9048det tcm4-123694

Automotive Engineering
Secondary Chassis Systems

Higher
9048
Autumn 2001
HIGHER STILL
Automotive
Engineering
Secondary Chassis Systems
Higher
Support Materials
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational purposes provided that no
profit is derived from the reproduction and that, if reproduced in part, the source is acknowledged.
First published 2001

Learning + Teaching Scotland
Northern College
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Tel. 01382 443 600
OUTLINE OF PLAN
This support pack is designed to act as an extended lesson plan in support of the
delivery of the Secondary Chassis Systems unit of Automotive Engineering at Higher
level. The materials and equipment referred to within the plan are fairly standard and
should not present an artificial barrier to the delivery of the subject content. It should
be borne in mind that what follows is only one suggested approach to the unit delivery
and that centres are at liberty to employ their own approach to the learning activity.
This plan covers all the outcomes and performance criteria and prepares the candidate
for the unit assessment.
The lesson plan revolves around system themes, with performance criteria (a) from
outcome one being divided into each of these themes.
Outcomes and Performance Criteria
Outcome 1
Describe the function of the secondary/chassis systems and the interaction of the main
system components.
Performance criteria:
a. Function of the main chassis system and components is explained, clearly
accurately and comprehensively.
b. Gear ratios are determined accurately and the resulting effect upon power
transmitted is stated clearly and correctly.
c. Reasons why suspension systems control bounce, pitch and roll are clearly and
correctly explained.
d. Effects of castor, camber, KPI and Ackerman principle of steering are clearly,
accurately and comprehensively described.
e. Key factors which contribute to brake efficiency are clearly, accurately and
comprehensively explained.
Outcome 2
Investigate secondary/chassis systems by conducting measurement and calculation
exercises.
a. Overall gear ratios are calculated accurately.
b. Hookes law is accurately and fully explained and spring deflection is measured
correctly and accurately.
c. Steering angles including castor, camber, KPI, toe out on turns and tracking are
measured correctly and accurately.
d. Brake efficiency and brake balance are measured correctly and accurately.
Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)
Outcome 3
Explain the control required of the secondary/chassis systems, relative to the vehicle
dynamics.
a. A range of gear ratios is selected which complements effectively the given engine
characteristics.
b. Reasons why a shift in the centre of gravity of a vehicle will affect steering angles
and vehicle handling are explained clearly and accurately.
c. Ways in which a braking system can control brake force relative to weight transfer
are explained clearly, correctly and comprehensively.
d. Ways in which a suspension system can control the shift in a vehicles centre of
gravity are determined and explained clearly and accurately.
Correlation of system themes to outcomes and performance criteria
SYSTEM THEME
Transmission
Brakes
Steering
Suspension
OUTCOME
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
PC (b)
PC (a)
PC (a)
PC (e)
PC (d)
PC (c)
PC (d)
PC (c)
PC (b)
PC (c)
PC (b)
PC (d)
SUBJECT SECTION 1: THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The transmission system provides a set of gear ratios which allow the driver to select
the most appropriate combination of speed and torque settings that will most
effectively match the prevailing driving and road conditions. This is achieved with the
aid of a dry friction clutch assembly which allows for a smooth and gradual
transmission of engine power and torque between the engine and gearbox. An example
of a single plate dry friction clutch can be found in Rover Correspondence Course,
Rover UK.
Gear Ratio
A gear ratio is a direct comparison between two or more gears in terms of size,
number of teeth, rotational speed or torque transmitted. The ratio provided can create
either a gear reduction, a direct through drive or an overdrive situation.
A gear reduction achieves an increase in turning effort (torque measured in Newton
metres - Nm) with a corresponding reduction in rotational speed. The direct through
drive (ignoring the effects of friction and slipping) does not alter the rotational speed
or torque between input and output. The overdrive creates an increase in rotational
speed with a corresponding reduction in transmitted torque. The use of overdrive
gears increases engine life, reduces engine noise and provides for better fuel economy.
Torque
Torque = Force (measured in Newtons) x Distance (measured in metres) hence the
resultant is measured in Newton metres Nm. Torque is normally found by multiplying
the force applied by the distance from the centre of the point of rotation (radius)
therefore torque = Force x Radius. The larger the distance from the point of rotation
the greater the torque created.
The transmission system can be of the following types:
Front engine rear wheel drive with a dry friction clutch transmitting all available
engine power to the manual gearbox and through the selected set of gears on
through universal joints and hollow propshaft to the final drive and differential.
From the sun gears of the differential to the half shafts and vehicle hubs and road
wheels. Alternately the final drive and differential may be mounted in a separate
casing mounted onto the chassis by rubber mountings where the power is
transmitted to the hubs and road wheels via universal joints and driveshafts. This
latter arrangement reducing vehicle unsprung mass and allowing a design of
independent rear suspension to be employed. An example of front engine rear wheel
drive (non-independent suspension) can be found in Heisler A, Vehicle and
Engine Technology.
Front engine front wheel drive where the transversely mounted transmission unit
contains the dry friction clutch, gearbox, final drive and differential assembly. The
engine power is transmitted to the hubs and road wheels via two driveshafts which
have two flexible couplings fitted to either end of the shaft. The inner coupling is a
universal joint with the outer coupling being of the constant velocity type.
Alternatively a transaxle may be employed which houses the same general components
and allows for the engine and transmission to be mounted inline with the vehicle body.
An example of front engine rear wheel drive (independent rear suspension) can be
found in Thornes, S. Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition,
Hillier and front engine front wheel drive Heisler A, Vehicle and Engine
Technology.
Gearbox
Normally for light vehicles 5 speed or 6 speed manual arrangements are employed
which can be incorporated within FWD transversely mounted transmission units or
transaxles, alternatively inline separate gearbox units may be employed in conjunction
with rear wheel drive arrangements. An example of Front wheel drive (transversely
mounted) can be found in Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3,
MacMillan.
The gearbox provides the driver with a selection of gear ratios which can be chosen to
best match vehicle and driving conditions. The lower gear ratios normally provide a
choice of gear reductions with the upper gears providing direct drive or overdrive
situations. The different gears are selected from the gear-stick via a set of selector
rods or linkages to the selector hubs. An example of Selector mechanism can be found
in Thornes, S . Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier.
Between the selector hubs and the gears there is a speed synchronising device which
aligns the speed of the gear to be selected to the speed of the selector hub allowing for
a quick and smooth selection of the gear. Examples of baulk-ring synchromesh hub and
Cone type hub can be found in Thornes, S . Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle
Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier.
Alternative types of gearbox exist which employ epicyclic gearing ranging from the
fully automatic gearbox with torque converter to special examples such as the
constantly variable transmission unit, to the sequential gearbox normally associated
with formula 1 racing cars which do not employ a driver operated clutch mechanism.
Examples of these can be found in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK and
Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan.
Investigation of gear ratios

