FIREWALL

A firewall is a device installed between the internet network of an organization and the rest of
Internet. When a computer is connected to Internet, it can create many problems for corporate companies.
Most companies put a large amount of confidential information online. Such an information should not be
disclosed to the unauthorized persons. Second problem is that the virus, worms and other digital pests can
breach the security and can destroy the valuable data.
The main purpose of a firewall is to separate a secure area from a less secure area and to control
communications between the two. Firewall also controlling inbound and outbound communications on
anything from a single machine to an entire network.
On the Other Hand Software firewalls, also sometimes called personal firewalls, are designed to run on a
single computer. These are most commonly used on home or small office computers that have broadband
access, which tend to be left on all the time.
A software firewall prevents unwanted access to the computer over a network connection by identifying
and preventing communication over risky ports. Computers communicate over many different recognized
ports, and the firewall will tend to permit these without prompting or alerting the user.

A firewall can serve the following functions:

1- Limit Internet access to e-mail only, so that no other types of information can pass between the intranet
and the Internet
2- Control who can telnet into your intranet (a method of logging in remotely
3- Limit what other kinds of traffic can pass between your intranet and the
Internet .
A firewall can be simple or complex, depending on how specifically you want to control your Internet
traffic. A simple firewall might require only that you configure the software in the router that connects
your intranet to your ISP. A more complex firewall might be a computer running UNIX and specialized
software.

Firewall systems fall into two categories

network-level
application-level.
Network-Level Firewalls
It can be used as packet filter. These firewalls examine only the headers of each packet of information
passing to or from the Internet. The firewall accepts or rejects packets based on the packets sender,
receiver, and port. For example, the firewall might allow e-mail and Web packets to and from any
computer on the intranet, but allow telnet (remote login) packets to and from only selected computers.
Packet filter firewall maintains a filtering table that decides which packets are to be forwarded or
discarded. A packet filter firewall filters at the network or transport layer.

As

shown

1.

Incoming

2.
3.

Incoming

in

fig.

the

packets
packets

Incoming

packets
from

destined

packets

are

filtered

network
for
for

any

according

124.56.0.2
internal

internal

to

are

TELNET
host

following
block

server

(port

156.255.7.8.8

specifications

(*

means

23)
are

are

any).
blocked.
blocked.

4. Outgoing packets destined for an HTTP server (port 80) are blocked i.e. employees of organization are
not allowed to browse the internet and cannot send any HTTP request.
Application-Level Firewalls
These firewalls handle packets for each Internet service separately, usually by running a program called
a proxy server, which accepts e-mail, Web, chat, newsgroup, and other packets from computers on the
intranet, strips off the information that identifies the source of the packet, and passes it along to the
Internet.

When the replies return, the proxy server passes the replies back to the computer that sent the original
message. A proxy server can also log all the packets that pass by, so that you have a record of who has
access to your intranet from the Internet, and vice versa.

PROXY SERVER
A proxy server is a dedicated computer or a software system running on a computer that acts as an
intermediary between an endpoint device, such as a computer, and another server from which a user or
client is requesting a service. The proxy server may exist in the same machine as a firewall server or it
may be on a separate server, which forwards requests through the firewall.
An advantage of a proxy server is that its cache can serve all users. If one or more Internet sites are
frequently requested, these are likely to be in the proxy's cache, which will improve user response time. A
proxy can also log its interactions, which can be helpful for troubleshooting.
Proxy servers offers the following basic functionalities:

Firewall and network data filtering.

Network connection sharing

Data caching
Proxy servers allow to hide, conceal and make your network id anonymous by hiding your IP address.

Purpose of Proxy Servers

Following are the reasons to use proxy servers:

Monitoring and Filtering

Improving performance

Translation

Accessing services anonymously

Security

Type of Proxies
Following table briefly describes the type of proxies:

Forward Proxies
In this the client requests its internal network server to forward to the internet.

Open Proxies
Open Proxies helps the clients to conceal their IP address while browsing the web.

Reverse Proxies
In this the requests are forwarded to one or more proxy servers and the response from the proxy server is
retrieved as if it came directly from the original Server.

Gopher
The Gopher protocol /ofr/ is a TCP/IP application layer protocol designed for distributing, searching,
and retrieving documents over the Internet. The Gopher protocol was strongly oriented towards a menudocument design and presented an alternative to the World Wide Web in its early stages, but
ultimately HTTP became the dominant protocol. The Gopher ecosystem is often regarded as the effective
predecessor of the World Wide Web.

