
was located
located in
in the
the northern
northern part
part of
modern
Afghanistan.) This
until the
modern Afghanistan.)
This kingdom
kingdom existed
existed until
the middle
middle of
of the
the
sixth
sixth century
century B.C.,
B.C., when
when it
it was
was conquered
conquered by
by the
the Medes
Medes and
and Persians.
Persians.
The name
name Aryoshayana,
Aryoshayana, or
or Aryanam-Vaejo,
Aryanam-Vaejo, was
was used
used in
in the
the form
form
The
Ariana
as the
the general
general designation
designation of
of aa number
number of
of countries
countries inhabited
inhabited
Ariana as
by Aryans.
Aryans. The
The Bactrian
Bactrian kingdom
kingdom was
was better
better remembered,
remembered, and
and in
in the
the
by
later legend,
legend, Vishtaspa
Vishtaspa and
and his
his court
court were
were placed
in Balkh.
Balkh.
later
placed in
The
not extermiThe disciples
disciples and
and followers
followers of
of Zarathushthra
Zarathushthra were
were not
exterminated.
nated. To
To be
be sure,
sure, memory
memory of
of the
the precise
precise contents
contents of
of his
his teachings
teachings
faded,
faded, and
and many
many quite
quite different
different and
and mutually
mutually contradictory
contradictory beliefs
beliefs
Zarathushthra. The
were
Gathasof
ofZarathushthra
Zarathushthra and
and
were attributed
attributed to
to Zarathushthra.
The Gathas
other
preserved in
other early
early Zoroastrian
Zoroastrian texts
texts were
were preserved
in oral
oral form
form for
for some
some
500
Avesta later
to include
hymns to
500 years.
years. The
The sacred
sacred Avesta
later also
also came
came to
include hymns
to
Mithra,
Mithra, the
the god
god of
of treaties,
treaties, to
to Anahita,
Anahita, the
the goddess
goddess of
of rivers
rivers and
and ferfertility, to
the deified
deified sacred
potion haoma
haoma (the
(the soma
somaofofthe
theIndians;
Indians;it it
tility,
to the
sacred potion
was actually
actually banned
banned by
by Zarathushthra
Zarathushthra himself),
was
himself), and
and so
so forth.
forth. Some
Some
of these
these hymns
(the Yashts)
of
hymns (the
Yashts)were
wereprobably
probablycomposed
composed long
longbefore
before
Zarathushthra,
Avesta was
was possible
possible because
because
Zarathushthra, but
but their
their inclusion
inclusion in
in the
the Avesta
the preacher
preacher left
left the
the rejected
rejected evil
evil daevas
the
daevas unnamed
unnamed inin his
hispoetic
poeticsersermons.
Later, the
the Avesta
Avesta came
mons. Later,
came to
to include
include the
the Yasna
Yasna1414and
andthe
theVisprat,
Visprat,
ritual and
prayer texts,
texts, as
well as
the Videvdat,
ritual
and prayer
as well
as the
Videvdat,a abook
bookofofritual
ritualprohibiprohibitions with
with penances
penances and
and fines
for their
their transgression.
transgression. This
This latter
latter book
book
tions
fines for
obviously dates
dates from
from aa much
much later
later time
time than
than Zarathushthra's
Zarathushthra's but
but is
obviously
is
B.C. The
The Avesta
alsoincluded
included
still hardly
hardly later
later than
than the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.C.
still
Avesta also
other books,
books, but
but they
they have
have not
not been
been preserved;
preserved; we
we only
only have
quoother
have quotations
from
them
in
later
legal
and
other
texts,
and
their
titles
are
tations from them in later legal and other texts, and their titles are
listed
in
the
general
index
of
the
Avesta
from
the
fourth
to
sixth
cenlisted in the general index of the Avesta from the fourth to sixth centuries A.D.
turies
A.D.
It
It seems
seems that
that after
after the
the death
death of
of their
their leader,
leader, some
some of
of his
his disciples
disciples
14.
14. The
The Gathas
Gathas ofof Zarathushthra
Zarathushthra are
are also
alsoincluded
included inin the
the Yasna.
Yasna.Note
Notethat
thatthethe
Gathas,
thethe
Yasna
of the
Seven
Chapters,
are are
Gathas,asaswell
wellasasone
oneprosaic
prosaicpart
partofofthe
theYasnas,
Yasnas,
Yasna
of the
Seven
Chapters,
composed
Avesta ("the
("thelate
lateAvesta,"
Avesta"including
including
composed in
in aa dialect
dialect different
different from
from the
the rest
rest of
of the
the Avesta

the
obviously archaic
archaic hymn
to Mithra
Mithra and
and others).
others).
the obviously
hymn to

386

G. F.
F. Il'yin
IVyin and
and I.
I. M. Diakonoff
Diakonoff

resettled
resettled in
in Western
Western Iran,
Iran, in
in Media,
Media, where
where they
they converted
converted one
one of
of
the local
local Median
Median tribes-the
tribesthe Magi.
Magi. "Magus"
"Magus" later
later became
became synonysynonythe
mous
mous with
with "Zoroastrian
"Zoroastrian priest."
priest." Here
Here in
in Media,
Media, the
the teachings
teachings of
of
Zarathushthra
became, in
Zarathushthra as
as interpreted
interpreted by
by the
the Magi
Magi became,
in the
the seventh
seventh cencentury B.C.,
B.C., the
the world's
world's first
official state
state religion.
religion. The
The Medes
Medes and
and the
the
tury
first official
Persians had
had settled
settled in
in the
the western
western and
and southern
southern parts
parts of
of the
the Iranian
Iranian
Persians
plateau not
not later
later than
than the
the ninth
ninth century
century B.C.
B.C. Even
Even earlier,
earlier, they
they had
had
plateau
contacts with
with the
the more
more ancient
ancient autochthonous
autochthonous civilizations.
civilizations. The
The PerPercontacts
sians occupied
occupied Anshan,
Anshan, formerly
formerly an
an important
important part
part of
of Elam.
Elam.
sians
A
A culture
culture of
of fortress-cities
fortress-cities existed
existed throughout
throughout the
the western
western and
and cencentral
first millennium
B.C.
tral Iranian
Iranian plateau
plateau at
at the
the turn
turn of
of the
the second
second and
and first
millennium B.C.
These were
were precisely
precisely the
the urban
urban cultures
cultures that
that confronted
confronted the
the Assyrian
Assyrian
These
conquerors in
in the
the ninth
ninth to
to seventh
seventh centuries
centuries B.C.
conquerors
B.C.

19
19
The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China
T.
T. V.

STEPUGINA
STEPUGINA

General Remarks

The emergence
emergence of
of the
the first
first civilization
civilization in
in the
the Far
Far Eastthe
Chinese
The
East-the Chinesealso belongs
belongs to
to the
the period
of early
early antiquity,
antiquity, although
although to
to its
its latest
latest
also
period of
part.!
part.1
It is
is supposed
supposed that
that most
most of
of the
the ancient
ancient tribes
tribes in
in China,
China, Tibet,
Tibet,
It
Burma,
Burma, Thailand,
Thailand, and
and North
North Vietnam
Vietnam spoke
spoke languages
languages belonging
belonging to
to
the
the Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan linguistic
linguistic family.2
family.2 Only
Only aa small
small number
number of
of these
these
languages,
languages, especially
especially those
those spoken
spoken in
in the
the basin
basin of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho and
and
the
Yangtze
Chiang,
as
well
as to
to the
the south
south of
of that
that area,
area, were
were the
the base
base
the Yangtze Chiang, as well as
of
Chinese language.
language. It
thought that
the fifth
of the
the later
later Chinese
It is
is thought
that as
as early
early as
as the
fifth
millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. the
the distant
distant ancestors
ancestors of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese were
were living
living in
in
selfthe Huang
Huang Ho
Ho basin.
basin. However,
However, the
the Chinese
Chinese had
had no
no common
the
common selfdenomination
denomination until
until late
late antiquity,
antiquity, when
when they
they called
called themselves
themselves Han
Han
jen
(the name
name of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese writing
writing systems,
systems, Han
Han tzu,
tzu, "Han
"Han writing,"
writing,"
jen (the
also dates
dates from
from that
that period).
period). The
The term
term stems
stems from
from the
the dynastic
dynastic name
name
also
of an
an ancient
ancient Far
Far Eastern
Eastern empire,
empire, Han
Han (from
(from 202
202 B.C.),
B.C.), although
although as
as aa
of
national
denomination it
it is
is attested
attested only
only later.
later. The
The European
European term
term
national denomination
1.
1. Materials
Materials supplied
supplied by
by colleagues
colleagues have
have been
been used
used in
in this
this lecture.
lecture.
2.
2. At
At present,
present, the
the Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan family
family includes
includes Chinese
Chinese (Han
(Han language),
language), with
with its
its nunumerous,
merous, partiy
partly mutually
mutually unintelligible
unintelligible dialects,
dialects, and
and the
the languages
languages of
of the
the Tibeto-BurTibeto-Burman branch.
branch. The
The latter
latter includes
includes Tibetan,
Tibetan, Burman,
Burman, Karen
Karen (in
(in Burma
Burma and
and Thailand),
Thailand),
man
and
in Nepal,
Assam (India),
and aa number
number oflanguages
of languages spoken
spoken in
Nepal, Assam
(India), Burma,
Burma, and
and southwestern
southwestern
China. The
The Thai
Thai languages
languages may
may constitute
constitute other
other branches
branches of
of the
the same
same family:
family: Thai
Thai (or
(or
China.
Siamese) in
in Thailand,
Thailand, Shan
Shan in
in Burma,
Burma, etc.
etc. According
According to
to aa hypothesis
hypothesis of
of S.
S. A.
A. Starostin
Starostin
Siamese)
and S.
S. L.
L. Nikolaev,
the Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan languages,
languages, as
as well
as that
of the
the Ket
Ket on
on the
and
Nikolaev, the
well as
that of
the Yenisei
Yenisei
River, belong
to aa linguistic
linguistic phylum
phylum different
from the
the so-called
Nostratic, which
which
River,
belong to
different from
so-called Nostratic,
includes the
the Indo-European,
Indo-European, Finno-Ugrian,
Finno-Ugrian, Altaic,
Altaic, Kartvelian,
Kartvelian, and
and possibly
the AfroAfropossibly the
includes
Asiatic linguistic
linguistic families.
of languages
languages into
into phyla
phyla does
does not
not correcorreAsiatic
families. However,
However, the
the division
division of
spond (as
(as might
been thought)
thought) to
to the
the division
division of
of humanity
into the
the major
major distinct
distinct
spond
might have
have been
humanity into
ethnic stocks
or "races."
"races." Thus,
Thus, the
belonging to
Mongoloid ethnic
ethnic "race,"
"race,"
the Mongols,
Mongols, belonging
to the
the Mongoloid
ethnic
stocks or
speak aa Nostratic
language; the
the Hausa
Hausa in
in Nigeria,
to the
the Negroid
"race,"
speak
Nostratic language;
Nigeria, belonging
belonging to
Negroid "race,"
speak an
an Afro-Asiatic
language; the
the Northern
Northern Caucasians,
Caucasians, Europeoid
Europeoid by
by "race,"
"race," do
do not
not
Afro-Asiatic language;
speak
belong
to the
linguistic phylum.
Vietnamese is
is supposed
supposed to
to belong
to another
another
belong to
the Nostratic
Nostratic linguistic
phylum. Vietnamese
belong to
linguistic
family, the
the Austroasiatic.
Austroasiatic. The
The homeland
the speakers
speakers of
of Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan
linguistic family,
homeland of
of the
Asia. (Southeastern
(Southeastern Asia
Asia was
was long
long inhabited
inhabited by
by tribes
tribes similar
similar to
to
should be
be sought
sought in
in East
East Asia.
should
the Veddas
Veddas of
of India,
India, the
the Negritos
Negritos of
of the
the Philippines,
Philippines, and
and the
the Melanesians
Melanesians of
of the
the
the
Pacific.)
Pacific.)

388

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

China
China has
has its
its origin
origin in
in the
the dynastic
dynastic name
name of
of the
the empire
empire preceding
preceding the
the
Han:
Han: Ch'in.
Ch'in.
The
before the
the Ch'in
The states
states emerging
emerging inside
inside present-day
present-day China
China before
Ch'in dydynasty,
which unified
unified the
the result
result of
nasty, which
the country,
country, were
were not
not the
of the
the historical
historical
people (the
development
development of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese people
(the Han)
Han) alone.
alone. In
In this
this territory,
territory,
ever since
since the
the Stone
Stone Age,
Age, there
there dwelled
dwelled aa number
number of
of tribal
tribal entities,
entities,
ever
presumably
presumably speaking
speaking not
not only
only Sino-Tibetan
Sino-Tibetan but
but also
also TungusoTungusoManchurian
culManchurian and
and Austroasiatic.
Austroasiatic. They
They created
created their
their own
own original
original cultures. Environmental
Environmental factors
factors were
were conducive
conducive to
to the
the creation
creation of
of stable
stable
tures.
ethnocultural complexes
complexes in
in certain
certain regions
regions (the
(the size
size of
of whole
whole councounethnocultural
tries in
in other
other parts
parts of
of the
the world).
world). It
It was
was aa synthesis
synthesis of
of these
these cultures
cultures
tries
that was
was to
to form
form the
the unique
unique cultural
cultural and
and historical
historical phenomenon
phenomenon we
that
we
call Chinese
Chinese civilization.
civilization.
call
jen appeared,
Before
Before the
the term
term Han
Han jen
appeared, the
the Chinese
Chinese applied
applied to
to themthemselves different
different self-denominations,
self-denominations, of
of which
which the
the best
best known
and perperknown and
selves
haps
haps the
the dominant
dominant one
one was
was aa general
general ethnic
ethnic term,
term, the
the Hua.
Hua. But
But
judging from
secjudging
from the
the earliest
earliest inscriptions,
inscriptions, which
which date
date from
from the
the late
late second
millennium B.C.,
ond millennium
B.C., there
there were
were also
also other
other self-demoninations
self-demoninations used
used
by the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
Huang Ho
Ho basin,
basin, the
cradle of
of Chinese
Chinese civiby
the Huang
the cradle
civilization; namely,
namely, Shang
Shang33 and
and Chou.
Chou. Hua,
Hua, Shang,
Shang, and
and Chou
Chou can
can be
be rerelization;
garded
garded as
as the
the oldest
oldest known
known names
names for
for the
the creators
creators of
of the
the Bronze
Bronze Age
Age
culture in
in northern
China.
culture
northern China.
The
The territory
territory occupied
occupied by
by the
the Hua
Hua and
and the
the other
other ancestors
ancestors of
of the
the
present-day Chinese
Chinese included
included only
only aa minor
of what
is now
the
present-day
minor part
part of
what is
now the
People's
the ancient
People's Republic
Republic of
of China.
China. Therefore,
Therefore, when
when discussing
discussing the
ancient
history
of China,
China, it
it is
is preferable
preferable to
to speak
speak of
of Yin
Yin China,
China, limited
limited to
to the
the
history of
central part
part of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho basin,
basin, and
and of
of Chou
Chou China,
China, which
which inincentral
cluded most
most of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho basin
and the
the northern
northern part
part of
of the
the
cluded
basin and
Yangtze basin.
basin. Only
Only Ch'in-Han
Ch'in-Han China
China was
was something
something of
"universal"
Yangtze
of aa "universal"
empire including
including all
all China
China proper;
is, most
most of
of the
the land
land now
now ininempire
proper; that
that is,
habited by
by the
the Chinese.
Chinese. The
The Hua,
Hua, or
or Proto-Han
Proto-Han nation,
nation, were
were not
not the
the
habited
this area;
area; different
different ethnic
ethnic groups
groups and
and different
different soonly inhabitants
inhabitants of
of this
only
social structures
structures coexisted
coexisted all
all through
through the
the history
history of
of "ancient
"ancient China."
China."
cial
But
from the
socioeconomic and
and political
political point
of view,
view, the
But from
the socioeconomic
point of
the unity
unity of
of
the
Ch'in and
and Han
Han empires
empires is
is indubitable;
indubitable; the
the leading
leading role
of the
Han
the Ch'in
role of
the Han
nation inside
inside this
this huge
huge despotic
despotic state
state can
can be
safely assumed
assumed from
from the
the
nation
be safely
end
of
the
third
century
B.C.
end of the third century B.C.
China
China in
in antiquity
antiquity was
was an
an independent
independent closed
closed sociopolitical
sociopolitical comcomof development
plex, with
plex,
with its
its specific
specific way
way of
development inside
inside the
the framework
framework of
of the
the
laws and
and stages
stages of
of development
development typical
of ancient
ancient society.
society. At
At the
same
laws
typical of
the same
time,
time, the
the Chinese
Chinese civilization
civilization is
is one
one of
of the
the main
main links
links in
in the
the chain
chain of
of
ancient civilizations.
civilizations. There
There are
are some
some terms
terms and
and notions
notions typical
typical of
of meancient
me3.
Not to
confused with
the Shan
3. Not
to be
be confused
with the
Shan in
in Burma.
Burma.

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

389

dieval
when used
used of
dieval and
and modern
modern times
times that
that are
are misapplied
misapplied when
of ancient
ancient
China or
or have
have an
an incorrect
incorrect connotation.
connotation. Thus,
Thus, ancient
ancient China
China did
did not
not
China
know national,
national, linguistic,
know
linguistic, or
or racial
racial antagonism;
antagonism; the
the main
main antagonism
antagonism
was between
between the
the free
free and
and the
the unfree
population. The
The notion
of "slav"slavunfree population.
notion of
was
ery"
ery" was
was synonymous
synonymous with
with "barbarian,"
"barbarian," "lack
"lack of
of culture,"
culture," as
as concontrasted
trasted with
with the
the "cultural,"
"cultural," wellborn
wellborn "masters"
"masters" (chun-tzu).
(chun-tzu). Persons
Persons of
of
non-Chinese culture
were by
because of
non-Chinese
culture were
by the
the same
same token
token (and
(and not
not because
of their
their
nation,
language, or
or race)
race) treated
treated as
as barbarians.
barbarians. It
It is
is characteristic
characteristic
nation, language,
that
national common
Han jen, appears
the symthat aa national
common denomination,
denomination, Hanjen,
appears as
as the
symbol of
of the
the consciousness
consciousness of
of the
unity of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese nation
nation only
only at
at the
the
the unity
bol
end
the inclusion
end of
of the
the ancient
ancient epoch.
epoch. There
There was
was aa consciousness
consciousness of
of the
inclusion
of neighboring
countries, tribes,
tribes, and
and peoples
peoples in
in the
the cultural
cultural world,
world,
of
neighboring countries,
first of
first
of the
the Chou
Chou federation
federation and,
and, later,
later, of
of the
the Ch'in-Han
Ch'in-Han Empire.
Empire. It
It
took the
the form
form of
of an
an adoption,
adoption, whether
whether voluntary
voluntary or
or compulsory
compulsory (per(pertook
haps,
at first,
first, only
only nominally),
of the
official ideology
ideology and
and culture
culture of
of
nominally), of
the official
haps, at
this empire
empire (at
(at the
the end
of the
ancient epoch
epoch this
this meant
meant adoption
adoption of
of
this
end of
the ancient
the orthodox
orthodox East
East Han
Han Confucianism).
Confucianism). Naturally,
Naturally, this
this meant,
meant, first
first
the
of all,
all, an
an assimilation
assimilation of
of the
the aristocracy
aristocracy and
and their
their inclusion
inclusion into
into the
the
of
ruling
class of
of the
empire. The
The lower
lower strata
strata of
of the
the recent
recent "barbarians"
"barbarians"
ruling class
the empire.
were
simultaneously included
included into
into the
the Hanjen,
the oppressed
oppressed mass
mass of
Han jen, the
of
were simultaneously
the aboriginal
aboriginal population
in the
the empire.
empire. This
This is
is attested
attested by
fact
the
population in
by the
the fact
that the
the powerful
explosion of
of the
the "Yellow
"Yellow Headbands"
Headbands" rebellion
rebellion ininthat
powerful explosion
volved all
all the
the regions
of the
the Late
in the
the center
center and
and
regions of
Late Han
Han Empire,
Empire, both
both in
volved
on the
periphery.
on
the periphery.
Both the
the Shang
Shang and
and the
the Chou
Chou in
in the
the basin
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho and
and
Both
basin of
many
the Stone
Age, the
many other
other ethnic
ethnic groups
groups inhabiting,
inhabiting, since
since the
Stone Age,
the vast
vast
area from
from Tibet
Tibet to
to the
the East
China Sea,
Sea, from
from the
the Gobi
Gobi Desert
Desert and
and the
the
area
East China
Steppes of
of Mongolia
Mongolia to
to the
the shores
shores of
of the
the Pacific,
Pacific, hardly
hardly differed
differed in
in
Steppes
their physique
physique and
and their
their ethnic
ethnic type
type from
from the
the present-day
present-day Chinese
Chinese
their
and other
other peoples
peoples dwelling
dwelling in
in the
the People's
People's Republic
Republic of
of China.
China. All
and
All
main
anthropological types
existing now
now in
in China
China and
and the
the neighborneighbormain anthropological
types existing
ing countries
countries have
have been
there since
since the
the Neolithic.
An ethnic
ethnic and
and culing
been there
Neolithic. An
cultural
continuity can
can be
be observed
observed during
ancient epoch
epoch throughout
throughout
tural continuity
during the
the ancient
Southeastern Asia.
The ethnic
ethnic and
and cultural
cultural unity
unity of
of the
the population
of
Southeastern
Asia. The
population of
southern China
China (including
(including the
the Yangtze
Yangtze basin
basin to
to the
watershed besouthern
the watershed
between it
it and
and the
the Huang
Ho) is
undoubted; the
the tribes
tribes of
of northeastern
northeastern
Huang Ho)
is undoubted;
tween
China, Manchuria,
Manchuria, and
and Korea
Korea formed,
formed, at
at the
the dawn
dawn of
of history,
history, another
another
China,
historical
and ethnological
ethnological unity,
unity, the
the separate
separate cultural
cultural world
of Hsia.
Hsia.
historical and
world of
The population
in the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho basin
gravitated toward
toward the
latter,
The
population in
basin gravitated
the latter,
although it
it appeared
appeared on
on the
the scene
scene of
of history,
history, perhaps,
perhaps, somewhat
somewhat
although
later.
later.
We use
use the
the term
term ancient
ancient China
Chinatoto refer
refer toto the
the entire
entire territory
territory in
in
We
which the
described historical
processes occurred:
which
the described
historical processes
occurred: east
east of
of the
the Tibet
Tibet
plateau,
south of
of Manchuria
Manchuria and
and Korea,
and north
north of
of the
the mountain
mountain
plateau, south
Korea, and

390
39

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

ranges dividing
dividing China
China from
from Indochina.
Indochina. From
From an
an ethnic
ethnic point
point of
of view,
ranges
view,
this China
China of
of antiquity
antiquity was
was subdivided
subdivided into
into two
two zones:
zones: aa northern
northern one
one
this
centered in
in the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho valley
valley and
and aa southern
southern one,
one, from
from the
the
centered
Yangtze valley
valley to
to the
the South
South China
China Sea.
Sea.
Yangtze
According to
the adherents
adherents of
of the
polycentric theory
theory of
of the
the origin
origin
the polycentric
According
to the
of
Homosasaof humans,
humans, China
China was
was one
one of
of the
the areas
areas of
of the
the emergence
emergence of
of Homo
piens
piens sapiens
sapiensand
and was
wasthe
the home
homeofof the
theeastern
eastern branch
branch of
of humanity.
humanity.
China is
is also
also one
one of
of the
the homelands
homelands of
of agriculture
agriculture and
and livestock
livestock breedbreedChina
ing. Here
Here can
can be
be located
located two
two independent
independent centers
centers of
of food
food production:
production:
ing.
the cultures
cultures of
of common
common and
and foxtail
foxtail millet
millet in
in northern
northern China
China and
and of
of
the
rice growing
growing and
and kitchen
kitchen gardening
gardening in
in southern
southern China.
China. The
The latter
latter
rice
area had
had connections
connections with
with the
the most
most ancient
ancient agricultural
agricultural "hearth"
"hearth" or
or
area
"focus" in
in southeastern
southeastern Asia,
Asia, possibly
possibly going
going back,
back, at
at least
least for
for rootroot"focus"
crop horticulture,
horticulture, to
ninth to
seventh millennia
millennia B.C.,
B.C., if
if not
not earlier.
earlier.44
crop
to the
the ninth
to seventh
Both
Both in
in northern
northern and
and in
in southern
southern China
China separate
separate cultures
cultures existed,
existed,
each with
with its
its own
own history;
history; this
this was
was partly
due to
to diversity
diversity in
in the
the landlandpardy due
each
scape, which
which led
led to
to aa certain
certain amount
amount of
of isolation.
isolation. This
This isolation,
isolation, it
it
scape,
must be
be admitted,
admitted, was
was relative,
relative, because
because contact
contact and
and mutual
mutual influence
influence
must
both inside
inside the
the two
two zones
zones and
and between
between them
them occurred
occurred since
since the
the earliearliboth
est times.
times. Moreover,
Moreover, the
the differences
differences in
in climate
climate between
between the
the south
south and
and
est
the north
north have
increased since
since the
the middle
middle of
of the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C.
the
have increased
According
According to
to archaeological
archaeological data,
data, at
at an
an early
early period
period animals
animals of
of the
the
tropical and
and subtropical
subtropical zone
zone were
were still
still to
encountered in
in the
the
tropical
to be
be encountered
Huang Ho
Ho basin,
basin, such
such as
as the
the elephant,
elephant, rhinoceros,
rhinoceros, wild
wild buffalo,
buffalo, tiger,
tiger,
Huang
leopard, antelope,
antelope, tapir,
and bamboo
bamboo rat.
rat. The
The land
land was
was covered
covered with
with
leopard,
tapir, and
deciduous forests,
forests, bamboo
bamboo thickets,
thickets, marshes,
marshes, and
and lakes;
lakes; the
the climate
climate
deciduous
was hot
hot and
and humid.
humid. The
The average
average annual
annual temperature
temperature was
was 22 degrees
degrees
was
centigrade higher
higher than
than it
it is
is today.
today. Thus
Thus the
the environment
environment of
of the
the
centigrade
Huang Ho
Ho basin
basin was
was in
in those
those long
long ago
ago times
times similar
similar to
to that
that in
in the
the reHuang
regions farther
farther south.
south. This
This made
made contacts
contacts between
north and
and south
south
gions
between north
easier and
and livelier
livelier in
in the
the Stone
Stone Age.
easier
Age.
Tin
was mined
Tin was
mined in
in southern
southern China
China and
and southeastern
southeastern Asia,
Asia, and
and the
the
center
center of
of smelting
smelting copper
copper and
and bronze
bronze discovered
discovered in
in Thailand
Thailand existed
existed
B.C.55 However,
However, because
humid tropical
tropical
no later
later than
than about
about 3000
3000 B.C.
no
because of
of the
the humid
environment,
environment, the
the discovery
discovery of
of bronze
bronze did
did not
bring about
about the
the specnot bring
spectacular progress
it did
did in
in Western
Western Asia.
Asia. But,
But, possibly
the existence
existence of
possibly the
of
tacular
progress it
this
center helps
explain the
suddenness with
with which
which bronze
bronze industry
industry
this center
helps explain
the suddenness
appeared among
among the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the Great
Great Chinese
Chinese Plain,
Plain, an
an indusindusappeared
4.
finds from
4. For
For example;
example, the
the finds
from Spirit
Spirit Cave
Cave in
in Thailand
Thailand are
are relevant
relevant for
for an
an underunderstanding of
origins of
of horticulture
horticulture in
in Southeast
Southeast Asia.
standing
of the
the origins
Asia. In
In spite
spite of
of such
such early
early evidence
evidence
for
was
for incipient
incipient agriculture
agriculture in
in Southeast
Southeast Asia,
Asia, the
the level
level of
of class
class society
society and
and state
state was
(IMD).
reached here
here at
at aa considerably
considerably later
later date.
date. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).
reached
5. Early
Early Southeast
Southeast Asian
particularly those
from Ban
Ban Chiang,
Chiang, are
are now
5.
Asian bronzes,
bronzes, particularly
those from
now
B.C. Editor's
Editor's note
note (PLK).
dated
first half
(PLK).
dated later-to
laterto the
the first
half of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

391
39 1

try
try basic
basic to
to the
the creation
creation of
of Chinese
Chinese civilization.
civilization. The
The second
second millenmillenB.C. in
in China
China was
was an
of the
the spread
spread of
local proto-urban
proto-urban
nium B.C.
nium
an epoch
epoch of
of local
settlements in
in the
the valleys
valleys leading
leading into
into the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho in
in its
its middle
middle and
and
settlements
lower reaches.
reaches.
lower
Most favorable
favorable for
for agriculture
agriculture were
were the
the great
great alluvial
alluvial valleys
valleys of
of
Most
northern
provinces of
of
northern China
China with
with their
their fertile
fertile soil
soil of
of river
river silt
silt (now
(now the
the provinces
Honan, Hopeh,
Hopeh, western
western Shantung,
Shantung, and
and northern
northern Anhui
Anhui into
into the
the valHonan,
valley of
of the
the Huai
Huai Ho)
and the
the loess
loess plateaus,
which were
were created
created over
over
ley
Ho) and
plateaus, which
the millennia
millennia by
by sedimentation
sedimentation of
of very
very small
small particles
particles of
of sand
sand blown
blown
the
winds from
of
by
by the
the winds
from eroded
eroded rocks
rocks in
in Central
Central Asia
Asia (now
(now the
the provinces
provinces of
Shenhsiin the
the valleys
valleys of
of the
the Wei
Wei Ho,
Ho, the
the Ching
Ching Ho,
and the
the upper
upper
Shenhsi-in
Ho, and
reaches of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho-and
Hoand Shanhsi-the
Shanhsithe valley
valley of
of the
the Fen).
Fen). The
The
reaches
monsoons brought
brought enough
enough precipitation,
precipitation, and
irrigation was
was not
not aa
monsoons
and irrigation
necessary precondition
for agriculture,
agriculture, as
as was
was the
the case
case aa millennium
millennium
necessary
precondition for
later. However,
However, the
plains farther
farther away
away from
the rivers
rivers suffered
suffered from
from
the plains
from the
later.
droughts. As
As to
to the
the lowlands
lowlands watered
watered by
by the
the Huang
Huang Ho,
Ho, the
the bed
bed of
of
droughts.
the river
river was
was apt
apt to
to change
change dramatically,
dramatically, flooding
huge territories.
It
the
flooding huge
territories. It
is characteristic
characteristic that
that in
in the
the late
late second
second millennium
millennium inscriptions
inscriptions from
from
is
Anyang, the
the sign
sign "floods
"floods of
of water"
water" also
also had
had the
the more
more general
general meanmeanAnyang,
ing of
of "disaster."
"disaster." Floods
Floods were
were also
also caused
caused by
by typhoons
typhoons blowing
blowing from
from
ing
the ocean.
ocean. The
The forests
forests required
required constant
constant clearing
clearing because
because of
of the
the exexthe
tensive use
use of
of land
for agriculture
agriculture by
by the
the Neolithic
Neolithic tribes.
tribes. PrecipitaPrecipitaland for
tensive
tion was
was irregular;
irregular; torrents
torrents of
of rain
alternated with
with droughts.
droughts. The
The
tion
rain alternated
unreliability of
of the
the weather
weather was
was aa constant
constant factor.
factor. This
This helps
helps to
to exexunreliability
plain
why agriculture
agriculture could
could yield
yield aa surplus
surplus and
and become
become aa basis
basis for
for
plain why
class stratification
stratification only
late as
as the
second half
half of
of the
the second
second and
and first
first
class
only as
as late
the second
half of
of the
the first
first millennia
millennia B.C.
B.C. This
This applied
applied even
even in
in northern
northern China,
China, an
an
half
area
under
cultivation
as
early
as
the
late
fifth
and
early
fourth
milarea under cultivation as early as the late fifth and early fourth millennia B.C.
B.C. The
The soil
soil was
was light
light here,
here, and
and even
even shallow
shallow digging
digging with
with
lennia
sticks was
was sufficient
sufficient to
to yield
yield grain
grain harvests.
harvests.
sticks
Southern
the Yangtze
Southern China,
China, from
from the
the great
great valley
valley of
of the
Yangtze to
to the
the shores
shores
of the
the South
South China
China Sea,
Sea, was
was covered
covered by
by subtropical
subtropical and
and tropical
tropical evereverof
green
forests. It
It belongs
belongs to
to the
the equatorial
equatorial zone,
zone, and
and the
the environmenenvironmengreen forests.
tal
much from
times.
tal conditions
conditions have
have not
not changed
changed much
from ancient
ancient to
to modern
modern times.
Archaeological
finds attest
human activity
Archaeological finds
attest to
to human
activity in
in southern
southern China
China
throughout
throughout the
the Stone
Stone Age.
Age. In
In the
the sixth
sixth to
to fourth
fourth millennia
millennia B.C.
B.C. spespecific
cific Neolithic
Neolithic cultures
cultures are
are in
in evidence.
evidence. This
This region
region was
was the
the homeland
homeland
of aa number
number of
of cultivated
cultivated plants
plants and
and domestic
domestic animals.
animals.
of
However,
although very
very ancient
ancient foci
foci of
of primitive
agriculture and
and
primitive agriculture
However, although
metalworking
metalworking existed
existed there,
there, aa number
number of
of factors
factors hampered
hampered human
human
settlement
settlement and
and economic
economic development
development in
in these
these areas.
areas. Therefore
Therefore the
the
epoch of
of civilization
civilization began
began in
in the
south, on
on the
the whole,
whole, at
at aa later
later date
date
epoch
the south,
than
northern China.
than in
in northern
China. But
But the
the country
country is
is so
so far
far not
not sufficiently
sufficiently exexplored by
archaeologists, and
and the
the date
date of
of the
the first
civilization here
here is
plored
by archaeologists,
first civilization
is

3922
39

T.
T. V.
V. Stepugina
Stepugina

still
point to
the existence
still questionable.
questionable. Some
Some data
data point
to the
existence of
of an
an Early
Early Bronze
Bronze
culture here
here as
as early
early as
as the
fourth to
millennia B.C.
culture
the fourth
to third
third millennia
B.C.
This
was aa period
period when
northern China
there appeared
This was
when in
in northern
China there
appeared several
several
Neolithic
Neolithic complexes,
complexes, of
of which
which the
the best
best known
known is
is the
the Yangshao
Yangshao culture.
culture.
Its main
main area
area was
was the
the basin
basin of
of the
the Wei
Wei Ho
Ho and
and the
the middle
middle reaches
reaches of
of
Its
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho and
and down
down the
the valley
valley of
of the
the Huan
Huan Kiang
Kiang toward
toward the
the
the
Yangtze basin.
basin. Typical
Typical of
of the
the Yangshao
Yangshao culture
culture are
are painted
painted pottery,
pottery,
Yangtze
transhumant, nonirrigation,
nonirrigation, forest-cutting
forest-cutting (swidden)
(swidden) agriculture
agriculture (the
(the
transhumant,
main cultigen
cultigen being
millet); and
and domestication
domestication of
of aa number
number of
of anianimain
being millet);
mals (pigs,
(pigs, goats,
goats, sheep,
sheep, dogs,
dogs, fowl,
fowl, and
and cattle).
cattle). It
It is
is one
one of
of the
mals
the DevelDeveloped Neolithic
cultures.66
oped
Neolithic cultures.
The end
the Stone
basin of
The
end of
of the
Stone Age
Age in
in the
the basin
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho coincides
coincides
with the
the Late
Late Neolithic
and Early
Early Bronze
Bronze Lungshan
Lungshan culture.
culture.77 It
with
Neolithic and
It is
is
characterized by
its gray
and, especially,
especially, its
its thin,
hard, black-polished
black-polished
characterized
by its
gray and,
thin, hard,
pottery. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the Lungshan
Lungshan culture
culture is
is also
also called
called the
the black
black potpotpottery.
tery culture.
culture. Ethnically
Ethnically connected
connected with
with the.
the classical
classical Yangshao
Yangshao of
of the
the
tery
middle
reaches of
of the
Huang Ho,
Ho, the
Lungshan culture
culture extended
extended
middle reaches
the Huang
the Lungshan
east and
and northeastward,
northeastward, toward
toward the
the Liaotung
Liaotung and
and Shantung
Shantung peninpenineast
sulas, and
and south
south southeastward,
southeastward, into
into the
the valley
valley of
of the
the Huai
Huai Ho.
Ho. This
This
sulas,
culture is
is more
more uniform
uniform than
than that
that of
of Yangshao.
Typical are
are big
forculture.
Yangshao. Typical
big fortified settlements,
settlements, aa more
more stable
stable stick
stick and
and hoe
hoe agriculture,
agriculture, and
and aa concontified
siderably more
more important
important role
role for
for livestock
livestock rearing
rearing than
than was
was the
the case
case
siderably
in Yangshao.
Yangshao. There
There is
is some
some evidence
evidence for
for the
the separation
separation of
of handicrafts
handicrafts
in
from agriculture
agriculture and
and for
for the
the beginnings
beginnings of
of metalworking.
metalworking. The
The
from
Lungshan villages
villages were
were surrounded
surrounded by
by walls
walls made
made of
of stamped
stamped earth
earth
Lungshan
(up to
to 66 meters
meters high
high and
and 10-14
1014 meters
meters thick).
thick). In
In Shantung
Shantung aa city
city wall
(up
wall
was discovered
discovered that
that extended
extended for
for 450
450 meters
meters from
from north
north to
to south
south and
and
was
for 390
390 meters
meters from
from east
east to
to west.
west. The
The inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the Lungshan
Lungshan
for
towns had
had aa sophisticated
sophisticated technique
of fortune-telling
fortune-telling using
the
towns
technique of
using the
shoulder
bones
of
sheep,
cattle,
and
pigs.
It
may
be
evidence
of
the
shoulder bones of sheep, cattle, and pigs. It may be evidence of the
emergence of
an organized
organized cult
and of
of the
the priesthood
as aa specific
specific
emergence
of an
cult and
priesthood as
group
inside
the
gentilic
community.
group inside the gentilic community.
This
This was
was the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the dramatic
dramatic change
change that
that brought
brought about
about
the
the creation
creation of
of proto-urban
proto-urban centers
centers in
in the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho basin-centers
basincenters
of
of bronze
bronze industry
industry characterized
characterized by
by aa rapid
rapid development
development of
of surplus
surplus
produce. The
The base
for this
this change
change was
was the
the introduction
introduction of
of settled
settled hoe
hoe
produce.
base for
and
and plow
plow agriculture
agriculture (perhaps
(perhaps applying
applying the
the so-called
so-called su-keng,
su-keng,"double
"double
plowing,"
plow being
being drawn
drawn by
and of
of selective
selective
plowing," the
the plow
by two
two persons)
persons) and
animal rearing
(including horse
horse breeding),
not to
to mention
mention metalmetalanimal
rearing (including
breeding), not
working,
and other
crafts.
working, woodworking,
woodworking, and
other crafts.
6.
B.C.
6. The
The earliest
earliest stage
stage of
of the
the Yangshao,
Yangshao, Panp'o
Panp'o phase,
phase, dates
dates from
from about
about 5000
5000 B.C.
Some scholars
scholars regard
people of
of the
culture as
as Proto-Chinese.
Proto-Chinese.
Some
regard the
the people
the Yangshao
Yangshao culture
7.
7. Early
Early Lungshan
Lungshan dates
dates from
from the
the mid-third
mid-third millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C.

The
First States
China
The First
States in
in China

393

The
The fact
fact that
that the
the settlements
settlements had
had to
to be
be fortified
fortified by
by walls
walls shows
shows that
that
war
now played
played an
an important
important economic
economic role
role in
in the
the life
life of
of the
the Great
Great
war now
Chinese Plain.
Plain. One
One may
expect that,
correspondingly, aa military
Chinese
may expect
that, correspondingly,
military nonobility headed
by aa military
military chief
chief must
must have
have emerged.
emerged.
bility
headed by

The
"State"
The Shang
Shang (Yin)
(Yin) "State"

The ancient
ancient written
written sources
sources have
have preserved
preserved for
for us
us the
The
the term
term Yin,
Yin,
which
was the
name of
bodies that
in the
which was
the name
of the
the great
great tribal
tribal bodies
that emerged
emerged in
the
middle and
and lower
lower reaches
of the Huang
Huang Ho
during the
the second
second millenmillenmiddle
reaches ofthe
Ho during
nium
B.C, The
The everyday
everyday life
life of
of the
the Yin
Yin tribal
tribal union
union had
had grown
grown comcomnium B.C.
plicated enough
enough to
the introduction
introduction of
of primitive
primitive writing,
writing,
plicated
to require
require the
originally
writing was
was of
originally used
used in
in the
the cult.
cult. The
The writing
of an
an archaic
archaic pictographic
pictographic
type, but
it can
can be
shown that
the modern
Chinese script
script developed
developed
type,
but it
be shown
that the
modern Chinese
from
from it.
it.
The
the productive
was connected,
first of
The growth
growth of
of the
productive forces
forces was
connected, first
of all,
all, with
with
the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the Age
Age of
of Metal,
Metal, but
but also
also with
with the
the improvement
improvement in
in
the
production; social
the organization
organization of
of the
the process
process of
of production;
social functions
functions were
were
being
productive labor
was
being delimited,
delimited, and
and aa group
group of
of organizers
organizers of
of productive
labor was
created: military
military chiefs,
chiefs, priests
priests (whose
(whose activities
activities at
at that
that stage
stage were
were
created:
closely
closely linked
linked with
with economic
economic life),
life), and
and aa community
community council
council of
of elders.
elders.
The apogee
apogee of
of the
the social
social development
development was
was the
the adoption
adoption of
of slavery.
slavery.
The
In northern
northern China,
China, with
with its
its wooded
wooded plateaus
plateaus and
and foothills,
foothills, agriculagriculIn
ture
only in
alture was
was feasible
feasible only
in the
the valley
valley floodplains,
floodplains, where
where conditions
conditions allowed the
the drainage
drainage of
of excessive
excessive precipitation.
precipitation. Archaeological
Archaeological finds
finds
lowed
attest
attest that
that in
in the
the second
second half
half of
of the
the second
second millennium,
millennium, the
the first
first settlesettlements
urban type,
ments of
of the
the early
early urban
type, centers
centers of
of bronze
bronze industry,
industry, appear
appear in
in
northern
northern China.
China. They
They appear
appear along
along the
the rivers
rivers everywhere
everywhere from
from
Kansu
Kansu to
to Shantung,
Shantung, from
from Hopeh
Hopeh to
to Hunan
Hunan and
and Chianghsi.
Chianghsi. These
These ururban
ban foci
foci were
were complexes
complexes of
of gentilic
gentilic and/or
and/or neighbors'
neighbors' communities,
communities,
in
becoming fortified
in the
the process
process of
of becoming
fortified cities.
cities. The
The early
early urban
urban settlesettlements
provinces of
Honan, Shanments of
of the
the Yin
Yin Period
Period are
are found
found in
in the
the provinces
of Honan,
Shantung,
tung, Shanhsi,
Shanhsi, Hupeh,
Hupeh, and
and Shenhsi.
Shenhsi. They
They are
are most
most numerous
numerous in
in the
the
.central
Valley
central plain
plain (in
(in Honan
Honan and
and southern
southern Hopeh
Hopeh to
to the
the Huai
Huai Ho
Ho Valley
and Shantung).
Shantung). Their
southern limit
limit extended
extended to
to the
the middle
middle reaches
reaches
and
Their southern
of
of the
the Yangtze;
Yangtze; here,
here, in
in the
the region
region south
south of
of the
the Tungt'ing
Tungt'ing and
and
P'oyang
Foyang lakes
lakes (Hunan-Chianghsi),
(Hunan-Chianghsi), two
two early
early urban
urban centers
centers of
of the
the
same type
type as
as those
those in
in Honan
Honan have
have been
been found.
found. Especially
Especially interesting
interesting
same
are the
the excavations
excavations near
near the
the town
town of
of Huangp'i
in Hupeh
of aa secondsecondare
Huangp'i in
Hupeh of
millennium settlement
settlement with
with aa strong
strong fortification
fortification wall
wall and
and aa palace
palace
millennium
complex. Such
Such centers
centers (up
(up to
to six
six square
square kilometers)
kilometers) were
were built
built accordaccordcomplex.
ing to
to aa certain
certain plan,
plan, with
with monumental
monumental buildings
buildings of
of aa palace
or temple
temple
ing
palace or
type and
and artisans'
artisans' quarters,
quarters, including
including bronze-smelting
bronze-smelting shops.
shops. The
The difdiftype

394

T.
T. V.
V. Stepugina
Stepugina

ference
ference in
in the
the funerary
funerary inventory
inventory points
points to
to the
the existence
existence of
of inequality
inequality
in
in riches.
riches. Mass
Mass killings
killings and
and sacrifices
sacrifices of
of slaves
slaves (prisoners
(prisoners of
of war)
war) are
are
characteristic
characteristic of
of this
this period's
period's society.
society.
The
The first
first centers
centers of
of civilization
civilization were
were small
small districts
districts including
including one
one or
or
several
several territorial
territorial communities
communities (towns).
(towns). The
The unification
unification of
of the
the comcommunities was
was dictated
dictated both
both by
by economic
economic needs
needs (as,
(as, e.g.,
e.g., collective
collective
munities
efforts
efforts to
to stem
stem the
the floods)
floods) and
and by
by military
military ones.
ones. The
The beginning
beginning of
of aa
period
of fierce
fierce wars
the communities
communities attests
attests to
period of
wars between
between the
to their
their inincreased
riches. The
property stratification
led to
to the
the replacement
of
creased riches.
The property
stratification led
replacement of
the gentilic
gentilic organization
organization by
that of
of the
the extended
extended family;
family; communities
communities
the
by that
of neighbors
neighbors took
took the
the place
place of
of the
the gentilic
gentilic ones.
ones. In
In such
such pre-urban
pre-urban
of
societies conflicts
conflicts between
between the
the more
more and
and the
less prestigious
prestigious clans
clans acsocieties
the less
actually
led to
stratification of
of the
the society
society into
into the
the poor
and the
rich,
tually led
to aa stratification
poor and
the rich,
and the
the first
class antagonisms
antagonisms began
emerge. Thus
Thus the
the pre-urban
pre-urban
and
first class
began to
to emerge.
territorial
communities were
were the
of early
early class
class society.
society.
territorial communities
the precursors
precursors of
Toward
the end
Toward the
end of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., the
the community
community of
of
Shang
Shang headed
headed aa political
political entity
entity of
of considerable
considerable size;
size; it
it was
was ethnically
ethnically
uniform. The
The chief
chief of
of Shang
Shang e~oyed
enjoyed extraordinary
extraordinary military
military powers
powers
uniform.
and
bore the
and bore
the title
title wang
wang (with
(with time,
time, this
this title
title came
came to
to denote
denote "king,"
"king,"
who
also the
the high
high priest).
The earliest
earliest major
major center
center of
of the
the Shang
Shang
who was
was also
priest). The
seems
seems to
to have
have been
been Chengchou
Chengchou in
in the
the province
province of
of Honan,
Honan, where
where aa
considerable walled
walled town
town was
was discovered.
discovered.
considerable
We
We learn
learn about
about the
the community
community and
and city
city of
of Shang
Shang from
from the
the earliest
earliest
Chinese
Chinese inscriptions,
inscriptions, discovered
discovered during
during excavations
excavations near
near the
the village
village
of
of Hsiaot'un,
Hsiaot'un, near
near the
the modern
modern city.
city of
of Anyang
Anyang in
in the
the province
province of
of
Honan, and
and from
from other
other excavated
excavated material.
material. But
But the
the inscriptions
inscriptions are
are
Honan,
the
the most
most important
important source
source for
for this
this period.
period. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, they
they are
are
written
written in
in aa very
very archaic
archaic script
script that
that is
is still
still rather
rather unreliably
unreliably decideciphered, and
phered,
and their
their contents
contents are
are mainly
mainly religious
religious and
and magic;
magic; thus
thus they
they
supply few
few data
data for
for the
the reconstruction
reconstruction of
of the
the social
social order.
order. There
There are
are
supply
major differences
differences among
among historians
historians in
in their
their interpretation
interpretation of
of the
the texts
texts
major
and
their evaluations
evaluations of
the overall
and their
of the
overall character
character of
of Shang
Shang society.8
society.8
These
texts date
twelfth cenThese earliest
earliest written
written texts
date from
from the
the fourteenth
fourteenth to
to twelfth
centuries B.C.;9
to the
the period
period of
turies
B.C.;9 that
that is,
is, to
of the
the existence
existence of
of aa large
large protoprotourban settlement
were discovered
both poor
poor dugurban
settlement near
near Anyang.
Anyang. In
In it
it were
discovered both
dugout
the Neolithic
out huts
huts similar
similar to
to the
Neolithic dwellings
dwellings and
and also
also foundations
foundations of
of big
big
houses
with bronze
bronze bases
bases for
houses with
for columns.
columns. Foundries
Foundries and
and furnaces
furnaces were
were
8.
bones and
8. The
The actual
actual pronunciation
pronunciation of
of the
the signs
signs on
on the
the oracle
oracle bones
and tortoise
tortoise carapaces
carapaces
and
the Shang
bronze objects
and on
on the
Shang bronze
objects is
is unknown.
unknown. The
The readings
readings quoted
quoted are
are all
all conventional,
conventional,
representing the
modern pronunciation
of later
later hieroglyphics
hieroglyphics with
with which
which the
scholars
representing
the modern
pronunciation of
the scholars
think it
it possible
to identify
identify the
the Yin
Yin Period
Period signs.
think
possible to
signs.
9.
9. The
The uncorrected
uncorrected radiocarbon
radiocarbon analysis
analysis of
of the
the stratum
stratum containing
containing the
the inscribed
inscribed
bones
B.C. Ch'eng-Chou,
Ch'eng-Chou, which
which has
has yielded
yielded
bones at
at Hsiaot'un
Hsiaot'un pointed
pointed to
to aa date
date of
of 1115
1115 90
90 B.C.
only aa few
few inscribed
inscribed objects,
objects, may
may belong
belong to
to aa period
period up
up to
to two
two centuries
centuries before
before that.
that.
only

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

395
395

also found.
found. In
In the
vicinity of
of the
city burials
burials were
were discovered
discovered that
that difdifalso
the vicinity
the city
fered
in
their
funerary
gifts.
Most
were
simple,
with
no
weapons
or
fered in their funerary gifts. Most were simple, with no weapons or
bronze utensils,
utensils, but
but aa few
few were
were huge
huge subterranean
subterranean tombs
tombs in
in the
the form
form
bronze
of
broad roads
of overturned
overturned truncated
truncated pyramids,
pyramids, with
with broad
roads leading
leading to
to the
the
tombs and
and descending
descending inside
inside toward
toward the
the burial
chambers, which
which were
were
tombs
burial chambers,
full of
of precious
precious vessels,
vessels, weapons,
weapons, and
and artifacts
artifacts of
of jade
and gold.
gold.101O In
In
full
jade and
the pits
pits there
there were
were hundreds
hundreds of
of skeletons
skeletons of
of murdered
murdered persons,
persons, and
and
the
near such
such burials
burials there
there were
were whole
whole fields
fields of
of beheaded
beheaded prisoners
prisoners with
with
near
their hands
hands bound
bound behind
behind their
their backs;
also there
there were
were pits
pits filled
with
their
backs; also
filled with
skulls. Chariots
Chariots were
were found
found buried
buried together
together with
with horses
horses
thousands of
of skulls.
thousands
and charioteers.
charioteers. Besides
several big
big burials
burials of
of this
this type
type discovered
discovered
and
Besides several
near Anyang,
Anyang, two
two similar
similar burials
burials dating
dating from
from the
the Shang
Shang Period
Period were
were
near
found at
at Vitu,
Yitu, on
on the
the Shantung
Shantung Peninsula;
Peninsula; here
here dozens
dozens of
of persons
persons
found
were killed
killed and
and buried,
buried, and
and also
also horses
horses with
with their
their chariots.
chariots. The
The polepolewere
axes found
found in
in the
the burials
burials bore
bore names;
names; apparently
apparently they
they were
were insignia
insignia
axes
of royalty,
royalty, probably
probably used
used by
by the
the chief
chief of
of the
the local
local nome.
nome. In
In the
the same
same
of
place aa lesser
lesser burial
burial was
was discovered
discovered with
with only
only aa few
few sacrificed
sacrificed slaves.
slaves.
place
There was
was also
also aa minor
minor burial
burial found
found near
near aa Shang
Shang Period
Period town
town in
in the
the
There
vicinity of
of Huangp'i
Huangp'i (Hupeh
(Hupeh Province).
Province). Here,
Here, near
near the
the main
main burial
burial of
of
vicinity
man, aa double
double coffin
coffin carved
of wood
wood containing
containing more
more than
than sixty
sixty obobaa man,
carved of
jects,
including bronze
weapons and
and utensils
utensils and
and three
three human
human skelejects, including
bronze weapons
skeletons, was
was discovered.
discovered.
tons,
It has
already been
been shown
shown in
in the
the preceding
preceding lectures
lectures that
that human
human sacIt
has already
sacnot rare
rifices
rifices were
were not
rare in
in the
the early
early stages
stages of
of ancient
ancient society.
society. NevertheNevertheless,
less, the
the huge
huge number
number of
of such
such sacrifices
sacrifices in
in the
the Shang
Shang society
society seems,
seems, at
at
first
befirst glance,
glance, to
to be
be exceptional.
exceptional. Actually,
Actually, however,
however, the
the difference
difference between
the early
the early
tween the
early Near
Near East
East and
and the
early Far
Far East
East is
is that
that the
the military
military
chiefs
chiefs of
of Western
Western Asia
Asia killed
killed the
the prisoners
prisoners after
after the
the battle,
battle, whereas
whereas
the
the Shang
Shang chiefs
chiefs left
left them
them alive
alive and
and turned
turned the
the massacres,
massacres, usual
usual for
for
early
in both
early antiquity,
antiquity, into
into aa religious
religious ritual.
ritual. The
The cause
cause was
was the
the same
same in
both
cases; namely,
namely, the
the incapacity
incapacity of
of the
the ruling
ruling class
class to
to make
make use
use of
of great
great
cases;
masses of
of prisoners
prisoners in
in production
production while
while the
the means
means of
of coercion
coercion were
were
masses
still undeveloped.
undeveloped.
still
The
The most
most important
important center
center of
of Shang
Shang society
society seems
seems to
to have
have been
been
Anyang, and
and the
the most
most interesting
interesting discovery
discovery here
here was
was that
that of
of the
the
Anyang,
oracle
oracle archive.
archive. Here
Here were
were found
found more
more than
than 100,000
100,000 inscriptions
inscriptions on
on
animal shoulder
shoulder bones
bones and
and tortoise
tortoise carapaces;
carapaces; 41,000
41,000 of
of them
them have
have
animal
been published.
published. These
These bones
bones and
and carapaces
carapaces were
were used
used for
for fortunefortunebeen
telling. An
An indentation
indentation was
was made
made in
in the
the bone,
bone, and
and then
then the
the bone
bone was
telling.
was
scorched in
in fire;
fire; the
the cracks
cracks that
that formed
formed were
were interpreted
interpreted as
as the
the deity's
deity's
scorched
answer to
to the
the question
question posed
posed to
to the
the oracle-whether
oraclewhether aa hunt
hunt or
or aa war
war
answer
would be
be successful;
successful; what
what were
were the
the prospects
prospects for
for the
the harvest,
harvest, rain,
rain, or
or
would
10.
10. The
The uncorrected
uncorrected radiocarbon
radiocarbon date
date of
of one
one such
such burial
burial is
is 1085
1085 100
100 B.C.
B.C.