Employing standard rear wheel drive gear box the candidates should investigate the
various ratios supplied by each gear in turn in terms of speed and torque variation
between input to output.
Drive-line components
Propshaft and universal joints
The hollow propshaft transmits the engine power through universal joints such as the
Hookes type or roto-flex coupling to the final drive pinion gear. The universal joints
normally allow the drive to be smoothly transmitted through a maximum angle of
approximately 15 degrees. Where the vehicle has a long wheel base split propshaft
arrangements can be employed.
Driveshafts, universal and constant velocity joints
The driveshafts which transmit the engine power to the hubs and road wheels employ a
universal type coupling at their inner end with a constant velocity joint being fitted
between the outer end and the vehicle hub. The constant velocity joint allows the
power to be transmitted to the vehicle hubs through angles of up to approximately 45
degrees, this large angle allows smooth drive to be maintained during cornering and
wheel deflection.
Halfshafts
Employed within solid live axles they transmit engine power from the final drive and
differential to the vehicle hubs. An example can be found in Thornes, S .
Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier.
Final drive and differential

Mounted within the front wheel drive transmission unit or within a transaxle or
mounted within a live rear axle or centrally mounted casing. Examples of final drive
(pinion and cownwheel) and final drive/differential (FWD arrangement) can both be
found in VAG Golf Self Study Programme, Volkswagen.
Final drive
The final drive normally provides a fixed final gear reduction of around 4:1for a
light vehicle and approximately 6:1 for commercial vehicles. In addition the final drive
gears transmits the drive through a 90 degree angle. The final drive gear set can be of
the following arrangements:
Pinion and crown wheel employing:
Straight bevel gears
Spiral bevel gears
Hypoid bevel gears
Straight bevel gears are used for connecting shafts at right angles in the same plane,
such straight cut teeth arrangements are seldom employed within modern vehicle final
drive units. With straight bevel gears the action of meshing is a rolling one where only
one pair of teeth will be in mesh at any time. This arrangement increases both the wear
rate and the noise level of the gear set. Thornes, S . Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle
Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier has examples of Straight bevel gears.
Hypoid gears are used for connecting shafts at right angles which are not on the same
plane. The gear teeth shape of the pinion and crown-wheel gears are of a similar shape
of the spiral bevel gears with the pinion gear being mounted below the centre line of
the crown-wheel. This arrangement provides the vehicle body designers with the
opportunity of lowering the body height where a rear wheel drive arrangement is
utilised. In addition this arrangement allows the pitch diameter of the pinion to
increase with the offset, which in turn means that a larger size pinion can be used for a
given size of crown-wheel which increases the teeth strength between 20 to 30%.
Examples can be found in Thornes, S . Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle
Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier
Examples of Worm and worm-wheel gears can be found in Thornes, S .
Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier. This arrangement
is more common in heavy commercial vehicles and allows for a simpler method of
driving twin or more live axles. In appearance the worm resembles a muti-thread
screw. When the worm is rotated, the wall profiles of the spiral-like screw threads
slide across and push against the worm-wheel helical cut teeth , thus setting up a
wedging type action which causes the worm-wheel to rotate on its axis.
Differential
The differential transmits the driving torque to the two half shafts or drive shafts but at
the same time enables both shafts to adjust their speeds independently and
automatically to suit the driving conditions. When the vehicle is cornering the
differential increases the rotational speed of the outer road wheel in direct proportion
to the slowing of the inner wheel whilst maintaining near equal torque distribution.
This action reduces tyre scrub (wear due to the tyre rolling and sliding during
cornering) and minimises the load on hub bearings. If a condition prevails where one
road-wheel loses traction completely then the differential will send all the drive to that
wheel which has least resistance.
Consolidating the principle of the differential gears, it can be stated that the speed lost
by the inner road-wheel during cornering will be gained by the outer road-wheel, so the
speed of the crown-wheel and carrier will be equal to the mean speed of the two drive
wheels,
Nc =
Ni + No
2
Where: Nc = Crown-wheel speed
Ni = inner wheel speed
No = outer wheel speed
At this stage rather than describe the operation of the differential a demonstration of
the action will provide a better platform to aid candidate comprehension.
Together with demonstrating the action of the differential one driving wheel of a
vehicle employing a standard differential could be jacked up clear of the ground to
demonstrate that under these conditions the wheel having no traction will rotate at
twice the normal speed with all available torque being transmitted to the wheel of least
resistance.
Note: The vehicle should be secured firmly on axle stands with the road- wheels
in contact with the road chocked and hand brake applied if possible.
Investigation of overall gear ratios

Employing a FWD transmission unit:
Lock one driveshaft flange so that it will not rotate
Select 1st gear
Provide the candidates with the ratio of 1st gear
Candidates operate gearbox input and observe output at rotating driveshaft flange
Candidates state the ratio of the final drive gears
The same procedure is applied with 5th gear engaged, this should indicate to the
candidate that even where an overdrive is provided by the gearbox an overall gear
reduction prevails due to the constant gear reduction provided by final drive gears.
Emphasise that the gear ratios can be determined by comparison of input to output
speed or torque.
Calculating gear ratios
Various examples of calculating overall gear ratios should be included as follows:
Provide the candidates with the number of teeth for each gearwheel which makes up
reverse gear including idler gears from which the candidates determine the ratio of
reverse gear
Candidates are provided with data for engine speed, 1st gear ratio, the final drive
ratio and the diameter of the road wheels. From this data assuming 100% traction
with no drive losses the candidates determine the vehicle road speed.
For a FWD transmission unit the candidates are provided with the number of teeth
on the final drive gears, the rotational speed of the pinion gear and the rotational
speed of one of the driveshafts. From this data the candidate determines:
(1) The ratio of the final drive gears
(2) The rotational speed of the other driveshaft
(3) The speed of the differential cage
Selecting Gear Ratios to match vehicle use and engine characteristics
The internal combustion heat engine is not capable of providing a power output which
can adequately deal with the varying demands of road and driving conditions. When
linked to the most appropriate transmission the combination should provide a high
maximum vehicle speed, combined with good acceleration and economy over the
whole speed range. The internal combustion output provides maximum power,
maximum torque and maximum economy at different engine speeds which makes
matching the appropriate gear ratio to best compliment the engine output at any given
engine speed difficult to achieve.
Vehicle designers firstly design the transmission to match a top gear ratio which will
allow the vehicle to reach its optimum top road speed, secondly first gear ratio is
determined to provide maximum tractive effort to move the vehicle from a standing
start, finally the intermediate gears are selected so that they form a geometric
progression.
Determining top gear ratio to provide maximum road speed