Gopher was an Internet application in which hierarchically-organized text files could be brought from
servers all over the world to a viewer on your computer. Especially in universities, Gopher was a step
toward the World Wide Web's Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which effectively replaced it within a
short time. With hypertext links, the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and the arrival of a
graphical browser, Mosaic, the Web quickly transcended Gopher. Gopher was developed at the University
of Minnesota, whose sports teams are called "the Golden Gophers."
Although most Gopher browsers and files are text-based, Gopher browsers, notably HyperGopher, were
developed that displayed graphic images (GIF and JPEG files) that were included in Gopher file
directories. Two tools for searching Gopher file hierarchies were Veronica and Jughead.

Mosaic
Mosaic was the first widely-distributed graphical browser or viewer for the World Wide Web. It is usually
considered to have been the software that introduced the World Wide Web and the Internet to a wide
general audience. Once Mosaic was available, the Web virtually exploded in numbers of users and content
sites. The success of Mosaic depended on the recent invention and adoption of Hypertext Transfer Protocol
by Tim Berners-Lee.)
Mosaic arrived in 1993. Marc Andreessen, then in his early 20s, is credited with inventing or leading the
development of Mosaic. He developed it at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA)
at the University of Illinois in Urbana, Illinois. Andreessen and others went on to become part of Netscape
Communications, originally called Mosaic Communications. Netscape then produced what was, for a
while, the world's most popular browser, Netscape Navigator.
The original Mosaic, now in a later version, has since been licensed for commercial use and is provided to
users by several Internet access providers.

Difference between internet intranet and extranet

Internet, Intranet & Extranet

INTERNET
A means of connecting a computer to any other computer anywhere in the world via dedicated routers and
servers. When two computers are connected over the Internet, they can send and receive all kinds of
information such as text, graphics, voice, video, and computer programs. The Internet is the global system
of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices
worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking
technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the
inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic
mail, telephony, and peer-to-peer networks for file sharing.

intranet
An intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. It may consist of many interlinked
local area networks and also use leased lines in the wide area network. Typically, an intranet includes
connections through one or more gateway computers to the outside Internet. The main purpose of an
intranet is to share company information and computing resources among employees. An intranet can also
be used to facilitate working in groups and for teleconferences. An intranet uses TCP/IP, HTTP, and other
Internet protocols and in general looks like a private version of the Internet. With tunneling, companies can
send private messages through the public network, using the public network with special
encryption/decryption and other security safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.
Typically, larger enterprises allow users within their intranet to access the public Internet
through firewall servers that have the ability to screen messages in both directions so that company

security is maintained. When part of an intranet is made accessible to customers, partners, suppliers, or
others outside the company, that part becomes part of an extranet.

extranet
An extranet is a private network that uses Internet technology and the public telecommunication system to
securely share part of a business's information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers,
or other businesses. An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's intranet that is extended to users
outside the company. It has also been described as a "state of mind" in which the Internet is perceived as a
way to do business with other companies as well as to sell products to customers. An extranet requires
security and privacy. These can include firewall server management, the issuance and use of digital
certificates or similar means of user authentication, encryption of messages, and the use of virtual private
networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public network.

Internet
It
is
a Global
system of
interconnected
computer network.

Intranet
It
is
a Private
networkspecific to an
organisation.

Extranet
It is a Private network that
uses public network to share
information with suppliers and
vendors.

Not regulated by any

authority.

It is regulated by an
organization.

It is regulated by multiple
organization.

Thus content in the

network is accessible
to
everyone connected.

Thus content in the

network
is
accessible only
to
members of
organization.

The content in the network is

accessible to members of
organization
& external
memberswith
access
to
network.

It is largest in terms of
number of connected
devices.

It is small network
with minimal number
of connected devices.

The
number
of
devices
connected is comparable with
Intranet.

It is owned by no one.

It is owned by single
organization.

It is owned by single/multiple
organization.

It
is
means
of sharing
information through
out the world.

It is means of sharing
sensitive
informationthrougho
ut organization.

It is means of sharing
information between
members
and
externalmembers.

Security is dependent
of the user of device
connected to network.

Security is enforced
via a firewall.

Security is enforced via a

firewall
that
separates
internet & extranet.

Example: What
we
are normally using is
internet.

Example: TCS using

internal network for
its
business
operations.

Example: HP and Intel using

network for business related
operations.

Users
can
access
Internet anonymously.

Users should have

valid
username/password
to access Intranet.

Users
should
have
valid
username/password to access
Extranet.

Internet
is unregulated
uncensored.

But
Intranet
regulated
the organization
policies.

Extranet is also regulated by

contractual agreements
between organizations.

and

is
by

Difference between structure and union in C

structure

union

Keyword struct defines a structure.