396

T.
T. V.
V. Stepugina

building
projects; or
building projects;
or whether
whether the
the human
human sacrifices
sacrifices to
to the
the deities
deities and
and
to
to the
the spirits
spirits of
of the
the wang's
wang'sforebears
forebearswould
wouldbe
befavorable.
favorable.No
Noless
lessthan
than
2,000
2,000 inscriptions
inscriptions relating
relating to
to human
human sacrifices
sacrifices have
have been
been identified.
identified.
Near the
the crack
crack on
on the
the bone
bone or
or carapace,
carapace, one
one scratched
scratched in
in the
the signs
signs
Near
containing
containing the
the question
question and
and the
the prediction
prediction of
of the
the oracle,
oracle, its
its date,
date, and
and
sometimes
sometimes aa notice
notice about
about whether
whether the
the prediction
prediction had
had been
been correct.
correct.
Thus,
Thus, from
from such
such dated
dated practical
practical notes,
notes, the
the first
first historical
historical chronicles
chronicles
emerged.
emerged.
The inscriptions
inscriptions are
are in
in pictographs,
but because
the pictographs
pictographs of
of
The
pictographs, but
because the
the
the earliest
earliest inscriptions
inscriptions are
are already
already highly
highly schematized,
schematized, we
we can
can sursurmise that
that earlier
earlier forms
forms had
had preceded
preceded them.
them. Indeed,
Indeed, one
one can
can find
find more
more
mise
primitive forms
forms of
of the
the signs
signs on
on Shang
Shang bronzes.
bronzes. In
In the
the Old
Old Chinese
Chinese
primitive
language grammatical
grammatical relationships
relationships were
were expressed,
expressed, not
not by
by prefixes,
prefixes,
language
but by
the order
order of
of the
the root
root words,
words, and
and thus
thus the
the Old
Old Chinese
Chinese writing
writing
but
by the
consists solely
solely of
of logograms
logograms (or
(or ideograms);
ideograms); purely
purely phonetic
phonetic (syllabic)
(syllabic)
consists
signs had
had not
not developed.
developed.11
signs
II
The
The creation
creation and
and preservation
preservation of
of this
this complicated
complicated writing
writing system
system is
is
connected with
with the
the peculiar
peculiar features
features of
of the
the Chinese
Chinese language:
language: the
the
connected
one-syllable words
words did
did not
consist of
of separate
separate morphophonemic
morphophonemic eleone-syllable
not consist
elements; therefore,
therefore, the
the Chinese
Chinese writing
system did
did not
not develop
develop alphaalphawriting system
ments;
betic (letter)
(letter) signs.
signs. Even
Even aa purely
purely syllabic
syllabic writing
writing system
system would
would not
not be
be
betic
able to
to distinguish
distinguish the
the great
great number
number of
of homophonous
syllabic Chiable
homophonous syllabic
Chinese
which in
in the
spoken language
language are
are distinguished
distinguished by
by memenese words,
words, which
the spoken
lodic tones.
tones. Each
Each sign
sign in
in Chinese
Chinese writing
had to
to be
be equivalent
equivalent to
to one
one
lodic
writing had
monosyllabic
monosyllabic word.
word.
The
beThe study
study of
of the
the Anyang
Anyang oracle
oracle inscriptions
inscriptions is
is also
also hampered
hampered because we
we are
are unable
unable to
to reliably
reliably reconstruct
Old Chinese
Chinese phonetics
reconstruct Old
phonetics bebecause
fore
fore the
the middle
middle of
of the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. It
It is
is supposed
supposed that
that the
the
oracle
oracle inscriptions
inscriptions did
did not
not include
include signs
signs denoting
denoting the
the "phonetics"
"phonetics"
of
being purely
mnemonic and
is,
of the
the language,
language, being
purely mnemonic
and ideographic;
ideographic; that
that is,
rendering the
the concept
concept of
of aa word
word independently
independently of
of its
its sound.
sound.
rendering
Although
Although nome
nome centers
centers must
must have
have been
been rather
rather isolated
isolated politically
politically
(being
part of
(being part
of aa military
military and
and cultic
cultic federation
federation and
and not
not of
of aa unified
unified
state), the
the writing
writing system
system seems
seems to
to have
have been
been one
one and
and the
the same
same for
for the
the
state),
whole
whole area
area of
of the
the "oracle
"oracle bone
bone culture."
culture." The
The center
center of
of its
its diffusion
diffusion
Yin (a
(a relic
relic of
of entities
entities of
of an
an earlier
earlier type).
type). But
But it
it
was the
the cultic
cultic union
union of
of Yin
was
is quite
quite possible
possible that
that it
it was
was not
not necessarily
necessarily invented
invented by
by the
the Shang,
Shang, who
who
is
were the
the most
most stable
stable part
part of
of the
the Yin
tribal federation.
federation. Study
Study of
of the
the
Yin tribal
were
signs and
and drawings
drawings appearing
appearing on
on Yangshao
and Lungshan
Lungshan pottery
pottery
signs
Yangshao and
has made
made some
some scholars
scholars think
think of
of other
other possible
possible centers
centers of
of creation
creation
has
11.
possible, in
11. It
It was
was possible,
in aa developed
developed Chinese
Chinese writing
writing system,
system, to
to add,
add, say,
say, to
to the
the sign
sign for
for
"heart," which
was used
to denote
denote different
different emotional
emotional concepts,
concepts, the
logogram for
for the
the
"heart,"
which was
used to
the logogram
"rising
pa(k) "white,"
"white,"and
and thus
thus create
create aa composed
composed sign
sign "heart
"heart ++
"rising sun,"
sun," which
which can
can be
be read
read pa(k)
(pa)" to
to be
be read
read p'a,
"to be
be afraid."
afraid."
white
p'a, "to
white (pal"

The
in China
China
The First
First States
States in

397
397

of the
pictographic writing.
writing. Dozens
Dozens of
of graphic
graphic signs
signs different
different from
from
of
the pictographic
those
Anyang have
been discovered
those at
at Anyang
have been
discovered on
on pottery
pottery and
and molds
molds from
from
12 This
Wuch'eng
Lake P'oyang
P'oyang in
This makes
makes it
it
Wuch'eng near
near Lake
in Chianghsi
Chianghsi Province.
Province.12
plausible that
that writing
writing may
may have
have been
been invented
by some
some of
of the
the southsouthinvented by
plausible
ern tribes
tribes dwelling
dwelling on
on the
the middle
middle reaches
reaches of
of the
the Yangtze.
Yangtze. It
It has
has also
also
ern
been suggested
suggested that
that another
another embryonic
embryonic writing
writing system
system may
may have
have been
been
been
developed in
in Yin
Yin times
times by
by some
some inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho basin
basin
developed
(possibly the
the Chou).
Chou).
(possibly
As pointed
pointed out
out above,
above, understanding
understanding the
the Anyang
Anyang oracle
oracle texts
texts is
is aa
As
difficult
difficult task.
task. The
The ideograms
ideograms are
are often
often polyvalent,
polyvalent, and
and some
some of
of them
them
have not
not been
been deciphered
deciphered at
at all.
all. The
The same
same sign
sign could
could mean
mean different
different
have
things
things depending
depending on
on the
the context.
context. Not
Not every
every sign
sign can
can be
be identified
identified with
with
the
the later
later hieroglyphs,
hieroglyphs, and
and the
the terms
terms used
used in
in fortune-telling
fortune-telling are
are often
often
obscure
obscure and
and conventional.
conventional. The
The "cardinal
"cardinal points"
points" mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the
texts
political terms
texts are
are hard
hard to
to identify;
identify; the
the social
social and
and political
terms cannot
cannot be
be
translated
translated reliably
reliably enough.
enough. Therefore,
Therefore, one
one should
should not
not wonder
wonder that
that
scholars are
are very
very much
much divided
divided on
on the
the interpretation
of the
the Anyang
Anyang
scholars
interpretation of
inscriptions,
inscriptions, and
and that
that the
the historical
historical reconstructions
reconstructions of
of the
the period
period difdiffer
fer considerably.
considerably.
Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, aa certain
certain amount
amount of
of information
information can
can be
be gleaned
gleaned from
from
the
Anyang oracle
main figure
the Anyang
oracle archive.
archive. Thus,
Thus, we
we know
know that
that the
the main
figure in
in the
the
Shang "state"
"state" (its
(its military
military chief,
high priest,
priest, and
and organizer
organizer of
of producproducShang
chief, high
bore the
the title
title wang.
wang. ItItisis
tion)
tion) was
was the
the ruler
ruler of
of the
the "city
"city of
of Shang,"
Shang," who
who bore
and it
is
in
in his
his mime
name that
that questions
questions are
are directed
directed to
to the
the fortune-tellers,
fortune-tellers, and
it is
the answers
also
usually he
also usually
he who
who interprets
interprets the
answers of
of the
the deity.
deity.
The
The questions
questions of
of the
the oracle
oracle refer
refer to
to several
several "towns"
"towns" (yi)
(yi) and
and comcommunity
munity entities
entities (fang).
(fang). Among
Among them
them the
the Shang
Shang settlements
settlements are
are promiprominent:
yi), the
nent: the
the "city/cities
"city/cities of
of Shang"
Shang" (shang
(shangyi),
the "capital
"capital [or
[or "great"]
"great"] city
city
shang), "Central
"Central Shang"
Shang" (chung
(chung shang),
shang), and
and Shang
Shang
of Shang"
Shang" (ta
(ta yi
yi shang),
of
proper,
used both
both as
proper, aa term
term used
as the
the name
name of
of aa locality
locality and
and of
of aa people
people or
or
tribe.
tribe. These
These terms
terms may
may indicate
indicate that
that the
the late
late second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C.
city
not the
residence of
city where
where the
the oracle
oracle was
was found
found was
was not
the residence
of the
the Shang
Shang
wang
wang and
and was
was not
not the
the center
center of
of the
the political
political entity
entity of
of which
which he
he was
was the
the
military
the oracles
military leader.
leader. The
The site
site of
of the
oracles was
was obviously
obviously an
an intertribal
intertribal and
and
intercommunity
was not
not called
intercommunity center,
center, but
but it
it was
called Shang,
Shang, which
which is
is aa term
term
for some
some region
region beyond
beyond it.
it. To
To judge
from later
later literary
literary sources,
sources, the
the
for
judge from
site of
of the
the oracle
oracle may
may have
have been
been called
called Yin.
Yin. If
If this
is correct,
correct, then
then we
site
this is
we
have
explanation of
of the
the paradoxical
fact that
that the
the term
term Yin,
Yin,
paradoxical fact
have aa plausible
plausible explanation
which was
was widely
the later
later sources
sources as
as aa denomination
denomination for
for aa
which
widely used
used by
by the
district and
and for
an ethnic
ethnic unity
and which
which we
to denote
denote the
the earliest
earliest
for an
unity and
we use
use to
district
period of
of Chinese
Chinese history
history ("Yin
("Yin China"),
China"), cannot
cannot be
be identified
with
period
identified with
12. So-called
So-called potter's
potter's marks
marks on
the painted
painted Late
Late Neolithic
Yangshao pottery
pottery have
have
12.
on the
Neolithic Yangshao
also
considered precursors
precursors to
to the
the later
later Chinese
Chinese writing
writing signs.
signs. Editor's
Editor's note
been considered
note (PLK).
(PLK).
also been

398

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

any
of the
the signs
the Anyang
These, howhowany of
signs known
known from
from the
Anyang inscriptions.
inscriptions. These,
ever, mention
conventional names
of nearly
nearly all
all the
the rulers
rulers of
of the
the
ever,
mention the
the conventional
names of
we know
the much
work of
of
Yin dynasty,
which we
Yin
dynasty, which
know from
from the
much later
later list
list in
in the
the work
13
the
the great
great Chinese
Chinese historian
historian Ssu-ma
Ssu-ma Ch'ien.
Ch'ien.13
As
As to
to the
the term
term Shang,
Shang, ititisisused
usedboth
bothininthe
theoracle
oracleinscriptions
inscriptionsand
andin
in
the later
narrative sources
sources to
denote aa political
political entity
entity and
and its
its political
political
the
later narrative
to denote
center,
center, and
and also
also as
as an
an ethnic
ethnic and
and local
local denomination;
denomination; it
it is
is also
also used
used in
in
aa sense
sense equivalent
equivalent to
to that
that of
of the
the "Yin
"Yin dynasty."
dynasty." If
If the
the oracle
oracle center
center in
in
yin is
Anyang
Anyang was
was called
called Yin,
Yin, this
this explains
explains why
why the
the sign
sign yin
is absent
absent from
from
the oracle,
oracle, there
there was
was no
no ococthe oracle
oracle inscriptions;
inscriptions; when
when questioning
questioning the
the
casion
it about
itself. It
It is
is also
also possible
name of
possible that
that the
the name
of
casion to
to question
question it
about itself.
the oracle
oracle was
taboo. Another
Another possibility
is that
"Yin" was
the selfselfthe
was taboo.
possibility is
that "Yin"
was the
denomination of
of aa tribe
or tribal
federation in
in the
Huang Ho
Ho basin.
basin.
tribe or
tribal federation
the Huang
denomination
Shang
when the
the Chalcolithic
Bronze period
Chalcolithic or
or Early
Early Bronze
period
Shang society
society existed
existed when
ended and
ended
and the
the Bronze
Bronze Age
Age proper
proper began.
began. The
The Shang
Shang settlements
settlements of
of
the
lasting, in
in
the fourteenth
fourteenth to
to eleventh
eleventh centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. were
were stable
stable and
and lasting,
contrast to
to those
those of
of the
the earlier
earlier periods.
periods. Shang
Shang society
society included
included not
not
contrast
only the
Shang tribe
tribe proper;
proper; dozens
dozens of
of ethnic
ethnic denominations
denominations are
are enonly
the Shang
encountered
countered in
in the
the oracle
oracle inscriptions,
inscriptions, including
including the
the Chou,
Chou, the
the future
future
conquerors of
of the
the Shang.
Shang. The
The second
second great
division of
of labor
labor (between
(between
conquerors
great division
agriculturalists and
and specialized
specialized industrial
industrial craftspeople)
craftspeople) had
already
had already
agriculturalists
the agricultural
tools were
still technologically
technologically
occurred, even
even though
though the
agricultural tools
were still
occurred,
Neolithic.
Agriculture played
and many
many of
of the
the quesquesNeolithic. Agriculture
played the
the leading
leading role,
role, and
tions
oracle concern
concern the
the prospects
for the
Like the
the oracle
prospects for
the harvest.
harvest. Like
the
tions to
to the
people
of the
the Lungshan
Lungshan culture,
culture, the
Shang cultivated
cultivated sorghum,
sorghum, kaopeople of
the Shang
kaoliang,
different subspecies
subspecies of
of wheat,
wheat, an
an edible
edible species
species of
of hemp,
hemp,
liang, barley,
barley, different
and foxtail,
foxtail, Japanese,
Japanese, and
and common
common millet.
millet. The
main crops,
crops, however,
however,
and
The main
were common
common and
and foxtail
foxtail millet,
millet, wheat,
wheat, and
and sorghum.
sorghum. It
It is
is not
not quite
quite
were
clear if
if rice
rice was
was known,
known, but
but if
if it
it was
was cultivated,
cultivated, it
it must
must have
have been
been aa
clear
dry-sown variety
variety because
no artificial
artificial irrigation
irrigation existed,
existed, and
and harvests
harvests
dry-sown
because no
depended solely
solely on
on rain,
rain, aa fact
fact that
that can
can be
be deduced
deduced from
from the
oracle
depended
the oracle
texts. Except
Except for
for small
small drainage
drainage ditches
ditches known
already from
from the
texts.
known already
the exexcavations at
at Chengchou,
traces of
of the
the use
of artificial
artificial irrigation
irrigation
Chengchou, no
no traces
use of
cavations
have been
found in
in the
the Anyang
Anyang tests
or by
archaeologists, either
been found
tests or
by the
the archaeologists,
either in
in
have
the
Shang
region
proper
or
in
the
area
of
other
city-communities
the Shang region proper or in the area of other city-communities or
or
tribes
in the
the zone
zone of
of the
the fertile
fertile valleys
of the
Huang Ho
Ho basin.
basin. The
tribes in
valleys of
the Huang
The
main hydrotechnical
hydrotechnical measure
measure was
was regulating
regulating the
flow by
overmain
the river
river flow
by overflow drainage
drainage channels.
channels. During
During the
the excavations
excavations at
at Anyang
Anyang aa system
system
flow
of narrow
narrow (40-70
(40-70 centimeters)
centimeters) transverse
transverse ditches,
ditches, not
longer than
than
of
not longer
60 meters
or deeper
deeper than
than 120
120 centimeters,
centimeters, was
was discovered.
discovered.
60
meters or
13.
13. According
According to
to the
the Chinese
Chinese historiographic
historiographic tradition,
tradition, the
the Yin
Yin dynasty
dynasty reigned
reigned in
in
the second
the
second millennium,
millennium, ca.
ca. 1766-1122
1766-1122 B.C.
B.C. These
These dates
dates do
do not
notcontradict
contradict the
thearchaeoarchaeological sources;
sources; however,
however, reliable
dates for
logical
reliable dates
for events
events in
in the
the history
history of
of China
China begin
begin only
only
with
841 B.C.
B.C.
with the
the year
year 841

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

399
399

Along with
with cereals,
cereals, diverse
diverse kitchen
kitchen garden
garden plants
plants were
were also
also culticultiAlong
vated. Mulberry
Mulberry trees
were planted
planted for
for silkworm
silkworm breeding.
breeding. Linen
Linen and
and
vated.
trees were
silk
silk fabrics
fabrics were
were woven;
woven; this
this was
was women's
women's labor.
labor. The
The division
division of
of labor
labor
between
men and
and women
women was
was clear-cut.
clear-cut.
between men
Animal
played aa prominent
Animal raising
raising played
prominent role
role in
in the
the society.
society. The
The breedbreeding of
of cattle,
ing
cattle, sheep,
sheep, and
and draft
draft horses
horses for
for war
war chariots
chariots was
was very
very imporimportant:
sacrifices of
of three
to four
four hundred
hundred cattle
cattle at
at one
one time
were not
not
tant: sacrifices
three to
time were
unusual. On
On the
the oracle
oracle bones
bones we
we encounter
encounter special
special signs
signs for
for sacrifices
sacrifices
unusual.
of "one
"one hundred
hundred cattle,"
cattle," "one
"one hundred
hundred pigs,"
pigs," "ten
"ten pigs,"
pigs," "ten
"ten rams,"
rams,"
of
"ten white
white pigs,"
pigs," etc.
etc. Conflicts
Conflicts over
over grazing
grazing grounds
grounds were
were often
often the
the
"ten
cause of
of wars
wars between
between the
the Shang
Shang and
and their
their neighbors.
neighbors.
cause
Hunting
Hunting was
was still
still important,
important, however.
however. This
This can
can be
be seen
seen from
from the
the
predominance
predominance of
of animal
animal motifs
motifs and
and compositions
compositions on
on the
the Shang
Shang
bronze
elebronze objects
objects of
of art.
art. The
The vessels
vessels in
in the
the form
form of
of animals-tiger,
animalstiger, elephant,
phant, rhinoceros,
rhinoceros, buffalo,
buffalo, and
and owl-are
owlare strikingly
strikingly realistic.
realistic. The
The flora
flora
and
Ho region
and fauna
fauna of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
region in
in that
that epoch
epoch were
were very
very rich
rich and
and
various.
various. Willow,
Willow, elm,
elm, wild
wild plum
plum and
and pear,
pear, chestnut,
chestnut, cedar
cedar pine,
pine, and
and
cypress
cypress trees
trees grew.
grew. The
The low-growing
low-growing forests
forests and
and the
the marshes
marshes of
of
northern
fish and
northern China
China were
were rich
rich in
in fish
and fowl.
fowl. Near
Near Anyang
Anyang skeletons
skeletons
have
have been
been found
found of
of deer,
deer, tigers,
tigers, bears,
bears, snow
snow leopards,
leopards, rhinoceroses,
rhinoceroses,
buffalo,
wolves,
buffalo, panthers,
panthers, antelopes,
antelopes, boars,
boars, tapirs,
tapirs, monkeys,
monkeys, foxes,
foxes, wolves,
badgers,
hares. The
inscriptions mention
badgers, and
and hares.
The inscriptions
mention big
big battue
battue hunts,
hunts, when
when
slaughtered
slaughtered deer
deer and
and bears
bears were
were counted
counted in
in tens.
tens. The
The number
number of
of
deer
deer killed
killed in
in aa single
single hunt
hunt could
could reach
reach 300.
300. During
During one
one of
of the
the reguregular
tigerwere
werekilled.
killed.The
The hunts
hunts were
were
lar hunts
hunts 164
164 wolves,
wolves, 40
40 deer,
deer, and
and 11 tiger
collective; the
the entire
entire adult
adult population
population took
took part
part in
in them.
them.
collective;
Workshops of
of considerable
considerable size
size were
were discovered
discovered by
by archaeologists
archaeologists
Workshops
near
near Anyang,
Anyang, Loyang,
Loyang, Chengchou
Chengchou (Honan),
(Honan), and
and Ch'inchiang
Ch'inchiang (Chiang(Chianghsi);
hsi); they
they belonged
belonged to
to metalworkers,
metalworkers, bone
bone carvers,
carvers, stonecutters,
stonecutters, potpotters,
wood and
ters, workers
workers in
in wood
and other
other artisans.
artisans.
Cities
planned and
Cities were
were planned
and monumental
monumental buildings
buildings were
were erected.
erected.
Founding
wang,
Founding towns
towns was
was one
one of
of the
the important
important functions
functions of
of the
the wang,
which
which shows
shows that
that he
he had
had considerable
considerable human
human and
and material
material resources
resources
at
was metalworking.
at his
his disposal.
disposal. The
The most
most important
important industry
industry was
metalworking.
Bronze was
was used
used to
to make
make all
all the
the ritual
ritual vessels,
vessels, weapons,
weapons, and
and certain
certain
Bronze
chariot parts
parts and
and to
to some
some extent,
extent, it
it was
was also
also used
used for
for making
making tools.
chariot
tools.
Archaeologists have
have discovered
discovered aa city
city quarter
quarter of
of Shang
Shang metalworkers,
metalworkers,
Archaeologists
with their
their dwellings
dwellings and
and their
their burial
burial ground,
ground, where,
where, characteristically,
characteristically,
with
objects of
of cast
cast bronze
bronze were
were laid
laid in
in the
the graves.
graves. Ritual
Ritual bronze
vessels
bronze vessels
objects
have
found, some
some of
of them
them weighing
weighing up
up to
to 875
875 kilograms.
kilograms. They
They
have been
been found,
are evidence
of aa high
high level
level of
of development
development of
of the
art of
of making
making
are
evidence of
the art
bronze alloys;
alloys; they
they are
are diverse
diverse in
in their
their forms
forms and
and vary
vary in
in fabrication
fabrication
bronze
cireperdue
perdue
technique (different
(different kinds
kinds of
of molds
molds and
and the
the technique
technique of
of cire
technique
were used).
used). It
It seems
seems that
that the
the Shang
Shang originally
originally had
had aa monopoly
monopoly on
on the
the
were

4oo
400

V. Stepugina
Stepugina
T. V.

secrets
secrets of
of foundry
foundry art
art in
in Yin
Yin China.
China. The
The ritual
ritual vessels
vessels were
were probably
probably
made for
for the
the house
house of
of the
made
the wang
wang and
and for
for the
the temples.
temples. The
The inscriptions
inscriptions
mention
mention aa special
special group
group of
of the
the king's
king's craftsmen
craftsmen (wang-kung),
(wang-kung),asaswell
wellasas
number of
of other
other groups
groups of
of artisans.
artisans. Of
Of these
these the
the kung-ch'enand
aa number
kung-ch'en andti-ticKen may
may have
have been
been temple
temple artisans,
artisans, and
and the
the wo-kung,
wo-kung, to-kung,
to-kung, and
and
ch'en
the kung
kung may
may have
have been
been craftsmen
craftsmen of
of the
the community.
community.
the
The
The hieroglyphic
hieroglyphic sign
sign shang
shang is
is also
also used
used for
for "trade,"
"trade," which
which may
may
have been
been its
its secondary
secondary meaning,
meaning, the
the sign
sign itself
itself depicting
depicting some
some handhandhave
icraft object
object typical
typical of
of the
the Shang,
Shang, probably
probably aa bronze
bronze object.
object. Perhaps
Perhaps
icraft
this development
development of
of the
the sign's
sign's semantic
semantic realm
realm points
points to
to aa specific
specific funcfuncthis
tion of
of the
the Shang
Shang as
as intermediaries
intermediaries in
in intertribal
intertribal and
and intercommunity
intercommunity
tion
trade; such
such aa function
function could
could have
have contributed
contributed to
to the
the domination
domination of
of
trade;
the Shang
Shang over
over the
the other
other early
early urban
urban societies
societies of
of the
the middle
middle basin
basin of
of
the
the Huang
Huang Ho.
Ho.
the
Trade, however,
however, was
was not
not highly
highly developed
developed and
and probably
probably took
took the
the
Trade,
form of
of barter.
barter. However,
However, there
there did
did exist
exist aa commonly
commonly recognized
recognized
form
means of
of payment:
payment: namely,
namely, cowrie
cowrie shells,
shells, both
both natural
natural and
and bronze
bronze
means
imitations.
imitations.
The main
main form
form of
of exchange,
exchange, however,
however, between
between neighboring
neighboring tribes
tribes
The
or towns
towns was
was not
not so
so much
much trade
trade as
as seizure
seizure by
by force,
force, the
the most
most primitive
primitive
or
form of
of international
international relations.
relations. War
War was
was the
the normal
normal way
way of
of life
life in
in Yin
Yin
form
society. The
The oracle
oracle texts
texts constantly
constantly mention
mention military
military campaigns
campaigns whose
whose
society.
main aim
aim was
was not
not annexation
annexation of
of new
new territories
territories (as
(as in
in later
later times)
times) but
but
main
lootingseizure of
of animals,
animals, grains,
grains, and
and prisoners-the
prisonersthe last
last for
for mass
mass
looting-seizure
sacrifices to
to the
the gods,
gods, up
up to
to five
five hundred
hundred at
at aa time.
time.
sacrifices
Sacrifices
Sacrifices to
to the
the spirits
spirits of
of the
the wang's
wang'sancestors,
ancestors,totothe
thespirit
spiritof
ofthe
the
Earth,
were the
the essence
essence of
of the
the cult
cult
Earth, and
and to
to other
other supernatural
supernatural forces
forces1414 were
as practiced
practiced by
by the
the dwellers
dwellers in
in the
the Shang
Shang cities
cities and
and were
were regarded
regarded as
as
as
one of
of the
the vital
vital activities.
activities. A
A very
very typical
typical text
text on
on the
the oracle
oracle bones
bones reads
reads
one
as
be sacrificed
as follows:
follows: "Query:
"Query: should
should the
the men
men of
of the
the tribe
tribe Ch'ing
Ch'ing be
sacrificed at
at
the Altar
Altar of
of the
the Earth
Earth [t'u
the
[t'u she]
she]?"?"
"The
headed aa military
"The city
city of
of Shang"
Shang" headed
military confederation
confederation that
that united
united aa
number
which were
were probably
probably obliged
number of
of early
early urban
urban societies,
societies, which
obliged to
to supsupply
ply military
military aid.
aid. From
From time
time to
to time,
time, tribute
tribute was
was received
received from
from such
such
allies-another
alliesanother form
form of
of compulsory
compulsory international
international exchange.
exchange. If
If they
they
refused
pay, aa campaign
was in
refused to
to pay,
campaign against
against them
them was
in order.
order. But
But it
it also
also
sometimes happened
happened that
that the
the allies
allies attacked
attacked the
the Shang.
Shang. The
The fact
fact that
that
sometimes
the Shang
Shang occupied
occupied the
the central
central place
place in
in the
the confederation
confederation found
found exexthe
Chung Shang,
Shang,"Central
"CentralShang."
Shang."
pression in
in its
its special
special denomination:
denomination: Chung
pression
The oracle
oracle inscriptions
inscriptions reflect
reflect the
the concept
concept of
of aa universe
universe oriented
oriented to
to
The
the four
four cardinal
cardinal points
points with
with Chung
Chung Shang
Shangatatthe
thehub.
hub.
the
14.
14. The
The cult
cult of
of mountains
mountains and
and rivers
rivers was
was especially
especially popular
popular among
among the
the Shang:
Shang: there
there
are
names of
mountain and
river deities
texts.
are dozens
dozens of
of names
of mountain
and river
deities in
in the
the oracle
oracle texts.

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

01
4401

The city
city confederation
confederation of
of the
Shang was
surrounded by
inimical
The
the Shang
was surrounded
by inimical
tribes, with
with whom
constant war
war was
waged, mainly
mainly to
seize prisoners.
prisoners.
tribes,
whom constant
was waged,
to seize
The
induced retaliatory
measures by
the tribes,
tribes,
The Shang
Shang aggression
aggression induced
retaliatory measures
by the
who
threatened the
the Shang
Shang towns.
towns. The
The most
frewho always
always threatened
most intense
intense and
and frequent wars
against the
quent
wars were
were waged
waged against
the Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman Ch'iang
Ch'iang tribe
tribe in
in
the west.
The questions
to the
oracle are
are full
full of
"Will the
the enenthe
west. The
questions to
the oracle
of anxiety:
anxiety: "Will
reach the
the Great
with the
the neighboring
emy
emy reach
Great Shang?"
Shang?" The
The struggle
struggle with
neighboring
tribes
at the
the end
end of
of the
century B.C.,
when tribal
tribal
tribes intensified
intensified at
the twelfth
twelfth century
B.C., when
pressure was
in the
As mentioned
mentioned above,
pressure
was most
most serious
serious in
the southwest.
southwest. As
above, here
here
were also
also situated
situated other
other urban
communities of
of the
Shang type.
type. This
This
were
urban communities
the Shang
does
were part
part of
Empire." It
is
does not
not imply
imply that
that they
they were
of some
some "Shang
"Shang Empire."
It is
more
probable that
they were
city-states, although
although they
they
more probable
that they
were independent
independent city-states,
might from
from time
to time
have been
been dependent
dependent on
on Shang
Shang and
and have
have
might
time to
time have
paid tribute.
in the
the Huai
basin dwelled
dwelled the
the Jen-fang
paid
tribute. Here,
Here, in
Huai Ho
Ho basin
Jen-fang tribes,
tribes,
which
have been
both numerous
numerous and
and warlike.
which seem
seem to
to have
been both
warlike. The
The prolonged
prolonged
wars between
between the
Shang and
and
wars
the Shang
and Jen-fang
Jen-fang and
and other
other inimical
inimical tribes
tribes and
cities
the Shang
Shang and,
and, in
in the
the final
final analysis,
analysis, were
were one
of the
the
cities weakened
weakened the
one of
causes of
of their
their destruction.
The decisive
came, however,
from
causes
destruction. The
decisive blow
blow came,
however, from
another frontier,
the western.
western. In
eleventh century
century B.C.
Shang
another
frontier, the
In the
the eleventh
B.C. the
the Shang
were routed
routed by
the Chou,
Chou, who
long threatened
threatened them.
them.
were
by the
who had
had long
Shang Society
Society
Shang
Extended families
families grouped
grouped together
together more
more according
according to
to the
the territorial
territorial
Extended
than the
the gentilic
were the
the mainstay
of the
Shang economic
economic
than
gentilic principle
principle were
mainstay of
the Shang
life.
The economy
economy of
of the
the wang
wang was
was separate
separate from
from the
the communal
communal econeconlife. The
omies
still closely
connected with
community; it
it seems
seems that
that
omies but
but was
was still
closely connected
with the
the community;
the
population, taking
taking turns,
turns, had
to work
work in
in it.
there
the entire
entire population,
had to
it. However,
However, there
was also
permanent group
of temple
temple and
and palace
palace workers;
workers; its
was
also aa permanent
group of
its memmembers may
been to
to aa great
extent of
of noneS
non-Shang
origin. An
interbers
may have
have been
great extent
hang origin.
An interesting
esting group
group were
were the
the sang (literally
(literally "the
"the lost,"
lost," "the
"the fugitive
fugitive ones"),
ones"),
wang and
and of
of officials
officials called
called ya
ya (temple
(temple
who were
were at
at the
of the
the wang
who
the disposal
disposal of
administrators). The
The sang
from neighboring
neighboring
administrators).
sang were
were probably
probably persons
persons from
communities
refuge in
in the
the temple
the wang's
communities seeking
seeking refuge
temple or
or in
in the
wang'seconomy.
economy.1515
They may
may have
have been
been junior
the more
family
They
junior kinsmen
kinsmen of
ofthe
more impoverished
impoverished family
communes.
communes.
In
ancient times,
unruly natural
In ancient
times, the
the greater
greater the
the dependence
dependence on
on unruly
natural
forces, the
the more
important appeared
appeared attempts
to influence
them, and
and
forces,
more important
attempts to
influence them,
the greater
greater the
of ritual
ritual in
the
the role
role of
in sacral
sacral life.
life. The
The irregular
irregular rainfall
rainfall in
in the
the
Huang Ho
Ho basin
basin (while
(while the
agriculture here
based on
on pluvial,
not
Huang
the agriculture
here was
was based
pluvial, not
15.
refugees from
15. Compare
Compare the
the men
men "fled
"fled to
to the
the community"
community" (Le.,
(i.e., refugees
from neighboring
neighboring
communities), who
who composed
composed aa major
major part
of the
personnel of
of Early
Early Dynastic
Dynastic
communities),
part of
the temple
temple personnel
Sumer
(according to
Editor's note
note (IMD).
(IMD).
Sumer (according
to the
the texts
texts from
from Shuruppak).
Shuruppak). Editor's

402

T. V.
V. Stepugina

artificial,
the catastrophic
catastrophic inundations
of the
the river
16
artificial, irrigation)
irrigation) and
and the
inundations of
river16
were
factors enhancing
enhancing the
the power
and authority
authority of
of the
chief.
were probably
probably factors
power and
the chief.
The reserve
stocks of
of the
chief's and
and the
economy were
the
The
reserve stocks
the chief's
the temple's
temple's economy
were the
security, exchange,
sowing, and
and sacrifice
fund of
Shang commucommusecurity,
exchange, sowing,
sacrifice fund
of the
the Shang
nity,
which was
was able
able to
it in
in times
times of
of crop
crop failure
failure or
or other
other disasdisasnity, which
to utilize
utilize it
ters.
regarded as
as important
important means
of safeguarding
safeguarding
The rituals
rituals were
were regarded
means of
ters. The
the well-being
well-being of
of the
the community.
community.
the
The
population, thousands
persons, could
The whole
whole adult
adult population,
thousands of
of persons,
could take
take part
part
in
the ritual
ritual feasts
when hundreds
were sacriin the
feasts when
hundreds of
of domestic
domestic animals
animals were
sacrificed. The
The wang,
the high
his enenwang, being
being the
high priest,
priest, was,
was, together
together with
with his
ficed.
tourage, the
the main
tourage,
main consumer
consumer of
of meat.
meat. Indirectly
Indirectly but
but materially
materially this
this
strengthened his
and authority.
authority. Here
Here the
the sacrificial
sacrificial rite
rite apstrengthened
his prestige
prestige and
apparallel to
to the
pears also
pears
also as
as aa collective
collective form
form of
of consumption
consumption parallel
the collective
collective
forms of
It is
how nearly
nearly every
every object
object of
of material
material
of labor.
labor. It
is astounding
astounding how
forms
wealth
to the
the Shang
Shang (such
(such as
as domestic
domestic animals,
animals, bronze
bronze weapweapwealth known
known to
ons and
and utensils,
utensils, chariots,
chariots, cowrie
cowrie shells,
shells, gold
gold and
and jade,
agricultural
ons
jade, agricultural
produce,
of hunting,
hunting, prisoners
prisoners of
of war)
war) were
were recklessly
recklessly exexproduce, objects
objects of
pended
in sacrifices
sacrifices to
to deities
deities and
and ancestors
ancestors and
and on
on funerals
funerals of
pended in
of
the chiefs
chiefs and
and the
dignitaries. This
This is
amply attested
attested by
the
the highest
highest dignitaries.
is amply
by
the excavations
excavations at
at Anyang,
(Hupeh), in
in Hsiuchou
Hsiuchou
the
Anyang, near
near Huangp'i
Huangp'i (Hupeh),
(Chiangsu), and
and in
in Yitu
Yitu (Shangtung).
(Shangtung). One
One can
can assume
assume that
that because
of
because of
(Chiangsu),
the increasing
increasing wealth
of some
some of
of the
clans and
and noble
noble families,
families, such
such
the
wealth of
the clans
largesse not
was considered
considered to
lend them
glory but
but was
actually
largesse
not only
only was
to lend
them glory
was actually
form of
of evening
evening out
out the
the extremes
extremes of
of the
the progressive
progressive economic
economic
aa form
inequality. This
"equitable redistribution
redistribution of
of wealth"
also to
to the
the
This "equitable
wealth" was
was also
inequality.
credit of
the world-organizing
ascribed to
to the
the wang.
credit
of the
world-organizing function
function ascribed
wang.
The
wang headed
headed the
the field
field labor
labor in
in the
the palace
palace and
and temple
temple economy.
economy.
The wang
The
productive function
the priest-chief
priest-chief (the
predecessor of
The productive
function of
of the
(the predecessor
of the
the
king) was
was expressed
the image
image of
the mythical
mythical ancestor
king)
expressed in
in the
of the
ancestor Shen-nung,
Shen-nung,
who was
was depicted
depicted as
as fulfilling
fulfilling agricultural
rites. The
participation in
who
agricultural rites.
The participation
in
these works
by the
the community
community members
members was
was not
these
works by
not regarded
regarded as
as forced
forced
labor
but as
the commonweal;
moreover, it
it was
was part
part of
labor but
as activity
activity for
for the
commonweal; moreover,
of aa
that aimed
aimed at
at securing
securing fertility
fertility for
for all
all the
the fields
fields of
magical ritual
ritual that
magical
of the
the
land.
in the
fields of
of the
land. Work
Work in
the fields
the wang
wang began
began by
by order
order of
of the
the oracle
oracle and
and
at
time ordered
by the
with the
the temporary
laborers in
at aa time
ordered by
the oracle.
oracle. Along
Along with
temporary laborers
in
wang's economy
economy (the
(the chung
chungor
or chung-jen),
chung-jen),permanent
permanentpersonnel
personnel
the
the wang's
also worked.
worked. These
These were
were the
the ch'en,
whommany
manyregarded
regardedasasslaves
slavesor
or
ch'en, whom
also
helots.
All of
of them
took part
in the
agricultural activities
activities headed
headed by
helots. All
them took
part in
the agricultural
by
the
himself or
or his
his agents,
agents, for
for example,
example, the
the hsiao-ch'en
hsiao-ch'enororthe
theya.ya.
the wang
wang himself
The tools
tools seem
seem to
to have
supplied by
temple or
or palace;
can
The
have been
been supplied
by the
the temple
palace; this
this can
be
of stores
stores of
of stone
stone sickles
sickles and
and other
other agriculagriculbe deduced
deduced from
from the
the finds
finds of
16.
flowed near
16. In
In antiquity,
antiquity, the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho flowed
near Anyang.
Anyang.

The First States in China

403

tural
near the
tural tools
tools in
in Anyang
Anyang near
the temple
temple of
of the
the wang's
wang's ancestors;
ancestors; the
the
temple
probably be
temple fields
fields should
should probably
be sought
sought in
in their
their vicinity.
vicinity.
Scholars
Scholars do
do not
not agree
agree on
on the
the social
social interpretation
interpretation of
of the
the terms
terms used
used
for
for persons
persons employed
employed in
in agricultural
agricultural work
work under
under the
the wang.
wang. Some
Some
think
ch'enwere
wereslaves;
slaves;others
others regard
regard them
them as
asfree.
free. ItItseems
seemsprobprobthink the
the ch'en
able
to us
that the
the term
term chung
was not
not primarily
primarily aa social
able to
us that
chung was
social one
one but
but
denoted all
of aa certain
certain age-group;
group
denoted
all male
male persons
persons of
age-group; namely,
namely, the
the group
able
to perform
perform productive
productive work
(as distinguished
distinguished from
from those
those still
able to
work (as
still
unable and
and those
those no
longer able).
able). At
same time,
it is
apparent
unable
no longer
At the
the same
time, it
is apparent
that the
the chung
were not
confined to
to the
the wang's
wang's economy,
economy, whereas
whereas
that
chung were
not confined
the ch'en,
ch'en, the
the hsiao-ch'en,
hsiao-ch'en,and
andthe
theto-ch'en
to-ch'en
were
connected
with
the
were
connected
with
thethe
ch'en there
there were
were persons
persons of
of difdifwang only.
only. It
It seems
seems that
that among
among the
the ch'en
wang
ferent status.
status. Some
Some were
slave-type laborers;
others (the
(the hsiao-ch'en)
hsiao-ch'en)
ferent
were slave-type
laborers; others
were
officials who
in certain
certain circumstances
circumstances headed
the community
community
were officials
who in
headed the
members
(the chung)
chung) as
as their
chiefs or
or overseers
overseers (e.g.,
(e.g., during
the
members (the
their chiefs
during the
period
of their
obligatory field
the house
of the
the wang).
wang). The
The
period of
their obligatory
field work
work for
for the
house of
to-ch'enwere
wereprobably
probablythe
thewang's
wang'sbodyguard
bodyguardororhishispersonal
personaltroops.
troops.
to-ch'en
The difference
difference between
between the
the chung
chung and
and the
the ch'en
ch'en was
was that
that the
the latter
latter
The
were outside
outside the
community sector
sector and
and were
connected with
with the
the wang
wang
were
the community
were connected
and bound
bound to
to him
by allegiance.
allegiance. It
It is
is possible
ch'enwere
werenonnonand
him by
possible that
that the
the ch'en
Shang by
by origin.
origin. The
The chung
chung were
were connected
connected with
with the
the collective
collective econeconShang
wang's
omy of
of their
their own
own communities,
communities, but
but they
they also
also worked
worked for
for the
the wang's
omy
economy.
economy.
The
fields were
hundreds and
thousands of
men simultaThe fields
were tilled
tilled by
by hundreds
and thousands
of men
simultaneously.
question to
neously. We
We read
read in
in aa question
to the
the oracle:
oracle: "Should
"Should three
three thousand
thousand
men be
be called
men
called up
up for
for field
field work?"
work?" The
The land
land was
was usually
usually tilled
tilled with
with
wooden tools:
the planting
pick, the
wooden
tools: the
the furrow
furrow stick,
stick, the
planting pick,
the double-toothed
double-toothed
hoe,
the best
plow drawn
hoe, and,
and, in
in the
best case,
case, by
by aa wooden
wooden plow
drawn by
by human
human force
force
(su-keng).17
(su-keng).17This
This was
wasaavery
verylabor-consuming
labor-consuming task
taskfor
for aaconsiderable
considerable
number
of people.
There even
even existed
existed aa special
special term
can be
be
number of
people. There
term that
that can
rendered as
as the
the "unification
"unification of
of common
common forces."
forces." We
an oracle
oracle
rendered
We know
know an
mentioning
"the great
great decree
decree of
of the
mentioning "the
the wang
wang to
to the
the chung-jen,"
chung-jen"ordering
ordering
them to
to engage
engage in
field work
work "all
"all together."
together." No
other term
term for
for comcomthem
in field
No other
chung has
has been
been found
found in
in the
the oracle
oracle inscripinscripmunity members
members except
except chung
munity
tions.
It is
is clear
that community
community members
members were
important
clear that
were the
the most
most important
tions. It
element of
of Shang
Shang society.
society. Thus,
Thus, it
cannot be
be doubted
doubted that
that the
the wang
element
it cannot
wang
was connected
connected with
the community,
community, which
which must
must have
played aa leading
leading
was
with the
have played
role
in the
economic life
life of
of Shang
Shang society,
society, and
and it
it was,
was, no
doubt, the
the
the economic
no doubt,
role in
17.
17. Some
Some scholars
scholars think
think that
that the
the term
term translated
translated as
as "double
"double plowing"
plowing" had
had nothing
nothing to
to
do
the work
two men,
men, one
whom made
hole in
in the
do with
with aa plow
plow but
but involved
involved the
work of
of two
one of
of whom
made aa hole
the
ground
the planting
planting pick,
and the
the other
other placed
placed the
the seed
seed into
into the
the hole
and covered
covered
ground with
with the
pick, and
hole and
it
earth. This
This is
thought to
have symbolized
symbolized aa magical
of impregnation
impregnation and
and was
is thought
to have
magical act
act of
was
it with
with earth.
part of
of the
tilling and
and sowing
sowing rite.
part
the tilling
rite.