This condition is created where the transmission is in top gear with the vehicle throttle
in the fully open position. To simplify the consideration of the transmission ratio
required to achieve the stated desired top speed (in this example 200Km/hr) then only
the final drive ratio needs to be selected to provide the necessary overall gear ratio.
The candidate needs to consider the power curve developed by the engine which
shows the maximum power available to reach the desired top road speed of 200Km/hr.
A second set of engine characteristic data must be considered which shows the engine
speed at which this maximum power is achieved once this data in conjunction with the
wheel diameters employed are taken into account the final drive ratio can be
determined. This ratio would be the optimum ratio for providing the required
maximum road speed.
By superimposing the two power curves from the power required, the surplus power
available can be determined. This surplus power allows for acceleration of the vehicle
speed.
Assuming friction is neglected it should be appreciated that the gear ratio of the
transmission system does not increase or reduce the power developed by the engine it
will simply effect the torque and rotational speed. With respect to this if the final drive
gear ratio is reduced or increased from the optimum required to allow the vehicle to
reach the 200Km/hr road speed then the target speed will not be attained.
These two conditions are referred to as undergear and overgear respectively.
Advantages of Undergearing:
More powerful for acceleration
Flexible top gear performance, less gear changing required when the vehicle
encounters higher tractive resistances.
Advantages of Overgearing:
Improved economy
lower engine speeds, less noise
less engine wear
Undergearing in the region of 10 to 20 percent is normal which means that the engine
power peak occurs at 10 - 20 percent below maximum possible vehicle speed.
Determining 1st gear ratio
When considering the ratio of 1st gear maximum tractive effort is the goal. The
tractive effort provided must be in excess of the maximum tractive resistance with a
reserve of effort. Tractive resistance will vary dependent upon:
Air resistance
Rolling resistance
Gradient resistance
Tractive effort is dependent upon the maximum torque produced at the road wheels
hence maximum torque is achieved when maximum engine torque is matched to the
lowest gear ratio. The top gear performance which was previously plotted as a
difference in power, will be shown as a balance of forces. The driving force curve is
similar to the engine torque curve; the peak of the tractive effort curve occurs at a road
speed controlled by the overall gear ratio and the effective diameter of the road wheels.
The difference between the resistance and effort curves provides for vehicle
acceleration.
Intermediate gears
Once the bottom and top gears have been established the intermediate gears are
determined by geometric progression. This means that the individual ratios advance by
a common ratio. To obtain optimum speed and acceleration performance the engine
should be operated between the limits of maximum power and maximum torque.
Providing a fifth gear which provides an overdrive or overgearing provides a
compensating ratio to that normally provided by the other ratios.
10
SUBJECT SECTION 2: THE BRAKING SYSTEM

System function
The main functions of the braking system can be summarised as follows:
Reduce vehicle speed without altering the steered path of the vehicle
Bring the vehicle to a controlled halt within the shortest stopping distance
To hold the vehicle in a stationary position through the use of a manual system
Provide a manual secondary or emergency brake
Provide proportional braking
Provide assistance to driver effort
The modern braking system operates by employing hydraulics as the main operating
medium, the use of hydraulics provides a situation where all the brakes are applied at
the same instant thus reducing the risk unbalanced brake action occurring. The
hydraulics system also provides a convenient method of assisting the applied drivers
effort by applying the principles of force, pressure and area.
By designing the diameter of the hydraulic cylinders in such a way that a desired
increase in brake force is achieved relative to the drivers force applied then
proportional assistance can be provided.
For example by designing small diameter master cylinders the applied pedal force can
be converted into a relatively large fluid pressure:
Pressure = Force
Area
And by designing the slave cylinders to be of a larger diameter where pressure is
converted back into a force:
Force = Pressure x Area
By these methods the vehicle manufacturer has the basic ability to determine the range
of brake forces applied to each wheel point by determining the size of the slave
cylinders and master cylinder fitted to the vehicle.
System Layout
Modern brake systems normally are arranged to have dual brake lines supplying the
fluid pressure between the master cylinder and the various slave cylinders. These
systems often are divided diagonally or on a front to rear arrangement.
Thornes, S. Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier show
Split-Line Diagonally linked system (illustrating the main components).
11
The function of main components

Servo Unit
The brake servo unit provides proportional brake assistance determined by the initial
force applied to the brake pedal by the driver. Servos are either of the suspended
vacuum or suspended air type. On the suspended vacuum type there exists a vacuum
on either side of a large diameter diaphragm or piston when the engine is running with
the brake pedal not depressed. Assistance is provided by gradually allowing air to
bleed into one side of the piton or diaphragm thus creating a pressure difference
between the two chambers divided by the piston or diaphragm. The extent of this
pressure difference provides the assistance on the suspended air type atmospheric
pressure exists in either chamber with the engine running and the brakes not applied.
On pedal application, air is gradually extracted from one side of the diaphragm or
piston thus setting up the pressure difference which will provide the desired brake
assistance. An example of suspended vacuum servo can be found in Denton, Motor
Vehicle Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan.
Master Cylinder
The master cylinder converts the applied force due to brake pedal and servo action into
a fluid pressure. The smaller the diameter of the cylinder the higher the pressure for a
given applied force. This pressure is instantly felt at all points within the system except
when pressure limiting valves come into operation. The majority of master cylinders
are of the tandem arrangement which allows dual line brake systems to be utilised for
greater safety of operation. An example can be found in Rover Correspondence
Course, Rover UK.
Reservoir
The master cylinder reservoir stores a head of brake fluid and allows returning fluid
from the system to be cooled within the body of the stored fluid. The reservoir is
normally divided into two chambers each one supplying brake fluid to different lines of
the dual line system. An example can be found in Thornes, S . Fundamentals of
Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier.
Flexi-Hoses
The flexible rubber brake hoses are designed to carry the brake pressure to the slave
cylinders and allow for suspension and steering system movement. The hoses connect
the rigid metal brake pipes which are secured to the chassis to the vehicle hubs and or
axles. An example of can be found in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK.
Slave Cylinder (disc brakes)
The slave cylinders which operate the brake friction linings known as brake pads
convert the fluid pressure into a force. The larger the diameter of piston employed the
greater the applied force to the brake lining for a given pressure. Normally the slave
cylinders utilised to operate the front brake linings are of a larger diameter than those
operating the rear brake linings. This is due to the larger adhesive force applied to the
front tyres during weight transfer. A disc brake arrangement can be found in Rover
Correspondence Course, Rover UK.
12
Slave Cylinder (drum brake)

The slave cylinders which operate the friction linings of drum type brakes are fitted
only to the rear of modern vehicles with some arrangements having discs front and
rear. The diameter of the rear slave or wheel cylinders are much smaller than those
fitted to the front brake arrangement. This in turn provides a much lower brake force
at the brake linings. An example can be found in Thornes, S . Fundamentals of
Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier.
Brake Pressure Control Valves
There are a number of different types of pressure control valve fitted to the hydraulic
systems of vehicles. One type of valve operates solely in relation to fluid pressure
which when a predetermined pressure is reached prevents any further increase in
pressure in the brake line after the valve. Another type operates solely dependent upon
fluid pressure but has the additional function of being able to increase or reduce the
pressure at which it operates relative to the load on the vehicle. A third type has the
ability to vary the point at which it operates relative to the dynamics of the vehicle,
such as the extent of deceleration and the attitude of the vehicle relative to inclines or
declines.
Hand Brake (secondary/parking brake)
The hand brake mechanism provides two functions, one aspect of the arrangement
provides a parking brake whilst the other provides a secondary or emergency brake if
the hydraulic brakes should fail. The hand brake mechanism employs a compensator
which ensures that the brake linings apply a force to the braking surface at the same
time. Legislation requires that the hand brake should lock two wheels on the same
axle and that the brake can be left in the on position for parking. The ratchet and pawl
mechanism ensures the brake is maintained in the on position for parking.
Brake linings
The brake linings can be of shoe or pad arrangement with the brake shoe being
employed in conjunction with drum brakes and pads with disc brakes. The friction
material must be able to withstand high pressures and temperatures whilst being quiet
and hard -wearing in operation. The linings in conjunction with the braking surface
determine the coefficient of friction of the paired materials which should not be
adversely effected by normal braking temperatures.
Consider a block of material which is made to slide over a flat surface of known
temperature. Friction force (F) is created which tends to oppose the movement. If the
pressure between the stationary and sliding surface is increased by placing a weight
(W) on top of the block, then the force required to pull it will increase in proportion to
the magnitude of this load. The ratio of frictional force (F) to load (w) applied
between the friction faces is known as the coefficient of friction, symbol
(pronounced muu).
13
Coefficient of Friction = Frictional Force