Keyword union defines a union.

Example structure declaration:

Example union declaration:

struct s_tag
{
int ival;
float fval;
char *cptr;
}s;

union u_tag
{
int ival;
float fval;
char *cptr;
}u;

Within a structure all members gets

memory allocated and members have
addresses that increase as the
declarators are read left-to-right. That
is, the members of a structure all begin
at different offsets from the base of the
structure. The offset of a particular
member corresponds to the order of its
declaration; the first member is at
offset 0. The total size of a structure is
the sum of the size of all the members
or more because of appropriate
alignment.

For a union compiler allocates the memory for

the largest of all members and in a union all
members have offset zero from the base, the
container is big enough to hold the WIDEST
member, and the alignment is appropriate for all
of the types in the union.

Within a structure all members gets

memory allocated; therefore any

While retrieving data from a union the type that

is being retrieved must be the type most recently

When the storage space allocated to the union

contains a smaller member, the extra space
between the end of the smaller member and the
end of the allocated memory remains unaltered.

member can be retrieved at any time.

One or more members of a structure

can be initialized at once.

stored. It is the programmer's responsibility to

keep track of which type is currently stored in a
union; the results are implementationdependent if something is stored as one type and
extracted as another.
A union may only be initialized with a value of
the type of its first member; thus
union u described above (during example
declaration) can only be initialized with an
integer value.

Structure

Union

1.The keyword struct is used to define a

structure

1. The keyword union is used to define a

union.

2. When a variable is associated with a

structure, the compiler allocates the memory
for each member. The size of structure is
greater than or equal to the sum of sizes of
its members. The smaller members may end
with unused slack bytes.

2. When a variable is associated with a union,

the compiler allocates the memory by
considering the size of the largest memory.
So, size of union is equal to the size of largest
member.

3. Each member within a structure is assigned

unique storage area of location.

3. Memory allocated is shared by individual

members of union.

4. The address of each member will be in

ascending order This indicates that memory
for each member will start at different offset
values.

4. The address is same for all the members of

a union. This indicates that every member
begins at the same offset value.

5 Altering the value of a member will not

affect other members of the structure.

5. Altering the value of any of the member

will alter other member values.

6. Individual member can be accessed at a

time

6. Only one member can be accessed at a

time.

7. Several members of a structure can

initialize at once.

7. Only the first member of a union can be

initialized.

Difference between call by value and call by reference in c

N
o.

Call by value

Call by reference

A copy of value is passed to the

An address of value is passed to the

function

function

Changes made inside the function

Changes made inside the function is

is not reflected on other functions

reflected outside the function also

Actual and formal arguments will

Actual and formal arguments will be

be created in different memory

created in same memory location

location

What is a Macro?
A macro is a shortcut to a task you do repeatedly. Think about the Centre align operation. You first
highlight the word you want centred, then click the centre icon in the toolbar. This is a macro. It's the short
way of performing the centre task.
But you don't have to do it that way. There is a longer way. You can centre your text by clicking
on Format from the menu bar. When the menu drops down, click Paragraph. You'll get a dialogue box
popping up. Click the down arrow in the Alignment box, and then click on centre. Click OK on the
dialogue box and your text is centred. That's the long way round.
Clicking the centre icon on the toolbar is much easier - it's a very useful Macro built in to Microsoft Word.
A Macro is a way to create a shortcut for a task that you do a lot.
You can create your own macros. The macro we're going to create in the next section is a very simple one,
but macros don't have to be simple. You can open up the Visual Basic editor and create a very complex

macro indeed. Some malicious people even create Word macros that can do very nasty things to your
computer!
So, after that little scare story, let's create our very own macros. This one is very simple, and definitely
won't set off the alarm bells in your Anti-Virus software.

Create or run a macro

To save time on tasks you do often, bundle the steps into a macro. First, you record the macro. Then you
can run the macro by clicking a button on the Quick Access Toolbar or pressing a combination of keys. It
depends on how you set it up.
Lets start with the button setup.
1.

Click View > Macros > Record Macro.

2.

Type a name for the macro.

3.

To use this macro in any new documents you make, be sure the Store macro in box says All
Documents (Normal.dotm).

4.

To run your macro when you click a button, click Button.

5.

Click the new macro (its named something like Normal.NewMacros.<your macro name>), and
click Add.

6.

Click Modify.

7.

Choose a button image, type the name you want, and click OK twice.

8.

Now its time to record the steps. Click the commands or press the keys for each step in the task.
Word records your clicks and keystrokes.
NOTE: Use the keyboard to select text while youre recording your macro. Macros dont record
selections made with a mouse.