404

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

community
community members
members who
who took
took part,
part, in
in the
the thousands,
thousands, in
in the
the wars
wars and
and
the big
by the
the wang.
wang. In
In war,
war, the
the booty
included thouthouthe
big hunts
hunts headed
headed by
booty included
sands of
of prisoners
(one inscription
inscription mentions
mentions the
the capturing
capturing of
of 1,656
1,656
prisoners (one
sands
people);
catch from
from the
the hunt
hunt could
could be
be hundreds
hundreds of
of big
animals.
the catch
big animals.
people); the
The
bows and
kinds,
The Shang
Shang were
were armed
armed with
with bows
and arrows
arrows of
of different
different kinds,
hatchet-daggers,
poleaxes, spears,
hatchet-daggers, poleaxes,
spears, helmets,
helmets, shields
shields and
and armor.
armor. WarWarplayed an
were the
riors on
riors
on chariots
chariots played
an important
important role
role (perhaps
(perhaps they
they were
the
wang's
wang'sbodyguard).
bodyguard).The
The chariot
chariot was
wasdrawn
drawn by
bytwo
twohorses
horsesand
and had
had aa
beam
two or
22, or
26 spokes
in the
wheel);
beam and
and two
or four
four wheels
wheels (with
(with 18,
18, 22,
or 26
spokes in
the wheel);
the
of the
the chariot
chariot was
was square
square or
or rectangular,
rectangular, the
the breadth
between
the box
box of
breadth between
the wheels
wheels being
being three
three meters.
meters. There
There were
were three
three warriors
warriors for
for each
each
the
chariot; the
the charioteer
charioteer had
had an
an archer
archer on
on his
left and
and aa spear-bearer
spear-bearer on
on
chariot;
his left
his
right.
his right.
Leadership
hunting was
wang's most
mostimportant
important
Leadership in
in war
war and
and in
in hunting
was the
the wang's
duty.
Wars made
the wang
duty. Wars
made the
wang and
and the
the other
other military
military leaders
leaders more
more powerpowerful, concentrating
concentrating great
great riches
riches in
in their
their hands.
hands. But
But in
in aa territorial
territorial comcomful,
munity with
with collective
collective distribution
distribution it
it was
was not
not the
the individuals
individuals who
who grew
grew
munity
but the
the extended
were rich
rich but
rich
extended families.
families. There
There were
rich and
and poor
poor clans
clans among
among
the
Shang; the
ranks of
of dignity,
dignity, beginning
with that
that of
of the
the
the Shang;
the highest
highest ranks
beginning with
wang, were
were inherited
inherited within
within the
the same
same generation,
generation, and
and then
then were
were
wang,
passed on
on according
according to
to the
degree of
of genealogical
genealogical proximity.
Some
the degree
proximity. Some
passed
clans were
We have
have already
already mentioned
mentioned that
that slavery
slavery
clans
were hereditary
hereditary priests.
priests. We
had emerged,
emerged, including
including private
private slavery,
slavery, as
as attested
attested by
by the
the burial
burial of
of
had
slaves with
master.
slaves
with their
their master.
An
us to
An analysis
analysis of
of the
the inscriptions
inscriptions allows
allows us
to assume
assume that
that the
the power
power of
of
wang was
was limited
limited by
by aa council.
council. The
The epic
epic legends
legends in
in Shu
Shu Ching,
Ching,the
the
the wang
the
most
most ancient
ancient collection
collection of
of historical
historical traditions,
traditions, preserves
preserves aa reminisreminiscence of
of the
the dependence
dependence of
of the
the wang's
wang's authority
authority on
on the
the popular
popular assemassemcence
bly and
and the
the council
council of
of elders
elders of
of the
the Shang.
Shang. The
The election
election of
of the
the military
military
bly
houand
andthe
thepo)
po)chosen
chosen
leaders and
and the
the heads
heads ofthe
of the elders'
elders' councils
councils (the
(the hou
leaders
by the
the non-Shang
non-Shang communities
communities (fang)
(fang) that
that were
were inside
inside the
the sphere
sphere of
of
by
influence of
of the
the Shang
Shang had
had to
to be
be sanctioned
sanctioned by
by the
the latter's
latter's wang.
wang. Land
Land
influence
was
the common
common property
of whole
whole territorial
territorial communities;
communities; when
when
was the
property of
speaking of
of harvesting,
harvesting, the
the inscriptions
inscriptions mention
mention only
only general
general ethethspeaking
nonyms or
or ethnicons
ethnicons (names
(names given
given according
according to
to the
the place
place of
of origin).
origin).
nonyms
But inside
inside these
these territorial
territorial communities
communities the
the means
means of
of production
were,
But
production were,
no doubt,
doubt, ceded
ceded to
to separate
separate extended-family
extended-family groups.
groups.
no
The
wang were
were not
not perceived
perceived as
as somesomeThe power
power and
and authority
authority of
of the
the wang
thing
alien to
people and
and above
above the
the community.
community. In
In spite
spite of
of the
the fact
fact
thing alien
to the
the people
that aa military
military and
and priestly
priestly elite
elite had
developed, the
the wang
wang was
was rerethat
had developed,
garded as
as symbolizing
symbolizing the
the unity
unity of
of the
the body
body politic,
politic, as
as representing
representing
garded
their common
common interests
interests before
the gods
gods of
of the
the communities;
communities; and
and as
as
their
before the
soliciting for
for the
the community
community through
through his
his dead,
dead, deified
deified ancestors.
ancestors. In
In
soliciting
his status
status as
as chief
chief priest
priest he
he was
was responsible
responsible for
for nature's
nature's fertility,
fertility, secursecurhis

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

405

ing
ing the
the welfare
welfare of
of the
the land.
land. The
The sources
sources do
do not
not point
point to
to territorial
territorial acacquisitions as
as being
being the
the aim
aim of
of the
the military
military campaigns.
campaigns.
quisitions
The
personnel employed
The administrative
administrative personnel
employed in
in the
the government-temple
government-temple
sector do
do not
not seem
seem to
to have
have received
received land
land or
or slaves
slaves for
their service,
service,
for their
sector
which would
would have
have allowed
allowed them
them to
to start
start their
their own
own economies.
economies. More
More
which
likely, they
they were
were sustained
sustained by
by deliveries
deliveries in
in kind.
kind. This
This may
may explain
explain the
the
likely,
frequent questions
questions to
to the
the oracle
oracle like
like the
the following:
following: "Will
"Will community
community
frequent
X harvest
harvest in
in aa sufficient
sufficient amount?"
amount?" It
It seems
seems that
that communities
communities dependepenX
dent on
on the
the Shang
Shang had
had to
to pay
tribute in
in agricultural
agricultural produce.
produce.
dent
pay tribute
There did
did not
not exist
exist any
any general
general term
term for
for the
the social
social category
category of
of
There
people of
of high
high standing,
standing, but
but some
some of
of the
the wang's
wang'sclosest
closestretainers
retainersand
and
people
trusted persons
to have
have constituted
the ya,
ya,
trusted
persons can
can be
be said
said to
constituted an
an elite;
elite; such
such as
as the
and the
the yin.
yin.The
The same
same can
can be
besaid
said of
of the
the chiefs
chiefs
the
li, the
the pu, the
the shih,
the li,
shih, and
(hou) and
and elders
elders (po)
(hou)
{po) of
ofthe
the non-Shang
non-Shang communities,
communities,insofar
insofar asassuch
such
communities
celecommunities belonged
belonged to
to the
the sphere
sphere of
of Shang
Shang hegemony.
hegemony. To
To celebrate
over an
an inimical
inimical community
community the
the wang
brate aa victory
victory over
wang could
could sacrifice
sacrifice its
its
leader
Thus, according
leader to
to his
his own
own ancestors.
ancestors. Thus,
according to
to the
the order
order of
of the
the
oracle,
[po] of
ofthe
theCh'iang."
Ch'iang."
oracle, were
were sacrificed
sacrificed "three
"three community
community elders
elders [po]
killed as
but special
Not only
only were
were male
male prisoners
prisoners of
of war
war killed
as aa rule,
rule, but
special
Not
manhunts
to supply
victims for
manhunts were
were organized
organized to
supply victims
for the
the sacrifices.
sacrifices. The
The
sign fa
meant both
"military campaign"
campaign" and
"human sacrifice";
sacrifice"; it
it dedesign
fa meant
both "military
and "human
picted an
an ax
ax chopping
chopping off
off aa human
the use
use of
of this
sign in
in
human head.
head. Note
Note the
this sign
picted
an inscription,
inscription, not
very well
well preserved,
preserved, but
but where
where the
following sensenan
not very
the following
tence
can clearly
clearly be
"To sacrifice
sacrifice [fa]
[fa] to
to the
[the
the Ancestor
Ancestor Yi
Vi [the
tence can
be read:
read: "To
captured] ...
. . . chieftain
chieftain [po]
[po]of
ofthe
theJen-fang."
Jen-fang."
captured]
The captured
captured women
women were
were enslaved
enslaved and
and became
became part
part of
of the
the econeconThe
omy.
by no
no means
means considered
omy. They
They were
were by
considered to
to be
be the
the weaker
weaker sex;
sex; they
they
were
main labor
force in
in hoe
hoe agriculture,
agriculture, in
in pottery
production,
the main
labor force
pottery production,
were the
in weaving
weaving (including
(including silk
silk weaving),
weaving), and
and in
in beer
beer brewing
brewing (the
(the last
last two
two
in
women were
being
being especially
especially important
important for
for religious
religious offerings).
offerings). The
The women
were
not
the men
in such
activities as
big game
and even
not behind
behind the
men in
such activities
as driving
driving big
game and
even
participated in
in war,
where the
methods hardly
hardly differed
differed from
from those
in
the methods
those in
participated
war, where
hunting. This
hunting.
This may
may explain
explain why
why Shang
Shang women
women enjoyed
enjoyed aa position
position of
of
esteem.
Judging from
from the
the fact
fact that
that in
in one
one of
of the
the big
big burials
burials at
at Anyang
Anyang
esteem. Judging
woman was
was buried
buried with
with aa big
big spear,
spear, women
women may
may have
have been
been leaders
leaders
aa woman
in war
war and
and in
in hunting.
The same
same is
is attested
attested by
by the
the oracle
oracle texts:
one of
of
in
hunting. The
texts: one
them
mentions aa female
female military
military leader
at the
head of
of an
an army
army of
of
them mentions
leader at
the head
13,000.
13,000.
The
burials and
The mass
mass burials
and the
the mass
mass sacrifices
sacrifices of
of prisoners
prisoners show
show that
that
slave
place in
in the
the economy.
we have
slave labor
labor found
found little
little place
economy. However,
However, we
have atatprisoner Ch'iangs
in hunting
testations of
testations
of prisoner
Ch'iangs being
being employed
employed in
hunting and
and animal
animal
breeding.
breeding. Sporadically,
Sporadically, prisoners
prisoners of
of war
war seem
seem to
to have
have been
been used
used for
for
hard short-term
short-term labor
labor (probably
(probably such
such as
as the
the construction
construction of
of big
big
hard
big floods,
city building).
building). There
tombs,
rescue work
work after
tombs, rescue
after big
floods, and
and city
There seem
seem to
to

406

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

be hints
be
hints of
of prisoners
prisoners being
being used
used for
for spring
spring agricultural
agricultural work.
work. They
They
may
rite before
may even
even have
have taken
taken part
part in
in the
the collective
collective agricultural
agricultural rite
before
being
sacrificed, also
also according
according to
to rite.
rite. There
There is,
is, for
for example,
example, an
an
being sacrificed,
oracle text
text with
oracle
with the
the following
following contents:
contents: "The
"The wang
wang ordered
ordered many
many
the fields."
Ch'iangs
Ch'iangs to
to fulfill
fulfill the
the fertility
fertility rite
rite on
on the
fields."
There
the archive
There are
are inscriptions
inscriptions connected
connected with
with the
archive of
of aa specific
specific
oracle where
where the
the fortune-tellers
fortune-tellers were
were women
women and
and the
the wang
wang is
is never
never
oracle
mentioned. They
They attest
attest to
to aa collective
collective rite
rite fulfilled
fulfilled regularly
regularly that
that may
may
mentioned.
have been
been analogous
analogous to
to the
the sacred
sacred marriage
marriage rite.
rite. Here
it was
was aa fertility
fertility
have
Here it
rain. The
The rite
included
rite connected
connected with
with the
the magical
magical calling
calling forth
forth of
of rain.
rite included
rite
mass
human sacrifices
sacrifices to
to Ancestress
Keng (The
(The Seventh").
Seventh").
Ancestress Keng
mass human
The wives
wives of
the wangs
wangs are
are not
not infrequently
infrequently mentioned
mentioned in
in the
the ininThe
of the
scriptions. They
They seem
seem to
to have
have been
been high
high priestesses.
priestesses. The
The inscriptions
inscriptions
scriptions.
attest to
to the
the high
high priestess
priestess having
having an
an agricultural
agricultural economy
economy of
of her
her
attest
own and
and even
even (as
(as mentioned
mentioned above)
above) her
her own
own armed
armed forces.
forces. A
A high
high
own
priestess could
could also
also be
be the
the mother
mother or
or the
the sister
sister of
of the
the wang
wang or
or aa wife
wife of
of
priestess
one of
of the
the brothers
brothers of
of the
the wang's
wangs mother.
mother. Sacrifices
Sacrifices were
were made
made to
to the
the
one
female ancestors
ancestors in
in the
the clan
clan of
of the
the wang,
probably in
in their
their status
status as
female
wang, probably
as
female chiefs
chiefs and
and high
high priestesses,
priestesses, independent
independent of
of the
the offerings
offerings to
to
female
their husbands.
husbands. This
This can
can be
be seen
seen from
from the
inscriptions on
on the
oracle
their
the inscriptions
the oracle
bones.
Some scholars
scholars find
find in
in the
the inscriptions
inscriptions aa special
special title
title for
for the
the high
high
bones. Some
priestess-chief.
priestess
- chief.
In
the richest
richest big
In this
this connection
connection the
the excavation
excavation of
of one
one of
of the
big burials
burials
found
found near
near Anyang
Anyang is
is of
of special
special interest.
interest. Name
Name signs
signs on
on the
the sacred
sacred
vessels
mention the
"Royal Ancestress,
Ancestress, the
the
found in
in this
this burial
burial mention
the "Royal
vessels found
Eighth,"
burial there
there were
were discovered
discovered nearly
Eighth," "The
"The Lady
Lady Hao."
Hao." In
In this
this burial
nearly
jade, and
and ivory,
ivory, including
including aa number
number of
of figufiguartifacts of
of bronze,
11,500
,500 artifacts
bronze, jade,
rines
of men
men and
and women
from their
clothes
women representing,
representing, to
to judge
judge from
their clothes
rines of
and exterior,
exterior, persons
persons of
of different
different social
social condition
condition and
and ethnic
ethnic orioriand
gin. Here
Here were
were also
also put
to death
death and
and buried
buried sixteen
sixteen people-men,
peoplemen,
put to
gin.
women,
and children.
children. The
The priestly
rank of
of the
the central
central figure
figure in
in the
the
women, and
priestly rank
burial
from the
the great
great number
number (more
(more than
than 2001)
200!) of
burial can
can be
be deduced
deduced from
of
ritual
among them
of huge
square vats,
117.5
ritual vessels,
vessels, among
them aa pair
pair of
huge square
vats, weighing
weighing 117.5
kilograms
each, with
of the
owner engraved;
engraved; also
also the
earlikilograms each,
with the
the name
name of
the owner
the earliest bronze
mirrors found
found in
in China
China and
and different
different cultic
cultic musical
musical instruinstruest
bronze mirrors
ments were
were found.
found. Many
weapons of
of every
every kind
kind found
found in
in the
the same
same
ments
Many weapons
burial may
may point
point to
to the
the military
military dignity
dignity of
of the
deceased "ancestress."
"ancestress."
burial
the deceased
There were
were also
also 6,000
6,000 cowries,
cowries, indicating
indicating her
her great
great wealth.
wealth. Note
Note also
also
There
that
largest ritual
found at
Anyang (and
(and mentioned
mentioned above),
that the
the largest
ritual kettles
kettles found
at Anyang
above),
which
875 kilograms;
also had
had inscriptions
inscriptions declaring
the
kilograms; also
declaring the
which weighed
weighed 875
owner as
as aa highborn
highborn lady:
"Ancestress the
Fifth," possibly
another
owner
lady: "Ancestress
the Fifth,"
possibly another
high
priestess-chief. Several
Several scholars
scholars think
think that
the Eighth
Eighth AnAnhigh priestess-chief.
that both
both the
cestress and
and the
the Fifth
Ancestress were
were wives
wives of
of Yin
Fifth Ancestress
Yin wangs.
wangs.
cestress
In this
this society
society elements
elements of
of ancient
ancient clan
clan ideology
ideology were
were still
still very
very
In

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

407

much alive.
alive. The
The cult
cult of
of the
the fertility
fertility goddess,
of the
Great and
and High
High
much
goddess, of
the Great
Ancestress,
human sacrifices
Ancestress, was
was very
very important.
important. Abundant
Abundant human
sacrifices were
were due
due
to her,
her, so
so that
that special
special military
military expeditions
expeditions headed
headed by
by the
the wang
wang were
were
to
organized
to capture
capture prisoners,
mostly from
the tribes
of the
the Ch'iang.
Ch'iang.
organized to
prisoners, mostly
from the
tribes of
The office
office of
of the
the wang
wang was
hereditary but
but passed,
passed, not
from fafaThe
was hereditary
not from
ther
brother to
ther to
to son,
son, but
but from
from one
one brother
to another,
another, or
or from
from .an
an uncle
uncle to
to aa
nephew. We
We do
not think
that the
the rule
rule of
of genealogical
genealogicali seniority
seniority was
do not
think that
was
nephew.
completely established
established at
at this
this time.
that inscriptions
inscriptions are
are very
very
completely
time. Note
Note that
common that
mention sacrifices
sacrifices to
to the
the "many
"many fathers"
fathers" and
and the
the "many
"many
common
that mention
mothers" of
of the
the wang.
wang.That
Thatthe
theShang
Shangsociety
societywas
wasarchaic
archaicisisevidenced
evidenced
mothers"
by its
its kinship
kinship system.
system. The
The kinship
kinship terms
terms are
are connected
connected with
with age
age and
and
by
marriage classes,
classes, and
and there
there is
is no
no differentiation
differentiation of
of kinship
kinship relations
relations
marriage
inside one
one age-group.
age-group. Cross-cousin
Cross-cousin marriages
marriages were
were obligatory
obligatory beinside
between two
two exogamous
exogamous dual-kinship
dual-kinship groups.
groups. Eventually
the transfer
transfer of
of
tween
Eventually the
the wang's
wang'soffice
office within
withinaageneration
generation (i.e.,
(i.e.,from
from an
anelder
elder brother
brother totoaa
the
younger one)
one) was
was replaced,
replaced, and
and under
the two
two last
last Shang
Shang wangs
wangs this
this
younger
under the
office passed
passed from
from father
father to
to son,
son, demonstrating
demonstrating that
that the
the patrilineal
patrilineal
office
principle had
had gained
gained the
the upper
upper hand.
hand.
principle
The
The religious
religious ideas
ideas of
of the
the Shang
Shang were
were closely
closely connected
connected with
with an
an
identification of
of the
the magical
magical power
power of
of the
the clan
clan with
with political
political authority.
authority.
identification
human beings
Deities
Deities in
in Shang
Shang religion
religion were
were perceived
perceived as
as human
beings who,
who,
having
having passed
passed into
into another
another world,
world, still
still had
had their
their niche
niche in
in the
the clan
clan gengenthis world,
world, required
required food
food and
and care
care from
from
ealogy and,
and, just
as persons
persons of
of this
ealogy
just as
the
living. The
The ancestor
ancestor cult,
cult, especially
especially the
the royal
royal ancestor
ancestor cult,
cult, was
was the
the
the living.
focus of
of all
all public
activities in
in the
the Shang
Shang state.
state. Along
with the
focus
public activities
Along with
the dedeceased
their spouses
spouses also
also had
had their
ceased rulers,
rulers, their
their cults.
cults.
Because
wang was
was also
also the
the high
high priest,
priest, he
he alone
alone (the
(the "unique
"unique [or
[or
Because the
the wang
first] man,"
man," as
as he
he termed
termed himself)
himself) could
could address
address the
the divine
divine protectors
protectors
first]
of the
the Shang
Shang and
and could
could personally
personally perform
perform the
the necessary
necessary rites.
rites. His
His
of
closest ties
were with
with the
the nearest
nearest ancestors,
ancestors, who
who are
are called
called by
by name
name
closest
ties were
in the
the oracle
oracle inscriptions;
inscriptions; they
they received
received from
from him
him the
the most
most copious
copious
in
offerings. At
At the
the head
head of
of the
the pyramid
pyramid formed
formed by
by the
the royal
royal clan
clan stood
stood
offerings.
the First
First Ancestor
and Supreme
Supreme Deity,
Deity, Shang-ti.
Shang-ti. The
The sacrificial
sacrificial rites
rites to
to
the
Ancestor and
Shang-ti were
were performed
performed comparatively
comparatively seldom
seldom and
and were
were not
not espeespeShang-ti
cially splendid.
splendid. The
The reason
reason may
may have
have been
been that
that the
the wang
wang thought
thought it
it
cially
possible
to
influence
the
supreme
deity
through
the
mediation
of the
the
possible to influence the supreme deity through the mediation of
lower ranks
ranks in
in the
the divine
divine hierarchy.
hierarchy.18IS Five
Five helpers
helpers of
of Shang-ti
Shang-ti are
are
lower
sometimes
mentioned,
perhaps
corresponding
to
the
four
cardinal
sometimes mentioned, perhaps corresponding to the four cardinal
points
of the
the world
world and
and to
to its
its center.
center. Also
diverse local
local deities
deities are
are
points of
Also diverse
mentioned in
the oracle
oracle texts
(spirits of
of the
the rivers,
mentioned
in the
texts (spirits
rivers, mountains,
mountains, etc.).
etc.).
Some of
of them
them were
were deities
deities of
of conquered
conquered tribes.
Some
tribes.
18.
the Shang
18. This
This may
may be
be an
an archaic
archaic feature
feature in
in the
Shang religion.
religion. In
In many
many archaic
archaic commucommudens otiosus,
otiosus,taking
taking
littlepart
partin in
nity religions,
religions, it
it is
is typical
typical that
that the
the supreme
supreme deity
deity is
is aa deus
nity
little
running the
the world
world order.
order. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).
(IMD).
r.unning

408

T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina
T.

Each
Each community
community district
district that
that was
was part
part of
of the
the cultic
cultic federation
federation conconstituting Shang
Shang society
society had
had its
its own
own tutelary
tutelary deity,
deity, aa fang-ti,
who had
had
fang-ti, who
stituting
the gift
gift of
of granting
granting fertility
fertility and
and was
was probably
regarded as
as the
the protecprotecthe
probably regarded
tor and
and ancestor
ancestor of
of the
the population
population group
in question.
question.
tor
group in
A number
number of
of shamanistic
shamanistic features
features can
can be
be discerned
discerned in
in Shang
Shang relireliA
gion. Shamanism
Shamanism is
is typical
typical of
of many
especially of
of groups
groups
many peoples
peoples but
but especially
gion.
in
northern Asia
played an
in northern
Asia and
and America.
America. Male
Male and
and female
female shamans
shamans played
an
important role
in the
thought to
able
important
role in
the royal
royal rites,
rites, because
because they
they were
were thought
to be
be able
to converse
to
converse directly
directly with
with the
the deities.
deities. They
also could
could exorcise
exorcise evil
evil spirspirThey also
its. A
A number
number of
of typical
typical features
features of
of shamanism
shamanism are
are attested
attested in
in Shang
Shang
its.
religion:
power). The
religion: drums,
drums, fore-eyed
fore-eyed masks,
masks, and
and horns
horns (symbols
(symbols of
of power).
The
spirits of
of the
the dead
dead are
are depicted
depicted in
in China
China as
as being
being horned.
horned. A
A bird
bird
spirits
could be
be an
an intermediary
intermediary between
between the
world of
of the
the dead
dead and
and the
the
could
the world
world
of the
the living
living (e.g.,
(e.g., the
the swallow).
swallow). The
The dynastic
dynastic myth
myth of
of the
Shang
world of
the Shang
traced
their origin
origin from
from aa certain
certain "dark
"dark bird."
bird."
traced their
The
very orderly
orderly Weltanschauung.
Weltanschauung.
The Shang
Shang religion
religion was
was the
the result
result of
of aa very
If we
we regard
regard the
the archaic
archaic mythology
mythology and
and ritual
ritual as
as an
an attempt
attempt to
to introintroIf
duce order
order into
into real
real life
life and
and to
to control
control the
the reality
not dependent
dependent on
on
duce
reality not
human activity,
activity, we
we can
can perceive
that the
the Shang
Shang culture
culture achieved
achieved aa
human
perceive that
structural ordering
ordering of
of the
world after
pattern of
of relations
relations domidomistructural
the world
after the
the pattern
nating inside
inside the
clan. The
The main
main element
element was
not the
individual. It
It
nating
the clan.
was not
the individual.
was an
an order
order where
everything had
had its
its place
place and
and functioned
functioned in
in aa
was
where everything
systematic interplay.
interplay. Typically,
Typically, Shang
Shang art
art is
is characterized
characterized by
conby aa consystematic
siderable degree
degree of
of token
token conventionality
conventionality and
and by
the dominance
dominance of
by the
of
siderable
symmetry and
and other
other forms
forms of
of geometric
geometric stylization
stylization of
of images.
images. The
The
symmetry
contradiction between
between the
the increasing
increasing symbolization
symbolization of
of religious
ritual
contradiction
religious ritual
and
the
ecstatic
character
of
the
shamanistic
rites
brought
about,
in
and the ecstatic character of the shamanistic rites brought about, in
time,
a
crisis
in
the
Shang
ideology.
time, a crisis in the Shang ideology.
A
A few
few words
words ought
ought to
to be
be devoted
devoted to
to the
the external
external connections
connections of
of
Shang
keep in
Shang society.
society. One
One should
should always
always keep
in mind
mind that
that the
the first
first foci
foci of
of
urban
more than
away
urban class
class civilization
civilization in
in China
China lay
lay more
than 3,500
3,500 kilometers
kilometers away
from
from the
the area
area of
of the
the closest,
closest, and
and more
more ancient,
ancient, Oriental
Oriental civilizationcivilization
the
the Indus
Indus Valley.
Valley. Moteover,
Moreover, they
they were
were shut
shut off
off from
from it,
it, as
as well
well as
as from
from
other areas
areas of
of Asia,
Asia, by
the world's
world's greatest
greatest deserts
deserts and
and by
by practically
practically
other
by the
insurmountable
plateaus. It
be regarded
insurmountable mountains
mountains and
and rough
rough plateaus.
It must
must be
regarded
as certain
certain that
China, so
so far
far beyond
the reach
of the
ancient civilizacivilizaas
that China,
beyond the
reach of
the ancient
tions of
of Western
Asia, could,
could, at
at that
early time,
time, experience
experience little
little ininWestern Asia,
that early
tions
fluence from
from other
other class
class societies
societies but
but had
had to
to develop
develop quite
quite indepenindepenfluence
dently, according
according to
to the
the general
general laws
laws of
of history.
That the
Shang
dently,
history. That
the Shang
culture evolved,
evolved, in
in the
the main,
main, quite
quite independently
independently is
is proved
the
culture
proved by
by the
clear
of the
beginning
clear continuity
continuity in
in the
the development
development of
the local
local cultures,
cultures, beginning
with
the Neolithic
ones, and
and by
high technological
achievements
Neolithic ones,
by the
the high
technological achievements
with the
of the
the Lungshan
Lungshan pottery
culture, whose
creators were
capable of
of
of
pottery culture,
whose creators
were capable

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

409

bringing the
the temperature
temperature of
of pottery
pottery baking
baking to
to the
the point
of smelting
smelting
bringing
point of
copper.
copper.
This,
however, does
mean that
that the
the society
of ancient
deThis, however,
does not
not mean
society of
ancient China
China developed
without any
any links
links whatsoever
whatsoever with
with
veloped in
in complete
complete isolation,19
isolation,19 without
other peoples.
peoples. Like
Like any
any other
other society,
society, the
the Chinese
Chinese could
could not
not have
have
other
existed without
without international
international trade.
trade.
existed
The
The middle
middle reaches
reaches of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho are
are aa crossroads
crossroads of
of routes
routes
leading toward
the north-northwest,
the Mongolian
steppes and
and to
to
leading
toward the
north-northwest, the
Mongolian steppes
the oases
oases of
of Middle
Asia, and
and toward
toward the
the south,
south, to
to the
the Yangtze
Yangtze Valley.
the
Middle Asia,
Valley.
the Shang
Period this
region had
Already in
in the
Shang Period
this region
had links
links with
with southern
southern
Already
China and
Asia. The
China
and the
the lands
lands of
of southeastern
southeastern Asia.
The giant
giant tortoises
tortoises were
were
brought
by the
brought by
the tribes
tribes of
of the
the Yangtze
Yangtze Valley.
Valley. Cowrie
Cowrie shells,
shells, used
used as
as aa
sort of
of primitive
money, could
could have
have been
been brought
brought from
from Burma.
Burma. Tin
Tin
sort
primitive money,
ingots20
ingots
20 were
were brought
brought from
from the
the south
south to
to make
make bronze.
bronze. Certain
Certain influinfluences reached
reached Shang
Shang China
China from
from the
the oases
oases of
of Middle
Middle Asia.
Asia. Moreover,
Moreover,
ences
pottery seem
far away
as
some
some types
types of
of Shang
Shang pottery
seem to
to have
have parallels
parallels as
as far
away as
Mohenjo-daro
and Jemdet-Nasr.
Jemdet-Nasr. Thejades
The jades of
been
Mohenjo-daro and
of Anyang
Anyang may
may have
have been
brought from
Asia. Some
Some zoomorphic
zoomorphic ornaments
ornaments remind
remind one
one
brought
from Middle
Middle Asia.
of Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian ones:
ones: serpents
serpents with
with interlacing
interlacing coils,
coils, rampant
rampant tigers
tigers
of
facing each
each other,
other, and
and sundry
sundry other
other animals.
animals. There
There are
are archa.eologiarchaeologifacing
cal data
data pointing
pointing to
to the
the arrival
arrival of
of merchandise
merchandise from
from Xinjiang
Xinjiang (Hsin(Hsincal
Chiang, eastern
eastern Turkestan)
Turkestan) and
and from
from Siberia,
Siberia, probably
probably through
through the
the
Chiang,
mediation of
of steppe
steppe tribes.
tribes. Trade
Trade may
may explain,
explain, to
to aa considerable
considerable demediation
degree, the
the primitive
riches of
of the
Shang culture.
culture.
primitive riches
the Shang
gree,
The
The State
State Federation
Federation of
of Chou
Chou (Western
(Western Chou)
Chou)

To the
the west
west of
of Shang,
Shang, in
in the
the valley
valley of
of the
the river
river Wei
Wei (a
(a tributary
tributary of
of the
the
To
Huang Ho)
in the
the modern
modern province
of Shenhsi,
Shenhsi, there
there lived
lived during
during the
the
Huang
Ho) in
province of
fourteenth
Proto-Chinese tribe
A
fourteenth century
century B.C.
B.C. aa warlike
warlike Proto-Chinese
tribe called
called Chou.
Chou. A
rivalry began
began between
between the
the Shang
Shang and
and the
the Chou
Chou that
that took
took the
the form
form of
of
rivalry
open military
military conflicts.
conflicts. It
It is
is assumed
assumed that
that the
the Chou
Chou entered
entered the
the Wei
open
Wei
Valley from
from the
the west.
west.
Valley
In
In the
the first
first half
half of
of the
the second
second millennium
millennium B.C.
B.C. the
the Chou
Chou were
were aniani19. The
The use
use of
of wheat,
wheat, barley,
barley, sheep,
sheep, and
and goats
goats is
is evidence
evidence for
for some.
some diffusionary
diffusionary
19.
process from
from Western
Western Asia,
Asia, and
and the
the earliest
earliest unequivocal
unequivocal Chinese
bronzesdating
Chinese bronzes-dating
process
mainly to
to the
the third
third millennium
millennium B.c.were
B.C.were found
found in
in Gansu
Gansu Province,
Province, or
or west
west of
of the
the area
area
mainly
later incorporated
incorporated by
by the
the Shang
Shang "state."
"state." Although
earlier diffusionist
diffusionist attempts
attempts to
to see
see
later
Although earlier
Chinese
civilization as
as "secondary"
"secondary" or
or somehow
somehow "derivative"
"derivative" cannot
cannot be
be maintained,
maintained,
Chinese civilization
questions still
still remain
remain concerning
the possible
possible diffusion
diffusion of
of technologies
technologies from
from west
west to
to
questions
concerning the
east (e.g.,
(e.g., metals)
metals) or,
for that
that matter,
to west
west (e.g.,
(e.g., sericulture)
sericulture) during
the Bronze
Bronze
matter, east
east to
during the
east
or, for
Age. Editor's
Editor's note
Age.
note (PLK).
(PLK).
the existence
belt" stretching
20.
20. Recent
Recent research
research has
has shown
shown the
existence of
of aa "tin
"tin belt"
stretching through
through southsouthern
Burma, Thailand,
ern China,
China, Burma,
Thailand, and
and Malaysia.
Malaysia.

4io

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

mal breeders
mal
breeders with
with aa primitive
primitive form
form of
of agriculture.
agriculture. There
There are
are certain
certain
data pointing
acquaintance of
of the
the Chou
Chou with
at
data
pointing to
to the
the acquaintance
with bronze
bronze making
making at
least
by the
half of
As their
least by
the second
second half
of the
the second
second millennium.
millennium. As
their ancestress,
ancestress,
they originally
originally revered
the goddess
Ch'iang Yuan
Yuan of
of the
the Clan
Clan of
of the
the
goddess Ch'iang
they
revered the
Ram.
the "Chief
the Millet"
Ram. Later,
Later, Hou-Ch'i,
Hou-Ch'i, the
"Chief of
of the
Millet" (or
(or "Millet
"Millet Lordi
Lord/
Lady"), was
considered to
ancestor of
of the
Chou.
Lady"),
was considered
to be
be the
the ancestor
the Chou.
The ethnic
ethnic consolidation
consolidation of
of the
Chou was
very complicated.
complicated. AlThe
the Chou
was very
Although the
the Chou
became aa part
part of
though
Chou later
later became
of the
the Chinese
Chinese ethnic
ethnic entity,
entity,
some scholars
scholars ascribe
linguistic origin.
origin.
them aa Tibeto-Burman
Tibeto-Burman linguistic
some
ascribe to
to them
It
that beginning
beginning with
the second
the Chou
It seems
seems that
with the
second millennium
millennium the
Chou
slowly
the neighboring
territories of
slowly infiltrated
infiltrated into
into the
neighboring territories
of other
other ethnic
ethnic
groups, in
in aa generally
easterly direction
direction from
from their
their original
original habitat,
habitat,
groups,
generally easterly
which
into the
of the
the Shang.
Shang. The
oracle atatmeant also
also into
the territory
territory of
The Yin
Yin oracle
which meant
tests to
to contacts
contacts with
with the
Chou in
in the
the second
second part
of the
second milthe Chou
part of
the second
miltests
lennium.
encounter questions
questions to
to the
the oracle
oracle regarding
the Chou;
Chou;
We encounter
regarding the
lennium. We
for example,
example, "Will
"Will not
not misfortune
misfortune befall
befall the
Chou?" It
It seems
seems that
that
for
the Chou?"
Talesofofthe
the
Chou, at
at times,
of the
the Shang
Shang federation.
federation. In
In the
Chou,
times, was
was part
part of
the Tales
Kingdoms
(KuoYu)
Yu)and
andininthe
theTso
TsoChuan,
Chuan,
written
down
fourth
Kingdoms (Kuo
written
down
in in
thethe
fourth
to to
third centuries
centuries B.C.,
B.C., there
there are
are reminiscences
reminiscences of
of the
the Yin
and the
Chou
third
Yin and
the Chou
sacrificing to
to the
the same
same deity,
deity, Kun,
Kun, which
which may
may point
point to
their belonging
belonging
sacrificing
to their
21 However,
to some
some common
common cultic
cultic union.
union.21
However, all
all the
the data
data are
are fragmenfragmento
chou(a(afield
field divided
divided into
into parcels)
parcels) appears
appears
tary and
and obscure.
The sign
sign chou
obscure. The
tary
in the
the oracle
oracle texts
texts very
very rarely
compared with
references to
other
in
rarely compared
with references
to other
tribes, towns,
towns, and
and communities
communities that
that must
must have
have been
in frequent
frequent concontribes,
been in
tact with
with the
the Shang.
Shang. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the conquest
conquest of
of Shang
Shang by
by the
the Chou
Chou in
in
tact
the
late second
second millennium
millennium at
at first
first glance
glance seems
seems surprising.
surprising. According
According
the late
(chuhou)
to
legend, however,
however, the
the Chou
Chou had
had "three
"three hundred
hundred districts"
districts" (chuhou)
to legend,
as their
their allies,
allies, thus
thus heading
strong military
military coalition.
coalition. The
The date
date of
of the
the
as
heading aa strong
conquest is
is conventionally
conventionally set
set at
at 1122
1122 B.C.,
but it
it cannot
cannot claim
claim to
be
conquest
B.C" but
to be
exact and
and may
may be
about aa century
be about
century too
too late.
late.
exact
If we
into consideration
consideration the
inevitable weakening
of Shang
Shang
If
we take
take into
the inevitable
weakening of
power in
in their
struggle with
the eastern
eastern tribes,
tribes, the
the war
inpower
their struggle
with the
war becoming
becoming interminable and
and most
most exhausting
exhausting by
by the
the end
end of
of the
the eleventh
eleventh century
century
terminable
and being
followed by
devastation of
of the
surrounding
and
being followed
by total
total devastation
the territories
territories surrounding
Shang proper,
then Shang'S
Shang's defeat
defeat becomes
It is
Shang
proper, then
becomes understandable.
understandable. It
is
even possible
possible that
incapacity of
of the
the Shang
Shang to
to withstand
the incurincureven
that the
the incapacity
withstand the
sions of
of the
the eastern
eastern tribes
tribes might
might have
have been
been one
one of
of the
the causes
causes that
that
sions
made their
their former
former satellites
satellites change
change sides
sides and
and join
The demade
join the
the Chou.
Chou. The
dewhich was
was lost
lost by
by the
the Shang,
Shang, may
may have
have been
been preprecisive battle
of Muye,
Muye, which
cisive
battle of
21.
21. During
During the
the historicizing
historicizing of
of the
the mythological
mythological heritage
heritage under
under the
the Chou,
Chou, the
the image
image
of
Kun was
reinterpreted: in
ChingKun
Kunhas
hasbecome
becomeaanegative
negativecharacter
characterexiled
exiled
of Kun
was reinterpreted:
in the
the Shu
Shu Ching
from the
inhabited world
deified ancestor,
ancestor, Shun,
Shun, who
was introduced
introduced into
into the
panfrom
the inhabited
world by
by aa deified
who was
the pantheon
of the
Chou.
theon of
the Chou.

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

411

ceded by
by aa prolonged
struggle between
between the
the Chou
Chou and
and the
the Shang
Shang for
for
ceded
prolonged struggle
domination in
the middle
middle valley
valley of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho.
Ho.
domination
in the
The
The unusual
unusual military
military activity
activity of
of the
the Chou
Chou at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the second
second
millennium
have been
been connected
connected with
with the
the acceleration
acceleration of
of the
the
millennium may
may have
process of
of class
class formation
formation in
in the
the Chou
Chou society,
society, prompted
by the
the
process
prompted by
achievements of
of the
the early
early class
class society
society in
in Yin.
Yin. The
The Yin
Yin made
made use
use of
of
achievements
the rich
rich potentialities
potentialities for
for agricultural
agricultural development
development on
on the
the alluvial
alluvial
the
lands of
of the
the Lower
Lower Huang
Huang Ho,
Ho, and
and these
these lands
lands may
may in
in the
the first
first place
place
lands
have attracted
attracted the
the Chou.
Chou.
have
Vivid
Vivid reminiscences
reminiscences about
about how
how the
the military
military chiefs
chiefs of
of the
the Chou
Chou grew
grew
more powerful
and how
how they
they created
created aa mighty
mighty union
union of
of tribes
tribes (or
(or dismore
powerful and
districts) have
have come
come down
down to
to us
us in
in the
the poetic
collection of
of songs
songs Shih
poetic collection
Shih
tricts)
Ching and
and in
in the
the collection
collection of
of historical
historical texts
texts Shu
Shu Ching.
Ching.
Ching
In
the Shih
Shih Ching
Chingand
andthe
theShu
ShuChing
Chingthe
theChou
Choutradition
traditionascribed
ascribedthe
the
In the
mystic appropriation
appropriation of
of the
holy "Will
"Will of
of Heaven"
(t'ien ming)
ming) to
to
mystic
the holy
Heaven" (t'ien
Beautiful King,"
Ch'ang,
wang, "The
Ch'ang, also
also called
called Wen
Wen wang,
"The Beautiful
King," who
who ordered
ordered
them to
of Shang."
divine chastisement
them
to destroy
destroy "the
"the city
city of
Shang." The
The divine
chastisement was
was fulfulWarlike King."
King." A
A much
much later
filled
his son,
filled by
by his
son, Wu
Wu wang,
wang, "The
"The Warlike
later traditradition connects
connects Wu
wang with
with the
the creation
creation of
of aa vast
vast "Chou
"Chou Empire,"
Empire,"
Wu wang
tion
projecting
into that
that remote
epoch the
the historical
belonging
remote epoch
historical reality
reality belonging
projecting into
to the
second to
first centuries
centuries B.C.,
when the
the Eastern
Eastern Han
Empire
the second
to first
B.C., when
Han Empire
to
needed "proof"
"proof" that
that an
an empire
empire had
existed from
time immemorial
immemorial
needed
had existed
from time
and that
that it
it had
had aa divine
divine origin.
origin.
and
The
headed by
by
The Yin
Yin confederation
confederation of
of nome-type
nome-type city-communities,
city-communities, headed
the "Great
"Great City
City of
of Shang,"
Shang," was
was replaced
replaced by
by aa kingdom
kingdom uniting
uniting the
terthe
the territory
ritory of
of the
the vast
vast river
river basin
basin of
of the
the lower
lower and
and upper
courses of
of the
the
upper courses
Huang
Hou Chi
Huang Ho.
Ho. The
The Chou
Chou community-tribal
community-tribal cult
cult of
of Hou
Chi became
became the
the
state cult
cult and
and eventually
eventually came
came to
to be
accepted by
all the
the communities
communities
state
be accepted
by all
the dominion
within
within the
dominion of
of Chou.
Chou.
An
was not
An entirely
entirely new
new cult
cult appeared.
appeared. It
It was
not connected
connected with
with an
an ethnic
ethnic
group
united them.
was
group but
but stood
stood above
above all
all and
and everybody
everybody and
and united
them. This
This was
the
the Supreme
Deity, namely,
it was
the cult
cult of
of the
Supreme Deity,
namely, Heaven;
Heaven; it
was connected
connected with
with
the cult
cult of
of the
Son of
of Heaven,
Heaven, the
the Chou
Chou wang.
the
the Son
wang.
There
is some
some truth
truth in
in the
the orthodox
orthodox historical
historical tradition
tradition about
about Chou.
Chou.
There is
It was
was actually
actually during
during the
the Western
Western Chou
Chou Period
Period (its
(its beginning
beginning is
is traditradiIt
tionally associated
associated with
with the
the time
time when
when Wu
Wu wang
wang conquered
conquered the
the city
city of
of
tionally
Shang)
that
the
foundations
of
a
new
political
order
in
northern
China
Shang) that the foundations of a new political order in northern China
were laid,
laid, determining
determining for
for many
many future
future centuries
centuries some
some of
of the
the typical
typical
were
characteristics of
of the
the states
states of
of ancient
ancient China.
China.
characteristics
From
From the
the very
very beginning
beginning Western
Western Chou
Chou was
was not
not aa unified
unified state.
state. Its
Its
hierarchical structure
structure was
was in
in some
some respects
respects reminiscent
reminiscent of
of the
the Hittite
Hittite
hierarchical
state, where
where princes,
governors, and
and allied
allied kings
kings paid
paid tribute
tribute to
to the
the
state,
princes, governors,
supreme king
otherwise ruled
ruled their
autonomously. After
After
supreme
king but
but otherwise
their regions
regions autonomously.

412
412

T.
V. Stepugina
Stepugina
T.V.

the
Yin union
union was
was crushed,
the Yin
crushed, the
the Chou
Chou resettled
resettled the
the "recalcitrant
"recalcitrant Yin"
Yin" on
on
one
of the
estates of
the Chou
Chou rulers.
Apparently, the
had four
four
one of
the estates
of the
rulers. Apparently,
the Chou
Chou had
such "capital-palaces."
"capital-palaces." Three
in the
Wei River
main
such
Three were
were in
the Wei
River basin,
basin, the
the main
Chou base;
one was
in the
Lo River
River basin.
basin. It
It was
in the
latter, Ch'engCh'engChou
base; one
was in
the Lo
was in
the latter,
Chou, that
Yin were
were resettled
and used
used as
as workers
workers in
in the
royal
that the
the Yin
resettled and
the royal
Chou,
economy. The
The rest
of the
Yin remained
in their
former places,
but their
their
economy.
rest of
the Yin
remained in
their former
places, but
lands were
granted to
and companions-in-arms
companions-in-arms of
of the
conlands
were granted
to the
the relatives
relatives and
the conquerors. The
The lands
captured by
the Chou
Chou in
in their
their further
further conquests
conquests
lands captured
by the
querors.
were
either given
given to
to the
the Chou
Chou elite
elite (primarily
(primarily to
the relatives
of the
the
to the
relatives of
were either
Chou ruling
ruling class)
class) or
or remained
remained under
under the
the management
of the
original
Chou
management of
the original
rulers
and chiefs,
chiefs, who
who were
were not
not supervised
supervised by
by special
special "observers"
"observers" of
of the
the
rulers and
Chou wang.
wang. Thus
Thus the
the Chou
Chou wangs
wangs ruled
ruled their
their dependent
dependent territories
territories
Chou
indirectly.
indirectly.
Under
wang (son
Under Ch'eng
Ch'eng wang
(son of
of Wu
Wu wang,
wang, who
who died
died almost
almost immeimmediately following
of Shang)
Shang) the
the country
country was
was
diately
following his
his victory
victory over
over the
the city
city of
torn apart
by quarrels
quarrels between
of the
Chou aristocaristoctorn
apart by
between the
the top
top members
members of
the Chou
between the
of Wu
Wu wang,
wang, who
were pretenders
pretenders to
racy
and between
the brothers
brothers of
who were
to
racy and
the
The rule
rule of
of succession
succession was
established, in
in spite
spite
the throne.
throne. The
was not
not firmly
firmly established,
of the
fact that
that the
list shows
shows an
of sucof
the fact
the later
later king
king list
an uninterrupted
uninterrupted line
line of
sucwangs, beginning
beginning with
with Wen
Wen wang.
wang. ItIt was
was only
only
cessively ruling
ruling Chou
Chou wangs,
cessively
through the
the elimination
elimination of
of all
all his
his paternal
paternal uncles
uncles that
that Ch'eng
Ch'eng manmanthrough
aged to
to hold
hold on
on to
to his
his power.
In the
the future,
future, the
the house
house of
of Chou
Chou again
again
aged
power. In
had to
to resort
to armed
armed force
force in
in order
order to
to assert
assert its
its right
to the
the throne.
throne.
had
resort to
right to
As
Western Chou
As mentioned
mentioned above,
above, the
the early
early state
state structure
structure of
of the
the Western
Chou
Period included,
included, in
in addition
addition to
cities and
and regions
were directly
directly
Period
to cities
regions that
that were
subject to
to the
the wang
and his
his governors,
governors, semiautonomous
semiautonomous dominions.
dominions.
wang and
subject
These were
were the
the territories
territories conquered
conquered by
Chou and
and assigned
assigned to
to
These
by the
the Chou
relatives
of the
the Chou
Chou house
house and
and to
companions-in-arms of
of the
the wang,
to companions-in-arms
wang,
relatives of
as well
as regions
regions handed
handed over
over to
to high
high functionaries.
functionaries. All
All such
such subordisubordias
well as
nate
swore allegiance
allegiance to
wang.Special
Specialhigh
highfunctionaries
functionaries of
of
nate rulers
rulers swore
to the
the wang.
the
court were
charged with
supervision of
of the
semiautonomous
the court
were charged
with the
the supervision
the semiautonomous
(chuhou) of
of these
theseregions,
regions, making
making sure
sure that
that they
they performed
performed
rulers (chuhou)
rulers
their
duties for
for the
the house
of Chou,
Chou, which
which included
included sharing
sharing any
any war
war
their duties
house of
spoils with
with the
the wang.
wang.
spoils
The
penal code
is
The drawing
drawing up
up of
of aa penal
code (apparently
(apparently orally
orally transmitted)
transmitted) is
traditionally attributed
B.C.). It
It can
can be
be concontraditionally
attributed to
to Mu
Mu wang
wang (tenth
(tenth century
century B;C.).
cluded
legend that
wang himself
cluded from
from legend
that the
the wang
himself acted
acted as
asjudge
judge in
in the
the most
most
important cases.
cases. Fines
Fines could
could be
be paid
in lieu
lieu of
of other
other punishment,
inimportant
paid in
punishment, including the
the death
death penalty.
penalty. The
The allied
allied rulers,
rulers, subjects
subjects of
of the
the Western
Western
cluding
Chou house,
house, were
counted by
by the
the dozens
dozens and
and even
even hundreds
hundreds (a
(a legenlegenChou
were counted
dary source
source even
even mentions
mentions eighteen
eighteen hundred).
hundred). Seventy-one
Seventy-one such
such dododary
minions (kuo)
(kuo) were
were placed
under the
the members
members of
of the
the royal
royal Chou
Chou
placed under
mIlllons
family.
family.