Applied load
=F
W
Since this is a ratio of like quantities, it has no units.
Where time permits a basic experiment would prove this statement.
The Friction Brake as an Energy Converter
Engine power is utilised to overcome the tractive resistance of the vehicle on the road.
As vehicle motion occurs the power developed by the engine is stored in the motion of
the vehicle as kinetic energy. As the vehicle speed increases the kinetic energy stored
is increased. In order to bring the vehicle back to a rest position this kinetic energy
must be cancelled out. This is achieved by converting the kinetic energy into heat
energy by the use of friction brakes. The rate at which this energy is converted into
heat is determined by the force applied between the friction surfaces and the coefficient
of friction of the materials employed as the braking surfaces. The higher the applied
force and coefficient of friction of the materials involved the faster the conversion of
energy. The rate of vehicle deceleration is however dependent upon a number of
factors. The largest brake force applied to convert the kinetic energy into heat is
determined by the adhesive force of each road wheel and tyre against the road surface.
This adhesive force is the product of the load in Newtons forcing the tyre onto the
road surface and the coefficient of friction of the tyre to road materials.
Adhesive force = Load on wheel (Newtons) x The Coefficient of friction of the tyre to
road surface.
Over time it has been realised that the maximum brake force which can be applied to
convert kinetic energy into heat energy is determined by the adhesive force. If the
brake force exceeds this adhesive force the tyre will stop rolling and begin to lock.
This in turn creates a reduction in the coefficient of friction between the tyre and road
surface which increases the vehicle stopping distance and at the same time renders the
steering system ineffective in controlling the steered path of the vehicle.
Braking Efficiency and stopping distance
The term braking implies the application of a force which acts against the force causing
motion which will reduce the vehicle speed and eventually bring it to a halt. The force
or resistance applied to reduce a vehicles speed or bring it to a rest is referred to as the
braking force. The braking efficiency of a vehicle is defined as the braking force
produced as a percentage of the vehicles total weight, which is stated as:
Braking efficiency = Braking force
x 100
Weight of vehicle
14
When the brake force is equal to the whole weight of the vehicle being braked then the
efficiency would be at 100%. This is not normally achieved because of insufficient
road adhesion, the vehicle is on a gradient or the brakes are partly ineffective. Factors
which can effect the braking efficiency of the vehicles braking system include:
The coefficient of friction of the brake linings and brake surface
Tyre/Road compound coefficient
Pressure applied at slave cylinder pistons, force applied to brake linings
Adjustment of hand brake linkage and lining clearance for hand brake efficiency
Brake Efficiency/balance testing
The Ministry of Transport test
Employing a roller brake tester and ensuring that the vehicle to be tested can be used
on a roller brake tester follow the following procedures:
Preparation
Examine the tyres on the vehicle to make sure they are not under inflated
Determine if the system is of the dual circuit type
Select the direction of the rollers so that the wheels rotate in a forward direction
Position the vehicle on the rollers by driving both rollers together, this centralises
the vehicle on the rollers
Testing the front brake operation
Revolve one set of rollers at a time operate the front foot brake with maximum
application or until the wheel locks and slips on the rollers
Record the reading at which maximum brake effort occurs and whether the wheel
locks
Start both sets of rollers and note whether a significant brake effort is recorded
without the brakes being applied
Gradually depress the foot brake and watch how the braking effort for each wheel
increases
Note the out of balance in braking effort between wheels on either side of the
vehicle
The maximum out of balance force for front steered wheels expressed as a
percentage is 25%
Testing the rear brakes
Perform all items noted above
Operate the hand brake with the ratchet button depressed
Operate one set of rollers at a time, gradually pull the hand brake on until
maximum effort is achieved
Record the reading at which maximum effort is achieved, and whether lockup
occurs
15
Calculate the service brake and parking brake efficiencies

Total up the braking effort recorded for all four wheels operated by the foot brake
Total up the braking effort recorded from the appropriate wheels when the hand
brake is applied
Calculate the braking efficiencies by:
1. Determine the weight of the vehicle from the brake data chart
2. Calculate the efficiency of the foot brake (service brake) by dividing the total
brake effort by the vehicle weight and multiply by 100.
Total brake effort x 100 = Braking efficiency
Vehicle weight
Follow the same procedure for the hand brake.
Determine the brake out of balance.
The out of balance of the braking effort on the front steered wheels when the service
brake is applied is obtained by comparing the brake efforts at each wheel when they are
tested simultaneously.
The calculation is as follows:
(Higher Brake effort - Lower brake effort) x 100 = percentage of imbalance
Higher Brake effort
Class of Vehicle
Vehicle with 4 or
more wheels having
a service brake
operating on at lest
4 wheels and a
parking (hand brake)
operating on at lest
2 wheels
Service Brake
Parking Brake
Single line system
50%
25%
Parking Brake
Split line system
16%
Minimum Brake Efficiencies Required

Methods of controlling Braking Force
As stated above the vehicle manufacturer can partly determine the brake force at each
road wheel by the size of the master cylinder and wheel or slave cylinders. However
due to dynamic conditions which effect the distribution of weight acting on each wheel
point this method of controlling the braking force is not accurate or sufficiently
dynamic enough to maintain optimum brake force under these varying situations.
There are many various methods employed by manufacturers in an attempt to match
brake force to the adhesive force acting on the road wheels. The better systems
employ an arrangement which can match these forces at each individual wheel which
16
is essential if wheel lock is to be avoided under all operating conditions. The use of
electronically controlled systems such as ABS is the most effective and commonly
employed method on an increasing number of road vehicles to achieve this balance
between brake force and tyre to road adhesion. Although the topic of ABS must be
considered when this unit is selected as part of a course it is not included within the
content of this free standing unit. The unit therefore concentrates on hydraulic
methods of controlling the maximum brake force by considering the control of brake
fluid pressure.
The pressure regulating valve is fitted into the rear brake line of the vehicle, and is
designed to reduce the possibility if the rear wheels locking and skidding under heavy
braking. This is achieved by limiting the fluid pressure in the rear brake line. The
valve consists of a spring loaded plunger contained within a body. The tension of the
spring determining at which pressure the valve will close. Under heavy braking the
pressure to the rear brake lines will not be permitted to exceed this predetermined
pressure, as this pressure approaches the valve will move against spring pressure
cutting off any further increase to the rear brakes. As the braking action continues the
increase in pressure will only rise in the front brake lines. The disadvantage with such
a control valve is that after the initial transfer of weight from the rear to the front
wheels some of this weight is re applied to the rear and therefore a higher braking
force could be permitted at the rear. In addition this valve is unable to adjust the
pressure to the rear brake lines as the vehicle attitude varies. This arrangement can be
seen in Thornes, S . Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition,
Hillier.
The G valve is designed to help maintain the front to rear brake ratio on a single line
system, it contains a free moving ball valve which seals off the inlet port to the rear
brakes at a predetermined deceleration - the G factor. The valve is mounted at a
predetermined angle. Movement of the ball is controlled by the angle of the ramp up
which the ball travels with any movement of the vehicle being compensated for by the
change in the angle of the ramp. When braking downhill the ball valve will activate
earlier due to the decrease in ramp angle. Conversely, when travelling uphill the rear
line will be shut off later due to the increased angle of the ramp. This can be seen in
Thornes, S . Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier.
The initials GP indicate the different operating modes of this valve. It is a two-stage
valve where the first stage is inertia controlled (G) and the second stage is pressure
related (P). The valve initially operates as a G valve with deceleration moving the
ball up the ramp to close the rear brake line. This can be seen in Thornes, S .
At this point the pressure delivered by the master cylinder into the valve would equal
the pressure in the rear brake line. A further increase in pressure from the master
cylinder can only act against the smaller diameter of the piston moving the piston a
given distance. Because of the larger face diameter of the rear of the piston acting
against the pressure in the rear line the movement of the piston is restricted (Force =
Pressure x Area). Operating modes as seen in Thornes, S. Fundamentals of Motor
Vehicle Technology, 4th Edition, Hillier.
17
Load-apportioning valve as shown in Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering Level 3,