9.

To stop recording, click View > Macros > Stop Recording.

The button for your macro appears on the Quick Access Toolbar.

To run the macro, click the button.

Create a macro with a keyboard shortcut
1.

Click View > Macros > Record Macro.

2.

Type a name for the macro.

3.

To use this macro in any new documents you make, be sure the Store macro in box says All
Documents (Normal.dotm).

4.

To run your macro when you press a keyboard shortcut, click Keyboard.

5.

Type a combination of keys in the Press new shortcut key box.

6.

Check to see whether that combinations already assigned to something else. If it's already assigned,
try a different combination.

7.

To use this keyboard shortcut in any new documents you make, be sure the Save changes in box
says Normal.dotm.

8.

Click Assign.

9.

Now its time to record the steps. Click the commands or press the keys for each step in the task.
Word records your clicks and keystrokes.
NOTE: Use the keyboard to select text while youre recording your macro. Macros dont record
selections made with a mouse.

10.

To stop recording, click View > Macros > Stop Recording.

To run the macro, press the keyboard shortcut keys.

Run a macro
To run a macro, click the button on the Quick Access Toolbar, press the keyboard shortcut, or you can run
the macro from the Macros list.
1.

Click View > Macros > View Macros.

2.

In the list under Macro name, click the macro you want to run.

3.

Click Run.
Make a macro available in all documents
To make a macro from one document available in all new documents, add it to the Normal.dotm template.

1.

Open the document that contains the macro.

2.

Click View > Macros > View Macros.

3.

Click Organizer.

4.

Click the macro you want to add to the Normal.dotm template, and click Copy.
Add a macro button to the ribbon

1.

Click File > Options > Customize Ribbon.

2.

Under Choose commands from, click Macros.

3.

Click the macro you want.

4.

Under Customize the ribbon, click the tab and custom group where you want to add the macro.
If you don't have a custom group, click New Group. Then click Rename and type a name for your custom
group.

1.

Click Add.

2.

Click Rename to choose an image for the macro and type the name you want.

3.

Click OK twice.

Mail Merge is a powerful tool for writing and sending a personalized letter or e-mail to many different
people at the same time. You can also use it to create envelopes or labels with each recipient'
information. Mail Merge imports data from another source such as Excel and then uses that data to
replace placeholders throughout your message with the relevant information for each individual you are
messaging. You can use it to quickly create personalized messages for hundreds of people at once.

SPREADSHEET DATA TYPES:

Worksheets, also referred to as spreadsheets, are used in businesses to track and record information such
as employee work hours, product sales, customer information and business accounting. Many different
types of spreadsheet software are available, but a small business can often benefit from the use of a simple
spreadsheet program. You can tailor your worksheet to suit the needs of your business, usually using just
four primary types of data.

Dates and Times

Dates are used in worksheets for tracking and calculating. On a simple time sheet, you might use the date
and time column to record each employees start and finish time. These two pieces of information can also
be used to calculate employee hours for payroll. Dates are typically entered with a hyphen or slash
separating the numbers, and, since the year 2000, it's recommended that the year be represented with four
numbers instead of the last two, to avoid confusion over which century the date refers to. If you enter a
date, such 12/16, Dec 16, or 16 Dec, Excel automatically returns the value in your default date format (16Dec if you havent changed it) in the cell, but the Formula bar displays 12/16/2010.

Text
Text on a worksheet can represent bits of information or be used to name a column or row. The use of text
on your business worksheet provides clarity in the worksheet's purpose so anyone else in the business can
look at the spreadsheet and understand the information represented there. Different types of text used on a
worksheet can range from names of people to product names to customer addresses. Some spreadsheet
programs allow the user to enter up to 32,000 characters in a text cell, but for the purpose of efficiency it's
probably better to be concise.

Values
Values, or numbers, are used in many different ways on a business worksheet. You can use whole-number
values to represent how many of a certain product you have in your stock or how much of something
you've sold. Decimal number values are commonly used to enter employees' hourly wages or percentages.
The use of values on a worksheet is helpful in business accounting, as well as simple tracking of such
things as sales and revenue.

Formulas
Formulas are vital to many accounting worksheets, as well as payroll. The use of formulas in your
business worksheet allows you to add, subtract, multiply or divide information in one cell by the values in
another cell. More complicated formulas that use algebraic expressions and other mathematical equations
can also be used if that's what's best for your worksheet. The purpose of a formula in your worksheet is to
help you combine data from one or more other category in your worksheet in the manner designed by the
formula.