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

413

The
The Chou
Chou wang
wang granted
granted land,
land, not
not because
because he
he had
had the
the supreme
supreme
right to
to all
all land
land in
in the
the country,
country, but,
but, rather,
rather, because
he exercised
exercised state
state
right
because he
sovereignty. The
The wang's
wang's deeds
deeds of
of transfer
transfer toto the
the high
high functionaries
functionaries
sovereignty.
were officially
officially registered
registered as
as "gifts."
"gifts." This
This did
did not
not mean,
mean, however,
however, that
that
were
the transferred
transferred land
land became
became their
their private
private property.
property. These
These lands
lands were
were
the
not regarded
regarded as
as withdrawn
withdrawn from
from the
the royal
royal land
land fund.
It was
was only
only the
the
not
fund. It
right
being transferred.
right to
to draw
draw income
income from
from this
this real
real estate
estate that
that was
was being
transferred.
When aa new
ruler ascended
ascended the
the throne,
throne, these
these deeds
deeds had
had to
to be
be rereWhen
new ruler
After the
ninth century
B.C., granted
newed. After
newed.
the middle
middle of
of the
the ninth
century B.C.,
granted lands
lands
wang'sdecree.
decree.
could be
be passed
passed to
to the
the holders'
holders' heirs,
heirs, though
though still
still by
by the
the wang's
could
Sometimes
Sometimes not
not only
only land,
land, settlements,
settlements, and
and cattle
cattle were
were transferred
transferred
but
the wang,
workers of
different categories,
categories, "from
but also
also "people
"people of
of the
wang, workers
of different
"from
stable hands
to farmers."
farmers." The
The "people
"people of
of the
the wang"
wang" also
also included
included
stable
hands to
some
number of
transferred could
some functionaries.
functionaries. The
The number
of people
people transferred
could exceed
exceed
one thousand.
thousand. Workers
Workers (ch'en)
one
(ch'en) were
werefrequently
frequently transferred
transferred by
byfamifamilies, from
from five
five to
to two
two hundred
hundred families
families of
of ch'en
ch'en atat aa time.
time. Although
Although
lies,
they were
were all
all called
called "royal
"royal people,"
not all
all of
of them
them were
were actually
actually slaves.
slaves.
they
people," not
Some were
were individuals
individuals of
of high
high rank,
although, in
the eyes
eyes of
of their
their
rank, although,
in the
Some
contemporaries, they
they were
were all
all equally
equally subject
subject to
to the
the wang
wang and
and thus
thus
contemporaries,
were
not personae
juris.
personae sui
sui juris.
were not
Large
Large and
and complex
complex royal
royal economies
economies appeared.
appeared. They
They included
included
farming,
farming, cattle
cattle breeding,
breeding, and
and crafts
crafts enterprises,
enterprises, which
which were
were managed
managed
by
by special
special functionaries-"land
functionaries"land overseers"
overseers" (ssu
(ssu t'u)
fu),, "overseers
"overseers of
of
craftsmen," and
and so
so on.
on. Royal-cum-temple
Royal-cum-temple economies
economies were
were also
also comcomcraftsmen,"
mon. The
The wang
wang presided
presided over
over the
the cult
cult of
of Hou
Hou Chi
Chi and
and performed
performed the
the
mon.
sacred
of tracing
in which
sacred rite
rite of
tracing the
the "first
"first furrow,"
furrow," aa magical
magical act
act in
which the
the
wang personified
personified the
the fertility
fertility and
and well-being
of the
the country.
country. Free
Free
wang
well-being of
people (i.e.,
(i.e., community
community members)
members) were
also called
called upon
upon to
to work
in
people
were also
work in
these economies,
economies, but
but most
most of
the work
work force
force was
was composed
composed of
of large
large
of the
these
contingents of
of people
people with
with slave
slave status.
status. Some
Some were
were convicted
convicted criminals
criminals
contingents
condemned to
to slave
slave labor,
labor, but
but most
most were
were prisoners
prisoners captured
captured during
during
condemned
military campaigns.
campaigns. They
They were
were supervised
supervised by
("miliary chiefs,"
chiefs,"
military
by shih
shih ("miliary
"commanders"). In
In general,
general, the
the armed
armed forces
forces were
were the
the coercive
coercive arm
arm
"commanders").
of the
the state,
state, and
and one
one of
of their
their duties
duties was
was overseeing
overseeing slave
slave labor.
labor. The
The
of
military ranks
ranks were
were invested
invested with
with special
special production
conmilitary
production powers
powers connected with
with organizing
organizing and
and maintaining
maintaining forced
forced labor
labor in
in the
the vast
vast royal
royal
nected
economies. They
They were
were in
in charge
charge of
of supplying
supplying this
work force
force tqrough
through
economies.
this work
military expeditions.
expeditions.
military
As the
the practice
of granting
granting lands
lands expanded,
expanded, and
and as
as very
very large
large ecopractice of
ecoAs
nomic entities
entities developed
developed that
were virtually
virtually slaveholding,
slaveholding, the
aims
that were
the aims
nomic
and objectives
objectives of
of war
war also
also changed.
changed. The
The acquisition
acquisition of
of territory
territory was
and
was
the primary
primary aim,
aim, but
but capturing
capturing prisoners
prisoners of
of war
war for
for slavery
slavery was
was just
just as
as
the
wang himself
himself disposed
disposed of
of the
the captives
captives by
by distributing
distributing
important. The
The wang
important.

414

T.
v. Stepugina
Stepugina
T.V.

them among
the participants
participants of
the military
military expeditions.
He also
them
among the
of the
expeditions. He
also enenacted punitive
punitive measures
measures and
and guaranteed
guaranteed the
the return
return of
of fugitive
fugitive slaves
slaves
acted
to
to their
their masters.
masters.
The
on the
the Western
Chou Period
The main
main sources
sources on
Western Chou
Period are
are epigraphs;
epigraphs;
bronze objects
ritual vesvesnamely, inscriptions
namely,
inscriptions on
on bronze
objects such
such as
as decorative
decorative or
or ritual
sels. Among
the texts
find direct
direct references
references to
to the
conquest of
of the
the
Among the
texts we
we find
the conquest
sels.
Shang state:
"The wang
conquered the
the Shang
Shang [country]
[country] and
and fortified
fortified
Shang
state: "The
wang conquered
himself
in Ch'eng-Chou,"
and Ch'eng
"punished the
city of
himself in
Ch'eng-Chou," and
Ch'eng wang
wang "punished
the city
of
Shang and
and granted
granted land
land to
Kang Hou
[the brother
of Wu
wang] in
in
Shang
to Kang
Hou [the
brother of
Wu wang]
Wei." But
But such
such inscriptions
inscriptions are
are an
an exception;
exception; mostly
mostly
the
Yin region
region of
of Wei."
the Yin
they
give no
no information
information about
about the
the political
history of
of the
the period,
political history
period, aa
they give
history
that still
still cannot
cannot be
be ascertained
ascertained by
by reliable
reliable sources.
sources. Some
Some scholscholhistory that
ars even
even think
think that
that the
the only
only reliable
reliable historical
historical fact
fact about
about the
the Western
Western
ars
Chou Period
comes from
from its
its final
final year;
of
Chou
Period comes
year; namely,
namely, the
the resettlement
resettlement of
the
Chou people
the east
east in
in 770
770 B.C.
the Chou
people to
to the
B.C.
The sources
sources from
from this
this period
include Chou
Chou literary
literary works,
works, which,
which,
The
period include
however,
however, have
have come
come down
down to
to us
us only
only in
in much
much later
later copies
copies or
or versions.
versions.
These are
are the
collection of
of historical
historical legends,
legends, Shu
Shu Ching,
These
the collection
Ching, and
and the
thecolcollection of
of songs
songs called
called Shih
Shih Ching.
Ching. The
The latter
latter isisthe
the most
mostinteresting
interesting
lection
source. The
The work
work is
is aa compilation
compilation oflively
of lively folk
folk songs
songs vividly
reflecting
vividly reflecting
source.
is clear,
clear, however,
however, that
single
the
It is
the life
life of
of people
people during
during Chou
Chou times.
times. It
that aa single
collection of
of folk
folk songs
songs cannot
cannot convey
convey aa complete
complete image
image of
of the
the social
social
collection
structure of
of any
any society.
society. One
One difficulty,
difficulty, in
in particular,
complicates the
the
structure
particular, complicates
work
of the
historian. What
is the
the precise
of the
different
work of
the historian.
What is
precise meaning
meaning of
the different
Ching and
and Shu
Shu Ching
Chingand
andininthe
theinscriptions
inscriptionson
on
terms
found in
in Shih
Shih Ching
terms found
bronze. The
fact that
that some
some of
of the
the terms
terms coincide
coincide formally
formally with
with those
those
bronze.
The fact
used in
in more
more recent
recent epochs
epochs does
does not
not help
help much,
much, because
because we
we do
do not
not
used
know
they meant
meant during
during the
the Chou
Period.
know what
what they
Chou Period.
We
can conclude
conclude from
from the
the songs
songs of
of Shih
Shih Ching
Ching that
that marshes
marshes and
and
We can
low-growing forests
forests still
still covered
covered much
much of
of the
the northern
northern Great
Great Chinese
Chinese
low-growing
Plain.
Game was
the fact
fact that
that tools
tools remained
remained as
as
Plain. Game
was plentiful.
plentiful. Despite
Despite the
rudimentary
as before,
before, arable
arable land
land was
was expanded
expanded around
around the
settlerudimentary as
the settlements of
of the
the middle
middle and
and the
the lower
lower course
course of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho.
Ho. This
This ininments
crease in
in cultivated
cultivated acreage
acreage was
was accompanied
accompanied by
by aa gradual
gradual draining
draining of
of
crease
swamplands. Just
Just at
at that
that time
time the
climate of
of northern
northern China
China became
became
swamplands.
the climate
colder. The
The importance
importance of
of cattle
cattle breeding
diminished. This
This can
can be
be
colder.
breeding diminished;
concluded
from
the
fact
that
many
written
signs
relating
to
cattle
concluded from the fact that many written signs relating to cattle
breeding and
and animal
animal sacrifices
sacrifices disappeared
disappeared from
from the
vocabulary bebreeding
the vocabulary
between
the
end
of
the
second
millennium
and
the
eighth
to seventh
seventh
tween the end of the second millennium and the eighth to
centuries B.C.
B.C. An
An important
important factor
factor in
in the
the development
development of
of productive
productive
centuries
forces
was
the
expansion
and
improvement
of
bronze
casting.
forces was the expansion and improvement of bronze casting.
the entire
region between
Urban-type
Urban-type settlements
settlements now
now spread
spread over
over the
entire region
between
the northern
northern steppes
steppes and
and the
the Yangtze
As aa rule,
rule, they
they were
were built
built
the
Yangtze basin.
basin. As

The
First States
The First
States in
in China
China

415

near rivers
rivers and
by earthen
walls protecting
protecting the
near
and were
were surrounded
surrounded by
earthen walls
the ininhabitants
against enemy
enemy invasions
invasions and
and floods.
These settlements
settlements were
were
habitants against
floods. These
actually small
small towns
towns or
or fortresses.
fortresses. The
The walled-in
walled-in perimeter
perimeter was
was no
no
actually
larger than
than 700-900
700-900 meters.
These walled
walled towns
towns were
laid out
out in
in
larger
meters. These
were laid
squares or
or rectangles,
rectangles, with
with their
their corners
corners oriented
oriented toward
toward the
the four
four carcarsquares
dinal points.
points. Each
Each of
of the
the four
four sides
sides of
of the
the wall
wall had
had aa gate.
dinal
gate.
According
Ching, ititcan
canbe
beassumed
assumed that
thatthese
thesewere
wereterritoterritoAccording to
to Shih
Shih Ching,
rial communities
communities (judging
(judging from
from later
later information,
information, they
they had
had collective
collective
rial
self-governing institutions).
The lands
lands of
of the
the community
community were
were diself-governing
institutions). The
divided into
into those
those cultivated
cultivated for
for the
the state
state (kung-ch'ien)
vided
(kung-ch'ieri)and
andfor
forthe
the"pri"private"
vate" sector
sector (ssu-ch'ien).
(ssu-ch'ieri).Keeping
Keepingininmind
mindthe
theenormous
enormousrole
roleplayed
playedbyby
the
extended family
family throughout
throughout the
the millennia,
millennia, these
"private" lands
lands
the extended
these "private"
are
to be
be understood
understood as
as nonstate
than as
by individuals.
are to
nonstate rather
rather than
as owned
owned by
individuals.
The
the territorial
territorial communities
secThe free
free members
members of
of the
communities outside
outside the
the state
state sector
the main
main part
part of
population. They
tor constituted
constituted the
of the
the population.
They were
were obligated
obligated
to make
deliveries in
in kind
kind to
to the
the state
to take
take part
part in
oblito
make deliveries
state and
and also
also to
in obligatory
state labor.
labor.
gatory state
the
The free
belonging to
the Chou
Chou properthe
The
free men
men belonging
to the
proper-the po hsiang,
hsiang, the
"hundred families"-constituted
families"constituted aa privileged
privileged category
category and
and enjoyed
enjoyed
"hundred
the right
right to
to receive
receive free
free food
food distributed
distributed by
by the
state. Systematic
Systematic intraintrathe
the state.
communal land
land reallotments
survived for
for aa long
long time
time because
because there
there
communal
reallotments survived
were no
no permanent
permanent irrigation
systems that
that could
could have
have hindered
hindered such
such
were
irrigation systems
reallotment.
The territorial
communities conconreallotment. The
territorial and
and extended-family
extended-family communities
tinued to
to be
be the
collective owners
owners of
of land.
land.
tinued
the collective
It
not included
beIt seems
seems that
that private
private farms
farms not
included in
in the
the community
community also
also began to
to come
come into
into existence.
existence. The
The main
main labor
labor in
in such
such economies,
economies, as
as was
gan
was
also
royal economies,
performed by
by different
catealso the
the case
case in
in the
the royal
economies, was
was performed
different catebut all
gories of
gories
of workers,
workers, but
all of
of them
them were
were slaves
slaves or
or slave-type
slave-type personnel.
personnel.
However,
were not
fully dispossessed
dispossessed of
However, these
these workers
workers were
not always
always fully
of perpersonal
this is
typical of
the early
stage of
of the
slave owner
type of
sonal rights;
rights; this
is typical
of the
early stage
the slave
owner type
of
production system.
production
system.
Excavations of
the consolExcavations
of burial
burial grounds
grounds from
from this
this period
period attest
attest to
to the
consolidation of
of the
the power
of the
slave owner
owner and
and the
the development
development of
of priidation
power of
the slave
private
slavery. A
A wealthy
master would
be found
found buried
with several
several of
vate slavery.
wealthy master
would be
buried with
of
his
slaves (usually
(usually two
to four)
four) who
had been
and slain.
slain. At
the
his slaves
two to
who had
been bound
bound and
At the
same time,
time, because
slave labor
become an
factor in
in
same
because slave
labor had
had become
an important
important factor
production,
the
mass
sacrifices
of
slaves/war
prisoners
and
their
burproduction, the mass sacrifices of slaves/war prisoners and their burials, so
so common
common during
during the
Yin Period,
Period, completely
completely disappeared
disappeared durdurials,
the Yin
ing
the
Western
Chou
Period.
ing the Western Chou Period.
The early
early state
state of
of the
the Western
Western Chou
Chou was
too loosely
organized to
to
The
was too
loosely organized
the power
the chuhou
chuhougradugradulast for
for aa long
long time.
time. Within
Within this
this system
system the
power of
of the
last
ally
increased and,
for independence.
ally increased
and, with
with it,
it, aa desire
desire for
independence. This
This situation
situation
was
aggravated by
tribal incursions
incursions from
from the
the northwest
and southeast.
southeast.
was aggravated
by tribal
northwest and

416

T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina
T.

At
At the
the beginning
beginning of
of the
the ninth
ninth century
century B.C.,
B.C., the
the Eastern
Eastern Yi
Vi advanced
advanced
all the
the way
way to
to the
city of
of Ch'eng-Chou.
Ch'eng-Chou. And
And substantial
substantial pressure
the city
pressure was
was
all
exerted by
by the
the nomadic
Tung tribes
tribes in
in the
the northwest
northwest (in
(in Shenhsi).
Shenhsi). AtAtexerted
nomadic Tung
tempts on
on the
the part
part of
of the
the Chou
Chou wang
to sign
sign aa treaty
treaty with
with them
them proprowang to
tempts
voked
voked aa counterreaction
counterreaction from
from the
the chuhou.
chuhou.The
TheChou
Chouwere
werenot
notable
abletoto
resist
the onslaught
onslaught of
of the
the nomadic
nomadic tribes,
tribes, which
which came
came from
from the
the
resist the
depths of
of Middle
Middle Asia.
Asia. They
They began
to retreat
retreat from
from their
their homeland
homeland in
in
depths
began to
the Wei
Wei River
River basin
basin (in
(in Shenhsi).
Shenhsi). The
The last
last king
king of
of Western
Western Chou,
Chou, P'ing
P'ing
the
wang (770-720 B.C.),
B.C.), moved
moved his
his capital
capital east
east into
into Honan.
Honan. During
During this
this
wang
time,
dependent territories
territories attained
attained equality
equality with
with the
the
time, some
some formerly
formerly dependent
new
and smaller
smaller Eastern
Eastern Chou
Chou kingdom
kingdom and
and became
independent
new and
became independent
states. Thus
Thus began
the period
of "Many
"Many Kingdoms,"
Kingdoms," Lie
Lie Kuo.
states.
began the
period of
Kuo.

The
The Ideology
Ideology of
of Chou
Chou
The
passing of
was connected
The passing
of the
the power
power to
to Chou
Chou was
connected with
with important
important
changes
public consciousness
ideological traditions
of
changes in
in the
the public
consciousness and
and the
the ideological
traditions of
22 The
ancient
ancient China.
China.22
The Chou
Chou introduced
introduced the
the notion
notion of
of aa supreme
supreme deity,
deity,
23 In
whom
they called
called T'ien.
In the
the original
original form
form the
the hieroglyph
hieroglyph t'ien
fieri dedewhom they
T'ien.23
picted
man whose
head was
was specially
specially emphasized;
emphasized; it
it was
probawhose head
was probapicted aa big
big man
used to
the chief's
According to
bly
to denote
denote the
chief's ancestors.
ancestors. According
to Chou
Chou myth,
myth,
bly used
Hou Chi,
Chi, the
the mother
mother of
of the
the first
first ancestor
ancestor of
of the
the Chou,
Chou, became
pregHou
became preggiant. Before
Before the
the conquest
conquest of
of
nant by
stepping into
into the
the footprint
footprint of
of aa giant.
nant
by stepping
the Shang
Shang state,
state, there
there appeared
appeared among
among the
Chou aa legend
legend that
their
the
the Chou
that their
kings were,
were, through
through the
the maternal
maternal line,
line, kinsmen
kinsmen of
of the
the Shang
Shang kings.
kings
kings.
After
conquering Shang,
Shang, they
they identified
identified their
their supreme
supreme deity,
deity, T'ien,
T'ien,
After conquering
with the
Shang supreme
supreme deity,
deity, Shang-Ti.
Shang-Ti. But
But such
such aa contamination
contamination
with
the Shang
implied the
the abandonment
abandonment of
of the
of aa gentilic
gentilic or
or clan
deity.
the concept
concept of
clan deity.
implied
The notion
ti could
not be
be separated
separated from
from totemic
and its
its
The
notion ti
could not
totemic heritage,
heritage, and
use
in
China
was
limited
to
the
"clan
body"
of
the
individual
dynasties.
use in China was limited to the "clan body" of the individual dynasties.
t'ien in
in the
the sense
sense of
of "heaven"
"heaven" served
served the
the new
new idea
idea of
of aa
But the
But
the term
term t'ien
supreme
active
principle
in
the
universe,
not
grounded
in
the
archaic
supreme active principle in the universe, not grounded in the archaic
religion.
religion.
The
The historical
historical fate
fate of
of the
the idea
idea of
of T'ien
T'ien was
was predetermined
predetermined at
at the
the
moment
justify their
moment of
of the
the Chou
Chou conquest,
conquest, when
when the
the Chou
Chou tried
tried to
to justify
their
actions
actions by
by asserting
asserting that
that "Heaven"
"Heaven" itself
itself had
had decreed
decreed the
the punishment
punishment
of the
the Shang
Shang ruler
ruler for
for his
his sins.
sins. The
The new
new dynasty
dynasty stated
stated that
that it
it was
was the
the
of
supreme deity
that invested
invested them
them with
with the
the "Heavenly
"Heavenly Command"
Command"
supreme
deity that
{t'ien ming)
ming)to
to rule
rule and
and to
to take
take away
away power
power from
from the
the Shang.
Shang. In
In the
the
(t'ien
same way,
way, it
it was
was thought
thought that
that the
the first
first Shang
Shang ruler
ruler took
took away
away the
the
same
22. This
This section
has been
been written
by V.
V. V.
22.
section has
written by
V. Malyavin.
Malyavin.
believe the
their concept
23. Some
23.
Some scholars
scholars of
of early
early China
China believe
the Chou
Chou received
received their
concept of
of aa susupreme
deity from
from the
Shang. (Editor's
(Editor's note
preme deity
the Shang.
note (PLK).
(PLK).

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

417

Heavenly Command
Command from
from the
the last
last ruler
ruler of
of the
the dynasty
dynasty of
of Hsia,
Hsia, supsupHeavenly
posed
have ruled
ruled before
before Shang.
Shang.
posed to
to have
The new
new interpretation
interpretation of
of state
state power
power had
had important
consequences
The
important consequences
of
justification of
was
of long
long duration.
duration. From
From now
now on,
on, the
the real
real justification
of power
power was
seen in
in the
the individual
individual merits
merits of
of the
the founder
founder of
of the
the dynasty
dynasty and
and his
his
seen
successors. In
the terms
terms of
of Chou
Chou ideology,
ideology, the
the right
right to
to found
found aa dydysuccessors.
In the
nasty was
grounded on
on the
the possession
possession of
of aa certain
certain cosmic
cosmic charisma,
charisma,
nasty
was grounded
teh, another
another notion
notion unknown
unknown in
in the
the Shang
Shang Period.
Period. The
The original
original hierohieroteh,
glyph teh
teh represented
represented the
theidea
idea of
of the
the chief's
chief's magical
magical powers
powers inside
inside the
the
glyph
framework of
of gentilic
gentilic (clan)
(clan) religion.
religion. With
With time,
time, however,
however, the
the term
term
framework
assumed aa more
more moral
moral connotation.
connotation.
assumed
Thus,
Thus, Heaven
Heaven was
was believed
believed by
by the
the Chou
Chou to
to be
be aa deity
deity who
who meted
meted
out punishment
punishment for
for bad
and reward
reward for
for good
good deeds.
deeds. But
But the
the
out
bad deeds
deeds and
answer
to be
answer to
to the
the question,
question, who
who is
is to
be in
in possession
possession of
of the
the Heavenly
Heavenly
Command depended
depended solely
solely on
on men
men themselves.
themselves. The
The Chou
Chou never
never
Command
tired
saying that
tired of
of saying
that the
the favor
favor of
of Heaven
Heaven is
is not
not guaranteed
guaranteed to
to them
them forforever and
and that
it is
is not
easy to
to deserve
deserve it.
it. The
The accent
accent on
on the
the moral
moral and
and
ever
that it
not easy
absolutely impartial
impartial will
of Heaven
Heaven was
was responsible
responsible for
for the
the imporimporabsolutely
will of
tance of
of the
category "people"
"people" (min)
{win) in
in Chou
Chou ideology.
ideology. In
In the
the Chou
Chou
tance
the category
texts,
texts, the
the "people"
"people" are
are declared
declared to
to be
be the
the bearers
bearers of
of the
the Will
Will of
of
Heaven, and
and care
care for
for the
the "people"
"people" is
is placed
even above
above care
care for
for the
the
Heaven,
placed even
spirits. The
The nonclan
nonclan and
and nontribal
character of
of Heaven
Heaven allowed
allowed the
the
spirits.
non tribal character
Chou
incorporate the
the tribal
tribal gods
into their
their religious-political
Chou to
to incorporate
gods into
religious-political syssystem as
as local
local deities,
deities, or
or demons,
demons, mostly
mostly responsible
for the
the fertility
fertility of
of
tem
responsible for
the soil
soil (the
(the she).
she).
the
The innovations
innovations of
of the
the Chou
Chou Period
marked the
the beginning
beginning of
of aa new
new
The
Period marked
stage
stage in
in the
the interpretation
interpretation of
of Universe
Universe and
and Man.
Man. The
The conception
conception of
of aa
Holy
way gradually
Holy Power
Power in
in an
an individual
individual manifestation
manifestation gave
gave way
gradually to
to the
the
conception
conception of
of an
an absolute
absolute universal
universal reality
reality as
as the
the source
source of
of universal
universal
motion and
and of
of the
the immutable
immutable Fate
Fate of
of all
all that
exists. Primitive
Primitive magic,
motion
that exists.
magic,
based
to an
based on
on emotional
emotional experience,
experience, ceded
ceded its
its place
place to
an emotional
emotional perperception
ception of
of cosmic
cosmic links;
links; to
to the
the ideology
ideology of
of genealogical
genealogical succession,
succession,
moral arguments
were added.
added. The
power eclipsed
moral
arguments were
The cosmic
cosmic power
eclipsed the
the ancient
ancient
deities,
but unlike
of
deities, but
unlike Western
Western monotheism,
monotheism, it
it did
did not
not take
take over
over any
any of
their
became an
their anthropomorphic
anthropomorphic features.
features. Heaven
Heaven became
an absolute
absolute anonyanonymous and
and impersonal
impersonal Judge,
is abstracted
abstracted from
from the
the
mous
Judge, whose
whose judgment
judgment is
affairs
affairs of
of humanity.
humanity. The
The relation
relation between
between Heaven
Heaven and
and the
the archaic
archaic dedeities
was, as
matter of
principle, not
the supremities was,
as aa matter
of principle,
not determined.
determined. Thus,
Thus, the
supremacy of
of Heaven
Heaven allowed
allowed for
for the
the existence
existence both
both of
of elements
elements of
of archaic
archaic
acy
religion (such
(such as
as the
the cult
cult of
of the
the ancestors
ancestors and
and the
the cult
cult of
of natural
religion
natural eleelements) and
and also
also of
of other
other cults:
cults: local,
local, familial,
familial, individual.
individual. The
The complex
complex
ments)
hierarchy of
of cults
cults held
held together
together by
by the
the concept
concept of
of Heaven
Heaven as
as the
the focus
focus
hierarchy
of the
the hierarchic
hierarchic order
became traditional
traditional for
for the
the Chinese
Chinese religious
religious
of
order became
system.
system.

418

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

The
power led
to aa reinThe concept
concept of
of the
the cosmos
cosmos as
as aa real
real acting
acting power
led to
reinterpretation
of the
the essence
essence of
of ritual
ritual (li).
(li). In
In Western
Chou ritual
ritual still
terpretation of
Western Chou
still
all, aa sacrificial
sacrificial ritual,
ritual, aa way
preserved its
its archaic
archaic sense;
sense; it
it was,
was, first
first of
of all,
way
preserved
to communicate
communicate with
ancestors, and
and its
its sphere
sphere was
limited to
to the
the
was limited
to
with the
the ancestors,
ruler's clan.
clan. But
already in
that period
the notion
of ritual
was ratioruler's
But already
in that
period the
notion of
ritual was
rationalized in
in two
two ways:
on the
the one
one hand,
hand, it
was dramatized,
dramatized, and,
and, on
on the
the
nalized
ways: on
it was
other,
intimacy was
accentuated. The
The Chou,
however, interpreted
interpreted
other, its
its intimacy
was accentuated.
Chou, however,
communion with
with the
deity as
as aa mutual
distancing. Their
Their understandunderstandcommunion
the deity
mutual distancing.
ing of
can be
seen from
from the
classical sentence
sentence from
from the
treatise
ing
of ritual
ritual can
be seen
the classical
the treatise
"Notes on
on Ritual"
Ritual" ("Li
("Li Chi"):
Chi"): "To
"To honor
the deities
deities and
and to
to keep
honor the
keep at
at aa
"Notes
distance
from them."
them." This
This resulted
in the
the transformation
transformation of
of ritual
ritual
resulted in
distance from
into an
an ethical
ethical norm,
of moral
moral self-evaluation,
self-evaluation, and
and was
norm, aa precondition
precondition of
was
into
one of
of the
the indications
indications of
of the
the growing
growing secularization
secularization of
of the
Chou culone
the Chou
culture. The
The unity
of form
form and
and content
content in
in Chou
Chou ritual
ritual was
was due
due to
to the
the
unity of
ture.
accentuation
of the
the necessity
necessity for
for restraint
and self-absorption.
self-absorption. The
The
restraint and
accentuation of
Chou themselves
themselves felt
felt that
that this
this sharply
sharply distinguished
distinguished their
their culture
culture
Chou
from the
the ecstatic
ecstatic cults
cults of
of the
the Shang.
Shang.
from
The
rationalization of
of the
the categories
values of
The rationalization
categories and
and values
of archaic
archaic religion
religion
was due
due to
to two
two main
main factors.
factors. One
One of
of them
them was
the paramount
paramount imwas the
imwas
portance
of divination
divination in
in China,
creation of
of aa
portance of
China, which
which hindered
hindered the
the creation
prophetic religion
and made
made it
it impossible
impossible for
for an
an individualized
individualized revereveprophetic
religion and
lational god
god to
to appear.
appear.2424 The
The transformation
transformation of
of archaic
archaic divination
divination
lational
into aa system
system of
of ethico-cosmic
ethico-cosmic ideas
ideas can
can be
seen from
from the
the fate
fate of
of the
the
be seen
into
Ching (often
(often called
called The
TheBook
BookofofChanges).
Changes).
ancient Chou
Chou mantic
mantic book
ancient
book /I Ching
In the
the final
final analysis
analysis "divination"
"divination" by
by /I Ching
Chingwas
wasfelt
felt as
ascognition
cognition of
of the
the
In
universal
connectedness of
of things
things and
and aa participation
universal
universal connectedness
participation in
in the
the universal
movement.
knowing what
to do.
do.
movement. In
In practice,
practice, it
it meant
meant knowing
what not
not to
The second
chiefs of
and, later,
The
second factor
factor was
was that,
that, first,
first, the
the chiefs
of the
the clans
clans and,
later,
the
secular rulers
all religious
life. Governing
Governing
the secular
rulers were
were the
the centers
centers of
of all
religious life.
the
state was
ritual; administrative
administrative documents
documents were
divine
the state
was aa religious
religious ritual;
were divine
scriptures. Already
Already in
in the
Shang state
state there
existed written
memorials
scriptures.
the Shang
there existed
written memorials
of the
of Shang
Shang kings.
These memorials
designated by
the
of
the deeds
deeds of
kings. These
memorials were
were designated
by the
hieroglyph t'ien,
t'ien, which
which later
later isisan
an image
imageof
of tied-together
tied-together planks
planks on
on aa
hieroglyph
small table,
table, indicating
indicating that
that they
they were
especially revered.
Such notes
notes
were especially
revered. Such
small
on
earlier
royal
acts,
which
functioned
as
historical
precedents,
were
on earlier royal acts, which functioned as historical precedents, were
composed
also
at
the
Chou
court
and
later
also
in
the
capitals
of
the
composed also at the Chou court and later also in the capitals of the
independent
princes.
Such
notes,
indicating
the
growing
seculariindependent princes. Such notes, indicating the growing secularization of
of writing,
writing, were
entered in
in the
the canonic
canonic book
book Shu
Shu Ching;
Ching; but
but
were entered
zation
the
entire,
abundant
corpus
of
archaic
myths
was
not
included
the entire, abundant corpus of archaic myths was not included in
in
the
Chou memorials.
memorials. The
canonic tradition
myths only
only
the Chou
The canonic
tradition relates
relates these
these myths
24. Compare
somewhat analogous
analogous opposition
Babylonian cults
cults with
24.
Compare the
the somewhat
opposition between
between the
the Babylonian
with
their
their "Omina"
"Omina" (which,
(which, however,
however, did
did not
not exclude
exclude the
the existence
existence of
of individual
individual deities)
deities) and
and
the prophetic
prophetic religion
religion of
(IMD).
the
of Israel.
Israel. Editor's
Editor's note
note (IMD).

The
The First
First States
States in
in China
China

419

in
recognition by
by
in part
part and,
and, moreover,
moreover, in
in aa form
form distorted
distorted beyond
beyond recognition
pseudo
historical and
pseudohistorical
and didactic
didactic treatment.
treatment. The
The Chou
Chou activities
activities revived
revived
the
who now
scholthe mythical
mythical characters,
characters, who
now appear
appear as
as kings,
kings, dignitaries,
dignitaries, scholars,
ars, magicians
magicians from
from ancient
ancient times,
times, and
and so
so on.
on. This
This was
was achieved
achieved
thanks
continuity between
the gentilic
gentilic (genealogical)
(genealogical) body
and
thanks to
to the
the continuity
between the
body and
the state
state in
in ancient
ancient China.
China. Thus
Thus the
the Chou
Chou epoch
epoch was
was the
the time
time of
of the
the
the
discovery of
of the
the "mirror
"mirror of
of history,"
history," which
which was
was aa mirror
mirror of
of double
double
discovery
depth: the
metaphysical depth
depth of
of the
in the
idea
depth:
the metaphysical
the universe
universe present
present in
the idea
of Heaven
Heaven and
and the
the corresponding
corresponding depth
depth of
of humanity's
humanity's selfselfof
consciousness.
consciousness.
Beginning
conseBeginning with
with the
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.
B.C. the
the Chou
Chou state
state and,
and, consequently, also
also the
the Chou
Chou ideology
ideology went
went through
through aa deepening
deepening crisis.
quently,
crisis.
In
was aa crisis
In the
the ideological
ideological sense,
sense, it
it was
crisis of
of confidence
confidence in
in the
the idea
idea of
of
Heaven as
as the
the supreme
supreme ethical
ethical power.
There are
are aa few
few indications
indications of
of
Heaven
power. There
this in
Shih Ching.
Ching.
this
in the
the canonic
canonic Shih
The
by opopThe apologists
apologists for
for the
the Chou
Chou tradition
tradition tried
tried to
to find
find an
an answer
answer by
posing
through etiquette
etiquette and
and moral
moral influence,
influence, the
the so-called
so-called Way
posing rule
rule through
Way
of
the Wang
rule by
Way of
of the
Wang (wang
(wang tao),
tad), and
and rule
by power,
power, the
the so-called
so-called Way
of the
the
Hegemon
tao).The
The Chou
Chou court
court tried
tried to
to save
save itself
itself by
by promoting
promoting
Hegemon (pa
{pa tao).
the wang
wang tao,
tao, even
even if
if it
from actual
actual
the
it involved
involved aa voluntary
voluntary retirement
retirement from
politics.
politics.
The opposition
of wang
The
opposition of
wang tao
taoand
andpa
patao
taohad
hadimportant
importantconsequences
consequences
for
predetermined the
for Chinese
Chinese history.
history. It
It predetermined
the development
development in
in China
China of
of aa
certain
certain duality
duality in
in political
political power,
power, where
where politics
politics balanced
balanced between
between ritritualization
practical side
ualization of
of state
state life
life and
and overattention
overattention to
to the
the purely
purely practical
side of
of
administration.
power could
of
administration. But
But the
the concept
concept of
of power
could not
not defer
defer the
the decay
decay of
the
the Chou
Chou idea
idea of
of ritual,
ritual, which
which was
was the
the main
main feature
feature of
of public
public life
life and
and
of the
the culture
culture of
of the
the Chou
Chou state.
state.
of

20
20
China in
the First
First Half
China
in the
Half
of
the First
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
B.C.
of the
T.
T. V. STEPUGINA
STEPUGINA

Political History
History
Political
Ancient society
society in
in the
the western
western part
of the
the Old
Old World
World reached
reached its
its develdevelAncient
part of
opmental
opmental peak
peak in
in the
the first
first half
half of
of the
the first
first half
half of
of the
the first
first millenmillennium B.C.
nium
B.C. Meanwhile
Meanwhile at
at the
the easternmost
easternmost end
end of
of the
the Old
Old World,
World, society
society
was
still undergoing
processes that
were typical
typical of
of Western
Western Asia
Asia in
in the
the
undergoing processes
that were
was still
second
millennium
B.C.
but
which
had
become
outdated
there
by
the
second millennium B.C. but which had become outdated there by the
first millennium
millennium B.C.
first
B.C.
Western Chou
Chou was
was aa loosely
loosely knit,
knit, early
early state
state formation
formation that,
that, to
to
Western
some degree,
degree, is
is reminiscent
reminiscent of
of the
the first
first big
big states
states in
in the
the Near
Near East.
East.
some
Like many
of them,
them, Western
Western Chou
Chou was
was also
also destroyed
destroyed by
by an
an invainvaLike
many of
sion of
of new
new tribes.
Chou disintegrated
disintegrated in
in the
first quarter"
quarter of
of
tribes. Western
Western Chou
the first
sion
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.
under the
the pressure
of western
western nomads
nomads from
from
the
B.C. under
pressure of
Shenhsi. The
The Chou
Chou people
people abandoned
abandoned their
their former
former capital,
capital, the
the city
city
Shenhsi.
of Hao
Hao near
near modern
modern Hsian
Hsian in
in the
the Wei
Wei River
River basin,
and consolidated
consolidated
of
basin, and
their position
position to
to the
the east,
east, in
in the
the district
district of
of the
the modern
modern city
city of
of Loyang.
Loyang.
their
Here, P'ing
P'ing wang
wang formed
formed aa small
small kingdom
kingdom with
with its
its capital
capital in
in the
the city
city of
of
Here,
Luoyi. This
This transfer
transfer (in
(in 770
770 B.C.)
B.C.) traditionally
traditionally marks
stage in
in
Luoyi.
marks aa new
new stage
Chinese history,
of Eastern
Eastern Chou.
It is
is divided
divided into
into two
two subsubthat of
Chou. It
Chinese
history, that
periods: Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo ("Many
("Many Kingdoms"
Kingdoms" or
or "Series
"Series of
of Kingdoms")
and
periods:
Kingdoms") and
Chan Kuo
Kuo ("Warring
("Warring Kingdoms"
Kingdoms" or
or "Battles
"Battles of
of Kingdoms").
Kingdoms"). The
The Lie
Lie
Chan
Kuo
Period is
is dated
dated to
to approximately
approximately the
the eighth
eighth to
to sixth
sixth centuries
centuries and
and
Kuo Period
is sometimes
sometimes called
called Ch'un
Ch'un Ch'in
Ch'in ("Springs
("Springs and
and Autumns,"
Autumns," so
so named
named
is
after aa chronicle
chronicle of
of this
The Chan
Chan Kuo
Kuo Period
Period is
is dated
dated to
to the
the
after
this period).
period). The
second half
half of
of the
the fifth
fifth to
to the
the end
end of
of the
third centuries
centuries and
and is
is somesomesecond
the third
times called
called the
the Preimperial
Preimperial Period.
Period.
times
Many
Many separate
separate and
and independent
independent kingdoms
kingdoms (150-200)
(150200) existed
existed in
in
China at
at the
the beginning
of the
the Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period.
Period. These
These tiny
tiny city-states,
city-states,
China
beginning of
(kuo), were
were dispersed
dispersed throughout
throughout the
the basin
basin ofthe
of the
or community
states (kuo),
or
community states
middle and
and lower
lower courses
courses of
of the
the Huang-Ho
Huang-Ho River
River and
and the
the Great
Great ChiChimiddle
nese Plain.
Plain. A
A fierce
fierce struggle
struggle for
for supremacy
supremacy flared
flared up
up between
between them,
them,
nese
following aa relatively
peaceful but
but short-lived
short-lived period
period of
of coexistence.
coexistence.
following
relatively peaceful
These internecine
internecine wars
wars led
led to
to the
the absorption
absorption of
of small
small kingdoms
kingdoms by
These
by
larger ones,
ones, and
and toward
toward the
the end
end of
of the
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.
B.C. (more
(more
larger

China
the First
China in
in the
the First
First Half
Half of
of the
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
B.C.

421
421

precisely, around
year covered
precisely,
around 722
722 B.C.,
B.C., the
the first
first year
covered by
by the
the Ch'un
ClriunCh'in
Ch'in
chronicle), about
about aa dozen
dozen of
of the
the most
kingdoms emerged,
emerged,
chronicle),
mC?st important
important kingdoms
including
including Eastern
Eastern Chou.
Chou. The
The historical
historical tradition
tradition of
of Chou
Chou considered
considered
(chung kuo)
kuo)ofofthe
theinhabited
inhabitedworld
world
them to
to be
be the
the Central
Central Kingdoms
Kingdoms (chung
them
(t'ien hsia,
hsia, the
the "Universe
"Universe under
under Heaven,"
Heaven," usually
usually translated
translated in
in the
the
(t'ien
West as
as "Celestial
"Celestial Empire").
Empire"). Chung
Chung Kuo
Kuo still
still remains
the official
official name
name
West
remains the
of China.
China.1l
of
Among
Among the
the Central
Central Kingdoms,
Kingdoms, those
those of
of Lu,
Lu, Wei,2
Wei,2 Sung,
Sung, and
and Cheng
Cheng
were
descendants of
them were
were
were inhabited
inhabited by
by descendants
of the
the Yin
Yin people.
people. All
All of
of them
under
the nominal
supremacy of
of the
wang of
of Chou.
Chou. ItIt was
was aa
under the
nominal religious
religious supremacy
the wang
dual form
form of
of government,
government, whose
whose power,
power, though
though divided,
divided, nevertheless
nevertheless
dual
allowed
recognition of
allowed for
for the
the recognition
of one
one spiritual
spiritual leader.
leader. It
It constituted
constituted the
the
legacy and
and further
development of
of the
the early
early state
state order
order of
of Western
Western
legacy
further development
Chou.
Chou. This
This dual
dual system
system developed
developed in
in each
each of
of the
the numerous
numerous small
small
states of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho River
River basin.
basin. They
They were
were all
all essentially
essentially indepenindepenstates
dent but
but formally
wang of
of Chou
Chou as
as their
their military
military and
and
dent
formally recognized
recognized the
the wang
religious
religious leader.
leader. Eastern
Eastern Chou,
Chou, which
which survived
survived as
as aa relatively
relatively small
small
state in
in the
the district
district of
of the
the modern
modern city
city of
of Loyang,
Loyang, continued
continued to
to be
be rerestate
garded
garded as
as the
the cultic
cultic center
center of
of the
the Celestial
Celestial Empire.
Empire. Its
Its rulers
rulers were
were
Heaven (t'ien
called
called Sons
Sons of
of Heaven
{t'ien tzu).
tzu).The
The supreme
supreme royal
royal title
title wang
wangwas
was
held only
the kings
kings of
of the
the Chou
Chou dynasty.
dynasty. The
The kings
of all
the other
other
held
only by
by the
kings of
all the
realms
recognized as
realms of
of the
the Chou
Chou world
world were
were recognized
as "subordinate
"subordinate rulers"
rulers"
(chuhou),and
and each
eachofthem
of them held
heldone
oneof
ofthe
thehierarchical
hierarchical titles
titlesgranted
granted
(chuhou),
by
the wang
wang to
to de
de facto
po, tzu,
tzu, nan.
nan.
by the
facto independent
independent rulers:
rulers: hung,
kung, hou,
hou, po,
History, however,
however, shows
shows that
that the
the character
character of
of this
this hierarchy
hierarchy was
History,
was
formal, and
and that
that such
such aa ranking
of the
the rulers
rulers of
of the
the Chou
Chou kingdoms
kingdoms
ranking of
formal,
was practically
practically irrelevant
irrelevant as
as early
early as
as the
the first
first half
half of
of the
the seventh
seventh cencenwas
tury B.C.
tury
B.C.
After
After the
the transfer
transfer of
of the
the Chou
Chou capital
capital to
to Luoyi,
Luoyi, internecine
internecine wars
wars
and
the wang
wang weakened
weakened Chou
Chou to
to
and dissension
dissension within
within the
the ruling
ruling house
house of
of the
such an
an extent
extent that
that other,
other, stronger
stronger states
states of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho basin
basin
such
Celestial Empire,
Empire, under
under their
placed
placed it,
it, as
as the
the cultic
cultic center
center of
of the
the Celestial
their own
own
priestly powers,
powers, which
which had
protection.
protection. The
The military
military and
and the
the priestly
had earlier
earlier
seemed
seemed inseparable,
inseparable, came
came to
to be
be regarded
regarded as
as independent
independent from
from one
one
another,
another, and
and the
the militarily
militarily stronger
stronger ruler
ruler now
now acquired
acquired aa new
new and
and imimportant function:
function: the
military protection
protection of
of the
wang of
of Chou,
Chou, the
the susuportant
the military
the wang
preme
religious leader
leader of
of the
the Celestial
Celestial Empire,
Empire, the
Son of
of Heaven.
Heaven.
preme religious
the Son
The concept
concept of
of the
"universal" character
character of
of the
the royal
royal state
state power
of
The
the "universal"
power of
1.
1. The
The concept
concept of
of chung
chungkuo
kuowas
waslater
laterinterpreted
interpretedasas"the
"theKingdom
Kingdom[in
[inthe
thesingular]
singular]
central
central in
in the
the Universe
Universe under
under Heaven"
Heaven" and
and began
began to
to be
be contrasted
contrasted with
with the
the rest
rest of
of the
the
world,
world, which
which was
was conceived
conceived as
as that
that of
of "barbarians."
"barbarians."
2. This
hi2.
This kingdom
kingdom must
must be
be distinguished
distinguished from
from another,
another, designated
designated by
by aa different
different hieroglyphic
the same
way, which
eroglyphic sign
sign but
but read
read the
same way,
which arose
arose in
in Shanhsi
Shanhsi after
after the
the disintegration
disintegration
of
of the
the Ch'in
Ch'in kingdom.
kingdom.

422
422

T.
T. V.
V. Stepugina
Stepugina

the
the wangs
wangs of
of Chou
Chou developed
developed precisely
precisely during
during this
this period.
period. The
The fact
fact
that the
the competing
competing rulers
rulers recognized
recognized the
the formal
formal supremacy
supremacy of
of the
the
that
wang of
of Chou
Chou may
may be
be explained
explained by
by their
their wish
wish to
to gain
gain the
the prestigious
prestigious
wang
function of
of protecting
him, and
and thus
thus to
to place
themselves above
above the
the
protecting him,
place themselves
function
other
other rulers
rulers who
who were
were practically
practically equal
equal to
to them.
them. Any
Any of
of these
these rulrulers, had
had he
he wished,
wished, might
might have
have put
put an
an end
end to
to the
the fragile
fragile supremacy
supremacy
ers,
of Chou.
Chou.
of
The idea
idea of
of the
the divine
divine origin
origin of
of the
the Chou
Chou dynasty
dynasty was
was supposed
supposed to
to
The
tic leadership
lay
wangsof
ofChou.
Chou.
lay the
the foundation
foundation for
for aa stable
stable cuI
cultic
leadership of
of the
the wangs
A story
story was
was circulated
circulated about
about the
the Hsia
Hsia and
and Yin
Yin dynasties,
dynasties, which
which prepreA
ceded the
the Chou
Chou dynasty,
dynasty, as
as "rejected
"rejected by
by Heaven."
Heaven." Although
Although on
on the
the
ceded
Yin oracle
oracle bones
bones the
the term
term wang
wangactually
actually refers
refers to
to the
the ruler
ruler of
of Shang,
Shang, itit
Yin
is revealing
revealing that
that the
the traditional
traditional dynastic
dynastic list
list of
of ancient
ancient kings
kings (in
(in the
the
is
version of
of the
the historian
historian Ssu-ma
Ssu-ma Ch'ien,
Ch'ien, second
second to
to first
first centuries
centuries B.C.)
version
B.C.)
wang only
only for
for the
the rulers
rulers of
of the
the Chou
Chou dynasty.
dynasty.
recognizes the
the title
title of
of wang
recognizes
We
We know
know much
much more
more about
about the
the kingdoms
kingdoms of
of the
the Chou
Chou world
world in
in the
the
Huang Ho
Ho basin
basin than
than about
about other
other ancient
ancient Chinese
Chinese states
states of
of that
that time
time
Huang
because
because of
of the
the specificity
specificity of
of the
the sources
sources describing
describing this
this period.
period. The
The
most
Ch'un
most important
important of
of them
them is
is the
the chronicle
chronicle of
of the
the Lu
Lu kingdom,
kingdom, CKun
Ch'in,
Ch'in, and
and the
the commentary
commentary on
on it,
it, Tso
TsoChuan.
Chuan.The
Thekings
kingsofofLuLu(in(inShanShantung) claimed
claimed descent
descent from
from the
the semilegendary
semilegendary Chou-Kung,
Chou-Kung, uncle
uncle
tung)
of
his regent.
regent. Tradition
of Ch'eng,
Ch'eng, the
the wang
wang of
of Chou,
Chou, and
and his
Tradition ascribed
ascribed to
to
Chou-Kung the
the "merit"
"merit" of
of the
the final
final subjugation
subjugation of
of the
the Shangs
Shangs and
and the
the
Chou-Kung
establishment of
of the
the system
system of
of land
land distribution
distribution to
officials as
as the
the
establishment
to high
high officials
principle
principle of
of the
the state
state order
order of
of Chou.
Chou. His
His descendants
descendants declared
declared themthemselves the
the protectors
of the
the cultic
cultic traditions
traditions of
of Chou.
Chou.
protectors of
selves
As
As aa rule,
rule, the
the Ch'un
CKun Ch'in
Ch'inusually
usuallymade
madereference
referencetotothose
thosekingdoms
kingdoms
that were
were not
not part
of the
the Chou
Chou world
world only
only insofar
insofar as
as they
they entered
entered into
into
that
part of
contact with
the kingdoms
kingdoms included
included in
in that
that world.
But even
even this
this sparse
sparse
world. But
contact
with the
information testifies
testifies to
to aa progressive
consolidation (at
(at least
least after
after the
the
information
progressive consolidation
second half
half of
of the
the seventh
seventh century)
century) of
of states
states situated
situated outside
outside the
the CenCen-second
tral Kingdoms.
An important
important characteristic
characteristic in
in the
the political
political history
history of
of
tral
Kingdoms. An
the
Kuo Period
the Lie
Lie Kuo
Period was
was the
the political
political and,
and, apparently,
apparently, also
also the
the ethnic
ethnic
contrast between
southern kingdoms
of the
the middle
middle and
and lower
lower
kingdoms of
contrast
between the
the southern
courses
courses of
of the
the Yangtze
Yangtze River
River (which
(which were
were numerous
numerous in
in the
the seventh
seventh
century)
century) and
and the
the northern
northern states
states of
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho River
River basin.
basin.
The
first southern
The first
southern and
and ethnically
ethnically non-Han
non-Han kingdom
kingdom to
to gain
gain imimportance was
was Ch'u
Ch'u (along
(along the
the middle
middle course
course of
of the
the Yangtze);
it was
portance
Yangtze); it
was
followed by
the maritime
maritime kingdoms
kingdoms of
of Wu
(in the
the Yangtze
Delta)
Wu (in
Yangtze Delta)
followed
by the
and Yue
Yue (located
(located south
south of
of the
the Wu
kingdom in
in the
the coastal
coastal region
region of
and
Wu kingdom
of
modern Chechiang).
Chechiang). They
They continued
continued very
very ancient
ancient Late
Late Neolithic
and
modern
Neolithic and
Early Bronze
Bronze Age
Age traditions
traditions that
that took
took shape
shape among
among the
the tribes
tribes and
and
Early
peoples of
of Southeast
Southeast Asia-the
Asiathe distant
distant ancestors
ancestors of
of the
the Vietnamese,
Vietnamese,
peoples
the Chuang,
Chuang, the
the Miao,
Miao, the
the Tao,
the Thai,
Thai, and
and other
other peoples
peoples that
that tothe
Tao, the
to-

China in the First Half

Half of the First Millennium B.C.
B.C.