MacMillan and Thornes, S. Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 4th
Edition, Hillier.
The purpose of the load apportioning valve is to allow for a variation in rear brake line
pressure relative to the load applied to the rear suspension and wheels. As the load
increases the lowering of the vehicle body increases the tension in the pressure sensing
spring which will withstand higher fluid pressures before in will compress and allow the
brake fluid pressure to close off the rear brake line. Modern valve employ a
combination of the deceleration, pressure and load apportioning valve arrangements in
an attempt to maintain the optimum brake force ratio between front and rear brakes.
18
SUBJECT SECTION 3: THE STEERING SYSTEM

System Function
The function of the system is to enable the driver to control accurately the direction
taken by the vehicle under all operating conditions and provide feedback from the tyres
and road wheels in order to give feel to the steering system. The system must be
light and easy to operate especially at low road speeds, be free from shock vibration
and free play.
Although the majority of steering systems employed on modern vehicles utilise power
steering arrangements even on small vehicles the operation of such systems will not be
considered within this unit. This section of the unit is concerned with considering the
various steering angles and the need for true rolling motion of the tyres to be
maintained under all operating conditions. In addition the candidate will have the
opportunity to measure a range of the steering angles considered and contemplate the
effects of vehicle movement on the steering angles and how these changes will effect
vehicle handling.
Rack and Pinion Steering
The rack and pinion type steering system is the most popular design of steering
arrangement employed on small and medium sized vehicles. This type of steering box
has a rack and pinion housing bolted along the chassis cross member. Movement of
the steering wheel is converted into a linear push pull action of the rack-bar, the
change in motion being achieved by the meshing of the gear teeth on the pinion with
matting teeth on the rack bar. At each end of the rack bar is a track rod connected via
ball and cup arrangement with the outer ends of the track rod being screwed into the
track rod end. Each track rod end which contains a ball joint being connected to
steering or tie rod arm. The tie rods are in turn bolted to the stub axle which houses
the hub and road wheel. An example can be found in Heisler A, Vehicle and Engine
Technology.
This system consists of a steering box which can be of the recirculating ball type, worm
and wheel type, Hour glass and wheel type or worm and peg arrangement. The rotary
motion of the steering wheel is converted into a linear movement at the connection
between the drop arm and the drag link the latter being connected to one tie rod arm
which is in turn connected to the other tie rod arm by the track rod. This arrangement
utilised in conjunction with a beam type axle is used on heavier vehicles with nonindependent suspension. An example of Beam Axle - Single Track Rod System can be
found in Heisler A, Vehicle and Engine Technology.
Divided Track Rod System
In this system, the centre portion of the track rod may either be a relay rod suspended
between the steering box drop arm and an idler arm fixed to the body structure, or it
may form the rack bar of a rack and pinion steering box. In either case, this part has
freedom to move in the horizontal plane but is restrained from moving in the vertical
plane. Movement in the vertical plane is provided by the two outer connecting rods,
commonly known as tie rods. The tie rods swing about the ball joints situated at the
19
end of the middle track rod member which describe arcs of radius nearly the same as
those of the transverse wishbone members. When the steering wheel is moved, the
drop arm will convey movement to the relay rod which then transmits this motion to
both tie rods and stub axles. This system of steering could be used on light vehicles in
place of the steering rack arrangement this system is employed in conjunction with
independent suspension. An example can be found Heisler A, Vehicle and Engine
Technology.
Function of Systems Main Components
Steering box or rack
Irrespective of whether a conventional steering box or rack is utilised on the vehicle
the collective term steering gear or box will apply to all types. The steering gear has
two main functions: It produces a gear reduction between the input steering wheel and
the output drop arm or rackbar and track rod, it also redirects the input to output axis
through a right angle. Although the steering gear must provide in conjunction with the
leverage provided by the steering wheel the necessary assistance to the driver in order
that the vehicle direction can be altered, it is important that an excessive movement
ratio is not required in order to achieve the needed assistance. Generally, the steering
road wheel stub axles must be capable of twisting through a maximum steering angle
in the region of 40 degrees either side of the straight ahead position. The overall
angular gear ratio of the steering gear of a light vehicle may be in the region of 12:1,
thus with aing stub axle movement of 80 degrees lock to lock with the ratio of 12:1 the
steering wheel would need to turn through:
Lock to lock steering wheel = 80 x 12 =2.66 revolutions
movement for a 12:1 ratio
360
Clearly as the need for further assistance arises the vehicle designers will be forced into
employing some form of power steering otherwise the movement ratio of the steering
wheel to stub axle movement would be excessive. An additional negative factor of
using high gear reductions in order to assist drivers effort relates to the fact that as the
gear reduction increases the feedback (feel) from the road wheels and tyres would
diminish.
Steering Column
The column consists of an outer hollow tube which is designed to collapse with the
application of a predetermined impact force, running inside this tube is the live column
which is normally telescopic with the two or more parts of the column being held in
place with shear pins. In the event of a vehicle impact the pins will shear allowing the
live column to telescope away from the driver and the outer column to collapse. The
main function of the column is to transmit the drive from the steering wheel to the
steering gear. Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan shows an
example of a collapsible steering column.
20
Universal joints
These joints are used to allow for alignment of the steering column with the centre of
the input shaft of the steering gear (pinion shaft of steering rack arrangement) and
permit a smooth snag free rotation of the column as the drive is transmitted through an
angle. An example can be seen in Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3,
MacMillan. Divided track rod (steering rack)
There are a number of different arrangements of steering rack they all however fit the
term divided track rod arrangement. In the example shown in Heisler A, Vehicle
and Engine Technology there are two track rods one attached to either end of the
rack-bar.
The track-rods are secured to the ends of the rack-bar by a threaded cup arrangement
which ensures security of attachment but at the same time allows for an angular change
to occur between the rack-bar and the track-rod. On many arrangements there is a
method of adjusting the seating of the track-rod ball end on the cup located on the end
of the rack-bar. The track-rods therefore allow for angular changes between the
steering rack and the stub axle tie rod due to suspension movement and steering action.
The track-rod end which houses a ball type joint at one end and is threaded onto the
track-rod at the other allows one method of altering the distance between the tie or
steering arms, which effectively alters the toe-in or toe-out of the steered wheels.
Ball type joints
All steering linkage layouts are comprised of rods and arms joined together by ball
joints. The ball joints enable track rods, drag-links and numerous types of steering
linkages to swivel both in the vertical and horizontal axis relative to the steering arms
to which they are attached. The majority of ball joints are designed to tilt from the
perpendicular through an inclined angle of up to 30 degrees hen used in conjunction
with independent type suspension systems. An example can be seen in Heisler A,
Vehicle and Engine Technology.
Stub axle
The stub axle is attached to the vehicle chassis by the suspension system through balljoints and suspension arms or built into the McPherson strut arrangement.
The stub axle swivels for the purposes of steering around two ball-joints or one lower
ball-joint and an upper bearing assembly as used on the strut arrangement shown
above. Mounted on the stub axle is the vehicle hub which revolves on bearings around
the stub-pin and bolted to the stub axle is the tie-rod arm or steering arm to which the
track-rod-end is connected. An example can be seen in Denton, Motor Vehicle
Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan.
Irrespective of which of the above systems are used on the vehicle they all operate on
the Ackerman principle of steering.
21
Steering Geometry
The Ackerman system of steering
On of the main aims of the steering system is to achieve True Rolling Motion of all
the tyres on the road surface, this must be attained when the wheels are rotating in the
straight ahead position and during cornering as illustrated in Denton, Motor Vehicle
Straight Ahead
When the vehicle is in a forward motion there is a splaying force evident at the road
wheels. This force causes the wheels to either toe-in or toe-out depending upon
whether the vehicle is of a front or rear wheel drive arrangement. The effect of the
driving forces acting on the wheels and tyres of a front wheel drive vehicle tends to
cause the wheels to toe in thus the distance between the tie rod arms is reduced to set
up a toeing out of the wheels when the vehicle is in a straight ahead stationary
position. The degree of toeing out will be cancelled by the driving forces taking up the
small amount of free play in the steering system and will bring the wheels into a
position parallel with the vehicle centre-line, thus producing a true rolling motion with
no or little sideways tyre scrub against the road surface. Denton, Motor Vehicle
Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan illustrates this.
Toeing Out of front wheels
The adjustment of the distance between the tie arms is normally achieved by shortening
or lengthening the track-rods. This is achieved by screwing or unscrewing the trackrods into or out of the track-rod ends thus varying the effective track of the vehicle.
This is shown in Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan
True rolling Motion During Cornering
The Ackerman angle attempts to provide the true rolling motion during cornering,
which is only actually achieved in one position in each lock and as previously stated, in
the straight ahead position. The Ackerman angle illustrated below is determined by the
ratio of the vehicle track dimension divided by the wheel-base:
Ackerman angle = Track
Wheel Base
The principal of Ackerman steering (Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK ) is

to achieve true rolling motion whilst cornering by ensuring that all the wheels turn
round a common cantre. In theory this would at a point somewhere along a line
projected through the centre of the rear wheels. As the vehicle turns a corner the inner
wheel follows sharper curve than the outer. To ensure true rolling motion and to
achieve a situation where the centre lines projected from all four wheels meet at a
common point the inner steered wheel must turn through a sharper angle. To achieve
this, the track-rod (usually within a steering rack arrangement) and the steering of tie
arms form a trapezium as illustrated in Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3,
MacMillan.
22
When the vehicle is moving in a straight ahead position the track-rods are parallel to a
line projected through the centre-lines of the front wheels. When cornering
commences, the stub axles are swivelled to turn the front wheels. As the wheels turn
the track-rod is made to lie at an increasing angle to the centre - lines projected
through the front wheels. The result is that the two steering arms experience different
amounts of travel with the inside wheel being swivelled through a greater angle than
the outer wheel.
These variations in angle increase relative to the tightness of the turn. The difference
in steered angle between the inner and outer road wheel is often referred to as the
Toe-out on turns. This is shown in Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3,
MacMillan.
Castor, Camber, KPI and Centre Point Steering
All of the noted steering angles are provided by the design and mounting of the
suspension system components and units onto the vehicle chassis. As suspension
mountings wear or are damaged this will effect the various steering angles and result in
poor vehicle handling and resulting tyre wear. It should also be remembered that
although the steering angles are being referred to here on an individual basis that in real
terms there effects create a combined effect on vehicle handling.
Castor Angle (normally between +1 degree and +3 degrees) can be found in Rover
Castor angle is the angle formed by considering a line projected through the top and
bottom ball/swivel joints (previously referred to as the King Pin, where beam axles
were used) which secure the stub axle to the vehicle chassis when considered from side
of the vehicle. Positive castor is created as shown above when the lower ball joint is
nearer the front of the vehicle than the upper joint. The angle formed by the projected
line to the vertical is referred to as the castor angle with the distance between the two
projected lines at road level being referred to as the castor trail. The castor angle
provides a self centring or aligning force which provides feel to the steering.
Effect of Castor
The simplest example of castor angle in action can be found by considering a
supermarket trolley.
The centre point of contact of the tyre meets the road surface behind the projected
centre line through the swivel pin or pivot (positive castor). If the wheel is following
along behind the pivot point which attaches the wheel to the trolley then there will
exist a force maintaining the wheel in alignment with the body of the trolley.
Imagine the trolley starting to move; a resulting side force will cause the wheel to
swivel on its axis until the wheel is directly aligned with the direction of movement.
The larger the castor angle the greater will be this self aligning force.
23
Advantages of positive castor:

self centring action
helps determine steering torque when cornering
Negative Castor
Negative castor is used on some front wheel drive vehicles to reduce the self-aligning
forces when cornering. Due to the combination of such forces produced by for
instance King Pin Inclination angles the castor angle may need to be negative in order
that the self aligning forces do not become excessive. An example can be found in
Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan
Advantages of Negative Castor:
When combined with other steering angles (KPI) Produces self centring action
Improved steering control on corners
Lighter steering action
Note: Neutral Castor will result in light steering which will require constant correction
by the driver, the system will lack feel.
Camber Angle (typical value 0.5 degrees)
As can be seen from the diagram shown Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level
3, MacMillan when viewed from the front of the vehicle camber angle is determined
by projecting a line through the centre of the wheel to the vertical. Camber angle is
kept relatively small so as not to create excessive tyre wear, in order to achieve the
desired effects of:
Easier steering less turning effort required
Less wear on steering linkages
less stress on main suspension and steering system components
Smaller scrub radius, which reduces the effects of wheel forces on the steering
(driving, braking forces)
without this excess tyre wear then the camber angle is combined with King Pin
inclination angle which produces the combined angle effect of centre point steering.
This can be seen in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK.
This angle can be determined by projecting a line through the stub axle swivel points as
viewed from the front of the vehicle and compared with the vertical.
In order to appreciate the combined effect of camber and KPI let us firstly consider a
vehicle without camber or KPI.
Considering the diagram shown in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK which
represents a vehicle having no camber or KPI the effect of which is the dimension
shown at point (6) which is known as scrub radius or off-set. This is the distance
between the swivel axis (2) and the centre of contact of the tyre on the road surface
(5). The greater this distance the greater will be the effect on the steering system of
any force acting on the wheel and tyre, such as the resistive force created by rolling
24
resistance of the tyre to road adhesion, driving and braking forces or the effect of road
irregularities. All of these forces will have a greater effect on the steering system and
vehicle handling as the scrub radius or off-set increases. In addition this will result in
heavier steering and increased to as zero tyre wear this is due to the fact that the road
wheel and tyre will need to swivel around this swivel axis (2) thus describing a large
arc at the road surface. By combining camber and KPI these unwanted conditions can
be minimised, by achieving close to centre point steering where the point of contact of
the tyre on the road and the projected line through the swivel axis cross at road level
this situation would be referred scrub radius as illustrated in Denton, Motor Vehicle
In the past positive offset was used. This was obtained by making the centre line of
the wheel meet the swivel axis at a point just below the road. The offset distance,
measured at the road surface between the two centre lines, should be equal to ensure
that the inward or outward pull of one wheel is counteracted by the pull of the
opposite wheel. An example of Positive Offset (Positive Scrub Radius) is shown in
Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan.
If one tyre should deflate the positive offset on that side will increase. This will cause
the vehicle to pull violently to that side and make it difficult for the driver to maintain
directional control of the vehicle especially during braking. With Negative Offset
which is more commonly used by vehicle manufacturers today The projected lines
through the swivel axis and the wheel centre meet well above road level. With this
geometry the effect of tyre deflation is to shorten the offset. Although the rolling
resistance is increased, this shorter offset robs the deflated tyre of leverage which
would otherwise alter the steered path of the vehicle. In addition to this advantage
another safety feature of negative offset is achieved if the front brakes should be
unbalanced owing to poor adhesion of one tyre or if one front brake should be
inoperative or less efficient than the other. This would be of particular benefit where
diagonally split brakes are fitted.
Steering system measurement
There are many different systems now employed in the measurement of the steering
geometry, however there are a number of common pre-measurement checks which can
be operated prior to commencing any specific measurement.
Pre-alignment checks
Check for undue play, or damage in:
All ball joints and bushes
Track rod ends
Wheel bearings
Upper and lower suspension arms
Struts and steering linkages
Check the recommended tyres are fitted and correctly inflated
Check if wear patterns on tyres are feathered or sloped
After checks lower vehicle to the ground and bounce the suspension to settle it in its
normal running condition
25
Alignment checks must be carried out on a level surface

When using radius plates it is preferable not to drive onto them but lower the
vehicle onto them
If plates are not being used, then drive or push the vehicle forward into position and
stop it on the hand brake keeping the steering wheel centred. If using equipment
that has clamps fitted to the wheels always compensate for wheel run-out or the
readings will not be accurate.
Always follow manufacturers instructions for loading the vehicle.
Vehicle dynamics (the effect of vehicle motion on steering geometry)
Vehicle handling can be considered by referring to the way the vehicle responds during
cornering most motoring journalists refer to vehicle handling in terms of the vehicle
having inherent:
Neutral steer
Oversteer or
Under steer characteristics
These terms refer to the balance of tyre slip angles between the front and rear of the
vehicle whilst cornering.
Slip Angles
A freely rolling tyre will, if subjected to a side force (side-wind, road camber) follow a
path which is at an angle to the original direction of motion. This angle between the
direction which the tyre and therefore the vehicle is pointing and the direction it is
actually travelling is known as the slip angle and the vehicle will follow the new
direction unless prevented from doing so by the driver. It is the side force created by
the steering system action which produces slip angles at each tyre which causes the
vehicle path to be altered. Examples of Slip angles can be seen in Rover
Slip angle increases with:
An increase In vehicle speed
Stronger side force
and decreases with:
An increase in tyre pressure
An increase in wheel width
If there is a slip angle at the tyres there must be a side thrust and vice-versa, and the
amount of slip angle at any given moment depends upon:
Amount of side thrust
Tyre construction
Vertical load carried by the tyre, a higher load causes more tyre deformation and
therefore larger slip angles
Tyre pressures, an increase in tyre pressure reduces tread distortion and thus
reduces the slip angle
Rim width, since the wider the rim the greater the support it gives the tyre and the
smaller the slip angle
26
Slip angle and cornering

In order to gain an impression of the effects of slip angle on vehicle handling let us
assume that the vehicle in question has an evenly distributed load with the same down
force at each tyre with the centre of gravity being in the middle of the vehicle. The
tyre pressures are set at 24lbs/in with the tracking set to parallel.
Now let us consider the vehicle reaction when one parameter is altered, namely tyre
pressures. Neutral steer can be seen in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK.
Centrifugal force acting on the vehicle is resisted by the tyres. We have stated that the
centre of gravity is mid way between the front and rear axles, therefore the front and
rear tyres will be effected equally by the centrifugal force and will provide equal
resistance. As the tyre pressures are equal 24lbs/in, the amount of tread distortion and
therefore slip angles front and rear will be the same, assume 2 degrees. If the vehicle
speed is increased the resulting increased slip angles will equally effect all tyres.
Because the vehicle has no tendency to change the steered direction, it will continue to
follow the required path with little or no steering correction by the driver.
In this example let us assume that the same vehicle with the same centre of gravity and
vehicle loading is travelling around the same corner at the same speed as in the
previous example. The only alteration is to the tyre pressures, this time the pressures
are 20lbs/in at the front tyres and 24lbs/in at the rear. As the speed is the same the
centrifugal force will be as before and the tyres will need to generate the same
sideways resistance. Because the tyre pressures at the rear remain unchanged at
24lbs/in the slip angles generated will be as before 2 degrees. Since the tyre pressures
are reduced at the front tyres this will allow the tyres to distort more therefore creating
a larger slip angle, say 4 degrees. This means that the vehicle will tend to travel in a
shallower curve than in the previous example. Hence the steering wheel will need to
be turned through a greater angle in order for the tyre to generate the required
sideways resistance to make the vehicle follow the original curve. Unless the driver
corrects the steering in this way the vehicle because of its tendency to travel in a
straight line, will tend to leave the road on the outside of the bend. Understeer can be
seen in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK.
All the conditions are as before except this time the tyre pressures are 24lbs/in at the
front with the lower pressure of 20lbs/in in the rear tyres. Under these conditions the
tread distortion would be the opposite to the previous example with slip angles created
of 2 degrees front and 4 degrees in the rear. This means the vehicle would want to
travel in a sharper curve with the driver having to correct the steering by steering out
of the turn.
This is an undesirable effect and one which most manufacturers tend to avoid. The
majority of vehicles normally operate with inherent understeer characteristics.
To provide a small amount of understeer, the front wheels are normally made to
generate a greater slip angle than the rear wheels by introducing a positive camber
angle on the front wheels whilst maintaining the rear wheels virtually perpendicular to
the ground. Oversteer can be seen in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK.
27
To consider the way in which vehicle motion is likely to effect the handling of the
vehicle due to alterations in the steering angles very much depends upon the prevailing
conditions and the design of the suspension system. It is essential that the suspension
system ensures minimum variance to the steering angles of castor, camber, KPI and
tracking during suspension deflection.
As a general rule the advent of independent suspension systems reduced the effect of
suspension deflection on steering angles.
Consider the difference in suspension design of the two wishbone arrangements
illustrated in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK.
The first type shows a suspension with arms of equal length and it can be seen that
when a wheel passes over a bump it has no effect on the opposite wheel but it does
induce a large camber change to the deflected wheel together with an alteration to the
vehicle track. Now consider the second diagram, which has longer lower suspension
arms it can be seen that there is a lesser effect on camber and a reduced variation to the
vehicle track.
The castor angle of the steering system can be altered with an increase in the loads
applied to the rear of the vehicle, if the vehicle has positive castor then as the load on
the rear suspension increases this can result in heavier steering due to the resulting
increase in positive castor angle. The opposite would be true where negative castor in
used. During heavy braking the compression of the front suspension springs will cause
a reduction in positive castor, however due to the increase in the adhesive force at the
tyres excessively light steering is avoided.
During high speed cornering both the camber and KPI angles will be altered,
depending upon the suspensions ability to limit the sideways roll of the body. The
tendency will be for the inner wheel of the turn to reduce the positive camber of the
wheel whilst at the same time increase the positive camber of the outer wheel by a
similar amount. As the camber angles are reducing and increasing the KPI angles are
acting in the opposite manner, as the camber reduces on one side the KPI angle is
increasing by a similar value therefore the included angle of camber and KPI is
maintained. The effect of deformation of the tyres due to this variation in camber will
add to the inherent understeer characteristics of the vehicle handling.
28
SUBJECT SECTION 4
THE SUSPENSION SYSTEM
System function
There are many different designs of suspension systems used on road vehicles, these
can be roughly categorised as being:
Dependent (incorporating an axle)
Independent
Non independent suspension systems are no longer common on light vehicles because:
Stiffer springs are required
Wheel deflection has a greater alteration on steering angles
They create increased body movement
Vehicle bodies used to be higher off the ground
High un-sprung mass
The system can be designed to provide:
Variable stiffness as loads and terrain alter
Vary body trim height (manually, or in computer controlled systems, automatically
with vehicle speed)
Suspension systems can utilise a large range of spring mediums to include:
Rubber
Spring steel
Air/gas and Fluids
Irrespective of the design of system that is chosen or which type of spring medium is
selected, all suspension systems have a common function.
The stability and effective handling of a vehicle depends upon the designers selection
of the optimum steering and suspension geometry. It is essential for the suspension
system to maintain these settings throughout the service life of the system, and to
minimise the effect of the vehicle dynamics on the steering/ suspension angles of,
castor, camber and KPI.
The suspension system must support the vehicle mass and payload, it must maintain
maximum contact of the tyre with the road surface. In addition it must limit the effect
of the vehicle dynamics on the occupants and components on and within the vehicle.
It must also limit the movement of the body due to the effects of, braking, cornering
and acceleration. The suspension must also control and transmit the driving and
braking forces between the chassis and the road wheels.
29
System Arrangements
Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3, MacMillan provides a selection of
the most common suspension system arrangement to be found on light vehicles:
TASK 1
(1) Visually inspect a selection of vehicles within the workshop
(2) Identify the suspension arrangement type
Hookes law (spring rate)
Hookes Law states that spring deflection is proportional to the load applied.
Therefore stiffer springs will deflect less than soft springs. The term spring rate is
used to determine whether a spring is more or less difficult to compress. A stiffer
spring is said to have a higher spring rate than a softer spring.
Hookes Law is expressed by the formula:
Stress
Strain = a Ratio of load to deflection
TASK 2
Employing the table below enter the spring deflection of each of the three springs
provided when the weights supplied are applied. Apply one weight at a time and
record the deflection.
Weight Applied
Spring 1
Spring Compression
Spring 2
Spring 3
Main components of the suspension system