423

day inhabit
inhabit this
this vast
vast region.
region. Later,
Later, Yue
Yue became
became the
the general
general desigdesigday
nation
nation of
of the
the maritime
maritime tribes,
tribes, regardless
regardless of
of language,
language, living
living in
in the
the
region
to Vietnam.
region stretching
stretching from
from Chechiang
Chechiang to
Vietnam.
Ancient
chiaochih
chihororman
manforfor
Ancient Chinese
Chinese sources
sources use
use the
the general
general term
term chiao
the
the inhabitants
inhabitants of
of the
the Yangtze
Yangtze basin.
basin. What
What particular
particular ethnic
ethnic groups
groups
interacted
interacted here
here during
during this
this period
period is
is still
still unknown,
unknown, but
but there
there is
is no
no
doubt
doubt that
that they
they were
were alien
alien to
to the
the Chou
Chou world.
world. The
The chiao
chiao chih
chihmay
may
have
have included
included speakers
speakers of
of Proto-Thai,
Proto-Thai, Sino-Tibetan,
Sino-Tibetan, languages
languages of
of
the
the Austroasiatic
Austroasiatic linguistic
linguistic phylum,
phylum, or
or even
even Proto-Austronesian
Proto-Austronesian lanlanguages. However,
However, the
the comparative
comparative and
and historical
historical linguistic
linguistic research
research
guages.
of
of Southeast
Southeast Asia
Asia and
and Oceania
Oceania is
is still
still in
in its
its initial
initial stages,
stages, and
and at
at
present,
present, we
we can
can deal
deal only
only with
with moremore- or
or less-probable
less-probable hypotheses.
hypotheses.
Ch'u,
Ch'u, the
the most
most ancient
ancient state
state in
in South
South China,
China, dating
dating to
to at
at least
least as
as
early as
as the
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.,
B.C., gradually
gradually aligned
aligned itself
itself with
with other,
other, apapearly
parently
parently Proto-Thai-speaking,
Proto-Thai-speaking, kingdoms.
kingdoms. Wu
Wu and
and Yue
Yue were
were probably
probably
founded by
by related
related tribes;
tribes; we
we know
know that
that the
the people
people of
of both
both tribes
tribes
founded
"painted
"painted their
their bodies
bodies and
and cut
cut their
their hair"
hair" (Ssu-ma
(Ssu-ma Ch'ien).
Ch'ien).
Archaeological
Archaeological materials
materials and
and written
written sources
sources testify.
testify to
to aa distinct
distinct
and
and original
original civilization
civilization in
in Southeast
Southeast Asia
Asia and
and in
in modern
modern South
South
China.
rice, artificial
artificial
China. Cultural
Cultural achievements,
achievements, such
such as
as the
the cultivation
cultivation of
of rice,
irrigation,
irrigation, shipbuilding,
shipbuilding, the
the art
art of
of making
making lacquered
lacquered ware,
ware, and
and others
others
were
northern China.
were adopted
adopted from
from the
the south
south by
by the
the natives
natives of
of northern
China. ArArHo River
chaeological
chaeological data
data show
show that
that the
the Huang
Huang Ho
River basin
basin regions
regions had
had
contacts
contacts with
with South
South China
China and
and Southeast
Southeast Asia
Asia since
since very
very ancient
ancient
times.
times. The
The south
south was
was especially
especially important
important to
to North
North China
China because
because it
it
had
had been,
been, from
from very
very early
early times,
times, aa source
source of
of tin,
tin, the
the metal
metal necessary
necessary
for making
making bronze.
bronze.
for
Under
Under the
the conditions
conditions of
of constant
constant wars
wars between
between the
the kingdoms
kingdoms and
and
pressure
pressure from
from the
the surrounding
surrounding tribes,
tribes, individual
individual states
states of
of the
the north
north
and south
south formed
formed mutual
mutual foreign
foreign policy
policy alliances
alliances and
and leagues.
leagues. The
The
and
military power
power of
of aa state
state was
was measured
measured by
by the
the number
number of
of its
its battle
battle
military
wan ch'eng
ch'engkuo,
statewith
with10,000
10,000four-horse
four-horse
chariots. Thus
Thus the
the term
term wan
chariots.
kuo, "a"astate
battle chariots,"
chariots," expressed
expressed the
the idea
idea of
of "the
"the strongest
strongest state."
state." The
The more
more
battle
powerful kingdoms
kingdoms gradually
gradually annexed
annexed vast
vast territories
subduing
powerful
territories by
by subduing
their weaker
weaker neighbors.
neighbors. The
The Chou
Chou kingdom
kingdom constantly
constantly lost
lost territory
territory
their
in this
this process.
process.
in
Some kingdoms
kingdoms of
of the
the Huang
Ho and
and Yangtze
Yangtze basins,
basins, such
such as
as Ch'i,
Ch'i,
Some
Huang Ho
Chin,
be rereChin, and
and Ch'u,
Ch'u, expanded
expanded so
so much
much that
that they
they no
no longer
longer can
can be
cities; rather,
rather, they
they embraced
embraced whole
whole
garded as
as city-states
city-states or
or groups
groups of
of cities;
garded
countries. The
The rulers
rulers of
of the
the state
state that,
that, by
by the
the standards
standards of
of that
that time,
time,
countries.
was the
the most
most powerful
powerful claimed
claimed personal
personal supremacy
supremacy over
over all
all the
the Chung
Chung
was
Kuo and
and over
over the
the entire
entire Celestial
Celestial Empire.
Empire. They
They proclaimed
proclaimed themthemKuo
selves "leaders"
"leaders" (pa)
(pa) and
and tried
tried to
to secure
secure the
the confirmation
confirmation of
of their
their new
new
selves
wangs of
of Chou.
Chou. In
In earlier
earlier times,
times, the
the idea
idea of
of "Heavenly
"Heavenly
title from
from the
the wangs
title

424

T.
T. V.
V. Stepugina
Stepugina

Command'
Command' (t'ien
(fien ming)3
mingY was
was developed
developed in
in order
order to
to justify
justify the
the power
power of
of
the wang
wang of
of Chou
Chou over
over the
the conquered
conquered Yin
Yin or
or Shang.
Shang. Later,
Later, itit granted
granted
the
the wang
wang of
of Chou,
Chou, in
in his
his capacity
capacity as
as the
the Son
Son of
of Heaven,
Heaven, ceremonial
ceremonial
the
kingship over
over the
the entire
entire world.
world. The
The first
first leaders
leaders formally
formally legalized
legalized
kingship
their power
power by
by nominally
nominally recognizing
recognizing the
the supremacy
supremacy of
of the
the Chou
Chou
their
king, because
because it
it was
was believed
believed that
that it
it was
was he
he who
who embodied
embodied the
the magical
magical
king,
power of
of possessing
the Heavenly
Heavenly Command,
Command, despite
despite his
his meager
meager terterpower
possessing the
ritory and
and army.
army. Real
Real power,
power, however,
however, remained
remained fully
fully in
in the
the hands
hands of
of
ritory
the leaders,
leaders, who
who succeeded
succeeded one
one another.
another.
the
The
The first
first leader
leader to
to be
be proclaimed
proclaimed was
was the
the ruler
ruler of
of Ch'i
Ch'i (in
(in ShanShantung)
betung) in
in 679
679 B.C.
B.C. This
This was
was one
one of
of the
the ten
ten leading
leading kingdoms
kingdoms in
in the
the beginning of
of the
the Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period.
Period. Chin
Chin (in
(in the
the Fen
Fen River
River basin,
basin, Shanhsi)
Shanhsi)
ginning
B.C. Although
Although this
this kingdom
kingdom was
was not
not part
part
became aa "leadership"
"leadership" in
in 635
635 B.C.
became
of the
the Central
Central Kingdoms
Kingdoms at
at that
that time,
it did
did have
have close
close relations
relations with
with
of
time, it
them. From
From the
the very
very beginning
beginning it
it assumed
assumed the
the protection
protection of
of the
the throne
throne
them.
wangsof
ofChou
Chouand,
and,like
likeCh'i,
Ch'i,became
becamehead
headof
ofaamilitary
militaryalliance
alliance
of the
the wangs
of
of kingdoms,
kingdoms, in
in opposition
opposition to
to the
the Ch'ucoalition
Ch'u coalition of
of southern
southern states.
states.
of
Eventually, however,
however, even
even states
states considered
considered alien
alien to
to the
the Chou
Chou world
world
Eventually,
began to
to claim
claim leadership
leadership status.
status. The
The southern
southern kingdom
kingdom of
of Ch'u,
Ch'u,
began
strongest among
among these
these states,
states, became
leadership at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the
strongest
became aa leadership
seventh and
and beginning
beginning of
of the
the sixth
sixth century.
century.
seventh
Traditional historiography
historiography segregates
segregates the
the time
time of
of the
the supremacy
supremacy of
of
Traditional
the
the leaders
leaders into
into aa special
special subperiod,
subperiod, Wu
Wu pa,
pa, "Five
"Five Leaders."
Leaders." Apart
Apart
from
from the
the three
three kingdoms
kingdoms mentioned
mentioned above
above (Ch'i,
(Ch'i, Chin,
Chin, and
and Ch'u),
Ch'u),
which
hiswhich were
were the
the most
most powerful
powerful during
during the
the Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period,
Period, some
some historical
torical accounts
accounts also
also include
include other
other kingdoms
kingdoms among
among the
the competing
competing
leaders.
leaders.
The
played such
The kingdoms
kingdoms that
that played
such an
an active
active role
role in
in the
the Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period
Period
were border
border states
states from
from the
the point
point of
of view
view of
of the
the original
original kingdoms
kingdoms of
of
were
the
the Great
Great Chinese
Chinese Plain
Plain and
and were
were more
more or
or less
less alien
alien to
to the
the cultural
cultural
tradition of
of Chou.
Chou. Apart
Apart from
from the
the already-mentioned
already-mentioned maritime
maritime kingkingtradition
dom
dom of
of Ch'i
Ch'i in
in the
the east,
east, the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Chin
Chin along
along the
the middle
middle course
course
of the
the Huang
Huang Ho
Ho River,
River, the
the Ch'u
Ch'u along
along the
the middle
middle course
course of
of the
the
of
Yangtze River,
River, there
there were
were also
also the
the kingdoms
kingdoms of
of Ch'in
Ch'in in
in the
the west
west (Wei
Yangtze
(Wei
River basin,
basin, Shenhsi)
Shenhsi) and
and Wu
Wu and
and Yue,
Yue, which
which joined
the internecine
internecine
River
joined the
struggle in
in the
the sixth
sixth century.
century. Although
Although the
the contacts
contacts of
of these
these kingdoms
kingdoms
struggle
with the
the Proto-Hans
Proto-Hans of
of the
the Chou
Chou world
world were
were becoming
becoming stronger,
stronger, they
they
with
continued to
to exhibit
exhibit certain
certain peculiarities
peculiarities in
in their
their local
local cultures.
cultures. Their
Their
continued
remoteness from
from the
the religious
religious capital
capital of
of Chou
Chou contributed
contributed to
to their
their ininremoteness
creasing strength
strength and
and striving
striving for
for independence.
independence.
creasing
While
While individual
individual states
states fought
fought among
among themselves,
themselves, they
they also
also had
had to
to
3.
3. The
The term
term t'ien
fien mzng
ming is
is translated
translated in
in different
different ways:
ways: "Heavenly
"Heavenly Command,"
Command," the
the
"Will
"Will of
of Heaven,"
Heaven," "Orders
"Orders from
from Heaven,"
Heaven," etc.
etc.

China
China in
in the
the First
First Half
Half of
of the
the First
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
B.C.

425

repel aggression
aggression from
inhabiting the
repel
from the
the outside.
outside. The
The tribes
tribes inhabiting
the surroundsurrounding
ing territories
territories are
are presented
presented in
in ancient
ancient Chinese
Chinese sources
sources under
under the
the gengeneralized
the world:
eralized name
name "Barbarians"
"Barbarians" of
of the
the four
four cardinal
cardinal points
points of
of the
world:
the Jung
Jung in
in the
the west,
west, the
the Yi
in the
the east,
east, the
the Man
in the
south, and
and the
the
the
Vi in
Manin
the south,
Ti
the north.
is difficult
to define
orders of
these tribes.
tribes.
Ti in
in the
north. It
It is
difficult to
define the
the social
social orders
of these
It
It seems
seems that
that they
they included
included nomads
nomads (in
(in the
the west
west and
and in
in the
the north),
north),
jungle
tribes (in
(in the
the south),
south), and
and settled
settled and
and seminomadic
seminomadic groups
groups of
of
jungle tribes
different
of Chou
to counter
different ethnic
ethnic origin.
origin. When
When the
the wang
wangof
Chou was
was unable
unable to
counter
the
of these
tribes, the
leaders took
took upon
upon themselves
the incursions
incursions of
these tribes,
the leaders
themselves the
the
task of
resistance to
Huan-kung of
of
task
of resistance
to the
the Barbarians.
Barbarians. The
The first
first leader,
leader, Huan-kung
Ch'i
political motto:
motto: "Reverence
Ch'i (684-643
(684-643 B.C.),
B.C.), announced
announced his
his political
"Reverence for
for
the wang,
the
wang, resistance
resistance totothe
the Barbarians."
Barbarians."And,
And, in
in fact,
fact, atatthe
thehead
head of
of aa
coalition of
kingdoms, Huan-kung
able to
an invasion
of
coalition
of kingdoms,
Huan-kung was
was able
to repel
repel an
invasion of
northern Barbarians
tribes).
northern
Barbarians (the
(the Ti
Ti tribes).
It
the power
power of
based, at
It seems
seems that
that the
of the
the pa was
was not
not solely
solely based,
at least
least in
in the
the
beginning, on
his military
military might.
might. There
is evidence
beginning,
on his
There is
evidence that
that the
the leaders
leaders
went
through aa sacred
went through
sacred fraternization
fraternization ritual-"sworn
ritual"sworn unity"-with
unity"with the
the
allied and
and dependent
dependent city-states.
city-states. Thus
Thus the
of the
the Ch'i
Ch'i and
and Chin
Chin
allied
the rulers
rulers of
kingdoms
invariably acted
acted as
as heads
of aa military-religious
military-religious alliance
alliance of
kingdoms invariably
heads of
of
eastern kingdoms
kingdoms of
of the
the Great
(Wei, Sung,
Sung, Lu,
Chen,
eastern
Great Chinese
Chinese Plain
Plain (Wei,
Lu, C~en,
Ts'ai, and
and others).
others). The
The alliance
was aimed
the aggression
of
Ts'ai,
alliance was
aimed against
against the
aggression of
Ch'u. The
The Ch'u
Ch'u already
already belonged
belonged to
to the
the leader
leader states
states of
of what
be
Ch'u.
what may
may be
called "the
"the new
new formation."
formation." Its
not only
only assumed
assumed the
the title
title of
called
Its rulers
rulers not
of
wang but
but also
also claimed
claimed the
the sacred
sacred title
title Son
Son of
of Heaven.
Heaven. Of
Of course,
course, there
there
wang
is scarcely
scarcely any
doubt that
that aggression
aggression was
was directed
directed not
not only
only from
from the
the
is
any doubt
south to
to the
the north
north but
but also
also in
in the
the opposite
opposite direction.
direction.
south
The
had at
thousands of
The leader
leader kingdoms
kingdoms that
that had
at their
their disposal
disposal thousands
of battle
battle
chariots constituted
constituted the
the decisive
force affecting
affecting the
the fate
fate of
of all
all the
the
chariots
decisive force
other states
states of
of Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo China,
China, many
many of
of which
which became
became their
their tributaries
tributaries
other
and were,
were, in
in fact,
fact, unwilling
unwilling participants
in the
the struggle
struggle between
between the
the
and
participants in
competing "great
"great powers."
The small
small Honan
Honan kingdoms
kingdoms found
found themthemcompeting
powers." The
selves under
under the
greatest threat
because they
were squeezed
squeezed between
between
selves
the greatest
threat because
they were
the major
major kingdoms
kingdoms of
of Chin,
Chin, Ch'i,
Ch'i, and
and Ch'u.
Ch'u. Having
Having acquired
acquired leaderleaderthe
ship status,
status, Ch'u
Ch'u turned
turned into
into the
the most
most powerful
powerful state
state in
in ancient
ancient China
China
ship
and began
began aa vigorous
vigorous advance
advance to
to the
the north.
north. But
But local
local noble
noble families
families
and
wielded
great power
Ch'u and
and opposed
opposed its
its political
political centralization.
centralization.
wielded great
power in
in Ch'u
Consequently, toward
toward the
the middle
of the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.,
B.C., the
the
middle of
Consequently,
Ch'u kingdom
temporarily weakened
weakened and
and yielded
its supremacy
supremacy
Ch'u
kingdom was
was temporarily
yielded its
to the
the southeastern
southeastern kingdoms-first
kingdomsfirst to
to Wu
Wu and
and later
later to
to Vue.
Yue. The
The prepreto
dominance of
of these
these two,
two, however,
however, was
was short-lived.
short-lived. A
and terrible
terrible
dominance
A new
new and
danger threatening
threatening all
all kingdoms
kingdoms appeared
appeared on
on history'S
history's horizon:
horizon: the
the
danger
western frontier
frontier kingdom
kingdom of
of Ch'in.
Ch'in.
western
.
The internecine
internecine struggles
struggles between
between the
the kingdoms
kingdoms were
were accompaaccompaThe
nied
between political
political forces
nied by
by confrontations
confrontations between
forces within
within the
the individual
individual

426

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

states
states that
that grew
grew increasingly
increasingly fierce.
fierce. Starting
Starting in
in the
the sixth
sixth century
century B.C.,
B.C.,
noble families
families everywhere
everywhere began
began to
to struggle
struggle for
for power
within their
their
noble
power within
kingdoms.
kingdoms. The
The opposing
opposing tendency
tendency was
was that
that of
of rulers
rulers seeking
seeking to
to domidominate the
noble families
families (including
(including their
and to
undermine the
the
nate
the noble
their own)
own) and
to undermine
power of
the strongest
power
of the
strongest aristocratic
aristocratic clans.
clans. These
These aristocratic
aristocratic clans
clans had
had
virtually everywhere
everywhere secured
secured for
for themselves
themselves and
and their
their heirs
the most
most
virtually
heirs the
important governmental
governmental posts.
posts. To
To weaken
weaken the
the power
power of
of the
the hierarhierarimportant
chical aristocracy,
aristocracy, the
the rulers
rulers attempted
attempted to
to enlist
enlist the
the support
support of
of men
men
chical
personally
devoted to
to them.
them. These
These men
men came
from families
families of
of comcompersonally devoted
came from
moners,
sometimes even
even from
from those
of former
former slaves.
slaves. They
were rereThey were
moners, sometimes
those of
warded for
for their
their services
services (in
(in lieu
lieu ofland)
of land) with
with aa "salary"
"salary" in
in the
the form
form of
of
warded
grain from
from the
the royal
royal granaries.
granaries. (Grain
(Grain served
served as
as the
the basic
standard for
for
grain
basic standard
measurement of
of prices.)
prices.)
measurement
results. In
In
These internal
internal political
political struggles
struggles brought
different results.
These
brought about
about different
some kingdoms
they led
led to
the displacement
displacement of
of the
the nobility
nobility and
and the
the rise
rise
some
kingdoms they
to the
of new
new people
people who
who were
absolutely dependent
dependent on
on the
ruler and,
and, in
in
of
were absolutely
the ruler
arisothers, to
to the
the usurpation
usurpation of
of the
the throne
throne by
by aa representative
representative of
of the
the arisothers,
tocracy (as,
(as, for
for instance,
instance, in
in the
the kingdom
kingdom of
of Lu
Lu in
in 562
562 B.C.,
B.C., where
where the
the
tocracy
ruler lost
lost practically
all his
his power,
although preserving
sacral funcfuncruler
practically all
power, although
preserving his
his sacral
tion). Another
Another outcome
outcome could
could be
the seizure
seizure of
of power
strongest
be the
power by
by the
the strongest
tion).
aristocratic family
family (as,
(as, for
example, in
in Ch'i
Ch'i at
at the
of the
fifth
aristocratic
for example,
the beginning
beginning of
the fifth
B.C.). Finally,
Finally, the
the struggle
struggle could
could culminate
culminate in
in the
the political
political disindisincentury B.C.).
century
tegration of
of aa kingdom,
kingdom, as
as happened
happened in
in Chin,
Chin, which
which broke
broke into
into three
three
tegration
independent states:
states: Han,
Han, Chao,
Chao, and
and Wei.
Wei. (We
(We prefer
to date
date this
this event
event
independent
prefer to
to 453
453 B.C.,
B.C., although
although 404
B.C. has
also been
proposed.)
404 B.C.
has also
been proposed.)
to

The
The Social
Social Order
Order
Our
the Lie
Kuo Period
Period comes
Our knowledge
knowledge about
about the
Lie Kuo
comes almost
almost exclusively
exclusively
from narrative
narrative sources.
sources. Very
few epigraphic
epigraphic data
data have
have reached
reached us,
from
Very few
us,
and archaeological
archaeological data
data are
are also
also scarce.
scarce. The
main source
source is
is Tso
and
The main
TsoChuan,
Chuan,
detailed year-by-year
year-by-year chronicle
chronicle of
of events
events in
in the
the different
different kingdoms
kingdoms
aa detailed
B.C. It
It is
is supposed
supposed to
to have
have been
been aa commentary
commentary
between 721
between
721 and
and 467
467 B.C.
on the
the Springs
Springsand
andAutumns
Autumns(Ch'un
(Ch'unCh'in)
Ch'in)
chronicle
kingdom
on
chronicle
of of
thethe
kingdom
of of
Lu. No
ancient chronicles
chronicles of
the other
kingdoms have
preserved
Lu.
No ancient
of the
other kingdoms
have been
been preserved
to
the present
day. However,
However, it
it is
is known
the philosopher
Mo-tsu
to the
present day.
known that
that the
philosopher Mo-tsu
in the
the fifth
fifth to
to fourth
fourth centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. had
had available
available for
for study
study the
the Ch'un
Ch'un
in
Ch'in of
of several
several kingdoms.
kingdoms. Also,
Also, the
the great
great historian
historian Ssu-ma
Ssu-ma Ch'ien
Ch'ien in
in
Ch'in
the second
second to
to first
first centuries
centuries B.C.
B.C. used
used different
different original
original chronicles
chronicles of
the
of
the
Ch'in. Some
Some information
information on
on the
the period,
period, among
among them
them that
that of
of Ch'in.
the peperiod
in question
question can
can be
gleaned from
from books
down in
in the
third
riod in
be gleaned
books written
written down
the third
to
fourth centuries
centuries A.D.
A.D. It
It should
should be
in mind
mind that
that no
no Chinese
Chinese
to fourth
be kept
kept in
treatise preserved
preserved to
to our
our time
time was
was written
written down
down earlier
earlier than
than that
that date.
date.
treatise

China
in the
the First
Half of
China in
First Half
of the
the First
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
B.C.

427

Once
Once written,
written, books
books were
were commented
commented on
on for
for centuries.
centuries. On
On the
the one
one
hand,
hand, the
the later
later commentators
commentators have
have preserved
preserved for
for us
us data
data from
from books
books
long since
since disappeared,
disappeared, but
on the
the other
other hand,
hand, they
they interpreted
interpreted ananlong
but on
cient terms
terms and
and notions
notions according
according to
to the
the spirit
spirit of
of their
their own
own age
age and
and
cient
thus often
often distorted
distorted the
the real
picture of
of historical
historical events.
events. It
It is
is well
thus
real picture
well
known that
narrative sources
sources are
are always
always worth
worth less
less than
documents,
known
that narrative
than documents,
which nothing
nothing can
can replace.
replace. However,
However, very
very few
few documentary
documentary sources
sources
which
of the
the period
period have
have survived,
survived, which
which is
is why
why many
many important
important problems
problems
of
of Chinese
Chinese history
history of
of this
this epoch
epoch are
are poorly
poorly understood.
understood.
of
Technological progress
progress during
during that
that period
period induced
induced further
further develdevelTechnological
opment
remained at
opment in
in the
the division
division of
of labor.
labor. Although
Although agriculture
agriculture still
still remained
at
the former
former level
level of
of development
development and
and required
required an
an enormous
enormous expenexpenthe
diture
diture of
of labor,
labor, we
we notice
notice aa rise
rise in
in the
the cultivation
cultivation of
of cereals
cereals and
and more
more
abundant
abundant harvests
harvests toward
toward the
the end
end of
of this
this period.
period.
Crafts
became subdivided
Crafts became
subdivided into
into aa multitude
multitude of
of specialized
specialized branches.
branches.
The
began on
on aa relatively
relatively large
scale;
The organization
organization of
of production
production began
large scale;
thus
thus in
in that
that period,
period, it
it can
can be
be especially
especially noticed
noticed in
in saltworks,
saltworks, mining,
mining,
and
and bronze
bronze casting,
casting, and
and in
in activities
activities mainly
mainly connected
connected with
with the
the royal
royal
economy.
economy.
As
near the
As aa rule,
rule, the
the centers
centers of
of crafts
crafts were
were located
located near
the sources
sources of
of raw
raw
materials. The
The period
in question
question saw
saw the
the flourishing
flourishing of
of the
Bronze
materials.
period in
the Bronze
Age
bronze alloying
Age in
in China.
China. The
The technology
technology of
of bronze
alloying improved;
improved; the
the meltmelting process
process was
was combined
combined with
with forging
forging operations;
operations; multiphase
multiphase casting
casting
ing
became common;
common; and
and the
the construction
construction of
of dismountable
dismountable molds
molds (piece
(piece
became
molds)
improved. The
The manufacture
manufacture of
of bronze
tools expanded
expanded signifisignifimolds) improved.
bronze tools
cantly. New
types of
of weapons
weapons appeared:
shields, armor,
armor, and
bronze
cantly.
New types
appeared: shields,
and bronze
swords. Such
Such armament
armament made
soldier considerably
considerably stronger
stronger than
than aa
swords.
made aa soldier
laborer with
only his
tools. This
This facilitated
facilitated the
the exploitation
exploitation of
of
laborer
with only
his work
work tools.
prisoners of
of war
war and
and convicts
convicts as
as slaves.
prisoners
slaves.
Many
Many towns
towns of
of the
the Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period
Period were
were quite
quite small.
small. They
They were
were enencircled
by walls
As
circled by
walls that
that formed
formed aa perimeter
perimeter of
of some
some 400-600
400-600 meters.
meters. As
aa rule,
Ch'un
rule, the
the towns
towns were
were military,
military, political,
political, and
and religious
religious centers.
centers. Ch'un
Ch'in
mentions that
CKin mentions
that the
the construction
construction of
of such
such fortified
fortified towns
towns was
was one
one
of the
the important
important activities
activities of
of aa ruler.
The capitals
capitals (the
(the residences
residences
of
ruler. The
of the
the rulers)
larger and
and constituted
constituted standardized
standardized architectural
architectural
of
rulers) were
were larger
complexes. Such
Such aa complex
complex focused
on the
the palace
palace and
and consisted
consisted of
complexes.
focused on
of
three courts
courts aligned
aligned along
along aa north-south
north-south axis.
axis. All
buildings were
were rectrectthree
All buildings
angular, and
and their
their multiple-gabled
multiple-gabled roofs
supported by
by wooden
wooden
angular,
roofs were
were supported
columns.
A
socle,
the
typical
feature
of
all
public
buildings,
unified
columns. A socle, the typical feature of all public buildings, unified
the entire
entire complex.
complex. The
The palace
quarters were
were situated
situated in
in the
northern
the
palace quarters
the northern
portion of
of the
the central
central court,
court, and
and the
the entrance
entrance faced
faced north.
north. Here,
Here, on
on
portion
special elevation,
elevation, the
the ruler
ruler performed
performed ritual
ritual acts.
acts. The
The eastern
eastern side
side
aa special
of the
the central
central court
court accommodated
accommodated the
the temple
temple of
of ancestors,
ancestors, and
and the
the
of

428

T.
T. V.
V.Stepugina
Stepugina

western side,
side, the
the altar
altar of
of the
god of
of fertile
fertile soil.
soil. This
This altar
altar was
for
western
the god
was used
used for
sacrifices, often
often human,
human, and
and for
for the
the execution
execution of
of condemned
condemned crimicrimisacrifices,
nals.
On the
the eve
eve of
of battles,
soldiers swore
swore their
their oath
oath before
it. The
The sasabattles, soldiers
before it.
nals. On
cred
central court
court symbolized
symbolized the
A market
market
cred central
the center
center of
of the
the universe.
universe. A
it, and
and the
the living
living quarters
quarters of
of artisans
artisans and
and of
of
was located
located to
to the
north of
of it,
was
the north
all palace
palace servants
servants extended
extended to
to the
the south.
south.
all
the wangs
Following the
the practice
practice of
wangs of
of Western
Western Chou,
Chou, the
the rulers
rulers of
of
Following
of the
the
kung) widely
lands from
from the
the
the kingdoms
kingdoms (the
(the hou
hou and
and kung)
widely distributed
distributed lands
state reserve
in reward
reward for
for services.
services. Therefore,
Therefore, the
the larger
larger aristocratic
aristocratic
state
reserve in
families strove
strove not
not only
only to
to obtain
obtain the
the most
most important
important governmental
governmental
families
posts
also to
secure them
for their
heirs. There
There were
were usually
about
but also
to secure
them for
their heirs.
usually about
posts but
five to
six such
such families
families in
in each
each kingdom.
kingdom.
five
to six
A post
post was
was formally
formally secured
secured by
by casting
casting aa granting
granting inscription
inscription on
on aa
A
sacred
vessel. A
A typical
inscription reads
sacred royal
royal vessel.
typical inscription
reads as
as follows:
follows:
Pursuant
wangs, II appoint
Pursuant of
of the
the order
order of
of previous
previous wangs,
appoint you,
you, in
in
your anaccordance with
the post
post of
of your
your late
late father
father and
and of
of your
anac{;ordance
with the
cestors,
to be
in charge
charge of
of [horse
[horse harnesses,
harnesses, prisons
and punpuncestors, to
be in
prisons and
ishment, left
left and
and right
of the
the army,
army, or
or whatever].
ishment,
right wings
wings of
whatever].

In the
the ritual
ritual of
of appointment
appointment to
to high
high posts,
the king
king handed
handed the
the apIn
posts, the
apthe royal
royal altar
pointee
pointee aa lump
lump of
of soil
soil from
from the
altar of
of the
the god
god of
of earth
earth taken
taken
from
point that
to the
from the
the cardinal
cardinal point
that corresponded
corresponded to
the location
location of
of the
the
"granted"
"granted" land
land allotment.
allotment.
The allotments
allotments awarded
awarded to
major officeholders
officeholders could
could be
The
to major
be quite
quite sizsizable, but,
in earlier
not represent
represent private
private property
property
did not
able,
but, as
as in
earlier times,
times, they
they did
in the
true sense;
sense; the
only empowered
empowered to
to collect
collect tribute
tribute
in
the true
the grantee
grantee was
was only
in kind
kind that
due from
from the
and towns
him
that was
was due
the villages
villages and
towns placed
placed under
under him
in
and to
to dispose
dispose of
of such
such tribute
at his
discretion. Similar
Similar but
but
and
tribute at
his personal
personal discretion.
smaller allotments
allotments were
received by
all sorts
sorts of
of officials,
officials, scribes,
scribes, manmansmaller
were received
by all
agers, and
and other
other servants
servants of
of the
Since the
economy was
not
the ruler.
ruler. Since
the economy
was not
agers,
characterized by
any significant
significant market
market exchange
exchange of
commodities,
characterized
by any
of commodities,
and since
since centralized
centralized politico-administrative
lackand
politico-administrative management
management was
was lacking,
such allotments
allotments constituted
and perhaps
only
perhaps the
the only
ing, such
constituted aa convenient
convenient and
imaginable
method
of
maintaining
the
governmental
machinery.
Alimaginable method of maintaining the governmental machinery. Although
all allotments
allotments formally
who
though all
formally remained
remained the
the property
property of
of the
the king,
king, who
at any
any time
time could
could take
back from
from the
temporary owners,
owners, they
they
at
take them
them back
the temporary
were,
as aa rule,
inherited.
were, as
rule, inherited.
The
highest elite,
holding hierarchical
hierarchical posts,
posts, were
were obliged
The highest
elite, holding
obliged to
to particparticipate in
in wars
wars and
and large
large royal
sort of
preparation for
for military
military
royal hunts
hunts (a
(a sort
of preparation
ipate
service) together
together with
chariots and
and soldiers.
soldiers. They
They also
also supplied
supplied
with their
their chariots
service)
the court
court with
labor and
and were
were responsible
responsible for
for delivering
delivering various
kinds
the
with labor
various kinds
of goods
the palace:
palace: cattle
cattle and
and fowl
fowl for
for sacrifices,
sacrifices, tortoise
tortoise shells,
of
goods to
to the
shells,
cowrie
shells, copper,
copper, tin,
and other
and commodities.
commodities.
cowrie shells,
tin, and
other raw
raw materials
materials and
Justice was
was administered
administered by
nobles according
according to
customary
Justice
by the
the nobles
to customary

China
China in
in the
the First
First Half
Half of
of the
the First
First Millennium
Millennium B.C.
B.C.

429
42 9

law, which,
however, gradually
became inadequate
inadequate for
for adjusting
adjusting the
the
law,
which, however,
gradually became
relationships between
between the
the aristocracy
aristocracy and
and the
mass of
of community
community
relationships
the mass
members. Ch'i
Ch'i was
was one
one of
of the
the first
first states
states to
to attempt
attempt the
introduction
members.
the introduction
of written
written law.
law. It
It was
followed by
Chin and
and aa number
number of
of other
other kingof
was followed
by Chin
kingthe introduction
doms. Yet,
doms.
Yet, everywhere,
everywhere, the
introduction of
of written
written law
law was
was opposed
opposed
by the
the aristocratic
aristocratic families,
families, who
saw in
in it
it aa diminution
diminution of
of their
their ancient
ancient
by
who saw
privileges.
privileges.
As
As the
the kings
kings continued
continued to
to distribute
distribute land
land and
and thus
thus grew
grew weaker,
weaker, the
the
power
the hereditary
hereditary high
high officeholders
officeholders and
power of
of the
and military
military commanders
commanders
grew.
grew. These
These groups
groups strove
strove to
to turn
turn the
the members
members of
of neighboring
neighboring comcommunities
them for
their personal
demunities (on
(on lands
lands allotted
allotted them
for service)
service) into
into their
personal dependents by
to all
all kinds
of petty
petty gifts
gifts or
or by
"forgiving" them
them
pendents
by resorting
resorting to
kinds of
by "forgiving"
their "grain
"grain debts."
debts." However,
However, it
it is
is possible
possible that
that such
such "good
"good deeds"
deeds"
their
performed by
by those
in power
power were
actually in
in conformance
conformance with
with the
the
performed
those in
were actually
kuo jen)
jen) to
to "bread
"bread and
and
age-old right
right of
of the
the people
of aa city-state
city-state (the
(the kuo
age-old
people of
liberation."
liberation."
In
decay of
In connection
connection with
with the
the decay
of the
the territorial
territorial community'S
community's landlandownership,
ownership, the
the communal
communal land
land reallotments
reallotments gradually
gradually ceased
ceased in
in most
most
of
of the
the kingdoms,
kingdoms, and
and the
the land
land was
was inherited
inherited by
by individual
individual families.
families.
This
in the
by the
This caused
caused aa complete
complete change
change in
the system
system used
used by
the state
state to
to exextract
tract the
the surplus
surplus product
product from
from the
the bulk of
of the
the direct
direct producers. The
The
original
kungt'ien. According
Accordingtotothis
thissystem,
system,the
thecomcomoriginal system
system was
was the
the kungt'ien.
munity tilled
tilled aa certain
certain share
share of
their fields
fields for
the benefit
benefit of
the king.
munity
of their
for the
of the
king.
the entire
land was
introduced. This
reNow,
Now, instead,
instead, aa grain
grain tax
tax on
on the
entire land
was introduced.
This reform
in 594
B.C. in
in the
kingdom of
Lu (in
form was
was first
first attempted
attempted in
594 B.C.
the kingdom
of Lu
(in ShanShantung)
rule of
Hsuan-kung; taxes
to be
be exacted
tung) during
during the
the rule
of Hsiian-kung;
taxes began
began to
exacted from
from
each
each mu
mu (a
(a unit
unit of
of area).
area). A
A similar
similar measure
measure was
was put
put into
into practice
practice
B.C. in
the kingdom
in 543
543 B.C.
in the
in 548
in
548 B.C.
in the
kingdom of
of Ch'u,
Ch'u, and
and in
B.C. in
the kingdom
kingdom
of
where "they
boundaries in
fields;
of Cheng
Cheng (in
(in Honan),
Honan), where
"they traced
traced boundaries
in the
the fields;
houses with
with wells
wells were
were grouped
into five
five homestead
homestead units."
units." Even
houses
grouped into
Even earearintroduced in
lier, "taxation
accordance with
with the
the land"
was introduced
lier,
"taxation in
in accordance
land" was
in the
the Ch'i
Ch'i
kingdom.
reaffirmed the
"tax collected
collected from
[each
In 483
483 B.C.
B.C. Lu
Lu reaffirmed
the "tax
from [each
kingdom. In
The tax
amounted, as
rule, to
one tenth
tenth either
family] field."
field." The
family]
tax amounted,
as aa rule,
to one
either of
of the
the
average annual
annual or
of the
annual production.
production.
or of
the real
real annual
average
The
intensified as
The class
class stratification
stratification of
of community
community members
members intensified
as the.
the
character of
of the
community changed.
changed. The
The prosperous
stratum
character
the community
prosperous upper
upper stratum
of
the community
community won
won aa position
position that
enabled it
it to
increase its
its
of the
that enabled
to further
further increase
wealth. The
The first
first evidence
use of
hired labor
wealth.
evidence of
of the
the use
of hired
labor in
in agriculture
agriculture
precisely this
this time.
In spite
records of
the sale
stems
stems from
from precisely
time. In
spite of
of isolated
isolated records
of the
sale
of estates
estates and
and orchards,
such sales
the
of
orchards, such
sales did
did not
not become
become common
common until
until the
end of
of the
the Lie
documents,
end
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period.
Period. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, we
we lack
lack private
private documents,
and the
details of
of the
the differentiation
differentiation process
of the
the community
community memmemand
the details
process of
bers
according to
property and
and social
social position
position are
are unknown.
unknown. With
With the
the
bers according
to property
uniform tax
tax (and,
in general,
the transition
transition to
introduction
introduction of
of aa uniform
(and, in
general, with
with the
to aa

4300
43

T. V.
V. Stepugina
Stepugina

common
common tax
tax system),
system), the
the distinction
distinction between
between the
the state
state and
and private/
private/
communal
communal economic
economic sectors
sectors slowly
slowly vanished.
vanished.
hold: the
A
A new
new trend
trend took
took hold:
the estates
estates that
that had
had originally
originally been
been granted
granted
under conditions
conditions of
of service
service were
were being
being turned
turned into
into private
private property.
property.
under
Inscriptions
Inscriptions from
from as
as early
early as
as the
the end
end of
of the
the tenth
tenth century
century B.C.
B.C. tell
tell us
us
about isolated
isolated cases
cases of
of appropriation
of land
land estates
estates with
with the
the right
right of
of
about
appropriation of
their free
free disposal.
disposal. The
following documentary
inscription on
on aa bronze
bronze
their
The following
documentary inscription
vessel gives
gives evidence
evidence of
of purchases
purchases of
of large
large land
tracts (in
(in exchange
exchange for
for
land tracts
vessel
payment
in kind):
payment in
kind):
Ko
P'eng Sheng
reKo Po
Po gave
gave aa team
team of
of four
four horses
horses to
to P'eng
Sheng and
and recovered
being certified
covered thirty
thirty fields
fields in
in exchange
exchange for
for them;
them; this
this being
certified
tally].
by
by breaking
breaking [of
[of aa symbolic
symbolic tally].
The
Kuo Period
The end
end of
of the
the Lie
Lie Kuo
Period was
was characterized
characterized everywhere
everywhere by
by an
an
increased burden
burden of
of taxes
taxes and
and service
service duties.
duties. A
A system
system of
of big
big royal
royal
increased
estates continued
continued to
survive in
in aa number
number of
of kingdoms.
They were
were
to survive
kingdoms. They
estates
worked
dependent "royal
"royal men,"
men," but
also the
community populapopulabut also
the community
worked by
by dependent
tion were
were recruited,
recruited, in
in one
one form
form or
or another.
another. The
The enrichment
enrichment of
of the
the
tion
hereditary elite
elite and
and aa trend
trend toward
toward luxury
luxury in
in everyday
everyday life,
life, as
as well
well as
as
hereditary
in funerary
funerary ceremonies,
ceremonies, occurred;
occurred; this
this is
is evident
from archaeological
archaeological
in
evident from
discoveries. There
There is
is an
an inscription
inscription on
on aa bronze
vessel that
that belonged
belonged
bronze vessel
discoveries.
to the
the Wei
family. It
It tells
tells of
of its
its owner's
owner's acquisition
acquisition of
of 1,300
1,300 mu
mu (86.6
(86.6
Wei family.
to
hectares, or
or 214
214 acres)
acres) of
of land
land in
in exchange
exchange for
for garments
garments and
and jade
hectares,
jade valvalued at
at 100
100 bunches
bunches of
of cowrie
cowrie shells.
shells. Another
Another vessel,
vessel, belonging
belonging to
the
ued
to the
same person,
contains an
an inscription
inscription that
that announces
announces the
the exchange
exchange of
of
same
person, contains
some fields
fields for
for 400
400 mu
mu (26.6
(26.6 hectares,
hectares, or
or 65.7
65.7 acres)
acres) of
of land
land that
that besome
belonged to
to the
the "ruler
"ruler of
of Li."
Li." An
An inscription
inscription on
on yet
yet another
another cast
cast vessel
vessel of
of
longed
the same
same man
man tells
tells about
about his
his purchase
from someone
someone of
of aa wooded
wooded
the
purchase from
property; the
the payment
payment was
was aa carriage.
carriage.
property;
The
The private/communal
private/communal sector
sector did
did not
not disappear,
disappear, but
but its
its character
character
changed.
changed. The
The old
old community
community village
village institutions
institutions of
of self-government
self-government
continued
this period
period and
continued to
to exist
exist in
in some
some kingdoms
kingdoms of
of this
and even
even much
much
later. These
These were
were the
the elders
elders (fu
(fu lao),
later.
lao), who
whowere
wereelected
elected by
bythe
thecommon
common
people
(shu jen)
jen) of
of the
the communities
communities (li);
(li); there
there was
was aa collegiate
collegiate auaupeople (shu
principal elders
lao)4 and
and the
the headman
headman of
of aa
thority
thority of
of the
the three
three principal
elders (san
(san lao)4
village
(licheng). The
The same
sameinstitutions
institutions of
of self-government
self-government were
were apapvillage (licheng).
parently
preserved even
even longer
longer in
in cities
cities and
and in
in groups
groups of
of towns
(yi), aa
towns (yi),
parently preserved
situation that
that can
can be
compared with
that in
in the
the nomes
nomes of
of Egypt
Egypt and
and
be compared
with that
situation
Sumer.
Sumer.
The functions
of the
the representatives
representatives of
The
functions of
of community
community government
government
were various.
various. They
They were
were responsible
responsible for
were
for labor
labor service
service obligations,
obligations, tax
tax
4.
4. The
The authority
authority of
of the
the original
original communal
communal tripartite
tripartite council
council later
later passed
passed to
to aa single
single
elder
the name
san lao.
elder who,
who, traditionally,
traditionally, kept
kept the
name of
of san
lao.

China
the First
Half of
the First
First Millennium
China in
in the
First Half
of the
Millennium B.C.
B.C.

431
43 1

collection, and
and law
law and
and order
order in
in the
the community
community and,
and, at
at the
the same
same time,
time,
collection,
they headed
headed the
the local
local cult.
cult. They
They could
could call
call out
out the
the local
local militia,
militia, orgaorgathey
nize the
the defense
of their
their city,
city, hold
hold court
court to
judge the
the people
people of
of their
their
nize
defense of
to judge
community, and
number
community,
and even
even impose
impose capital
capital punishment.
punishment. And
And in
in aa number
of
kingdoms, they
could even
even communicate
communicate on
on their
with the
the outoutof kingdoms,
they could
their own
own with
side world.
On occasion,
support of
they
side
world. On
occasion, with
with the
the support
of the
the local
local militia,
militia, they
could
substantially influence
influence the
the outcome
outcome of
of internal
internal struggles
struggles bebecould substantially
tween
local throne.
throne.
tween pretenders
pretenders to
to the
the local
The
people" (actually
jen)
The category
category of
of "free
"free people"
(actually "state
"state people,"
people," kuo
kuo jen)
played an
an important
important role
in the
the political
history of
the Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period.
played
role in
political history
of the
Period.
These
subject to
to military
These "commoners"
"commoners" were
were subject
military service,
service, paid
paid taxes,
taxes, and
and
fulfilled
number of
labor obligations.
often came
came to
to the
fulfilled aa number
of labor
obligations. They
They often
the supsupport
the ruler
his struggle
against the
the powerful
powerful aristocracy,
port of
of the
ruler in
in his
struggle against
aristocracy, and
and
their
their active,
active, collective
collective intervention
intervention in
in internal
internal and
and external
external political
political
affairs
leads us
us to
to assume
the presence
of vestiges
very ancient
affairs leads
assume the
presence of
vestiges of
of aa very
ancient
institution-the
people's assembly.
Available information
information about
institutionthe people's
assembly. Available
about the
the
activities
of kuo
kuo jen
Wei, Lu,
Lu, Cheng,
Cheng, Sung,
Sung, Ch'eng,
Ch'eng,
activities of
jen in
in the
the kingdoms
kingdoms of
of Wei,
Ch'u,
indicates that
states preserved
Ch'u, and
and Chen
Chen indicates
that these
these states
preserved certain
certain features
features
of
of democracy.
democracy. In
In some
some cases,
cases, the
the ruler
ruler of
of aa kingdom
kingdom even
even entered
entered
kuo jen
jen about
about mutual
mutual support;
support; however,
however,
into agreements
agreements with
the kuo
into
with the
eventually
eventually their
their role
in the
the political
life of
of the
the kingdoms
came everyeveryrole in
political life
kingdoms came
where to
to naught;
naught; in
in large
large kingdoms,
centralized state
state governmental
governmental
where
kingdoms, aa centralized
system evolved.
evolved.
system
With regard
regard to
to the
the socioeconomic
socioeconomic relationships
relationships of
of this
this period,
period, we
With
we
can
with confidence
was predominant
can state
state with
confidence that
that patriarchal
patriarchal slavery
slavery was
predominant in
in
private economies.
pawning children
private
economies. The
The practice
practice of
of pawning
children for
for debts
debts existed
existed
at
time, and
hosat that
that time,
and it
it continued
continued for
for centuries.
centuries. In
In order
order to
to retain
retain such
such hostages
(chui-tzu)ininthe
theeconomy,
economy,they
theycould
couldbe
bemarried
marriedtotothe
thedaughter
daughter
tages (chui-tzu)
of
the master.
of the
master. Another
Another piece
piece of
of evidence
evidence of
of the
the patriarchal
patriarchal character
character
of
slavery was
existence of
by
of slavery
was the
the existence
of slaves
slaves "begotten
"begotten in
in the
the household"
household" by
clrian-tzu).Slave
Slavelabor
laborwas
wasalso
alsoused
usedininfarming.
farming.We
We
female slaves
slaves (nu
(nu ch'an-tzu).
female
know
from an
an inscription
inscription on
on bronze
the eighth
eighth century
century B.C.
know from
bronze from
from the
B.C.
about aa case
case in
which aa horse
and aa cut
of silk
silk were
were exchanged
exchanged for
about
in which
horse and
cut of
for five
five
use as
field laborers.
.
slaves
slaves for
for use
as field
laborers.
Problems of
of the
the status
the multitude
of artisans-how
of
Problems
status of
of the
multitude of
artisanshow many
many of
them were
slaves and
and what
what their
more
them
were slaves
their general
general condition
condition wasrequire
was-require more
research. There
is no
doubt, however,
however, that
private slavery
slavery was
was not
research.
There is
no doubt,
that private
not sigsignificant during
during this
this period.
period. On
On the
other hand,
state slavery
slavery played
played aa
nificant
the other
hand, state
more
important role,
and the
the state
state used
sources for
for it,
it, such
such
more important
role, and
used different
different sources
as prisoners
of war
and people
convicted in
court. The
The most
most cruel
cruel exas
prisoners of
war and
people convicted
in court.
exploitation of
slave labor
labor took
in state
state handicraft
shops and
and in
in
of slave
took place
place in
handicraft shops
ploitation
mines.
commonly designated,
such, but
mines. Slaves
Slaves were
were commonly
designated, not
not as
as such,
but by
by their
their ococetc.) or
cupations ("stable-man,"
cupations
("stable-man," "woodcutter,"
"woodcutter," "porter,"
"porter," "herdsman,"
"herdsman," etc.)
or
(liao, chung).
chung).
by general
terms such
such as
as "servant,"
"servant," "boy"
"boy" (liao,
by
general terms

4322
43

T.
T. V.
V. Stepugina
Stepugina

Other
Other categories
categories of
of forced
forced laborers
laborers (called
(called lili and
and tsu)
tsu) were
were used
used
widely
production; these
widely in
in production;
these were
were people
people who
who had
had lost
lost their
their personal
personal
freedom.
freedom. This
This condition
condition of
of semislavery
semislavery was
was mainly
mainly connected
connected with
with
their
their voluntary
voluntary self-pawning
self-pawning for
for debt.
debt.
It
that during
this period
period the
the "classical"
slave,
It is
is significant
significant that
during this
"classical" term
term for
for slave,
nu, appeared.
appeared. It
It eventually
eventually became
became the
the standard
standard word
word designating
designating aa
slave in
in the
later periods
of Chinese
Chinese history.
history.
slave
the later
periods of

Mediterranean
Sea

li:w

(J)

(Avaris)

Lake
LakeFa;'vunrr~:~."'Y'
FaiyumS^I

(~)
J

It-Tj

Amon Oasis
(Siwa)

...

. ._

r^

S^OsJC^

Abydos^
Wadi Hammamat-:
^Thebes
Hierakonopolis\ UPPER
EGYPT

--- The approximate farthest

spread of the Middle Kingdom
The approximate farthest
spread of the New Kingdom
Ancient Cities
Ancient
o Approximate location of
ancient cities
KUSH .Ancient
Ancient States
..............
-"- Canals
-<IIH Rapids
C} Oases
F.;.~
-} Swamp/Reeds
Copper pits (mines?)

200 Km
Km
290

Arabian

Dnthis
TAkhetatgn/Ahet-Atpn
(Tell Amarna)

'-'

Note: the modem

modern names are in
parentheses.

~
fe

Sin

\ ^

Tihna/Tinis

(\

100
1QO

/ Q

DELTA*J
\ Djaru
..' Kl'IlriA!lIh-Eiarllea
Kadesh-Barnea
LOWER EGYPrVWHeliopoJis S I N A , DESERT
*
;
MemprhjsWHerakle%)olis

LIBYA
LIBYA

0
9

oSharuhen

^
'

Elephantine! 'Syena/Siyena
(Aswan)
The First
Cataract

Third Cataract
Kerma
Aton:
Napata

Peninsula

.Kanish

Jamkhad (Khalab
.Ebla

Emar

, . . / ,^>Jadmor
^Kinza (Kadesh) ^ ( P a l m y r a )
/--^Damascus

^ . ' ; THE LEBANON

%.' MOUNTAINS

THE SYRIAN-ARABIAN DESERT

Sea
Sharuhen

(""\Kadesh-Barnea
,_I

- - Northernmost spread of Semitic

Languages
Southern and Western borders of the
spread
spread of
of Hurro-Urartian
Hurro-Urartian Languages"
Languages
ELAM
Ancie"nt
States
ELAM Ancient States
Ancient
Ancient Cities
Cities
o
Approximate
Approximate location
location of
of Ancient
Ancient Cities
Cities
C,
Oases
O
Oases
<t~ Swamp/Reeds
Swamp/Reeds

200 Km
Km
100
9L..._.L.-_1...Lqo_-,--_2--lqo

Anshan.
Anshan.

Pyios

Phaistos

Mediterranean
Sea
LIBYANS

To!

Ancient Cities
Cities
Ancient

oo

Approximate location
location of
ancient cities

SYRIA Ancient States

To Delta

LIBYANS Ancient Tribes

Approximate borders of the
Hittite Kingdom
Hittite

*r.

Damascus

E LEBANON
MOUNTAINS

Approximate boundaries of the greatest

extent of Hittite influence in
WeSt,
in the West,
of the XIII century B. C.
at the beginning of
ASSYRIA in the XIII century B. C.

A
A

Mountain peaks

-=i'->r-

Swampl
Reeds
Swamp/Reeds
0 _~100i..:!
100_-=.J2QO
200 Km
Km

0LI

Cities of principle colonies

Greek colonies

^ f.c .
r Shoreline/Coasts colonized
.
by Phoenicians
0
200
200
9L...-__

400
400

600 Km
-l6QOKm

..I-'_ _-L'_ _

"

"

ARABIA
ARABIA

Index
Index

Aba (Amba),
(Amba), (god),
(god), 86
86
Aba
Abdi-Ashirta,
Abdi-Ashirta, King
King of
of Amurru,
Amurru, 295
295
Abkhasians, 257,
257, 278
278
Abkhasians,
Abraham, 300
300
Abraham,
Abu-Salabikh, 75n.8
Abu-Salabikh,75n.8
Abu-Simbel,
Abu-Simbel, 189-90,
189-90, 204
204
Abusir, 155
155
Abusir,
Abydos, 144,
144, 189,
189, 196
196
Abydos,
Achaea, 327,355,359,360,364
327, 355, 359, 360, 364
Achaea,
Achaean (Mycenaean)
(Mycenaean) civilization,
civilization, 317317Achaean
27,328,335,347;
27, 328, 335, 347; disintegration
disintegration of,
of,
326-27, 348; Mycenaean
Mycenaean art
art in
in comcom326-27,348;
331;
parison
parison to
to Homeric
Homeric art,
art, 330,
330, 331;
palace economy
economy of,
of, 322-23;
322-23; palaces
palaces
palace
of, 318-20;
318-20; socioeconomic
socioeconomic and
and politipolitiof,
cal history
history of,
of, 320-24;
320-24; and
and Trojan
Trojan
cal
War,
See also
also
War, participation
participation in,
in, 324-25.
324-25. See
Greece; Homeric
Homeric Epics;
Epics; Minoan
Minoan
Greece;
(Cretan)
(Cretan) civilization
civilization
Achaeans,
279, 304,
Achaeans, 279,
304, 316
316
Achaemenid Period,
Period, 383
383
Achaemenid
Achilles,
Achilles, 334
334
Achtoes (Kheti),
(Kheti), Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 160
160
Achtoes
Achtoes
III, King
King of
of Heracleopolis,
160,
Heracleopolis, 160,
Achtoes III,
161
.
161
Adad-nerari I,
I, King
King of
of Assyria,
Assyria, 254-55
Adad-nerari
254-55
Adad-shum-utsur,
of Kassites,
Adad-shum-utsur, King
King of
Kassites, 263
263
Adhaim,
Adhaim, 228
228
of Ipuwer,
Ipuwer, The,"
"Admonitions of
The," 211
211
"Admonitions
Adria,
Adria, 363
363
Aegean Islands,
Islands, 309,
309, 330,
330, 347,
347, 349
349
Aegean
Aegean
Aegean Sea,
Sea, 46,
46, 268,
268, 309,
309, 315,
315, 316,
316, 318,
318,
328,
328,334,348,358,360
334, 348, 358, 360
Aeolians,
Aeolians, 327
327
Aesculapius
154, 201
Aesculapius (god),
(god), 154,201
Afghanistan,
219, 222,
156,219,222,
Afghanistan, 79,
79, 89,
89, 156,
224n.6,
224n.6, 226,
226, 229,
229, 241,
241, 380,
380, 383;
383; and
and
the
the Aryan
Aryan question,
question, 366,
366, 368,
368, 369;
369;
Bronze
urban settlements
settlements in,
in,
Bronze Age
Age urban
382-83
n. 10; farming
382-83n.lO;
farming culture
culture in,
in, 382;
382;
and
and Indus
Indus Valley,
Valley, trade
trade with,
with, 218
218
Afrasian
143, 287
30-31, 71,
71,143,287
Afrasian dialects,
dialects, 30-31,
Africa, 28,
28, 29,
29, 31,
31, 49,
49, 348,
348, 349,
349, 350,
350, 362.
362.
Africa,
See
See also
alsoCentral
CentralAfrica;
Africa;North
NorthAfrica
Africa
Agamemnon,
Agamemnon, King
King of
of Mycenae,
Mycenae, 317-18,
317 -18,
324,341,343,344
324,
341, 343, 344

Age
Age of
of Metal,
Metal, 216,
216, 393
393
Agibtazhenni,
Agibtazhenni, 247
247
Agni (god),
(god), 378
378
Agni
Agrigentum,
Agrigentum, 363
363
Agum
Agum II,
II, Kassite
Kassite King,
King, 261
261
-78, 325
Ahhiyawa,
Ahhiyawa, 277
277-78,
325
Ahura
Ahura Mazda
Mazda (Ahuramazda,
(Ahuramazda, Ormazd),
Ormazd),
384,384n.13
384, 384 n. 13
Aka, 75,
75, 84
84
Aka,
Akhenaton
Akhenaton (Amenhetep
(Amenhetep IV),
IV), Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of
E
Egypt,
gypt> 58,
58, 65,
65, 66,
66, 190,
190,207;
207; religious
religious
reforms
reforms of,
of, 182-87
182-87
Akhet-Aton,
Akhet-Aton, 184-85,
184-85, 186,
186, 187,
187, 199-200
199-200
Akkad and
and Akkadians,
Akkadians, 102,
102, 113,
113, 132,
132, 136,
Akkad
136,
223, 232, 239, 252, 287, 288, 291; art,
223,232,239,252,287,288,291;
art,
characteristics of,
of, 130-31;
130-31; fall
fall of
of Dr
Ur
characteristics
and
and rise
riseof
of Issin,
Issin,95-97;
95-97; Gudea,
Gudea, rule
rule
of, 90-91;
90-91; language
language of,
71, 85,
85, 87,
87,
of,
of, 71,
99n.l,
272, 307;
135;
99n.l, 236,
236, 272,
307; literature
literature of,
of, 135;
religion
126-27; and
and Sargonids,
Sargonids,
religion in,
in, 126-27;
Kingdom of,
of, 85-90;
85-90; Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
Kingdom
of
Dr, 91-95,
writing in,
Ur,
91-95, 97;
97; writing
in, 20,
20, 92,
92, 93,
93,
113,223,244,250,266,269,290,294,
113, 223, 244, 250, 266, 269, 290, 294,
307
307
Alaca-Hiiyuk,
Alaca-Hiiyiik, 268
268
Alalakh (now
(now Tell-Atchana),
241,
Alalakh
Tell-Atchana), 239,
239, 241,
242,
244, 249, 272, 273, 276, 290, 291,
242,244,249,272,273,276,290,291,
307
307
Alasia,
Alasia, 278
278
Alcinous,
331, 332,
Alcinous, 331,
332, 344
344
Alexander
143, 222,
Alexander the
the Great,
Great, 143,
222, 384
384
Al-ilani
Al-ilani (now
(now Kirkuk),
Kirkuk), 244
244
Aliyan-Ba'l
Aliyan-Ba'l (god),
(god), 307
307
Al-Mina,
AI-Mina, 363
363
Amarna,
Amarna, 200,
200, 250
250
n.7, 294
294
Amarna
Amarna Period,
Period, 186
186n.7,
Amemet,
Amemet, 198
198
Amenemhet
Amenemhet I,
I, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 160,
160,
168,
169, 170, 210, 211
168,169,170,210,211
Amenemhet
Amenemhet II,
II, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 168
168
Amenemhet
Amenemhet III,
III, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 170,
170,
175,
175, 266
266
Amenhetep
Amenhetep (architect
(architect of
of Luxor),
Luxor), 204
204
Amenhetep(son
(sonofofHapu),
Hapu),204
204
Amenhetep
Amenhetep
Amenhetep II (Amenophis
(Amenophis I),
I), Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of
Egypt,
Egypt, 177
177

Index
Index

442

Amenhetep II,
II, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
181,
Amenhetep
Egypt, 181,
188,
188, 242
242
Amenhetep III,
III, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt,
Amenhetep
181-82,200,242,275,276,295
181-82, 200, 242, 275, 276, 295
Amenhetep
See Akhenaton
Amenhetep IV.
IV. See
Akhenaton
Amnanu tribe,
tribe, 99
99
Amnanu
Amon (god),
186, 191,
Amon
(god), 174,
174, 177,
177, 178,
178, 185,
185,186,191,
193,
194, 195
193,194,195
Amon-Ra' (god),
(god), 177,
184,
Amon-Ra'
177, 179,
179, 181,
181, 183,
183, 184,
185
185
Amorites, 99n.l,
Amorites,
99n.l, 100,
100, 122,232,236-37,
122, 232, 236-37,
288,
288, 289,
289, 290,
290, 291;
291; culture
culture and
and alphaalphabet of
bet
of Canaanite-Amorite
Canaanite-Amorite civilization,
civilization,
306-8;
Ur and
rise of
306-8; and
and fall
fall of
of Ur
and rise
of Issin,
Issin,
95-97; and Israelites, encounter with,
302;
and the
the "Sea
302; and
"Sea Peoples,"
Peoples," 299-305
299-305
Amu Darya
Darya River,
River, 33,
33, 218,
218, 226,
226, 382,
382, 383,
385
385
Amurru,
Amurru, 294-96,
294-96, 297
An
(god), 126
126
An (god),
Anahita
Anahita (goddess),
(goddess), 38!)
385
Anath (goddess),
Anath
(goddess), 305
305
Anatolia, 30n.l,
267-68, 270,
271, 278,
Anatolia,
30n.l, 267-68,
270, 271,
278,
309,
309, 367n.3.
367 n.3. See
Seeal50Asia
also AsmMinor;
Minor;HitHittite
tite Kingdom
Kingdom
Anau, 225, 370
370
Ancestress
Keng ("the
406
Ancestress Keng
("the Seventh"),
Seventh"), 406
Ancient
discussion of
Ancient history:
history: discussion
of theoretical
theoretical
4-13; problems
problems
in, 4-13;
problems in,
problems of
of anancient
21-25; problems
cient chronology,
chronology, 2125;
problems of
of
sources
sources for,
for, 14-21
14-21
Ancient Society:
Ancient
Society: or,
or,Researches
Researchesininthe
theLine
Lineof
of
Human Progress
Progress from Savagery
Human
Savagery through
through
Barbarism to
to Civilization (Morgan), 6
Andronovo archaeological
Andronovo
archaeological culture,
culture,
369n.7
369n.7
andurarum,
andurarum, 234
234
Anghro
Anghro Mainyu
Mainyu (Ahro
(Ahro Manyu,
Manyu,
Ahriman), 384
Anittas, 271,
Anittas,
271, 272
272
Anshan, 89, 223-24,230,386
223-24, 230, 386
Anti-Lebanon Mountains,
Anti-Lebanon
Mountains, 286-87
286-87
Antinous,
Antinous, 342
342
Anyang, 394, 395, 402;
402, 406, 409; oracle
archive of, 395-98
395-98
aoidoi,
aoidoi,328,
328,335
335
Apennine Peninsula,
Peninsui;,l, 360
Apep,195
Apep,
195
Apepi,
Apepi, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 171,211
171, 211
Apeshlaians,
257
Apeshlaians, 257
Apis,194
Apis, 194
Apollo
Apollo (god),
(god), 342,
342, 358
358

Apollonia, 361
Arabia, 30, 101,
101, 170,300
170, 300
Arabian Peninsula, 287, 300
Aramaeans, 255, 257, 263,
263, 288, 300
Aratta,224
Aratta, 224
Araxes River, 33
Arbela (now Erbil), 229, 252
Archaic Period, 354, 355
Archias, 359
Archilochus, 360
Argolis, 319, 327
Argos
Argos Plain,
Plain, 324
324
Ariana, 368n.5
Ariana,
368 n.5
Ariana, 385
Arinna,285
Arinna, 285
Aristobulus,
222
Aristobulus, 222
Aristotle, 61
61
Arizhen (Adalzhen), 233,
235n. 10, 239
233, 235n.1O,
Arrapkhe
Arrapkhe (now
(now Kirkuk), 229,
229, 230,
230, 231,
231,
239, 239n.13,
239n.l3, 241, 242, 243, 250, 251;
251;
Hurrian Kingdom
Kingdom of,
of, 244-49,
244-49, 290
290
Arsanias
Arsanias (Muradsu),
(Muradsu), 231
231
Artadama
Artadama I,
I, Mitanni King,
King, 242,
242, 293
293
Artadama II,
II, Mitanni
Mitanni King,
King, 243
Artadama
243
Artemis
312 n.5
Artemis (goddess),
(goddess), 312n.5
Aryanam-Va~0,383,384,385
Aryanam-Vaejo,
383, 384, 385

Aryans,
371. See
See also
alsoIndo-Aryan
Indo-Aryan
Aryans, 370,
370, 371.
tribes
tribes
Aryoshayana, 383-84,
Aryoshayana,
383-84, 385
385
Arzawa,
274-75, 281
Arzawa, 274-75,
281
Asak
Asak (god),
(god), 133
Ashdod,304
Ashdod, 304
Ashkelon,
Ashkelon, 304
304
Asia
190,
Asia Minor,
Minor, 28,
28, 29,
29, 46,
46, 83,
83, 180,
180, 187,
187, 190,
263,272,287,
263,
272, 287, 309,315,
309, 315, 329, 352; and
Achaeans,
exAchaeans, military
military and
and colonizing
colonizing expansion
pansion of,
of, 324-25;
324-25; and
and Asshur,
Asshur, trade
trade
Kingwith, 235-36;
with,
235-36; culture
culture of.Hittite
of Hittite Kingdom in, 283-85;
283-85; and
and Greek colonization, 327,
361 n.3,
nization,
327, 357,
357, 358,
358, 360,
360, 361n.3,
363;
363; discovery
discovery of
of Hittites in, 266-67;
Indo-European
Indo-European tribes,
tribes, emigration
emigration into,
into,
367,
367, 367n.3;justice
367n.3; justice and law in Hittite
Kingdom,
Kingdom, 283;
283; and
and Kingdom
Kingdom of
of
Mitanni, 240,
Mitanni,
240, 242;
242; and
and Kingdom
Kingdom of
of
the
Sargonids, 85,
85, 86,
86, 88;
88; New
Hittite
the Sargonids,
New Hittite
New KingKingKingdom in,
Kingdom
in, 274-79;
274-79; and
and New
dom
trade with,
dom of
of Egypt,
Egypt, trade
with, 173;
173; Old
Old
Hittite
Hittite Kingdom
Kingdom in,
in, 272-74;
272-74; and
and
Phoenician towns,
towns, trade
trade with,
with, 289-90;
Phoenician
289-90;
pottery
Prepottery in
in Chalcolithic
Chalcolithic Age,
Age, 224;
224; PreHittite
Hittite Period
Period in
in Central
Central Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor,

Index
267-72;
267-72; and
and Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad I's
Fs emempire,
pire, 237-38,
237-38, 252;
252; socioeconomic
socioeconomic
relations in
279-83;
relations
in Hittite
Hittite Kingdom,
Kingdom, 279-83;
Troy
Seealso
also
Troy Villa,
Villa, site
site of,
of, 324-25.
324-25. See
Central
Central Asia;
Asia; Middle
Middle Asia;
Asia; Southeast
Southeast
Asia;
Asia
Asia; Western
Western Asia
"Asiatic
"Asiatic mode
mode of
of production,"
production," 5-6,
5-6, 9-11
9-11
Asshur
123,
Asshur (now
(now Qal'at
Qal'at Sherqat),
Sherqat), 100,
100, 123,
181,230,
181, 230, 231n.3,
231n.3, 242,
242, 243,
243, 262,
262, 271,
271,
with,
276;
276; and
and Asia
Asia Minor,
Minor, trade
trade with,
268-69; city-state
city-state of
of and
and emergence
emergence
268-69;
of Kingdom
Kingdom of
early
of
of Assyria,
Assyria, 252-58;
252-58; early
political
political history
history of,
of, 233-36;
233-36; and
and
Egypt, diplomatic
diplomatic relations
Egypt,
relations with,
with, 254;
254;
and
233,
and Shamshi-Adad
Shamshi-Adad I's
Fs empire,
empire, 233,
236-38
236-38
Asshur-uballit
King of
Asshur, 243,
243,
Asshur-uballit I,
I, King
of Asshur,
249,
249, 254
254
Assyria,
Assyria, 21,
21, 48,
48, 228,
228, 243,
243, 249,
249, 266,
266, 269,
274,276,297,298,362;
274, 276, 297, 298, 362; and
Babylonia, relations
relations with, 254-56,
254-56,
257,262-63;
of Asshur and
257, 262-63; city-state of
emergence
emergence of
of Kingdom
Kingdom of,
of, 252-54;
252-54;
and India, trade with, 373-74n.9; language
guage of,
of, 236,
236, 285;
285; Middle
Middle Assyrian
Assyrian
Laws,
Laws, 258-60;
258-60; and
and problems
problems of
of anan21
cient
cient chronology,
chronology, 21
asuras, 378
Aswan
Aswan Dam,
Dam, 190,204
190, 204
Athene (goddess),
Athene
(goddess), 312n.5,
312n.5, 337
337
Athens,
Athens, 318,
318, 325,
325, 329
329
Atlantic
Atlantic Ocean,
Ocean, 351
351
n.8
Atlantis, 316
316n.8
Aton (god), 183-85
183-85
Atreus,
Atreus, tomb
tomb of,
of, 320
320
Atum (god), 195,
195, 198
Atum-Ra
Atum-Ra (god),
(god), 198,212
198,212
Augustus, Emperor,
Augustus,
Emperor, 18,
18, 20
20
Ausa,
Ausa, 349
349
Austroasiatic
Austroasiatic linguistic
linguistic family,
family, 387
387 n.2,
n.2,
388,
388, 423
423
"Autobiography
"Autobiography of
of Hattusilis
Hattusilis III,
III, The,"
The,"
284
284
Avaris, 170-71,
Avaris,
170-71, 177,
177, 177n.6
177 n.6
Avesta, 369n.7;
Avesta,
369n.7;and
andZoroastrianism,
Zoroastrianism,
381-86
381-86
Avetisyan,
Avetisyan, H.
H. M.,
M., 240
240
Awal
235 n. 10
Awal (Hawalum),
(Hawalum), 235,
235, 235n.1O
awilum,
awilum,116,
116,117
117
Ay,
Ay, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 185-86
185-86
Azerbaijan,
7, 380
369 n.
n.7,
380
Azerbaijan, 369
Aziru,
Aziru, King
King of
of Amurru,
Amurru, 296
296

443
Azov,
362 n.4, 363
363
Azov, Sea
Sea of,
of, 362nA,
Azzi tribe,
tribe, 275
275
Azzi
Ba,197
Ba,
197
Babylon and
Babylon
and Babylonians,
Babylonians, 20,
20, 136,
136, 181,
181,
230, 238,
238, 240,
240, 285,
285, 379;
379; end
end of
of Old
Old
230,
Babylonian Period,
Period, 122,...23;
122-23; HamHamBabylonian
112-21; Middle
Middle
murapi, Laws
Laws of,
of, 112-21;
murapi,
Babylonian Period
Period in
in Lower
Lower MesoBabylonian
Mesopotamia, the
the Kassite
Kassite Kingdom,
Kingdom, and
and
potamia,
Elam, 261-63;
261-63; military
military operations
operations of
of
Elam,
Hattusilis II and
and Mursilis
Mursilis II against,
against,
Hattusilis
272-73; Old
Old Babylonian
economy,
272-73;
Babylonian economy,
103-4, 108-10;
108-10; Old
Old Babylonian
Babylonian so103-4,
so103-11; political
political history
history of
of Old
Old
ciety, 103-11;
ciety,
Babylonian Period,
Period, 98-103;
98-103; and
and
Babylonian
Shamshi-Adad I's
I's empire,
empire, 237-38;
Shamshi-Adad
237-38; sosocial functions
functions of
of the
the temple,
temple, 107-8;
107-8;
cial
society of
of Middle
Middle Babylonian
Babylonian Period,
Period,
society
264-65
264-65
Babylonia,
231, 237,
249, 252,
254, 274,
274,
Babylonia, 231,
237, 249,
252, 254,
308;
308; problems
problems of
of ancient
ancient chronology,
chronology,
22; relations
with Assyria,
Assyria, 254-56,
254-56,
22;
relations with
257, 262-63
257,262-63
Babylonian-Assyrian
71
Babylonian-Assyrian language,
language, 71
Babu,
79
Babu, archive
archive of,
of, 79
Bactria
Bactria and
and Bactrians,
Bactrians, 380,
380, 381,
381, 382,
382, 385
385
Badakhshan, 79,
79,229
Badakhshan,
229
Baetis
River valley
Baetis River
valley (now
(now Guadalquivir),
Guadalquivir),
353
353
Bahrain
79, 101,219,256
101, 219, 256
Bahrain Islands,
Islands, 79,
bakew,
bakew,165,
165,166
166
Balearic Islands,
349, 360
Balearic
Islands, 349,
360
Balikh,230
Balikh, 230
Balkan
317,
Balkan Peninsula,
Peninsula, 267,
267, 268,
268, 309,
309, 317,
326
326
Balkans,
367
Balkans, 28,
28, 30,
30, 268,
268, 270,
270, 367
ballutu ina lumne, 253
Baluchistan, 218,
218, 221-22,
221-22, 223,
223, 38238283n.1O
83n.lO
Ban
Chiang, 390n.5
Ban Chiang,
390 n.5
Banebjed,
194
Banebjed, 194
Bangladesh,214
Bangladesh,
214
Barak,
303
Barak,303
Barbarism,
distinguished from
from class
class soBarbarism, distinguished
society, 36,
36, 37
ciety,
37
Barca,
Barca, 362
362
basileis
basileis (basileus),
(basileus),323,
323,332,
332, 343-46
343-46
Basques,
Basques, 352
352
Batumi,257
Batumi, 257
Bay
Bay of
of Bengal
Bengal (Bangladesh),
(Bangladesh), 31
31
Berezan (now
(now Schmidt's
Schmidt's Island),
Island), 361
361
Berezan

444
Berlev, O. D., 163
Bethel,302
Bethel, 302
Bible, 5,16-17,266,299;
5, 16-17, 266, 299; and the migration of
of "those who had crossed the
river" and the "Sea Peoples," 300-5
300-5
Bithia, 350
Black Sea, 30, 222n.5, 257, 268, 272,
275,367,368,369,380;
275, 367, 368, 369, 380; Greek colonization in region of, 358, 361,
361, 362,
362,
363,364
363, 364
Blue Nile, 137
Boghazkoy (formerly
(formerly Hattusas), 241,
241,
266-67,269,271,283,294.
See also
266-67,
269, 271, 283, 294. See
also
Hattusas
Hattusas
Bohtan
Bohtan Su,
Su, 228
228
Bolan
Bolan Pass,
Pass, 215n.2
215 n.2
Book of
of Joshua, 301
301
Book
Book of
of Judges,
Judges, 301,
301, 305
305
Bosporus and Bosporites, 362, 362n.4,
363
363
Bothrys, 349
Bouchis, 194
Bousiris, 196
Brahmanas, 372, 375
Brahmanas,
Brahmans, 375,376
375, 376
Brahui, 219, 224
Bronze Age, 218,
218, 225-26, 288, 388, 398,
427
427
Buddhism, 58, 59
Bug River, 362
Burma, 387,409
387, 409
Burnaburiash I, Kassite King, 262
Buto,141
Buto, 141
Byblos, 163,
163, 180,288,289,294,295,307
180, 288, 289, 294, 295, 307
Byelorussia, 367 n.4
Byrsa, 351
351
Byzantium, 361
Cairo,
151
Cairo, 151
Callatis,
Callatis, 361
361
Campania,
Campania, 359
359
Canaanites,
Canaanites, 288, 291,
291, 292,
292, 296, 302-4;
culture
culture and
and alphabet
alphabet of
of CanaaniteCanaaniteAmorite civilization,
civilization, 306-8
306-8
Cappadocia,
268-69,270
Cappadocia, 268-69,
270
Capua,
359
Capua, 359
Carbon
25
Carbon dating,
dating, 25
Carchemish,
231n.3,
n.3, 243,
243, 255,
255, 276,
276,
Carchemish, 180,
180, 231
297,298
297, 298
Carter, Howard,
Howard, 185
185
Carter,
Carthage
350, 351,
Carthage and
and Carthaginians,
Carthaginians, 350,
351,

Index
354,359,362
354,
359, 362
Caspian
382
Caspian Sea,
Sea, 90,
90, 214,
214, 367,
367, 369,
369, 382
Gatal-Hiiyiik,
gatal-Huyiik, 29,
29, 267,
267, 287
287
Caucasus,
Caucasus, 245n.15,
245 n. 15, 270,
270, 278
278
Cedar
Cedar Grove,
Grove, 250
250
Celestial
421, 423
423
Celestial Empire,
Empire, 421,
Celts,
Celts, 364,
364, 367n.4
367 n.4
Central
Africa, 137.
Central Africa,
137. See
See also
alsoAfrica;
Africa;
North Africa
North
Africa
214n.l; and
the Aryan
Central
Asia, 13,
Central Asia,
13, 214n.l;
and the
Aryan
question,
Avesta and
question, 366-71;
366-71; and
and the
the Avesta
and
Zoroastrianism,
Zoroastrianism, 381-86;
381-86; in
in the
the first
first
half
the first
first millennium
half of
of the
millennium B.C.,
B.C., 38038081;
prerequisites for
for creation
pre81; prerequisites
creation of
of preSeealso
alsoAsia
Asia
urban
society in,
in, 222-27.
urban society
222-27. See
Minor; Middle
Middle Asia;
Asia; Southeast
Asia;
Minor;
Southeast Asia;
Western
Asia
Western Asia
Cepi, 362
Cepi,362
Chaghar-Bazar,
Chaghar-Bazar, 239
239
Chalcidice,
Chalcidice, 360
360
Chalcis
359,
Chalcis and
and Chalcideans,
Chalcideans, 357,
357, 358,
358, 359,
360,363
360, 363
Chalcolithic Age, 33, 124, 139, 145, 223,
223,
224,267,268,288,398;
224, 267, 268, 288, 398; art
art during,
during,
125,
128
125, 126,
126, 128
Chaldeans, 257, 263
263
Ch'ang (Wen wang), 411
Chan
Chan Kuo
Kuo Period
Period (Preimperial
(Preimperial Period),
Period),
420
420
Chao
Chao Kingdom,
Kingdom, 426
426
251
Chaos
Chaos (god),
(god), 251
Checheno-Ingushetia,
231
Checheno-Ingushetia, 231
Chechiang,
Chechiang, 422,
422, 423
423
Ch'eng-Chou,
412,
Ch'eng-Chou, 394,
394, 394n.9,
394n.9, 398,
398, 412,
414,416
414,416
Cheng
Kingdom, 421,
421, 429,
429, 431
431
Cheng Kingdom,
Ch'eng
Ch'eng wang,
wang, 412,
412, 414
Chen Kingdom, 425, 431
431
Cheops
Cheops (Khufu),
(Khufu), Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt,
154-55,201,211
154-55,201,211
Chephrenes (Kha'f-Ra'), Pharaoh of
of
Egypt, 154, 155,201
155, 201
Chersonesus Tauricus, 361
361
Chesnaux,
Chesnaux, J., 99
Chianghsi Province, 393, 397
Ch'iangs, 405, 406, 407
Ch'iang Yuan (goddess), 410
Chief
181
Chief of
of the
the Northern Countries,
Countries, 181
Ch'i
Kingdom, 423,
Ch'i Kingdom,
423, 425,
425, 429
429
5,13,28,46,214,224,226,
13, 28, 46, 214, 224, 226,
China, 5,
387-93;
387-93; ancient
ancient geographical
geographical region
region

Index
Index
of, 389-90;
389-90; ideology
ideology of
of Chou,
Chou, 416-19;
416-19;
of,
political history
history of
of Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period,
Period,
political
420-26; problems
problems of
of ancient
ancient chrochro420-26;
nology, 23;
23; Shang
Shang society,
society, 401-9;
401-9;
nology,
Shang (Yin)
(Yin) "state,"
"state," 393-401;
393-401; social
social
Shang
order of
of Lie
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period,
Period, 426-32;
426-32;
order
sources of
of history
history for,
for, 17-18;
17-18; state
state fedfedsources
eration of
of Chou,
Chou, 409-16
409-16
eration
Ch'inchiang (Chianghsi),
(Chianghsi), 399
399
Ch'inchiang
Ch'in-Han Empire,
Empire, 388
388
Ch'in-Han
Chin Kingdom,
Kingdom, 423,
423, 424,
424, 425,
425, 426,
426, 429
429
Chin
Ch'in Shih
Shih Huang-ti,
Huang-ti, tomb
tomb of,
of, 18
18
Ch'in
Chionites, 385
385
Chionites,
Chios, 327,
327, 361,
361, 363
363
Chios,
Chorreras, 350
350
Chorreras,
Chou, 388,
388, 389,
389, 397,
397, 398,
398, 401;
401; ideology
ideology
Chou,
of, 416-19;
416-19; and
and political
political history
history of
of Lie
of,
Lie
Kuo Period,
Period, 421-26;
421-26; state
state federation
federation
Kuo
of, 409-16
409-16
of,
Chou-Kung, 422
422
Chou-Kung,
Christianity, 59,
59, 65
Christianity,
65
Chryseis, 342
Chryseis,
342
Chuang, 422
422
Chuang,
Ch'u Kingdom,
Kingdom, 422,
424, 425,
Ch'u
422, 423,
423, 424,
425, 429,
429,
431
431
Ch'un
Ch'un Ch'in,
Ch'in,421,
421,422,
422,426
426
Chung
Chung Shang,
Shang,397,
397,400
400
Cimmerian
(Kerch Strait),
Strait), 362
362
Cimmerian Bosporus
Bosporus (Kerch
"Circle A"
317-18
"Circle
A" graves,
graves, 317-18
"Circle B"
"Circle
B" graves,
graves, 318
318
City
of the
the Dead,
Dead, 155
155
City of
Clan
Clan of
of the
the Ram,
Ram, 410
410
Class
formaClass society:
society: preconditions
preconditions for
for formation
of, 27-31;
27-31; slave
slave exploitation
exploitation in,
in,
tion of,
40-43;
37-44
40-43; in
in Sumer,
Sumer, 37-44
Claudius
Claudius Ptolemaeus,
Ptolemaeus, 24
24
Clytemnestra,
317-18
Clytemnestra, 317-18
Cnidus,
Cnidus, 360,
360, 363
363
Collingwood,
Collingwood, R.,
R., 77
Colophon,
Colophon, 327,
327, 360,
360, 361
361
Colossi
of Memnon,
Memnon, 181
181
Colossi of
"Conversation
"Conversation of
of aa Disillusioned
Disillusioned Man
Man
with
The," 211
211
with His
His Soul,
Soul, The,"
Copper
Copper Age,
Age, 215
215
Copper-Stone
alsoChalChalCopper-Stone Age,
Age, 145.
145. See
See also
colithic
colithic Age
Age
n.3
Coptic
Coptic language,
language, 143
143 n.3
Coptos,
195
Coptos, 156,
156, 195
Corcyra,
Corcyra, 357,
357, 358,
358, 359,
359, 363
363
Corinth
Corinth and
and Corinthians,
Corinthians, 356,
356, 357,
357, 358,
358,
363
363

445
445
Corsica,
Corsica, 349,
349, 360
360
Crete,
Crete, 163,219,249,277,292,308,324,
163, 219, 249, 277, 292, 308, 324,
325,
325, 335,
335, 346,
346, 357,359,
357, 359, 362.
362. See
Seealso
also
Minoan
Minoan (Cretan)
(Cretan) civilization
civilization
Crimea,
Crimea, 361,
361, 362
362
Critique
Economy,
The The
(Marx),
CritiqueofofPolitical
Political
Economy,
(Marx),
5-6
5-6
Croce,
Croce, B.,
B., 77
Cronos
Cronos (god),
(god), 284
284
Croton,
Croton, 360,
360, 364
364
Cumae,357
Cumae, 357
Cymaeans,
Cymaeans, 357
357
Cyprus,
Cyprus, 173,277,278,315,325,349,351
173, 277, 278, 315, 325, 349, 351
Cyrenaica,
Cyrenaica, 362
362
Cyrene,362
Cyrene, 362

Daghestan, 90,
90, 231
231
Daghestan,
Damascus,
Damascus, 287,
287, 289,
289, 296
296
Danube
317
Danube region,
region, 30,
30, 309,
309, 317
Danube
Danube River,
River, 28,
28, 363
363
226
Darache-yi Seistan,
Seistan, 224n.6,
224 n.6, 226
Darache-yi
Dardanelles, 324
324
Dardanelles,
Dardo-Kafir(s),
369 n.7, 370,
370,
Dardo-Kaflr(s), 367,
367, 368,
368, 369n.7,
380
380
dasa, 375
dasa,375
Dasyu, 221
Dasyu,221
Dead
Sea, 286,
Dead Sea,
286, 302
302
Dead
Sea scrolls,
scrolls, 17
Dead Sea
17
Deborah, 303
303
Deborah,
Decline ofofthe
TheThe
(Spengler),
7 7
Decline
theWest,
West,
(Spengler),
Deir el-Bahri,
168, 178
Deir
el-Bahri, 168,
178
Delhi,
Delhi, 216
216
Delphi,
Delphi, 358
358
demiourgoi,
333-34
demiourgoi, 333-34
Der
Der (now
(now Bedre),
Bedre), 230,
230, 235
235
devas,
378,380,
380,384
384
devas, 378,
Diakonoff,
I. M.,
M., 113
113
Diakonoff, I.
Dicaearchia,
Dicaearchia, 360
360
didennutu,
244
didennutu, 244
101, 219
Dilmun
Dilmun Islands,
Islands, 79,
79, 101,219
Dilthey,
w., 77
Dilthey, W.,
dimtu,
244-45
dimtu, 244-45
Dionysius
24-25
Dionysius Exiguus,
Exiguus, 24-25
Dioscurias
Dioscurias (Sukhumi),
(Sukhumi), 362
362
Diyala
228, 229,
Diyala River,
River, 67,
67, 95,
95, 96,
96, 114,
114,228,229,
230,237,260
230,
237, 260
Diyala Valley,
Valley, 71,
71, 85,
Diyala
85, 230,
230, 233,
233, 235,
235, 263
263
Djandieri,
Djandieri, M.
M. I.,
I., 245
245
Djedef-Ra',
Djedef-Ra', 156
156
Djehutimes,
Djehutimes, 186n.7,
186n.7, 207
207
Djehutiy,
211
Djehutiy,211

446
Djer, tomb
tomb of,
of, 144
144
Djer,
Djeser, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 145,
145, 156,
156,201
Djeser,
201
Dniester River,
River, 362,
362, 363
363
Dniester
Don River,
River, 362
362n.4,
Don
n.4, 363
363
Dorians, 327,
327, 329,
329, 330
330
Dorians,
Drangiana, 224
224n.6,
226, 382,
382, 383
383
n.6, 226,
Drangiana,
Dravidian languages,
languages, 89,
89, 219,
219, 366
366
Dravidian
(shepherd god),
god), 132
132
Dumuzi (shepherd
Dumuzi
dunnu, 253
253
dunnu,
Dur-Kurigalzu, 257,
257, 262
262
Dur-Kurigalzu,
Dushratta, Mitanni
Mitanni King,
King, 240,
240, 242-43,
242-43,
Dushratta,
276
276
Dvapara, 374
Dvapara,

Ea (god),
(god), 126
126
Ea
Eanatum, 81-82,
81-82, 83n.18
Eanatum,
83n.l8
Eanna temple,
temple, 73
73
Eanna
267-68, 309,
309, 398,
398,
Early Bronze
Bronze Age,
Age, 267-68,
Early
422
422
Early Bronze
Bronze Lungshan
Lungshan culture,
culture, 392
392
Early
Early Neolithic
Neolithic Period,
Period, 287
287
Early
East China
China Sea,
Sea, 389
389
East
Eastern Caucasian
Caucasian languages,
languages, 231,
231, 232,
Eastern
232,
244, 366
366
244,
420, 421.
421. See
See also
Eastern Chou,
alsoChina
China
Eastern
Chou, 420,
Eastern
Empire, 411
411
Eastern Han
Han Empire,
Eastern Iranians,
381. See
Seealso
also
Eastern
Iranians, 370,
370, 380,
380, 381.
Iran
Iran
Eastern
Mediterranean Belt,
Belt, 287,
287, 289,
289,
Eastern Mediterranean
See also
294, 296,
296, 306.
294,
306. See
alsoPalestine;
Palestine;PhoePhoenicia; Syria
Syria
nicia;
Eastern
287
Eastern Semites,
Semites, 72,
72, 232,
232, 287
Eastern
language, 71,
87
Eastern Semitic
Semitic language,
71, 81,
81, 85,
85, 87
Vi, 416
Eastern Yi,
'Eber,
'Eber, 300
300
Ebla,
Ebla, 89,
89, 231
231 n.3,
n.3, 232,
232, 288,
288, 289
289
Edomites,
Edomites, 300,
300, 302
302
e-dubba,
e-dubba,13In.3,
131 n.3,134
134
Egypt, 13,28,45,56,67,129,214,220,
13, 28, 45, 56, 67, 129, 214, 220,
250,263,266,274,277,303;
250, 263, 266, 274, 277, 303; architecarchitecture
ture of,
of, 199-204;
199-204; and
and Arzawa,
Arzawa, contact
contact
with,
with, 274-75;
27475; and
and Asshur,
Asshur, diplomatic
diplomatic
relations
relations with,
with, 254;
254; centralized
centralized adminadministration under pharaohs of Old Kingdom,
dom, 153-57;
153-57; and
and Crete,
Crete, trade
trade with,
315-16;
315-16; Early
Early Kingdom
Kingdom of,
of, 144-48;
144-48;
early
early society,
society, form
form of,
of, 44-45;
44-45; and
and
emergence
emergence of
of civilization
civilization in
in Syria,
Syria,
288,
Phoenicia,
Phoenicia, and
and Palestine,
Palestine, 287,
287, 288,
289,
289, 290;
290; emergence
emergence of
of state
state in,
in, 13713744;
44; First
First Intermediate
Intermediate Period
Period of,
of,

Index
Index

158-61,
dif158-61, 162,
162, 165;
165; first
first societal
societal class
class differentiation
ferentiation in,
in, 37,
37, 38;
38; and
and Greek
Greek
colonization,
Hapiru,
and Hapiru,
colonization, 362,
362, 363;
363; and
popular
popular movement
movement of,
of, 294-96;
294-96; HitHittites
tites and
and Pharaonic
Pharaonic Egypt,
Egypt, 296-98;
296-98;
irrigation
irrigation system
system in,
in, 32,
32, 33,
33, 139-40,
139-40,
145,
145, 146,
146, 161,
161, 167;
167; and
and Kingdom
Kingdom of
of
Mitanni,
Mitanni, clash
clash with,
with, 242-43;
242-43; literature
literature
of,
of, 210-12;
210-12; Middle
Middle Kingdom
Kingdom of,
of, 158,
158,
161-70,
173, 196, 197, 203, 204, 206,
161-70,173,196,197,203,204,206,
208,
210, 211,
empire
208,210,
211, 213,
213, 288;
288; military
military empire
during
during Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, 174-82;
174-82;
Mitanni
Mitanni and
and Pharaonic
Pharaonic Egypt,
Egypt, 29194;
291-94;
New
167, 171, 172New Kingdom
Kingdom of,
of, 58,
58,167,171,17292,
196, 197, 199, 204, 207, 208, 211,
92,196,197,199,204,207,208,211,
212,
213; Nineteenth
212,213;
Nineteenth Dynasty
Dynasty of,
of, 18718790;
90; Old
Old Kingdom
Kingdom of,
of, 146,
146, 147,
147, 148-57,
148-57,
168,
176, 197, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211;
168,176,197,206,207,208,210,211;
political
Kingdom,
political history
history of
of Middle
Middle Kingdom,
168-70; Predynastic
142168-70;
Predynastic period
period of,
of, 14243;
chronology,
43; problems
problems of
of ancient
ancient chronology,
22-23;
154-55, 167,
22-23; pyramids
pyramids of,
of, 154-55,
167,
201-2;
201-2; reliefs
reliefs of,
of, 207-9;
207-9; religion
religion
of,
193-98; religious
of, 193-98;
religious reforms
reforms of
of
Akhenaton
of the
Akhenaton and
and the
the end
end of
the EighEighhemwew,
teenth
Dynasty, 182-87;
182-87; royal
teenth Dynasty,
royal hemwew,
position
in Egyptian
Egyptian society,
society, 163-68;
position in
163-68;
royal,
temple, and
royal, temple,
and dignitaries'
dignitaries' econoeconomies in
in Old
149-53; science
science
mies
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, 149-53;
of,
of, 212-13;
212-13; sculpture
sculpture of,
of, 205-7;
205-7; Sea
Sea
190-91, 304, 325;
Peoples, invasion
invasion by,
by, 190-91,304,325;
Peoples,
Second Intermediate
Intermediate Period
and
Second
Period and
Hyksos invasion
of, 170-71,
170-71, 173,
173, 174174Hyksos
invasion of,
76,
177, 290-91; sources
sources for
for history
history of,
of,
76,177,290-91;
15-16; Twentieth
Twentieth Dynasty
Dynasty and
and end
15-16;
end of
of
the New
Kingdom, 190-92;
190-92; war
the
New Kingdom,
war with
with
Hittites, 188-90;
188-90; writing
system of,
of,
Hittites,
writing system
209-10. See
alsoManethonian
Manethoniandynasdynas209-10.
See also
ties; Middle
Middle Egypt;
Egypt; Lower
Lower Egypt;
Egypt;
ties;
Upper Egypt
Egypt
Upper
Eia, 251
251
Eia,
Ekallatum,
237
Ekallatum, 237
Ekron,
Ekron, 304
304
Elam
95,
81, 86,
86, 90,
90, 92,
92, 95,
Elam and
and Elamites,
Elamites, 75,
75, 81,
230,
230, 235,
235, 262,
262, 263,
263, 366,
366, 386;
386; First
First DyDynasty of
of Issin,
Issin, 96-97;
96-97; and
and Gudea,
Gudea, rule
rule
nasty
90-91; and
and Kingdom
Kingdom of
of the
the SarSarof, 90-91;
of,
gonids, 88-89;
88-89; language
language of,
of, 219;
gonids,
219;
Middle Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period in
in Lower
Lower
Middle
Mesopotamia, Kassite
Kassite Kingdom,
Kingdom, and,
and,
Mesopotamia,
261-63; and
and prerequisites
prerequisites for
for the
the
261-63;

Index
Index
creation
creation of
of pre-urban
pre-urban society
society in
in Iran
Iran
and Central
Central Asia,
Asia, 223-24;
223-24; rivers
of,
and
rivers of,
68,
68n.2
68,68n.2
Elamite-Dravidian languages,
languages, 232
232
Elamite-Dravidian
Elbe,30
Elbe, 30
Elephantine, 168,
194
Elephantine,
168, 194
Elis,
Elis, 327,
327, 336
336
Elissa,
Elissa, 351
351
199
El-Lahun,
El-Lahun, 199
Emar,
250
231 n.3, 242,
242,250
Emar, 231n.3,
Emporicus, 350
350
Emporicus,
Emporion, 360
360
Emporion,
Lagash, 82
82
Enentarzi, Ruler
Ruler of
of Lagash,
Enentarzi,
Engels,
Engels, Friedrich,
Friedrich, 5-6,
5-6, 9-10,
9-10, 337-38,
337-38,
343,344,365
343,
344, 365
Enki (god),
134
Enki
(god), 126,
126, 134
Enkidu,
Enkidu, 250
250
Enlil (god),
Enlil
(god), 73,
73, 86,
86, 93,
93, 95,
95, 126,
126, 131,
131, 134
134
First Dynasty
En-Menbaragesi, Ruler
Ruler of
of First
Dynasty
En-Menbaragesi,
of Kish,
74-75
of
Kish, 74-75
Enmerkar,
132
Enmerkar, 132
Eos (goddess),
Eos
(goddess), 181n.3
181 n.3
Ephesus, 327
327
Ephesus,
Epidamnus, 358
358
Epidamnus,'
Epirus,
326
Epirus, 326
Eredu,
132
Eredu, 132
Ereshkigal
(goddess), 312
312n.5
Ereshkigal (goddess),
n.5
Eretrians,
360
Eretrians, 359,
359, 360
Erishum
Erishum I,
I, Ruler
Ruler of
of Asshur,
Asshur, 235-36
235-36
Eros (god),
251
Eros
(god), 251
Eshnunna,
Eshnunna, 237
237
Esneh, 194
Esneh,194
143 n.4, 145,
145, 155,
155, 156,
156, 163,
163,
Ethiopia,
137, 143n.4,
Ethiopia, 137,
169,173,174,177,178,180,191
169,173,174,177,
178, 180, 191
ethnogenesis,
ethnogenesis, 19
Etruria,
Etruria, 352,
352, 363
363
Euboea
359
Euboea and
and Euboeans,
Euboeans, 357,
357, 359
Eumaeus, 333,
339
Eumaeus,
333, 339
eunuchs,
eunuchs, 42-43n.6
42-43n.6
Eupeithes,
Eupeithes, 342-43
342-43
Euphrates,
44, 68,
100,
Euphrates, 32,
32, 44,
68, 79,
79, 85,
85, 95,
95, 96,
96, 100,
105, 178, 220, 228, 250, 257, 287; and
105,178,220,228,250,257,287;and
city of
of Carchemish,
Carchemish, 276,
297; and
and
city
276, 297;
crossing of
of the
"Sea Peoples,"
crossing
the "Sea
Peoples," 300;
300;
and Kingdom
of Mitanni,
and
Kingdom of
Mitanni, 240,
240, 242;
242;
and Mitanni
Mitanni and
and Pharaonic
Egypt,
. and
Pharaonic Egypt,
291, 292, 293; and
and regions
along
291,292,293;
regions along
See also
also
the Tigris,
Tigris, 228,
228, 229,
the
229, 230.
230. See
Lower Euphrates;
Euphrates; Lower
Euphrates
Lower
Lower Euphrates
Valley; Middle
Middle Euphrates;
Euphrates; Upper
Upper
Valley;
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia

447
Eurasian steppes,
steppes, 30
30
Eurasian
Europe,
Europe, 309,
309, 367
367 n.4,
n.4, 380
380
Eurymachus, 338
Eurymachus,
338
Evans,
32In. 13
Evans, Arthur,
Arthur, 309n.l,
309n.l, 321n.13
"Falcon
Pass," 235n.1O
"Falcon Pass,"
235 n. 10
Far
Seealso
alsoChina
China
Far East,
East, 48,
48, 386,
386, 395.
395. See
Fatha, 229,
229, 230n.2,
230n.2, 231n.3,
231n.3, 245
245
Fatha,
Fayum Oasis,
Oasis, 162-63,
162-63, 168,
168, 169,
169, 194
194
Fayum
Fen
Fen River,
River, 391,
391, 424
424
Frangrasyan, 383
383
Frangrasyan,
61
Freud,
Freud, Sigmund,
Sigmund, 61
Gadir
Gadir (Gades,
(Gades, now
now Cadiz),
Cadiz), 348,
348, 349
349
Ganges River,
214
Ganges
River, 214
Ganges
Valley, 371;
371; and
Ganges Valley,
and Indo-Aryans,
Indo-Aryans,
-78;
settling of,
of, 372-74;
372-74; states
states of,
of, 377
377-78;
settling
Vedic religion
and culture,
culture, 378-80
378-80
Vedic
religion and
Garo-dmana, 384
Gasur
(Nuzi), 229,
Gasur (Nuzi),
229, 231,
231, 235,
235, 239,
239, 244
244
Gath,304
Gath,
304
Gathas, 382,
Gathas,
382,384,
384,385
385
Gaul, 349, 358, 360
Gaul,349,358,360
Gaulus (now
(now Gozo),
Gozo), 350
Gaulus
350
Gaza,
Gaza, 179,291,304
179, 291, 304
Gazru
294
Gazru (Gezer),
(Gezer), 294
Geb (god),
(god), 198
198
Geb
Gela,
Gela, 357,
357, 359,
359, 363
363
Georgians,
Georgians, 257,
257, 278
278
Geshtinanna,
Geshtinanna, 132
Gilgamesh,
Gilgamesh, 75,
75, 84,
84, 132,
132, 250
250
Giorgadze,
Giorgadze, G.
G. G.,
G., lln.lO
lln.10
Girsu
79
Girsu (Ngirsu),
(Ngirsu), 79
Giza
Giza cliff,
cliff, tombs
tombs of,
of, 202
Gobi
Gobi Desert,
Desert, 389
389
Godelier,
Godelier, M.,
M., 99
Gonur-depe,
Gonur-depe, 382-83n.l0
382-83 n. 10
Gorgippia
Gorgippia (now
(now Anapa),
Anapa), 362
362
High Ancestress,
Ancestress, 407
407
Great and
Great
and High
Great
243,
Great Bend
Bend of
of the
the Euphrates,
Euphrates, 237,
237, 243,
255,287
255,287
Great
393, 414,
Great Chinese
Chinese Plain,
Plain, 390,
390, 391,
391, 393,
414,
420,424,425
420, 424, 425
Greater
369
Greater Caucasus,
Caucasus, 369
Greater
Greater (Upper)
(Upper) Zab,
Zab, 228
228
"Great
312
"Great Mistress,"
Mistress," 312
155
Gt;eat
Great Sphinx,
Sphinx, 155
Greece,
Greece, 13,28,46,58,308,318,325,
13, 28, 46, 58, 308, 318, 325,
367,381;
colo367, 381; chronology
chronology of,
of, 23-24;
23-24; colonization
nization by,
by, 350,
350, 354-65;
354-65; in
in the
the
Homeric Epics,
See also
also
Homeric
Epics, 328-46.
328-46. See

448

Greece (continued)
{continued)
Greece
Achaean
Achaean (Mycenaean)
(Mycenaean) civilization;
civilization;
Homeric
Homeric Epics;
Epics; Minoan
Minoan (Cretan)
(Cretan)
civilization
civilization
Gregory
Gregory XV,
XV, Pope,
Pope, 62
62
Guaba, 81
Guaba,81
Gual, 364
Gual,364
gwasileus, 323
Gypsum
230
Gypsum Desert,
Desert, 230

Haifa,
Haifa, 225n.8
225 n.8
Haleb
(now Aleppo),
Aleppo), 231n.3,
Haleb (now
231 n.3, 240,
240, 250,
250,
272,273,276,290
272, 273, 276, 290
Halicarnassus,
Halicarnassus, 327,
327, 363
363
Haltamti
Haltamti (Hatamti),
(Hatamti), 223
223
Babylon, 22,
22, 66,
66,
Hammurapi, King
King of
Hammurapi,
of Babylon,
100,
100, 102-3, 238, 240, 299; Laws of,
of,
112,
115-22,259
112,115-22,259
Hamrin mountains, 228, 229, 230, 239
Hamun
226
Hamun Lake,
Lake, 226
Hana,
240, 261
261
Hana, 240,
Hanean
Hanean tribes, 99,
99, 122
Hanigalbat,
240, 243,
243, 273
Hanigalbat, 240,
273
Hanjen, 387,
Hanjen,
387, 388
388
Han Kingdom,
Kingdom, 426
426
Han
Hantilis,
Hittite King,
King, 273,
274
Hantilis, Hittite
273, 274
Hao,
Hao, 420
420
Hapiru,
popular
Hapiru, 187,265,290,291,293;
187, 265, 290, 291, 293; popular
movement
movement of,
of, 294-96
294-96
Hapuseneb, 204
204
Hapuseneb,
Harappa
Harappan culture,
Harappa and
and Harappan
culture, 216-19,
216-19,
221,222,373,379.
221, 222, 373, 379. See
See also
alsoIndia
India
Haremhab, Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 186-87,
186-87,
188
188
Harris
papyrus, 190
190
Harris papyrus,
Hashu
272
Hashu (Hassuwa),
(Hassuwa), 272
hassus, 282
hassus,
Hathor
Hathor (god),
(god), 193,
193, 194
Hatshepsut,
Hatshepsut, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 178,
178, 203,
203,
292
292
Hatti
271, 272,
Hatti and Hattians,
Hattians, 268,
268, 270,
270, 271,

273,274,275,277,278,283,284.See
273, 274, 275, 277, 278, 283, 284. See
also Hittite
also
HittiteKingdom
Kingdom
Hattusas
Hattusas (now
(now Boghazkoy),
Boghazkoy), 250,
250, 266-67,
266-67,
268,269,271,272,273,
268, 269, 271, 272, 273, 273n.7,
273n.7, 278.
278.
See also
See
alsoBoghazkoy
Boghazkoy
Hattusilis
I, Hittite
King, 240,
240, 272-73
272-73
Hattusilis I,
Hittite King,
Hattusilis III,
III, Hittite
King, 189,277,297,
Hattusilis
Hittite King,
189, 277, 297,
298
298
Hawal,
233, 235,
235, 239
Hawal, 233,
239
Hayasa,
275
Hayasa, 275
hazannu,
hazannu, 253
253

Index
Hazor,
Hazor, 289,
289, 294,
294, 303-4
303-4
Hebat
(goddess), 250
250
Hebat (goddess),
Hebrew
71
Hebrew language,
language, 71
Heb-Sed,
200n.l
n.l
Heb-Sed, 200,
200, 200
Hegel,
Hegel, G.
G. F.
F. w.,
W., 5,
5, lOn.48
10n.48
Heliopolis,
Heliopolis, 194,
194, 195,
195, 198
198
Hellas,
Hellas, 352,
352, 353,
353, 355,
355, 358.
358. See
See also
also
Greece
Greece
Hellespont,
268, 324,
324, 358,
361
Hellespont, 268,
358, 360,
360, 361
hemwew, ininEgyptian
hemwew,
Egyptiansociety,
society,163-68
163-68
Heraclea
Heraclea Pontica,
Pontica, 361
361
194,211
Heracleopolis,
Heracleopolis, 160,
160, 161,
161,194,
211
Herihor,
191
Herihor, 191
Herishaf
Herishaf (god),
(god), 194
194
Hermonassa, 362
362
194
Hermontis, 194
Hermontis,
Herodotus,
Herodotus, 154-55,
154-55, 325
Hesiod,
284
Hesiod, 251,
251, 284
Hieraconopolis,
Hieraconopolis, 141, 144
Hilmand
226
Hilmand River,
River, 226
Himalayas,
Himalayas, 366
Hinduism,
59, 220,
220, 378-79
Hinduism, 59,
378-79
Hindu
Hindu Kush, 369
369
Hindustan,
Hindustan, 370,
370, 380
380
of Tyre,
Hiram, King
King of
Tyre, 351
351
Hiram,
Hissarlik
(Troy), 268.
See also
Hissarlik (Troy),
268. See
alsoTroy
Troy
Historians
Historians of
of antiquity,
antiquity, directions
directions for
for fufuture
ture research,
research, 55-66
55-66
Historical
Historical materialism,
materialism, 4-13;
4-13; and
and Asiatic
Asiatic
mode of
of production,
production, 9-10;
910; and
and cyclimode
cycli7; and
cal
cal theory
theory of
of history,
history, 66-7;
and IlyuIlyuworld history,
11shechkin's
shechkin's view
view of
of world
history, 11
12;
7-8
12; and
and theory
theory of
of universal
universal history,
history, 78
Antiquity (Meyer), 7
History of
of Antiquity
of Egypt (Manetho), 143
History of
Hittite Kingdom,
46,123,173,181,187,
Hittite
Kingdom, 46,
123, 173, 181, 187,
203,250,
252,255,256,260,
203, 250, 252,
255, 256, 260, 302n.9,
302 n.9,
304,367,
diplo304, 367, 4II;
411; and
and Ahhiyawa,
Ahhiyawa, diplomatic contacts
with, 325;
matic
contacts with,
325; and
and the
the
Amarna Period,
Period, 294;
294; Babylon,
deAmarna
Babylon, destruction
struction of,
of, 261;
261; culture
culture of,
of, 283-85;
283-85;
discovery
discovery of,
of, 266-67;
266-67; and
and Hapiru,
Hapiru,
popular movement
popular
movement of,
of, 294-96;
294-96; justice
justice
and law
law in,
in, 283;
283; New
New Kingdom,
Kingdom, 274274and
79,
Mitanni,
79, 284;
284; offensive
offensive against
against Mitanni,
242-43;
242-43; Old
Old Kingdom,
Kingdom, 272-74;
272-74; and
and
Pharaonic Egypt,
Egypt, 296-98;
296-98; Pre-Hittite
Pre-Hittite
Pharaonic
Period in
in central
central Asia
Asia Minor,
267-72;
Period
Minor, 267-72;
problems
of sources
sources for,
for, 1414-15;
problems of
15; sociosocioeconomic
relations in,
economic relations
in, 279-83;
war
279-83; war
with Egypt
during Nineteenth
Nineteenth DyDywith
Egypt during
nasty,
188-90
nasty, 188-90

Index
Index
flomer,
Homer, 18,277,279,317,324,325
18, 277, 279, 317, 324, 325
flomeric
Homeric Epics,
Epics, 328-46;
328-46; aristocracy
aristocracy in,
in,
338-41;
338-41; basileis,
basileis,position
positionof,of,343-46;
343-46;
Engel's characterization
characterization of
of flomeric
Homeric
Engel's
ilPeriod,
Period, 337-38;
337-38; heroes
heroes in,
in, 331-32;
331-32; illiteracy in,
in, 334-35;
334-35; iron
iron technology,
technology,
literacy
development of,
of, 330-31;
330-31; slavery
slavery in,
in,
development
332-33;
332-33; sources
sources of
of history
history for,
for, 18-19
18-19
Homo sapiens sapiens,
sapiens, 27, 29, 64, 390
flonan,
Honan, 391,393,394,399,416,429
391, 393, 394, 399, 416, 429
flopeh,
391, 393
393
Hopeh, 391,
flor
144
Hor Aha
Aha ("florus
("Horus the
the Champion"),
Champion"), 144
flori,204
Hori, 204
floroz-Tepe,
268
Horoz-Tepe, 268
florus
Horus (god),
(god), 144n.5,
144n.5, 145,
145, 147,
147, 193,
193, 195,
195,
196,
196, 197
flou
Chi, 410,
4lO, 411, 413,
416
Hou Chi,
413,416
flouses
Houses of
of Life,
Life, 213
213
flrozny,
Hrozny, B.,
B., 266-67
266-67
flsia
Hsia Dynasty, 417, 422
flsian,
Hsian, 420
flsiaot'un,
Hsiaot'un, 394, 394n.9
394 n.9
flsiuchou
Hsiuchou (Chiangsu), 402
flua,
Hua, 388
fluai
flo, 391,
Huai Ho,
391, 392,
392, 393,
393,401
401
fluang
Huang flo
Ho basin, 387, 388, 389, 390,
391,392,393,397,398,400,401,409,
391, 392, 393, 397, 398, 400, 401, 409,
411,414
fluang
Huang flo
Ho River, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424
fluangp'i, 393, 395,
395,402
Huangp'i,
402
fluan
Kiang, 392
392
Huan Kiang,
fluan-Kung,
Huan-Kung, 425
flukkanas,
275
Hukkanas, 275
flu
nan, 393
Hunan,
flunan-Chianghsi,
Hunan-Chianghsi, 393
flupeh,
Hupeh, 393, 402
flurri,
Hurri, 272, 273
flurrians,
231, 232,
Hurrians, 224-25,
224-25, 229, 231,
232, 23623637,270,
37, 270, 283,284,285,288,302n.9,
283, 284, 285, 288, 302 n.9,
380; culture of, 249-52; and flittites,
Hittites,
military
Kingmilitary clashes
clashes with,
with, 272-73;
272-73; Kingdom of
of Arrapkhe, 244-49, 290; and
the
291;
the Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Mitanni,
Mitanni, 238-44,
238-44, 291;
language
language of,
of, 297;
297; and
and Mitanni
Mitanni and
and
Pharaonic
Pharaonic Egypt,
Egypt, 291-94
291-94
flurro-Drartian,
Hurro-Urartian, 244
244
fluwana,
Huwana, 250
250
flyaona,
Hyaona, 385
385
fI ydraulic Oriental
Oriental civilizations,
n.4
Hydraulic
civilizations, 88 n.4
177,
flyksos,
Hyksos, 170-71,
170-71, 173,
173, 174-75,
174-75, 176,
176, 177,
177n.6,
177n.6, 290;
290; and
and Egypt,
Egypt, invasion
invasion of,
of,
170-71,173,174-76,177,290-91;
170-71, 173, 174-76,177, 290-91;

449
and
and Mitanni
Mitanni and
and Pharaonic
Pharaonic Egypt,
Egypt,
291-94.
See also
alsoEgypt
Egypt
291-94. See
flyrcania,
Hyrcania, 382
382
Ibbi-Su'en,
King of
Ibbi-Su'en, King
of Dr,
Ur, 95-96
95-96
Iberian Peninsula,
Peninsula, 350,
350, 352
352
Iberian
l
'ibri,
ibri, 300
Ice Age,
Ice
Age, 28,
28, 138
138
Ching (The
(The Book
Book of
of Changes),
Changes), 418
418
/I Ching
Idamarat
tribe, 122,
123
Idamarat tribe,
122, 123
Idri-mi,
307
Idri-mi, King
King of
of Alalakh,
Alalakh, 242,
242, 291,
291, 307
Idumeans, 300
300
Idumeans,
Ilahkabkabuhu,
Ilahkabkabuhu, 236-37
236-37
Iliad, The
Iliad,
The(flomer),
(Homer),18,
18,279,
279,324,
324,328,
328,
331,335,337,339,341,343
331,335,337,339,341,343
Ilushuma,
Ilushuma, Ruler
Ruler of
of Asshur,
Asshur, 233-36
233-36
Ilyushechkin, V.
V. P.,
P., 11-12
11-12
Imhetep,
201
Imhetep, 154,
154, 201
Inanna
Inanna (Innin)
(Innin) (goddess),
(goddess), 73,
73, 77,
77, 132,
133,
134
133,134
India, 13,28,46,48,
13, 28, 46, 48, 58,
58, 79, 81, 83,
83, 86,
86,
89,91,
89, 91, 101,229,256,
101, 229, 256, 346n.11,
346n.ll, 379;
and the Aryan question, 366-71; culture and
and religion of
of Indus civilization,
civilization,
219-20; decline
decline of
219-20;
of Indus
Indus civilization,
civilization,
221-22;
22122; historical
historical and
and geographical
geographical
context
context of
of Indus
Indus civilization,
civilization, 215-19;
215-19;
historiography
historiography of,
of, 17;
17; Indian
Indian PeninPeninsula
sula in
in ancient
ancient times,
times, 214-15;
214-15; IndoIndoAryans in
Aryans
in Ganges
Ganges Valley,
Valley, 372-74;
372-74;
problems
23,
problems of
of ancient
ancient chronology,
chronology, 23,
25;
25; social
social and
and state
state structure
structure in
in NorthNorthern
of
ern India,
India, 374-78;
374-78; social
social structure
structure of
Indus
of
22021; sources
sources of
Indus civilization,
civilization, 220-21;
Indian history,
history, 371-72;
Vedic religion
Indian
371-72; Vedic
religion
and culture, 378-80
378-80
Indian
Indian Peninsula,
Peninsula, 222
222
Indo-Aryan
368
Indo-Aryan languages,
languages, 366,
366, 367,
367, 368
Indo-Aryan
tribes, 221,
Indo-Aryan tribes,
221, 369n.7,
369n.7, 370,
370, 371,
371,
380;
380; in
in the
the Ganges
Ganges Valley,
Valley, 372-74
372-74
Indochina,
Indochina, 28,
28, 390
390
Indo-European
270,
Indo-European languages,
languages, 30,
30, 31,
31, 270,
285,366,367
285, 366, 367
Indo-European
Indo-European tribes,
tribes, 367,
367, 368,
368, 370
370
Indo-Iranian(s),
Indo-Iranian(s), 241,
241, 244,
244, 285n.22,
285n.22, 291,
291,
367,368,369
367, 368, 369
Indra (god), 378, 380
380
Indra(god),378,
IndusRiver,32,79,214,216
Indus River, 32, 79, 214, 216
Indus Valley,
31, 215,
218, 370,
Indus
Valley, 31,
215, 216,
216, 217,
217, 218,
370,
371,408
371, 408
Ineni,204
Ineni, 204
I-Nina-Gena, 68, 79, 81

Index
Index

45
Iolcus
Iolcus (Thessaly),
(Thessaly), 318
318
Ionians, 327
327
Ionians,
Ionian
Ionian Sea,
Sea, 358
358
Ipuwer,
Ipuwer, 159,
159, 160
160
Iran,
Iran, 13,28,58,85,89,90,
13, 28, 58, 85, 89, 90, 101,214,219,
101, 214, 219,
225,229,241,288,378;
225, 229, 241, 288, 378; and
and the
the Aryan
Aryan
question,
366-71; and
and the
the Avesta
Avestaand
and
question, 366-71;
Zoroastrianism, 381-86;
38186; in the first
half
B.C., 380380half of
of the
the first
first millennium
millennium B.C.,
81; prerequisites for creation of preurban
urban society
society in,
in, 222-27
222-27
Iraq,
Iraq, 31n.2,
31n.2, 67n.l,
67n.l, 68,
68, 230,
230, 231n.3
231n.3
Iron
Iron Age,
Age, 328,
328, 331,
331, 349
349
Irsu,
Irsu, 190-91
190-91
Ishbi-Erra,
Ishbi-Erra, King
King of
of Sumer
Sumer and
and Akkad,
Akkad,
96
96
Ishme-Dagan, 238
Ishme-Dagan,238
Ishtar,31n.5
Ishtar, 31n.5
Ishtar-Shawaushka (goddess),
(goddess), 243,
243, 251
Ishtar-Shawaushka
251
Isis
198
Isis (goddess),
(goddess), 196,
196, 197,
197, 198
Islam,
Islam, 58,
58, 59
59
Israel,
Israel, 169,
169, 286
286
Israelites,
Israelites, 300,
300, 301,
301, 302,
302, 303-5
303-5
Issachar
Issachar tribe,
tribe, 302
302

Mshumkum,233,253,256
isshiakkum,
233, 253, 256
Issin,
Issin, 105,
105, 112-13,
112-13, 130,
130, 133,
133, 235n.9;
235 n.9; First
First
Dynasty
Dynasty of,
of, 96-97;
96-97; Second
Second Dynasty
Dynasty of,
of,
263
263
Istanbul
364
Istanbul (ancient
(ancient Byzantium),
Byzantium), 364
Isthmus,
Isthmus, 326,
326, 327
327
Istoriya drevnego
drevnego Vostoka
Vostoka (Vasil'ev),
(Vasil'ev), 1,1,
1O-11n.8
10-lln.8
Istros,
Istros, 361
361
Italy,
Italy, 28,
28, 46,
46, 308,
308, 357,
357, 358,
358, 359,
359, 360,
360,
363,
363, 367nA
367 n.4
Ithaca,
Ithaca, 333n.2,
333 n.2, 342
342
Ithoba'l,
Ithoba'l, 349
349
It-Tawi, 168,
168, 170
Iturungal,
Iturungal, 68,
68, 81
81
Jacob
Jacob (Israel),
(Israel), 300,
300, 302
302
Jaffa, 211
211
Jaffa,
Jakobson,
V. A.,
A., 112n.6
112n.6
Jakobson, V.
Jemdet-Nasr,
Jemdet-Nasr, 72,
72, 73,
73, 409
409
Jen-fang tribes,
tribes, 401
401
Jen-fang
Jericho,
Jericho, 29,
29, 287,
287, 302
302
Jerusalem, 294,
303
Jerusalem,
294, 303
Jesus Christ,
Christ, 24-25
24-25
Jesus
Jordan
286, 300,
Jordan River,
River, 286,
300, 302,
302, 304
304
Jordan Valley,
Valley, 286
286
Jordan
Joshua, 301-2
301-2
Joshua,
Judah (Jehudah),
(Jehudah), 302
Judah
302

Jung,
Jung, C.
C. G.,
G., 61
61
Jung tribe,
tribe, 425
425
Jung
Ka,
197
Ka, 148n.9,
148 n.9, 197
Ka'a,
tomb of,
144
Ka'a, tomb
of, 144
Kadesh
208,
Kadesh (Qinza),
(Qinza), 179-80,
179-80, 188-89,
188-89, 208,
277,
277, 294
294
Kadesh-Barnea,301
Kadesh-Barnea, 301
Kadmukhi,
Kadmukhi, 242
242
Kafir,241,366,368,369
Kafir, 241, 366, 368, 369
Kafirnigan
Kafirnigan River,
River, 381
381
Kalebites
Kalebites (Kenazites),
(Kenazites), 302
302
Kali, 374
Kali,374
Kalibangan,
Kalibangan, 221
221
Kali Yuga,
Yuga, 374
374
Kali
Kalkhu
Kalkhu (now
(now Nimrud),
Nimrud), 229
229
177
Kames,
Kames, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 171,
171, 175,
175, 177
Kammenhuber,
Kammenhuber, Annelies,
Annelies, 241
241
Kang Hou,
Hou, 414
Kang
414
Kanish
Kanish (Nesa),
(Nesa), 235-36,
235-36, 238,
238, 269,
269, 271,
271,
290
290
Kansu,393
Kansu, 393
Karahar
235 n. 10, 239
239
Karahar (Harhar),
(Harhar), 235n.l0,
Karana
Karana (Tell
(Tell Rimah),
Rimah), 229,
229, 248
248
karma, 379
Karnak,
Karnak, temple
temple of,
of, 204
204
Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta,
Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta, 256
256
Karun
Karun River,
River, 32,
32, 89,
89, 223
223
Karun
Valley, 31n.2,
31 n.2, 44,
44, 46,75
46, 75
Karun Valley,
Kashmir,
Kashmir, 241,
241, 366
366
Kashtiliash,
Kashtiliash, Kassite
Kassite King,
King, 123,
123, 263
263
Kaska, 275,
275, 278
278
Kaska,
Kassite
Kassite Kingdom,
Kingdom, 98,
98, 122,
122, 123,
123, 181,224,
181, 224,
232, 238,240,243,249,
238, 240, 243, 249, 254,
254, 300;
300; and
and
232,
the
the Amarna
Amarna Period,
Period, 294;
294; Middle
Middle
Babylonian Period
Period in
in Lower
Lower MesoBabylonian
Meso261-63; society
of
potamia,
potamia, Elam,
Elam, and,
and, 261-63;
society of
Middle Babylonian
Babylonian Period,
Period, 264-65
264-65
Middle
Kavata,383
Kavata, 383
Kavi Khausrava,
Khausrava, 383
383
Kavi
Kavi
385
Kavi Vishtaspa,
Vishtaspa, 384,
384, 385
Kazakhstan,
7, 380
369 n.
n.7,
380
Kazakhstan, 369
Kel-Tesshub,
Kel-Tesshub, 248
248
Kemet
Kemet ("The
("The Black"),
Black"), 138
138
Kerch (Panticapaeum),
(Panticapaeum), 364
364
Kerch
Kerkheh
Kerkheh River,
River, 32,
32, 89,
89, 223
223
Kerkheh
31 n.2, 46,75
46, 75
Kerkheh Valley,
Valley, 31n.2,
Ket,387n.2
Ket, 387 n.2
Khabur
228, 229,
239,
Khabur River,
River, 122,
122, 228,
229, 230,
230, 239,
260
260
Khachikyan, Margaret,
Margaret, 239
Khachikyan,
239
Khaneqin,
~haneqin, 230
230

Index
Kha'sekhemui,
Pharaoh of
Egypt, 147
147
Kha'sekhemui, Pharaoh
of Egypt,
Khensu (god),
(god), 195
Khensu
195
Khepri (god),
(god), 194-95
194-95
Khepri
Khian,
Khian, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 171
171
Khnum
194
Khnum (god),
(god), 194
Khoresm,
Khoresm, 383
383
Khoresmians,
381
Khoresmians, 380,
380, 381
Kikkuli,
Kikkuli, 279
279
Kirmanshah,
Kirmanshah, 230,
230, 235n.1O
235 n. 10
Kirta,
Kirta, 241
241
Kish,
129,
Kish, 79,
79, 82,
82, 83,
83, 84,
84, 87,
87, 89,
89, 105,
105, 129,
230; First
First Dynasty
230;
Dynasty of,
of, 74-75
74-75
Kismar
235 n. 10
Kismar (Hashmar),
(Hashmar), 235,
235, 235n.1O
Kissuk, 248
Kissuk,248
Kition, 351
Kition,
351
Kizzuwadna, 239,
239, 241,
Kizzuwadna,
241, 242,
242, 250,
250, 251,
251, 273
273
Knossos, 309,
309, 315,
315, 316,
316, 320,
320, 321,
321,
Knossos,
321n.14,
328, 332
321n.l4, 322,
322,328,
332
Korea, 389
389
Korea,
koreter,
koreter, 323
Koshala,
Koshala, 377
377
Krita
Yuga, 374
374
Krita Yuga,
Kronos(god),
Kronos
(god), 251
251
Kshatriyas, 375,
375, 376
376
Kshatriyas,
Kudurmabuk, 102
Kudurmabuk,
102
kudurru, 264
264
kuduTTU,
Kul-tepe, 268~69,
268-69, 284
284
Kiil-tepe,
Kumarwe (god),
(god), 251,
251, 284
284
Kumarwe
Kumme, 251
251
Kumme,
Kun (god),
(god), 410
Kun
410
Kura River,
River, 33
33
Kura
Kurdistan Mountains,
Mountains, 251
Kurdistan
251
Kurigalzu the
the Elder,
Elder, King
King of
of Babylonia,
Babylonia,
Kurigalzu
262
262
Kurigalzu
Kurigalzu the
the Younger,
Younger, King of
of
Babylonia, 249,
Babylonia,
249, 262
262
Kuruhanni,251
Kuruhanni,
251
Kush
Kush and
and Kushites,
Kushites, 143n.4,
143 n.4, 177
177
Kushukh (god),
252
Kushukh
(god), 252
Kussara, 271,
271, 272
272
Kussara,
Kuthar-wa-Husas (god),
(god), 306
306
Kuthar-wa-Husas
Labarna, 272
Labarna,
272
"Labyrinth"
169,
"Labyrinth" (Knossos
(Knossos Palace),
Palace), 169,
309-11
309-11
Lachish, 294
Lachish,
294
"Lady
"Lady Hou,
Hou, The,"
The," 406
406
Laertes,
Laertes, 333
333
Lagash,
Lagash, 79-83,
79-83, 123,
123, 132;
132; and
and Gudea's
Gudea's
rule,
rule, 90-91;
90-91; and
and Sargonids,
Sargonids, Kingdom
Kingdom
of,
90
of, 84,
84, 85-86,
85-86, 90
Lampsacus,
Lampsacus, 357
357

4511
45
235 n.9
Larsa,
Larsa, 99,
99, 100,
100, 102,
102, 105,
105, 123,
123, 235n.9
Late Han
Empire, 380
380
Late
Han Empire,
Late Neolithic
Neolithic Age,
Age, 214,
214, 392,422.
392, 422. See
Late
See
also
NeolithicAge
Age
also Neolithic
Late Neolithic
Yangshao pottery,
pottery, 397n.12
Late
Neolithic Yangshao
397 n. 12
Latin,
20
Latin, 20
lawagetas,
lawagetas, 323
Laws
Laws of
of Hammurapi,
Hammurapi, 112,
112, 115-22,259
115-22, 259
Laws
112
Laws of
of Shulgi,
Shulgi, 112
Laws
Laws of
of the
the Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Eshnunna,
Eshnunna,
114-15,117n.9
114-15, H7n.9
Leah,302
Leah, 302
Lebanon
287
Lebanon (modern
(modern state),
state), 287
Lebanon
Lebanon Mountains,
Mountains, 173,276,286
173, 276, 286
Lebanon
Lebanon River,
River, 257
257
Leiden papyrus,
159, 160
Leiden
papyrus, 159,
160
Lenin, Vladimir
Vladimir Ilyich,
Lenin,
I1yich, 6,
6, 9
9
Leningrad
Leningrad papyrus,
papyrus, 159-60
159-60
Lesbos, 327
Lesbos,
327
Lesser
Lesser (Lower)
(Lower) Zab,
Zab, 228,
228, 230,
230, 245,
245, 248
248
Levi-Strauss, C.,
Levi-Strauss,
C, 61
61
Levites,
Levites, 305
305
Levy-Bruhl, L.,
L., 61
Levy-Bruhl,
61
Libya,
174
Libya, 155,
155, 174
Lie
Period (Chu'un
422,
Lie Kuo
Kuo Period
(Chu'un Ch'in),
Ch'in), 420,
420, 422,
424, 425; political
political history
history of,
of, 420-26;
420-26;
424,425;
social order
order of,
of, 426-32
426-32
social
limmu,
limmu, 21,
21,253,
253,254
254
Linear
334
Linear B,
B, 316,
316, 321,
321, 331,
331,334
Lipari
Lipari Islands,
Islands, 360
360
Lipit-Ishtar,
Lipit-Ishtar, King
King of
of Issin,
Issin, 112-14
112-14
Lixus,348,349,350
Lixus, 348, 349, 350
Locrians, 360
Locrians,
360
Locri Epizaphyrii,
Epizaphyrii, 360
360
Locri
Locris, 337,
Locris,
337, 359
359
Lo River,
412
Lo
River, 412
Lothal, 221,
221, 222
222
Lothal,
Lower Egypt,
Egypt, 44,
44, 136,
144,
Lower
136, 138,
138, 141,
141, 142,
142, 144,
during Eighteenth
Dy149,
149, 168,
168, 192;
192; during
Eighteenth Dynasty, 187,
See also
alsoEgypt;
Egypt;
nasty,
187, 189-90.
189-90. See
Middle Egypt;
Egypt; Upper
Upper Egypt
Egypt
Middle
See also
Lower
Lower Euphrates,
Euphrates, 31.
31. See
alsoEuphrates;
Euphrates;
Middle
Euphrates; Upper
Middle Euphrates;
Upper Euphrates
Euphrates
Lower
Euphrates Valley,
Lower Euphrates
Valley, 32,
32, 67,
67, 73,
73, 223;
223;
development of
of organized
organized irrigation
irrigation
development
in, 67
67-69;
first societal
societal class
class differdifferin,
-69; first
See also
alsoEuphrates
Euphrates
entiation in,
in, 37-44.
37-44. See
entiation
Lower
44, 45,
45, 46,
46, 67Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, 32,
32,44,
6769, 72, 79, 98, 136, 229, 238, 263, 292;
69,72,79,98,136,229,238,263,292;
area defined,
defined, 67n.l;
67n.l; and
and early
early Asshur,
Asshur,
area
political history
history of,
of, 234-35;
234-35; Early
Early DyDypolitical
74-83, 112,
112, 128,
128, 129;
129; fall
fall
nastic Period,
Period, 74-83,
nastic

452
45 2

Lower Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia {continued)
(continued)
Lower
of Ur
Ur and
and rise
rise of
of Issin,
Issin, 95-97;
95-97; and
and
of
Gudea, rule
rule of,
of, 90-91;
90-91; Hurrian
Hurrian art
art in
in
Gudea,
comparison to
to Mesopotamian
Mesopotamian art,
art, 250;
250;
comparison
and Indus
Indus civilization,
civilization, trade
trade with,
with, 219;
219;
and
Middle Babylonian
Babylonian Period
Period in
in Kassite
Kassite
Middle
261-63; Old
Old
Kingdom, Elam,
Elam, and,
and, 261-63;
Kingdom,
Babylonian Period
Period {see
(see Babylon;
Babylon;MesoMesoBabylonian
potamia); Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period,
Period, 69-74,
potamia);
69-74,
126, 128,
128, 129,
129, 226;
226; religious
religious perception
perception
126,
of the
the world
world and
and the
the arts
arts in,
in, 124-31;
of
124-31;
and
and Sargonids,
Sargonids, Kingdom
Kingdom of,
of, 84-90;
84-90;
society of
of Middle
Middle Babylonian
Babylonian Period,
Period,
society
264-65; stratified
stratified societies
societies in,
in, 80-81;
264-65;
80-81;
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of
of Ur,
Ur, 91-95,
91-95, 96,
96, 98,
98,
Third
99,
99,100,101,102,103,
100, 101, 102, 103, 104,
104, 122.
122.Seea~o
See also
Akkad; Babylon;
Babylon; Mesopotamia;
Mesopotamia; Sumer
Akkad;
Sumer
Loyang,399,420,421
Loyang,
399,420,421
Lugalanda, 82
82
Lugalanda,
Lugalbanda, 132-33
132-33
Lugalzagesi, 83,
132
Lugalzagesi,
83, 84-86,
84-86, 132
Lu Kingdom,
Kingdom, 421,
421, 422,
422, 425,
425, 426,
426, 429,
429,
Lu
431
431
Lullubeans, 232
232
Lullubeans,
Lungshan culture,
culture, 392,
392, 396,
396, 398,
398, 408
408
Lungshan
421
Luoyi, 420, 421
Luwia and Luwian(s), 267, 268n.2, 270,
274,275
274,
275
luzzi,
luzzi, 280,
280,281
281
Maat (goddess),
193
Maat
(goddess), 193
Macedonia,
Macedonia, 267,
267, 326
326
Maeotis,
362 n.4
Maeotis, Lake,
Lake, 362n.4
Magadha, 378
Magadha,
378
Magi, 386
386
Magna Graecia,
364
Magna
Graecia, 360,
360, 364
Malaca
Malaca (now
(now Malaga),
Malaga), 350
350
Malaysia, 225
Manasseh
Manasseh tribe,
tribe, 302,
302, 303
303
Manchuria, 389
Manetho,
176
Manetho, 143-44,
143-44, 169,
169, 176
Manethonian
dynasties of
Manethonian dynasties
of Egypt:
Egypt: First,
First,
144,146,
147;
144, 146, 147;
147; Second,
Second, 144,
144, 146,
146, 147;
Third,
Fourth,
Third, 148,
148, 153,
153, 154,
154, 156,201;
156, 201; Fourth,
148,153,154-55,156,160,201,202;
148, 153, 154-55, 156, 160, 201, 202;
Fifth,
Fifth, 148,
148, 155,
155, 156,
156, 157,201-2,207;
157, 201-2, 207;
Sixth,
Sixth, 148,
148, 155,
155, 156,
156, 157,
157, 160n.2;
160n.2; SevSeventh,
enth, 158;
158; Ninth,
Ninth, 158;
158; Tenth,
Tenth, 160n.2,
160n.2,
162;
160,
162; Eleventh,
Eleventh, 158;
158; Twelfth,
Twelfth, 158,
158, 160,
165,168-69,170,174,202;
165,168-69,170,174,202; Thirteenth,
Thirteenth,
170;
171;
170; Fourteenth,
Fourteenth, 170;
170; Fifteenth,
Fifteenth, 171;
Sixteenth,
Sixteenth, 171;
171; Seventeenth,
Seventeenth, 171,
171, 175,
175,

Index
Index
-176;
Eighteenth, 171,
171, 172,
176; Eighteenth,
172, 173,
173, 174-82,
174-82,
200,
200,202,207;
202, 207; Nineteenth,
Nineteenth, 172,
172, 173,
173,
187-90,
203, 207; Twentieth,
187 -90,203,207;
Twentieth, 173,
173,
190-92
190-92
Manishtushu, 87
-89
Manishtushu,
87-89
Man
Man tribe,
tribe, 425
425
n.3, 233
233
Mardin
Mardin (now
(now Mobin),
Mobin), 231
231n.3,
Marduk
Marduk (god),
(god), 256,
256, 263
263
382-83n.1O
Margiana, 382,
382, 382-83
n. 10
Margiana,
Mari (now
(now Abu-Kemal),
Abu-Kemal), 99,
99, 100,
100, 102,
102,
Mari
123,
and
123, 230,
230, 231,
231, 236,
236, 237,
237, 289;
289; and
Shamshi-Adad I's
I's empire,
empire, 236,
236, 237,
237,
Shamshi-Adad
238
238
marianna, 244,
marianna,
244,298
298
Marinatos, S.,
S., 316
316
Marinatos,
Marseilles
Marseilles (Phocaean
(Phocaean Massalia),
Massalia), 364
364
5-6, 9-10,
9-10, 343,
343, 344,
344, 354,
354,
Marx, Karl,
Karl, 5-6,
Marx,
365
365
Marxist
4-13
Marxist approach
approach to
to history,
history, 4-13
Massalia
Massalia and
and Massalians
Massalians (now
(now Marseilles),
Marseilles),
357, 360, 363
357,360,363
mastaba, 201,
201, 201
201n.2,
n.2, 202
202
mastaba,
McAlpin,
McAlpin, David,
David, 223
223
and Medes,
Medes, 380,
380, 381,
381, 385,
Media and
Media
385, 386
386
Medinet-Abu,
Medinet-Abu, 203
203
Mediterranean region,
region, 273,
292, 293;
Mediterranean
273, 292,
293;
Greek colonization
colonization in,
in, 360,
PhoeGreek
360, 365;
365; Phoenician colonization
colonization in,
in, 347,
347, 348,
348, 349,
349,
nician
350,351,365
350,351,365
Mediterranean
Sea, 86,
180,
Mediterranean Sea,
86, 137,
137, 156,
156, 180,
230,
230,236,272,286,287,296,312
236, 272, 286, 287, 296, 312
Megara
Megara and
and Megarians,
Megarians, 358,
358, 359,
359, 361
361
Megara
Megara Hyblaea,
Hyblaea, 359
359
megaron,319-20
megaron, 319-20
Megiddo, 179-80,
Megiddo,
179-80, 188,294
188, 294
Mehrgarh,
215 n.2, 217
217
Mehrgarh, 215n.2,
91
Melakha, 79,
Melakha,
79, 86,
86, 91
Melanthius,
Melanthius, 333
333
Melikishvili,
11
Melikishvili, G.
G. A.,
A., 11
Melita
Melita (now
(now Malta),
Malta), 350
350
Melos,348
Melos, 348
Memnon,181
Memnon,
181
Memphis,
Memphis, 147,
147, 157,
157, 160,
160, 187,
187, 198,349
198, 349
Mendes,
Mendes, 194
194
147
Menes,
Menes, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 143,
143, 144,
144, 147
Menestheou
Menestheou Limen,
Limen, 360,
360, 363
363
Men-ne-Ptah,
Men-ne-Ptah, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 303,
303,
304
304
Mentchuhetep
161,
Mentchuhetep I,
I, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 161,
168
168
Mentu,194
Mentu, 194
Mentuhetep III,
III, tomb
tomb of,
of, 202
202
Mentuhetep

Index
Index
Meren-Ra',
of Egypt,
156
Meren-Ra', Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
Egypt, 156
Merika-Ra',211
Merika-Ra', 211
Mer-ne-Ptah,
190
Mer-ne-Ptah, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 190
Mesanepada,
Mesanepada, 77
Mesembria,
Mesembria, 361
361
Meskeneh
Emar), 250.
See also
also
Meskeneh (formerly
(formerly Emar),
250. See
Emar
Emar
Mesolithic
138
Mesolithic Age,
Age, 29,
29, 30,
30, 138
Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, 30,
30, 56,173,180,214,220,
56, 173, 180, 214, 220,
226,252,257,279,282,287,409;
226,
252, 257, 279, 282, 287, 409; area
area
defined, 67n.l; early despotisms in,
84-97; end of
of Old Babylonian Period,
122-23; Hurrian art in comparison to
Mesopotamian art, 249-50; Middle
Babylonian Period in Lower Mesopotamia, the Kassite Kingdom, and
Elam, 261-63; Old Babylonian Period
laws, 112-21; Old Babylonian society,
103-11;
103-11; political
political history
history of
of Old Babylonian Period, 98-103; problems of
of
ancient chronology, 21, 25; problems
of
of sources for, 14-15; sacred architecture, type of, 127; society of
of Middle
Babylonian Period, 264-65; trade with
Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, 287,
289. See
See also
alsoAkkad;
Akkad;Babylon;
Babylon;Lower
Lower
Mesopotamia;
Mesopotamia; Sumer
Sumer
Messene and Messenians, 327, 355, 357
Metsamor, 262
262n.2
n.2
Meyer, Eduard, 7
Miao, 422
Middle Ages, 11-12,25,
11-12, 25, 25n.15,
25n.l5, 57, 58,
121,361
Middle Asia, 214n.1,
214n.l, 224, 225, 226, 227,
229, 370, 409, 416. See
Seealso
alsoAsia
AsiaMinor;
Minor;
Central Asia; Western Asia
Middle Assyrian empire, 46, 254-55. See
See
also
alsoAsshur;
Asshur; Assyria
Assyria
Middle East, 29, 31
Middle Egypt, 202, 206. See
See also
alsoEgypt;
Egypt;
Lower Egypt;
Egypt; Upper
Lower
Upper Egypt
Egypt
Middle
99, 230,
230, 243,
See
Middle Euphrates,
Euphrates, 99,
243, 260.
260. See
also
alsoEuphrates;
Euphrates;Lower
LowerEuphrates;
Euphrates;
Upper
Upper Euphrates
Euphrates
Middle Euphratian
language, 236,
236, 237
237
Middle
Euphratian language,
See also
alsoLower
Lower
Middle
Middle Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, 288.
288. See
Mesopotamia; Mesopotamia;
Mesopotamia; Upper
Upper
Mesopotamia;
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia
Middle
Palaeolithic Age,
Age, 27.
27. See
See also
Middle Palaeolithic
alsoPaPalaeolithic Age;
Age; Upper
Upper Palaeolithic
Palaeolithic Age
Age
laeolithic
Middle
See also
alsoTiTiMiddle Tigris,
Tigris, 100,237,262.
100, 237, 262. See
Upper Tigris
gris;
gris; Upper
Tigris

453
Midianites, 300
midru, 234-35
midru,
234-35
Milawanda, 278
Miletus, 278, 315, 327, 355, 358, 361,
361, 363
363
30
Militarev,
Militarev, A.
A. Yu.,
Yu., 30
Mill, J. Stuart,
Stuart, 55
Mill,
Min
195
Min (god),
(god), 195
Minoan
309-17,
Minoan (Cretan)
(Cretan) civilization,
civilization, 30917,
319,330,331;
319, 330, 331; art
art of,
of, 311-12;
311-12; destrucdestruc316-17; Knossos
tion
tion of,
of, 316-17;
Knossos palace,
palace, 30930911. See
Seealso
alsoAchaean
Achaean(Mycenaean)
(Mycenaean)civicivilization;
lization; Greece;
Greece; Homeric
Homeric Epics
Epics
Minos,
Minos, King
King of
of Crete,
Crete, 309,
309, 315
315
Minotaur, 309, 312
Mitanni,46,
Mitanni, 46, 180, 181,252,254,
181, 252, 254, 261, 282,
297,299,300;
297, 299, 300; Adad-nerari's campaigns against, 255;
255; and Hapiru,
popular movement of, 294-96; Hittite
destruction of, 275-76; Kingdom of,
of,
238-44; and Pharaonic Egypt, 291-94
Mitannian-Aryan language, 241
241
mitgum, 113
Mithra (god), 378, 383
miyahwantes, 280
280n.18
n. 18
Mnevis, 194
Mohenjo-daro,
222, 373,
221, 222,
373,
Mohenjo-daro, 216-17,
216-17, 221,
379
379
Morgan, L.
L. H., 6, 344
Moses, 300-301
300-301
Mosul,229
Mosul, 229
Mo-tsu,
Mo-tsu, 426
426
Motya,
Motya, 350
350
Munda
Munda languages,
languages, 366
366
Mundigak,
Mundigak, 226,
226, 370
370
Murghab
Murghab River,
River, 382, 382n.1O
382 n. 10
Murghab
Murghab Valley,
Valley, 226,
226, 383
383
Mursilis I, Hittite King, 123,
123, 240,
240,
272-73
272-73
Mursilis II, Hittite King, 275, 281
281
mushkenum,
mushkenum,111,114,117
111, 114,117
Mushki,257
Mushki,
257
Mut (god),
(god), 195
Mut
Mu wang, 412
Muwatallis,
Hittite King,
King, 188-89,
277
Muwatallis, Hittite
188-89, 277
Muye,
battle of,
Muye, battle
of, 410-11
410-11
Mycenae,
Mycenae, 292,
292, 304,
304, 317-27,
317-27, 328,
328, 335,
347. See
See also
alsoAchaean
Achaean(Mycenaean)
(Mycenaean)civcivilization; Greece;
ilization;
Greece; Homeric
Homeric Epics
Epics
Mycerinus
Pharaoh of
of
Mycerinus (Menkau-Ra'),
(Menkau-Ra'), Pharaoh
Egypt, 154,
201
Egypt,
154, 201
Myrmecium,
Myrmecium, 362
362
Mysore, 372
372
Mysore,

454
"Myth of
of Telepinus,
Telepinus, The,"
The," 284
284
"Myth
of the
the Serpent
Serpent Illuyankas,
Illuyankas, The,"
The,"
"Myth of
284
284
Mytilene, 361,
361, 362,
Mytilene,
362, 363
363
Nadmani (now
(now Tell-Ali),
Tell-Ali), 245
245
Nadmani
Nahraina (Mitanni),
(Mitanni), 178,
178, 242.
242. See
See also
Nahraina
also
Mitanni
Mitanni
V, 380
380
Namazga V,
Namazga
Namazga VI,
VI, 381
381
Namazga
Namazga-depe, 370
370
Namazga-depe,
Nanna of
of Ur
Ur (goddess),
(goddess), 78,
78, 86,
86, 95
95
Nanna
Naples, 359,
359, 364
364
Naples,
130,256
Naram-Su'en, 89-90, 91, 130,
Naram-Su'en,
256
Azil i Afriki,
Afriki, 9
Narody Azil
Na'rmer tablet, 144,
144, 193
Naucratis, 363
363
Naucratis,
Nausharo, 216n.3
Nausicaa, 332
Nawar, 229, 233, 239
Nazi-Maruttash, Kassite King, 249
Near East, 13,29,30,31,46,58,215,
13, 29, 30, 31, 46, 58, 215,
232,246,268,308,330,353,395,420;
232,
246, 268, 308, 330, 353, 395, 420;
archaeological remains from, 15;
15; ecoeconomic base of
of first
first empires
empires in,
in, 349;
Neolithic
probNeolithic communication
communication in,
in, 69;
69; problems of
of ancient chronology,
chronology, 21-22,
21-22, 25;
second
way of
of development
development in
second way
in late
late anantiquity,48
tiquity, 48
Nebuchadnezzar
Nebuchadnezzar II,
II, King of
of Babylon,
Babylon, 20
Nebuchadrezzar I,
King of
Babylon, 263
Nebuchadrezzar
I, King
of Babylon,
263
Neferti,
Neferti, 160,211
160,211
Nefertiti, Queen
Nefertiti,
Queen of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 186,
186, 207
207
Nefrusebek,
Nefrusebek, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 170
170
nemhu,
nemhu, 182-87
182-87
71
Neo-Aramaic dialects, 71
Neolithic Age,
Age, 29, 69,
69, 72,
72, 217,
217, 267,
267, 309,
389,391,392,398,408;
389, 391, 392, 398, 408; art
art during,
during,
125-26, 128;
128; settlement of pastoralist
tribes
tribes in
in Egypt,
Egypt, 138-39
138-39
Nepal,214
Nepal,
214
Nephtys
Nephtys (god),
(god), 198
Nergal (god), 251
Nergal(god),
251
Nesa (Kanish) and Nessites, 268,
268, 269,
270,
also Kanish
270, 271.
271. See
S^a/soKanish
Nestor,
Nestor, King
King of
of Pylos,
Pylos, 336,
336, 343
343
"Nestor's Palace," 319-20
319-20
Nicaea
Nicaea (now
(now Nice),
Nice), 363
363
Nigeria,
Nigeria, 71
71
Nikiforov,
13
Nikiforov, V.
V. N.,
N., 13
Nikolaev,
387 n.2
Nikolaev, S.
S. 1.,
I., 387n.2

Index
Index
Nile Cataracts,
Cataracts, 137,
137, 147,
147, 169,
169, 170,
170, 177,
177,
Nile
178, 180
178,180
171, 188,
188, 191,
Nile Delta,
Delta, 159,
159, 168,
168, 170,
170, 171,
Nile
191,
290-91,300
290-91,
300
Nile River,
River, 137,
137, 138,
138, 141,
141, 142,
142, 147,
147, 155,
155,
Nile
156,163,168,169,173,185,207,363;
156,
163, 168, 169, 173, 185, 207, 363;
and Egyptian
Egyptian architecture,
architecture, 200,
200, 202,
202,
and
and Osirian
Osirian
204; flood
flood stages
stages of,
of, 212;
212; and
204;
cult, 196
196
cult,
31-32, 44,
44, 67,
67,137,139,140,
Nile Valley,
Valiey, 31-32,
Nile
137, 139, 140,
142,145,170,220
142,145,170,220
Nineveh,
Nineveh, 229,
229, 230,
230, 231n.3,
231n.3, 243,
243, 252
252
Ningal (goddess),
(goddess), 78
78
Ningal
Ningirsu,
91
Ningirsu, 82,
82, 91
Ninurta (god),
(god), 133
133
Ninurta
Nippur, 73,
73, 77,
77,86,90,93,95,96,105,
Nippur,
86, 90, 93, 95, 96, 105,
113,126,
113, 126, 131,
131,262;
262; and
and Asshur,
Asshur, trade
trade
with, 235;
235; literary
literary tradition
tradition in,
in, 132-33
with,
132-33
Nora, 350
350
Nora,
North Africa,
Africa, 28,
28, 29,
29, 30,
30, 58,
58, 71,
71, 138,
139,
North
138, 139,
See also
308, 350.
350. See
308,
alsoAfrica;
Africa;Central
Central
Africa
Africa
North China,
China, 423
423
North
North Vietnam,
Vietnam, 387
387
North
Nostratic
linguistic phylum,
Nostratic linguistic
phylum, 387n.2
387 n.2
Nubia,
143, 147,
147, 155,
155, 156,
156, 163,
163, 168,
168, 173,
173,
Nubia, 143,
176,177,180,188-90
176, 177, 180, 188-90
Nusaibin (Nisibis),
(Nisibis), 231
231 n.3
Nusaibin
n.3
Nut (god),
198
Nut
(god), 195,
195, 198
Nuzi
(formerly Gasur),
Gasur), 229,
229, 231,
235,
Nuzi (formerly
231, 235,
239, 244, 249, 250
239,244,249,250
Nymphaeum,
Nymphaeum, 362
362

Odessus, 361
361
Odessus,
Odysseus, 331,
Odysseus,
332, 333,
331, 332,
333, 342,
342, 344,
344, 345
345
Odyssey,
(Homer),
18,279,328,331,
Odyssey,The
The
(Homer),
18, 279, 328, 331,
332, 335, 338, 342, 344, 345. See abo
332,335,338,342,344,345.Seealso

Homeric
Homeric Epics
Epics
Oedipus,
Oedipus, King
King of
of Thebes,
Thebes, 324
324
Olbia,
Olbia, 362
362
Old
269,
Old Assyrian
Assyrian language,
language, 236,
236, 252,
252, 269,
272
272
Old
Old Chinese
Chinese language,
language, 396
396
Old
Old Indian
Indian language,
language, 244
244
Old
31. See
Seealso
alsoStone
StoneAge
Age
Old Stone
Stone Age,
Age, 29,
29, 31.
Olympiads,
Olympiads, 23-24,
23-24, 24n.14
24n.l4
Orchomenus,
Orchomenus, 318
318
Oriental
Oriental civilizations,
civilizations, 7-8,
7-8, 8n.4,
8n.4, 9,
9,
21-22.
21-22. See
Seealso
alsoChina
China
Origin of the
the Family,
Family, Private
Private Property,
Property,and
and
the
the State (Engels), 6, 10

Index
Index
Orontes
287
Orontes River
River (AI-'Asi),
(Al-'Asi), 286,
286, 287
Orontes Valley,
Valley, 179,
239, 242,
242, 249,
249,
Orontes
179, 188,
188, 239,
294
.
294
Ortygia, 359
359
Ortygia,
Osiris
Osiris (god),
(god), 144,
144, 193,
193, 194;
194; cult
cult of,
of,
196-98,208,210,211
196-98,208,210,211
Ossetic language,
222n.5
n.5
Ossetic
language, 222
Oval
Plaque of
112
Oval Plaque
of Enmetena,
Enmetena, 112

455

385,
See also
385, 386.
386. See
alsoIran
Iran
Persian Gulf,
Gulf, 83,
Persian
83, 86,
86, 101,
101, 123
123
Phaecaeans,
Phaecaeans, 344
344
Phanagoria, 362
362
Phanagoria,
Phasis
Phasis (Poti),
(Poti), 362
362
Philistines,
304, 304n.12
191, 304,
304n,12
Philistines, 191,
Phocaea and
360,
Phocaea
and Phocaeans,
Phocaeans, 355,
355, 357,
357, 360,
361,363
361,
363
Phoenicia and
Phoenicians, 214,
214, 257,
257,
Phoenicia
and Phoenicians,
277,334,355,
Pakistan, 89,
215n.2,
277, 334, 355, 359,362;
359, 362; and
and
Pakistan,
89, 214,
214, 215
n.2, 219
219
Achaeans,
and colonizing
Achaeans, military
military and
colonizing exexPalaeolithic Age,
See also
Palaeolithic
Age, 125,
125, 128.
128. See
alsoMiddle
Middle
pansion of,
of, 325;
325; ancient
ancient geographical
geographical
pansion
Palaeolithic Age;
Age; Upper
Upper Palaeolithic
Palaeolithic
Palaeolithic
region
of, 286,
colonization by,
by,
region of,
286, 287;
287; colonization
Age
Age
34751; culture
culture and
and alphabet
alphabet of
347-51;
of
Palaians, 270,
270, 285
285
Palaians,
Canaanite-Amorite civilization,
civilization, 306-8;
306-8;
Canaanite-Amorite
Palestine, 28,
28, 29,173,177,178,179,187,
Palestine,
29, 173, 177, 178, 179, 187,
emergence
civilization in,
286-91;
emergence of
of civilization
in, 286-91;
188,
346n.11; anan188, 190,214,266,277,
190, 214, 266, 277, 346n.ll;
and Hapiru,
Hapiru, popular
popular movement
of,
and
movement of,
cient
geographical region
region of,
287;
cient geographical
of, 286,
286, 287;
294-96;
and Hittites
Pharaonic
294-96; and
Hittites and
and Pharaonic
and alphabet
alphabet of
of Canaaniteculture
culture and
CanaaniteEgypt,
and Mitanni
Mitanni and
and Pha296-98; and
PhaEgypt, 296-98;
Amorite civilization,
civilization, 306-8; emeremerraonic
291-94; and
and Tartessus,
Tartessus,
raonic Egypt,
Egypt, 291-94;
gence of
of civilization in, 286-91; and
contact with,
352-54
contact
with, 352-54
Hapiru, popular
popular movement
movement of,
Hapiru,
of,
phratriae, 336,
phmtriae,
336,344
344
294-96; and Hittites and Pharaonic
Phrygians,
257
Phrygians, 257
296-98; and
Kingdom of
of
Egypt, 296-98;
and the
the Kingdom
Mitanni, 238-44; and the migration of
of
phylae (phyle),
(phyle), 336, 344
Pillars of
"those who had crossed the river" and
Pillars
of Hercules
Hercules (now
(now Straits
Straits of
of
Gibraltar), 348,
350, 363
363
Gibraltar),
348, 350,
the "sea
peoples," 299-305;
the
"sea peoples,"
299-305; Mitanni
Mitanni
P'ing
wang, 416,
420
P'ingwang,
416,420
and
and Pharaonic
Pharaonic Egypt,
Egypt, 291-94;
291-94; sources
sources
Pitecussa, 359
359
Pitecussa,
for
history of,
of, 16-17
for history
16-17
Pitkhanas, Kassite
Kassite King,
King, 271,
271, 272
272
Pitkhanas,
Pamir
222n.5
Pamir language,
language, 222
n.5
Pityous
Pamirs, 369
Pityous (Pitsunda),
(Pitsunda), 362
362
Piusti,271
Piusti, 271
pankus, 273,
pankus,
273,274
274
Piyassili,
Piyassili, 276
276
Panormus, 350
Panormus,
350
"Plebeians
Helots" (Struve),
"Plebeians and
and Helots"
(Struve), 77
Panticapaeum (now
Kerch), 362
Panticapaeum
(now Kerch),
362
Pleistocene
Pleistocene Period,
Period, 28
28
papyri,
papyri, 15-16,
1516, 18
18
Poland,
Poland, 30,
30, 367
367
Parattarna (Barattarna),
(Barattarna), Mitanni King,
Pompeii,
19
Pompeii,19
241-42,291
241-42,291
Pontus
Axinus (Black
Pontus Axinus
(Black Sea),
Sea), 361
361
Paros,360
Paros, 360
Pontus Euxinus
Euxinus (Black
Pontus
(Black Sea),
Sea), 358,
358, 361
361
Parthenii, 355
355
Poti
Poti (Phasis),
(Phasis), 364
364
Parthia
Parthia and
and Parthians,
Parthians, 381,
381, 382
382
Potidaea, 357
357
Potidaea,
Pashupati (god), 220
P'oyang Lake,
Lake, 393,
393, 397
397
P'oyang
Pathans, 366
366
Formations (Marx), 5
Precapitalist Economic Formations
Patroclus, 337
Precapitalist
12
Precapitalist societies,
societies, 12
Pelasgians, 304n.12,
304 n. 12, 317,
317, 317n.1O
317 n. 10
Peloponnesus, 317, 318, 319, 325, 326
Preindustrial
Preindustrial or
or urban
urban societies,
societies, 12n.12
12n.l2
"Problem
of the
"Problem of
the Origin,
Origin, Development,
Development,
Penelope, 333, 342, 345
and Decline
of Slave-Owning
Slave-Owning Society
and
Decline of
Society
Penra,
203
Penra, 203
in
the Ancient
Orient" (Struve),
(Struve), 77
Pensee (journal),
Ancient Orient"
in the
Pensee
(journal),99
People's Republic
Republic of
Production,
4, 9,
China, 388,
388, 389
389
mode," 506
506
Production, 4,
9, 11;
11; "Asiatic
"Asiatic mode,"
People's
of China,
promachoi, 340
Pepi I,
I, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 156
156
Pepi
"Prophecy
Neferti, The,"
211
II, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 157,189
Pepi II,
"Prophecy of
of Neferti,
The," 211
Pepi
157, 189
Propontis,
Propontis, 358,
358, 361
361
Persia
and Persians,
Persians, 225n.5,
Persia and
225 n.5, 380,
380, 381,
381,

Index
Proto-Armenians,
Proto-Armenians, 257,
257, 304
304
Proto-Byblian
Proto-Byblian writing,
writing, 307-8
307-8
Proto-Dravidian
Proto-Dravidian language,
language, 223
223
Proto-Hans,
Proto-Hans, 424
424
Proto-Indus,
Proto-Indus, 370
370
Proto-Thai
Proto-Thai languages,
languages, 423
423
Ptah
Ptah (god),
(god), 194,
194, 198
Ptolemaeus,
24
Ptolemaeus, Claudius
Claudius (Ptolemy),
(Ptolemy), 24
Puabi
Puabi (burial
(burial site
site of),
of), 77-78
77-78
Punjab,372
Punjab, 372
Punt, 156,
163, 173, 178
156,163,173,178
Purushkhanda,
Purushkhanda, 271
271
Pylos
Pylos (Peloponnesus),
(Peloponnesus), 318,
318, 319,
319, 320,
320, 321,
321,
322,323,326,328,332,336
322, 323, 326, 328, 332, 336
Pythagoras,
Pythagoras, 379
379
351
Qart-hadasht, 351
Qatna,
Qatna, 237,242
237, 242
Qinza,
Qinza, 188,277,294,298.
188, 277, 294, 298. See
Seealso
also
Kadesh
Kadesh
Quesnay, F.,
Quesnay,
F., 5
5
Quitians,
90-91, 224,
224, 232
232
Quitians, 90-91,

195, 197
Ra' (god), 156-57, 177, 194,
194,195,197
Rachel,302
Rachel, 302
Rajasthan,
218, 372
372
R~asthan, 218,
Rameses
188
Rameses I,
I, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 188
Rameses
200-201,
Rameses II,
II, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 200-201,
204,208,277,296,298,299,300,304;
204, 208, 277, 296, 298, 299, 300, 304;
temple
with Hittites,
temple of,
of, 203;
203; war
war with
Hittites,
188-90
188-90
Rameses III, Pharaoh of Egypt, 190-91,
200-201,
200-201, 203,
203, 208
208
Rameses
191
Rameses iv,
IV, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 191
Rameses
IX, Pharaoh
Rameses IX,
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 191
191
Ravi
Ravi River,
River, 217
217
Red Building,
Building, 127
Red
127
Red
Sea, 156,
156, 163,
163, 173
173
Red Sea,
Retenu,
169
Retenu, 169
Rhegium, 359
359
Rhegium,
Rhodes
and Rhodians,
Rhodians, 277,
315, 324,
Rhodes and
277, 315,
324,
325,348,357,359,363
325, 348, 357, 359, 363
Rhone River,
River, 363
363
Rhone
Rig Veda,
Rig
Veda,221,
221,369n.7,
369n.7,370,372,373,
370, 372, 373,
375,377
375, 377
Rim-Sin,
Rim-Sin, 102
102
Rimush, 87-88
87-88
Rimush,
Robespierre,
60, 61
61
Robespierre, 60,
Roman empire,
empire, 47-48,
47-48, 59
59
Roman
Rome, 13,
13, 18-19,23-24,357
18-19, 23-24, 357
Rome,
Rousseau,
5, 60-61
60-61
Rousseau, J.J.,
j. j., 5,

"Royal
"Royal Ancestress,
Ancestress, The
The Eighth,"
Eighth," 406
406
Royal Son
180
Royal
Son of
of Kish,
Kish, 180
Sacae
222 n.5,
n.5, 380
380
Sacae tribe,
tribe, 222
sahhan,
sahhan,280,
280,281
281
Sahu-Ra',
Sahu-Ra', Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 155-56
155-56
Sais
Sais Kings,
Kings, tombs
tombs of,
of, 203
203
sakinu, 298
Samhitas, 372
Samos, 327, 360, 361,
361, 363
Samsuditana,
Samsuditana, King of
of Babylon,
Babylon, 123,
123, 272
272
Samsuiluna,
Samsuiluna, 122-23,
122-23, 238
238
sang, 401
401
Sanskrit,
Sanskrit, 219,
219, 241
241
Saqqara,
Saqqara, 154,
154, 155
155
Sardinia,
Sardinia, 174,349,350
174, 349, 350
Sargon
Sargon the
the Ancient,
Ancient, 84-90,130,268
84-90, 130, 268
Sausattar
Sausattar (Sausadattar),
(Sausadattar), Mitanni
Mitanni King,
King,
242, 276
276
242,
Schliemann, H., 317, 325n.18
325n.l8
Schmandt-Besserat,
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise, 69
69
Scythians, 222n.5,
222 n.5, 361,
361, 362,
362, 364,
364, 380
Sea
Sea Peoples,
Peoples, 190-91,208,278,325,327,
190-91, 208, 278, 325, 327,
347; and the migration of "those who
had
had crossed
crossed the
the river,"
river," 299-305
299-305
semdet,
semdet, 167
Semenov,
Semenov, Yu.
Yu. I.,
L, 12
Semerkhet,
Semerkhet, 144
144
-88, 299, 304, 305.
See also
Semites,
ako
Semites, 287
287-88,
305. See
Eastern
Eastern Semites;
Semites; Western
Western Semites
Semites
Semnekhka-Ra',
185
Semnekhka-Ra', Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 185
Senmut,
Senmut, 178,
178, 203
203
Senwesret
Senwesret I,
I, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 169,210
169, 210
Senwesret II, Pharaoh of
of Egypt, 169, 199
Senwesret
of Egypt,
Senwesret III,
III, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
Egypt, 169
Sequen-ne-Ra',
Egypt, 171
171
Sequen-ne-Ra', Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Seq-ne-Ra',
211
Seq-ne-Ra', Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 211
Sesostris,
169
Sesostris, 169
Seth (god), 147, 196, 198
Sethnekht,
191
Sethnekht, 191
Seti
296, 298
Seti I,
I, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 188,
188,296,
298
of the
Seven
Wonders of
Seven Wonders
the Ancient
Ancient World,
World,
154
154
Sexi,350
Sexi, 350
Shahr-i
Shahr-i Sokhta,
Sokhta, 224n.6,
224n.6, 226
226
shakin
shakinmati,
mati,247-48
247-48
Shala (goddess),
(goddess), 251
Shala
251
Shalmaneser I,
I, King
King of
of Assyria,
Assyria, 255.
Shalmaneser
255.
Shamshi-Adad I,
I, 100,
100, 233,
233, 236-38,
236-38, 239,
Shamshi-Adad
239,
252,290,299
252, 290, 299
Shang,
Shang, 388,389,410,412,416,417,418,
388, 389,410, 412, 416, 417, 418,

Index
Index
422;
so422; Shang
Shang (Yin)
(Yin) "state,"
"state," 393-401;
393-401; society of,
of, 401-9
401-9
ciety
Shang-ti
407, 416
416
Shang-ti (god),
(god), 407,
Shanhsi,
Shanhsi, 391,
391, 393,
393, 424
424
Shantung,
Shantung, 391,392,393,402,422,424,
391, 392, 393, 402, 422, 424,
429
429
Shantung
Shantung Peninsula,
Peninsula, 395
395
Sharruma
Sharruma (god),
(god), 250
250
Sharrum-ken, 84
84
Sharuhen,
177
Sharuhen, 177
Shatt-al-Arab
Shatt-al-Arab River,
River, 68
68
Shattiwasa
Shattiwasa (Shattiwazza),
(Shattiwazza), 243,
243, 248,
248, 276
276
Shattuara
255
Shattuara II,
II, Mitanni
Mitanni King,
King, 255
Shawushka
Shawushka (goddess),
(goddess), 250,
250, 312n.5
312n.5
Shelwikhe,
249
Shelwikhe, 249
Shenhsi,
Shenhsi, 391,
391, 393,409,416,420,424
393, 409, 416, 420, 424
Shih Ching,
Shih
Ching,411,
411,414,
414,415,
415,419
419
Shilwi-Tesshub,
Arrapkhe, 248
248
Shilwi-Tesshub, Prince
Prince of
of Arrapkhe,
Shimike
252
Shimike (god),
(god), 252
Shinar
262nn.l, 2
2
Shinar (Shinhara),
(Shinhara), 262nn.l,
Shiraz,
Shiraz, 89,
89, 223
223
Shiva
Shiva (god),
(god), 220
220
Shmunu,195
Shmunu, 195
Shnirelman,
V. A.,
30
Shnirelman, V.
A., 30
Shortughai,218-19
Shortughai, 218-19
Shu
Ching, 404,411,414
S/mCAmg-,
404, 411, 414
Shudras,
375, 376
376
Shudras, 375,
Shu
Shu (god),
(god), 198
198
Shulgi,
256
Shulgi, 92,
92, 112,
112,256
Shun
Shun (god),
(god), 420n.21
420n.21
Shuruppak,75,76
Shuruppak, 75, 76
Shusshara (now
Shemshar), 235
235n.1O
n. 10
Shusshara
(now Tell
Tell Shemshar),
Shutruk-Nahhunte, King
King of
Elam, 263
263
Shutruk-Nahhunte,
of Elam,
Shuttarna I,
I, Mitanni
King, 241
Shuttarna
Mitanni King,
241
Shuttarna II,
Shuttarna
II, Mitanni
Mitanni King,
King, 242,
242, 246
246
Shuttarna
III, Mitanni
Shuttarna III,
Mitanni King,
King, 243
243
Siberia,
Siberia, 369n.7,409
369 n.7, 409
Sicani,359
Sicani, 359
Sicily,
Sicily, 347,
347, 348,
348, 350,
350, 358,
358, 359,
359, 360
360
Siculi,
Siculi, 359
359
Sidon,
347
Sidon, 257,
257, 296,
296, 347
Sieber,
Sieber, N.
N. I.,
I., 77
Simeon
302
Simeon tribe,
tribe, 302
Sinai,
Sinai, 155,
155, 156,
156, 163,
163, 173,
173, 188,301,302,
188, 301, 302,
304
304
Sinai
Peninsula, 145,
Sinai Peninsula,
145, 156,
156, 170,
170, 177,
177, 191,
191,
301
301
Sinjar
Sinjar Mountains
Mountains (Jebel
(Jebel Sinjar),
Sinjar), 230-31
230-31
Sinope,
Sinope, 361,
361, 364
364
Sino-Tibetan
387, 387
Sino-Tibetan languages,
languages, 387,
387 n.2,
n.2,
423
423

457
457
Sinuhe,
Sinuhe, 169,210
169, 210
Sippar,
Sippar, 105,
105, 230,
230, 256,
256, 262
262
Siris, 360
Siris,
360
Sirius,
212
Sirius, 212
Sisera,
Sisera, 303
303
Smith,
Smith, Adam,
Adam, 55
Smyrna,
Smyrna, 327
327
Snefru,
Snefru, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 155,
155, 160,
160, 201
201
Societies
Societies in
in early
early antiquity:
antiquity: characteristics
characteristics
of,
first way
way
of, 54-55;
54-55; deities
deities in,
in, 50-51;
50-51; first
develof development,
development, 31-43;
of
31-43; further
further develclass societies,
societies, 46-49;
4649;
opment of
of class
opment
mentality and
and worldview
worldview of
of people
people in,
in,
mentality
49-54; mythology
mythology in,
in, 51-54,
51-54, 61;
61; reli49-54;
religion in,
in, 53,
53, 55-56;
5556; and
and rituals,
gion
rituals, imimportance of,
of, 51-54;
51-54; second
second way
way of
of
portance
development, 44-45;
44-45; third
third way
way of
development,
of
development, 45-46
45-46
development,
socium, 57,
socium,
57,57n.9,
57n.9,63,
63,64,
64,66
66
Socrates,
62
Socrates, 62
Sogdiana
Sogdiana and
and Sogdians,
Sogdians, 380,
380, 381,
381, 382
382
Soloeis,
Soloeis, 350
350
Soma, 378
Soma,
Somalia,
156
Somalia, 156
Song
Deborah, The,"
Song of
of Deborah,
The," 303
303
of the
211
"Song
"Song of
the Harpist,
Harpist, The,"
The," 211
"Song
284
"Song of
of Ullikumme,"
Ullikumme," 251,
251, 284
Son
421, 424
424
Son of
of Heaven,
Heaven, 421,
Sources for
for ancient
ancient history,
history, 14-21.
Sources
14-21. See
See
also
Ancienthistory
history
alsoAncient
South China,
China, 423
423
South
South
391
South China
China Sea,
Sea, 391
Southeast
390 nn. 4,5,422,
4, 5, 422,
Southeast Asia,
Asia, 390,
390, 390nn.
423. See
423.
See also
alsoAsia
AsiaMinor;
Minor;Central
CentralAsia;
Asia;
Middle
Asia; Western
Asia
Middle Asia;
Western Asia
Southwestern
Southwestern Bronze
Bronze Culture,
Culture, 352
352
Spain,
225,292,309,
Spain, 225,
292, 309, 348,350,351,352,
348, 350, 351, 352,
358,
358, 360
360
Sparta
345 n.9, ,346n.IO,
346 n. 10,
Sparta and
and Spartans,
Spartans, 345n.9,
355,359,360
355,359,360
Spengler,
Spengler, Oswald,
Oswald, 77
Sri
Sri Lanka,
Lanka, 219,
219, 366,
366, 366n.2
366n.2
Srubnaya
Srubnaya culture,
culture, 369n.7
369n.7
Ssu-ma
Ssu-ma Ch'ien,
Ch'ien, 398,
398, 422,
422, 423
423
Starostin,
Starostin, S.
S. A.,
A., 387n.2
387n.2
Steppes
Steppes of
of Mongolia,
Mongolia, 389
389
Stone
Stone Age,
Age, 124,
124, 125,
125, 139,388,390,391,
139, 388, 390, 391,
392.
392. See
See also
alsoOld
OldStone
StoneAge
Age
"Story
"Story ofSinuhe,
of Sinuhe, The,"
The," 210,
210, 289
289
Strabo,
226
Strabo, 222,
222, 226
Strait
Strait of
of Dardanelles,
Dardanelles, 268
268

Index
Index

458
Strait of
of Messina,
Messina, 359,
359, 363
363
Strait
Straits of
of Gibraltar,
Gibraltar, 360
360
Straits
7,10
Struve, V. V., 7,
10
Stuchevskii, I.
1. A.,
A., 10
10
Stuchevskii,
Study of
of History, A (Toynbee), 8
Study
Sudan, 137,
137, 143
143
Sudan,
Sugage,230n.2
Sugage,
230n.2
Sukas,363
Sukas,
363
Sukhumi (Dioscurias), 364
Sulaimaniyeh Valley,
Valley, 229,
229, 235
235n.1O
Sulaimaniyeh
n. 10
Sulci, 350
67-69,104,113,137,
Sumer, 32, 33, 36, 67-69,
104, 113, 137,
214,223,285,288;
art and
and architecarchitec214,
223, 285, 288; art
disapture, characteristics
characteristics of,
of, 128-31;
ture,
128-31; disappearance of
of in
in Upper
Upper Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia,
pearance
236; and
and early
early Asshur,
Asshur, 233;
233; Early
Early DyDy236;
nastic Period, 74-83, 86, 87, 88, 128,
129,
131; etiological
etiological myths
myths of,
of, 133-34;
129, 131;
133-34;
of Ur and rise of
of Issin, 95-97;
fall of
95-97; first
first
societal class
class differentiation
differentiation in,
in, 3744;
37 -44;
societal
King List,
List, 74,
74, 92n.2,
92n.2, 95;
95; language
language of,
King
of,
71,72,81,87,
113; literature
literature of,
of, 13113171,
72, 81, 87, 113;
36; Marian
Marian and
and northern
northern settlements
36;
settlements
of, 231;
231; Protoliterate
Protoliterate Period,
Period, 69-74,
of,
69-74,
128,
128, 129,
129, 223;
223; religion
religion and
and sacred
sacred
religious percepperceparchitecture,
architecture, 126-27;
126-27; religious
tion of
of the
the world
world and
and the
the arts
in early
tion
arts in
early
Lower Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia, 124-31;
124-31; SarSarLower
gonids,
of, 84-90;
gonids, Kingdom
Kingdom of,
8490; Third
Third
Dynasty of
of Ur,
Ur, 91-95,
96,130,131.
Dynasty
91-95, 96,
130, 131. See
See
also
Akkad
alsoAkkad
Sung
Sung Kingdom,
Kingdom, 421,
421, 425,
425, 431
431
Suppiluliumas
Suppiluliumas I,
I, Hittite
Hittite King,
King, 243,
243, 275,
275,
276,277,295,296
276, 277, 295, 296
Suppiluliumas
II, Hittite
King, 278
278
Suppiluliumas II,
Hittite King,
Suret-Canal,
Suret-Canal, J., 99
Surkhan
Surkhan River, 381
381
Surya
Surya (god),
(god), 378
378
Susa,223,224,262
Susa, 223, 224, 262
Suti,204
Suti, 204
Sybaris,
Sybaris, 360,
360, 363,
363, 364
364
Synchronistic
Synchronistic History,
History, 261-62
261-62
Syracuse,
Syracuse, 356,
356, 359
359
Syr
Syr Darya
Darya River,
River, 33
33
Syria,
Syria, 29,
29, 30,
30, 83,
83, 169,
169, 173,230,252,266,
173, 230, 252, 266,
282,
282, 283,
283, 309;
309; and
and Achaeans,
Achaeans, military
military
and
325;
and colonizing
colonizing expansion
expansion of,
of, 325;
Amorites
Amorites of,
of, 232,
232, 236-37;
236-37; and
and AnaAnatolia,
tolia, trade
trade with,
with, 268;
268; ancient
ancient geogeographical
graphical region
region of,
of, 286,
286, 287;
287; and
and
Asshur,
Asshur, trade
trade with,
with, 235;
235; and
and Crete,
Crete,
trade
trade with,
with, 315;
315; culture
culture and
and alphabet
alphabet

of
of Canaanite-Amorite
Canaanite-Amorite civilization,
civilization,
306-8;
306-8; and
and Egyptian
Egyptian military
military empire
empire
during
during Eighteenth
Eighteenth Dynasty,
Dynasty, 178,
178, 180;
180;
286-91;
emergence
emergence of
of civilization
civilization in,
in, 286-91;
and
of,
and Hapiru,
Hapiru, popular
popular movement
movement of,
294-96;
294-96; Hittite
Hittite domination
domination of,
of, 187,
187,
188,
272-73, 275-76; and
188, 189,
189,272-73,275-76;
and HitHittites
and Pharaonic
Pharaonic Egypt,
Egypt, 296-98;
296-98;
tites and
Hurrians
Hurrians of,
of, 236-37,
236-37, 249-50;
249-50; Hyksos
Hyksos
of,
of, 170;
170; and
and the
the Kingdom
Kingdom of
of Mitanni,
Mitanni,
238-44;
238-44; and
and Mitanni
Mitanni and
and Pharaonic
Pharaonic
Egypt,
Egypt, 291-94;
291-94; and
and Sargonids,
Sargonids, KingKingdom
dom of,
of, 88,
88, 89;
89; Sinuhe's
Sinuhe's residence
residence in,
in,
210
210
tabarnas, 273, 282

Tadjiks, 366
366
Tadjiks,
Tadmor
Tadmor (Palmyra),
(Palmyra), 257
257
Tadzhikistan, 381
381
Tadzhikistan,
Tajik language,
language, 222
222 n.5
n.5
Tajik
"Tale of
of the
the Shipwrecked
Shipwrecked Man,
Man, The,"
The,"
"Tale
210-11
210-11
"Tale of
Truth and
"Tale
of the
the Truth
and Falsehood,
Falsehood, The,"
The,"
211
211
"Tale
of Two
Brothers, The,"
211
"Tale of
Two Brothers,
The," 211
"Tales
the Eloquent
Eloquent Peasant,
Peasant, The,"
"Tales of
of the
The,"
212
212
Tales
of the Kingdoms (Kuo
Tales of
{Kuo Yu), 410
Taman Peninsula,
Peninsula, 362
362
Taman
Tamil,
Tamil, 366
366
tamkilrs,
tamkars,69,
69,81,
81,93,104-5,110,117,118
93, 104-5, 110, 117, 118
Tana,
137
Tana, Lake,
Lake, 137
Tanais,
362 n.4,
n.4, 363
363
Tanais, 362
Tanis,
192
Tanis, 192
Tao,
Tao, 422
422
Tapti
216
Tapti River,
River, 216
Tarentum,
Tarentum, 360
360
Tarmi-Tilla,
Tarmi-Tilla, 247
247
Tartessus
Tartessus (Tarshish)
(Tarshish) and
and Tartessians,
Tartessians,
351-54,360
351-54, 360
Taurus
Taurus Mountains,
Mountains, 239,
239, 242,
242, 286
286
tawanannas, 282
Tcharu
Tcharu (Tsilu),
(Tsilu), 179,
179, 186,
186, 189
189
tchati,
tchati,153,
153,154,
154,166,
166,191
191
Tedzhen-Hari
Tedzhen-Hari Rud
Rud River,
River, 369,
369, 370
370
Tedzhen-Hari Rud
Rud Valley,
Valley, 380,
380, 382,
382, 383
383
Tedzhen-Hari
Tefnut
Tefnut (god),
(god), 198
198
Tehib-Tilla,
Tehib-Tilla, clan
clan of,
of, 245-48
245-48
Tel
Tel el-Amarna,
el-Amarna, 266
266
Telemachus, 333,
333, 334,
334, 342,
342, 345
345
Telemachus,
Telepinu,
Telepinu, 276
276
Telepinus, Hittite
Hittite King,
King, 273,
273, 274
274
Telepinus,

Index
Index
Tell-Ali (formerly
(formerly Nadmani), 245
Tell-Amarna (formerly Akhet-Aton),
185, 199-200, 294. See
See also
alsoAkhet-Aton
Akhet-Aton
Tell-Atchana (formerly
(formerly Alalakh), 249,
272. See
See also
alsoAlalakh
Alalakh
Tell Brak, 231
231
Tell Halaf
Halaf culture, 231nA
231 n.4
Tell
Leilan, 237n.ll
237 n. 11
TellLeilan,
Tell Mahuz (formerly
(formerly Tursha), 230, 245
Tell
(formerly Karana),
Karana), 229,
Tell Rimah
Rimah (formerly
229, 248
248
Te1mun
Telmun Island, 79, 101,219
Tenea,
Tenea, 358
358
Teos,
Teos, 362
362
Tepe-Sialk,
224
Tepe-Sialk, 224
Tepe-Yahya,
Tepe-Yahya, 224
224
Terqa, 99, 122
Tesshub (god), 250, 251
251
Thai,422
Thai, 422
Thailand, 387, 390, 390nn.4,
390 nn. 4, 5
Tharros, 350
Thasos, 348, 349, 360
Thebes, 158, 168, 175, 178, 182, 184, 185,
318,324,347;
318, 324, 347; city temple style of, 204;
cult of Amon in, 195-96;
19596; during Eighteenth Manethonian Dynasty, 187, 189,
207; Eleventh Dynasty in, 160, 161
Theodosia, 362
Theogony
Theogony(Hesiod),
(Hesiod),284
284
Thera (now Santorin) and Therans,
311nA,
316, 362
311n.4,316,362
Thermoluminescence, 25
Thersites, 341,
341, 342
Theseus, 309
Thessaly, 318, 324, 337
Thinis,144
Thinis, 144
Thoth (god), 193
Thrace and Thracians, 267, 360, 367
Thracian Bosporus, 358, 361
Thucydides, 18,
18, 334
334
Thutmosis I, Pharaoh of Egypt, 177-78,
292
Thutmosis II, Pharaoh of Egypt, 178
Thutmosis III, Pharaoh of Egypt,
178-81, 188,208,292
188, 208, 292
Thutmosis IV, Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
181-82,242,293
181-82, 242, 293
Tibet, 387, 389
Tibeto-Burman Ch'iang tribe, 401
401
Tibeto-Burman languages, 366, 387n.2
387 n.2
T'ien
T'ien (god),
(god), 416
Tien
Tien Shan,
Shan, 214n.l
214n.l
Tiglath-pileser
King of
Tiglath-pileser I,
I, King
of Assyria,
Assyria, 256-57
256-57

459
Tigris,
32, 33,
85, 92,
71, 85,
92, 95,105,
95, 105,
Tigris, 32,
33, 67,
67, 68,
68, 71,
123,133,236,242,261,263,269,276,
123, 133, 236, 242, 261, 263, 269, 276,
287; settlements
settlements along
along middle
middle reaches,
reaches,
287;
228-33
228-33
Tilla (god),
250
Tilla
(god), 250
Tiryns, 318,319,320,
318, 319, 320, 324,
325, 326, 328
Tiryns,
324,325,326,328
Tishadal, 239,
239, 240
Tishadal,
240
Ti tribe,
425
Ti
tribe, 425
Tiyi, Queen
Queen of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 182,
182, 200
Tiyi,
200
Togolok21,382-83n.l0
21, 382-83n.l0
Togolok
Tombos, 178
Tombos,
178
Tomi, 361
Tomi,361
Toscaneo, 350
Toscaneo,
350
Toynbee,
Toynbee, Arnold,
Arnold, 8
8
Transcaucasia, 81n.l6,
231, 288,
Transcaucasia,
81n.16, 224,
224, 231,
288,
367n.3,369
367 n.3, 369
Tran~ordan,286,289,299,300,302
Transjordan,
286, 289, 299, 300, 302
Treta, 374
Trojan War,
324-25, 325n.l8,
Trojan
War, 317,
317, 318,
318, 324-25,
325n.18,
328
328
Troy,
Troy, 268,
268, 274,
274, 279,
279, 324-25,
324-25, 325n.18
325n. 18
Ts'ai Kingdom,
Kingdom, 425
425
Ts'ai
Tso Chuan,
Chuan,410,
410,422,
422,426
426
Tso
Tukulti-Ninurta I,
I, King
of Assyria,
Assyria,
Tukulti-Ninurta
King of
255-56, 263
255-56,263
Tungt'ing Lake,
Lake, 393
393
Tungt'ing
Tunguso-Manchurian languages,
languages, 388
388
Tunguso-Manchurian
Tunis, 350
350
Tunis,
Tupliash, 229
229
Tupliash,
Tupliash-Nawar, 230
230
Tupliash-Nawar,
230, 267, 286, 288
Turkey, 81n.16,
8In. 16, 230,267,286,288
Turkey,
Turkmenia, 28,
28, 223,
223, 225,
225, 226,
226, 380,
380, 382,
Turkmenia,
382,
383
383
Tursha (now
(now Tell
Tell Mahuz),
Mahuz), 245,
245, 248
248
Tursha
Turukki, 232
232
Turukki,
Tutankhamen, 185-86,
185-86, 187,
187, 188
188
Tutankhamen,
Tutkhalias III, Hittite King, 274, 275
Tuz-Humatli,
Tuz-Humatli, 230
230
Typhon,284
Typhon, 284
Tyras,
Tyras, 362
362
Tyre,
Tyre, 347,348,349,350,
347, 348, 349, 350, 351
351
Tyumenev,
A. 1.,7,72
Tyumenev, A.
I., 7, 72

Ugarit,
250, 289,
297,
Ugarit, 239,
239, 242,
242, 250,
289, 294,
294, 297,
298, 304n.l1,
304 n. 11, 307,
307, 308,
308, 347
347
298,
Ugur
(god), 251
Ugur (god),
251
Ukraine, 81n.16,
8In. 16, 368n.6
368n.6
Ukraine,
ukullum (waklum),
(waklum),233,
233,253
253
ukullum
Ulam-Buriash, Kassite
Kassite King,
King, 262,
262, 262
n.2
U1am-Buriash,
262n.2
81, 82,
82, 83,
83, 132
Umma, 81,
Umma,
132
Unabshe, 230n.2,
230 n.2, 245n.15
245 n. 15
Unabshe,
Unis,
of Egypt,
Egypt, 155
Unis, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
155

Index
Index

460

Upper Egypt,
Egypt, 137,
137, 138,
138, 141,
141, 142,
142, 144,
Upper
144,
147,149,153,
158, 160,
147, 149, 153, 156,
156, 157,
157,158,
160, 163,
163,
168,
168, 191,202.
191, 202. See
Seealso
alsoEgypt;
Egypt;Lower
Lower
Egypt;
Egypt; Middle
Middle Egypt
Egypt
Upper Euphrates
257,
231, 257,
Upper
Euphrates (Karasu),
(Karasu), 231,
276. See
See also
276.
alsoEuphrates;
Euphrates;Lower
Lower
Euphrates
Euphrates
Upper
Valley, 278.
Seealso
also
Upper Euphrates
Euphrates Valley,
278. See
Euphrates; Lower
Lower Euphrates
Euphrates Valley
Euphrates;
Valley
Upper
Mesopotamia, 72,
95,
Upper Mesopotamia,
72, 85,
85, 89,
89, 92,
92, 95,
98,
98, 100,
100, 102,
102, 123,255,287;
123, 255, 287; AmoriteAmoriteSutian
tribes in,
Sutian tribes
in, 299-300;
299-300; city
city state
state
of
of Asshur
Asshur and
and emergence
emergence of
of Assyrian
Assyrian
Kingdom, 255,
255, 256,
256, 257;
257; culture
culture of
Kingdom,
of
Protoliterate
126-31; Early
Early
Protoliterate Period,
Period, 126-31;
Asshur, 232-36;
232-36; Hurrian
Human culture,
culture,
Asshur,
249-52; Hurrian
Hurrian Kingdom
Kingdom of
of
249-52;
Arrapkhe,
244-49; and
and the
the Kingdom
Kingdom
Arrapkhe, 244-49;
of Mitanni,
Mitanni, 238-44;
238-44; and
and settlements
settlements
of
along middle
middle reaches
reaches of
of the
the Tigris,
Tigris,
along
229, 230, 231, 232, 233;and
and ShamshiShamshi229,230,231,232,233;
Adad I's
I's empire,
empire, 233,
233, 236-38,
236-38, 252,
Adad
252,
290; east-west
east-west routes
across, 231
n.3,
290;
routes across,
231n.3,
See
alsoMesopotamia;
Mesopotamia;Lower
LowerMesoMesoSee also
potamia; Sumer;
Sumer; Akkad
Akkad
potamia;
Upper Palaeolithic
Palaeolithic Age,
Age, 29
Upper
29
Upper
Upper Tigris,
Tigris, 230,
230, 242,
242, 254
254
Ur,
105, 113,
113, 123,
123, 130,
130, 132;
132;
Ur, 74,82,87,90,
74, 82, 87, 90, 105,
and
with, 235;
235; fall
and Asshur,
Asshur, trade
trade with,
fall of
of
and
and rise
rise of
of Issin,
Issin, 95-97;
95-97; First
First Dynasty
Dynasty
of,
-79, 83;
of, 77
77-79,
83; Second
Second Dynasty
Dynasty of,
of,
92n.2;
96,
92n.2; Third
Third Dynasty
Dynasty of,
of, 91-95,
91-95, 96,
98,99,100,101,102,103,104,122,131
98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 122, 131
Uranus (god),
(god), 284
284
Uranus
Urartians,
231, 255
Urartians, 231,
255
Urartu, 244
Urartu,
244
Urfa,
Urfa, 231n.3
231n.3
Urkesh,233,239,240,251
Urkesh, 233, 239,240,251
Urmia,
Urmia, Lake,
Lake, 229,
229, 241, 249, 288
Ur-Nammu,
112
Ur-Nammu, 91-92,
91-92, 112
Urshu (Warsuwa),
(Warsuwa), 272
Uruinimgina,
Uruinimgina, 82-83,
82-83, 84,
84, 85,
85, 91,
91, 112
Uruk,
Uruk, 73,
73, 74,
74, 90,
90, 105,
105, 123,
123, 127;
127; First
First Dynasty
nasty of,
of, 75-76,
75-76, 132-33;
132-33; Second
Second
Dynasty of,
of, 77,
77, 83
83
Dynasty
156
Userkaf,
Userkaf, Pharaoh
Pharaoh of
of Egypt,
Egypt, 156
Utica,
Utica, 349,
349, 350,
350, 351
351
Utu
132
Utu (god),
(god), 132
Utuhengal, 91
91
Utuhengal,
Uzbekistan,
Uzbekistan, 382-83n.1O
382-83n. 10
72
Vaiman, A.
Vaiman,
A. A.,
A., 72
Vaisyas,
375, 376
376
Vaisyas, 375,

Valley of
of the
the Kings,
Kings, 185-86
185-86
Valley
Van,
Van, Lake,
Lake, 257,288
257, 288
Varga,
10
Varga, E.
E. S.,
S., 10
vanuM,
varnas,375,376,378
375, 376, 378
Varro, Marcus
24
Varro,
Marcus Terentius,
Terentius, 24
Varuna (god),
Varuna
(god), 378
378
Vasil'ev,
Vasil'ev, L.
L. S.,
S., 10,
10, 1O-11n.8
10-11 n.8
Vavilov, N.
I., 28
N. 1.,
28
Vavilov,
VediL(s)
, 17,371-72,378,379
Veda(s),
17, 371-72, 378, 379
Veddoid
Veddoid languages,
languages, 366
366
Ventris, M.,
Ventris,
M., 320-21
320-21
Venus,
22
Venus, 22
VidevdiLt,
Videvdat, 385

Vietnamese,
Vietnamese, 422
422
Visprat,
Visprat, 385
Voltaire, 5,
Voltaire,
5, 60
60
Vostok
Vostokii vsemirnaya
vsemirnayaistoriya
istoriya(Nikiforov),
(Nikiforov),1313
Vsemirnaya istoria,
istoria, 2
Wadi
Wadi Hammamat,
Hammamat, 156
156
wanaka (wanax), 323
Warium
Warium (Ki-Uri),
(Ki-Uri), 229
229
Wasashatta,
Mitanni King,
255
Wasashatta, Mitanni
King, 255
Wasshukanne,
276
Wasshukanne, 243,
243, 276
Watson,
j., 64-65
Watson, J.,
64-65
Way
(pa tao),
tao),419
419
Way of
of the
the Hegemon
Hegemon (pa
Way of
of the Wang (wang tao), 419
Wei
Wei Ho,
Ho, 391,
391, 392
392
Wei
421, 424,
425, 426,
426, 431
431
Wei Kingdom,
Kingdom, 421,
424, 425,
Wei River,
River, 412,
Wei
412, 416,420,424
416, 420, 424
Wei Valley,
Valley, 409
409
Wei
West
West Bengal,
Bengal, 372
372
Western
Western Asia,
Asia, 173,
173, 176,
176, 178,
178, 179,
179, 180-81,
180-81,
187,188,191,225,291,292,295,374,
187, 188, 191, 225, 291, 292, 295, 374,
390,
diffusion of
of technologies into
390, 395;
395; diffusion
into
China,
China, 408,
408, 409,
409, 409n.19;
409 n. 19; and
and the
the mimigration of
of the
the Hurrians,
Hurrians, 238-39;
238-39;
tribes at
end of
the second
tribes
at the
the end
of the
second millenmillenB.C, 257.
257. See
Seealso
alsoAsia
AsiaMinor;
Minor;
nium B.C.,
Centnil
Central Asia; Southeast Asia; Western
Asia
Asia
Western Chou, 409-16, 418, 420
Western
Western Chou
Chou Period,
Period, 411, 412, 414, 415,
415,
416,428
416, 428
Western Iranians,
Western
Iranians, 370,
370, 380,
380, 381.
381. See
Seealso
also
Iran
Iran
Western Semites,
98,165,232,287,288.
Western
Semites, 98,
165, 232, 287, 288.
See
See also
alsoEastern
EasternSemites;
Semites;Semites
Semites
Western Semitic
Semitic language,
language, 291
291
Western
137
White Nile,
Nile, 137
White
"White
Walls" (Memphis),
147
"White Walls"
(Memphis), 147
Wilusa, 274,
274, 274n.9
Wilusa,
274 n.9
Winkler,
Winkler, H.,
H., 266
266

Index
Index
Wuch'eng, 397
397
Wuch'eng,
Wu Kingdom,
Kingdom, 422,
422, 423
423
Wu
Wu pa,
pa, 424
424
Wu
Wu wang, 411, 412, 414
Wuwang,411,412,414
Xinjiang, 409
409
Xinjiang,
Yabin,303
Yabin,
303
Ya'hmes (Amasis
(Amasis I),
1),171,
177,292
Ya'hmes
171, 177,
292
301, 301n.6,
Yahweh, 301,
301 n.6,302,
302,305
305
Yamkhad, 237,
237, 290,
290, 291
291
Yamkhad,
Yamuna, 372
372
Yamuna,
Yamutbala tribe,
tribe, 99,
99, 122,
122, 123
123
Yamutbala
392n.6,
Yangshao, 392,
392, 392
n.6, 396
396
Yangshao,
Yangtze basin,
basin, 388,
388, 389,
389, 390,
390, 391,
391, 392,
392,
Yangtze
393,415,423
393,
415, 423
Yangtze Chiang,
Chiang, 387
387
Yangtze
Yangtze River,
River, 422,
422, 424
424
Yangtze
Yangtze Valley,
Valley, 409
Yangtze
409
Yashts,
385
Yashts, 385
Yasna,
Yasna,385
385
Yaz I,
380
Yaz
I, 380

461

Yazilikaya,
Yazilikaya, 284
284
Yenisei River,
River, 387
387n.2
Yenisei
n.2
Yin Kingdom,
Kingdom, 388,
388, 393-401,
393-401, 411,
411, 412,
412,
Yin
415,421,422
415,
421, 422
Yi tribe,
tribe, 425
425
Yi
Yitu (Shangtung),
(Shangtung), 395,
395, 402
402
Yitu
Yorghan-tepe (formerly
(formerly Nuzi),
Nuzi), 231,
231, 244.
Yorghan-tepe
244.
See also
See
alsoGasur;
Gasur;Nuzi
Nuzi
Yue Kingdom,
Kingdom, 423,
423, 424,
424, 425
425
Yue
Zagros
Zagros Mountains,
Mountains, 122,
122, 228,
228, 230,
230, 235,
235,
249,252
249,
252
Zaho, 251
251
Zaho,
Zancle,
359
Zande,359
Zarathushthra (Zoroaster),
(Zoroaster), 382,
382, 384-86
Zarathushthra
384-86
Zebulun tribe,
tribe, 302
302
Zebulun
Zeravshan valley,
valley, 226
226
Zeravshan
Zeus
343
339,343
Zeus (god),
(god), 250,
250, 284,
284, 339,
Zimri-Lim, 238
238
Zimri-Lim,
Zoroaster, 65,
65, 382.
382. See
See also
alsoZarathushthra
Zarathushthra
Zoroaster,
Zoroastrianism,
381-86
Zoroastrianism, 58,
58, 59,
59, 381-86
Zuen
Zuen (god),
(god), 95
95