The Suspension Spring
The spring is the main suspension medium, it supports the vehicle mass and load and
cushions the vehicle from the forces developed by road surface irregularities. The
spring temporarily stores the kinetic energy caused by wheel deflection through
compression of the suspension medium.
Common spring types are:
Helical or Coil Spring: This type of spring is the most commonly used spring on
modern light vehicle suspension systems. The diameter of the spring wire along
with the loops which make the coils determines the stiffness of the spring. The
larger the wire diameter and the smaller the spring coil diameter the stiffer the
spring will be to compress, therefore the spring rate can be determined by these
dimensions. The kinetic energy of wheel deflection is stored by the twisting of the
coil wires and the compression of the spring coils.
30
Leaf Spring: The leaf spring can be multi-layered or be of the mono-leaf design.
Today this type of spring is confined to commercial vehicles and a few car derived
vans. The spring unlike the helical or coil spring provides a rigid suspension link
which can provide stability of location for the axle, and can control the effects of
driving and braking forces. The spring stores the kinetic energy of wheel deflection
by bending over its length. The stiffness of the spring can be varied by altering the
length of the leafs and by varying the number of leafs fitted. The shorter the leafs
and the more individual leafs the spring has the stiffer the spring will be.
Torsion Bar
This spring steel bar stores the kinetic energy produced by wheel deflection by twisting
through the length of the bar. The stiffness can be increased by increasing the bar
diameter.
Rubber
Where rubber is used as the spring medium the shape of the rubber unit will determine
the stiffness of the suspension. The rubber is normally designed so that as the force is
applied due to wheel deflection it applies both a compressive and shear force to he
rubber unit.
Pneumatic (air suspension)
Compressed air suspension units have long been associated with commercial and
passenger carrying vehicles. Air suspension systems offer the added advantage of the
driver being able to vary the vehicle trim height by varying the amount of air in the
suspension air bag. The stiffness of the suspension can be determined by the extent
that the air is compressed into the bag. This type of system is more complex and
requires the use of engine driven compressors to produce the air supply.
Hydro-elastic
This type of suspension system incorporates fluid as a medium for linking two
suspension units together, with a specially designed rubber unit acting as the main
suspension spring. This can be seen in Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK.
The suspension units can be interconnected off-side to near-side in such a way that
when both, rear wheels transverse a bump the fluid is unable to flow from one unit to
another and the rubber springs are compressed. Where only one wheel is deflected,
fluid can be transferred from one suspension unit to the other, this has the advantage of
reducing the body movement from side to side, known as roll.
Hydro-Gas
An alternative method based on the same principle as the hydro-elastic arrangement is
to use a compressed gas as the spring medium, the use of gas in place of the rubber
provides a more resilient suspension spring.
Some modern vehicles use active suspension system which will vary the stiffness and
ride height of the vehicle automatically dependent upon driver commands, road speed
or terrain type.
31
Damper (shock absorber)

The damper is used to assist the road spring in terms of providing additional stiffness
and also by reducing spring oscillation. This is achieved by the damper controlling the
flow of fluid between its upper and lower chambers, during both spring compression
and rebound. The energy in the spring being converted into heat by the resistance
provided by the damper to the flow of the fluid between these chambers.
Dampers can be separate units or may be incorporated within a strut arrangement at
either the front or rear of the vehicle as illustrated by Denton, Motor Vehicle
Suspension Arms (control arms)
As has been seen earlier there are numerous suspension arrangements which utilise a
variation or arms and linkages. The main aim of these arms and linkages is to mount
the stub axle and hub assembly to the vehicle chassis whilst allowing for wheel
deflection. In addition they control lateral forces and transfer driving and braking
forces between the chassis and road wheel and tyre assembly. They also maintain the
relative positions of the suspension components under all operating conditions, and
endeavour to minimise the alteration of steering geometry due to cornering, braking,
acceleration and wheel deflection. Parallel wishbone can be seen Rover
By arranging to have the upper and lower suspension arms of differing lengths there is
virtually no alteration in vehicle camber or tracking.
Trailing Arms (refer to previous page 31-34)
Suspension arms are mounted in such a way as to absorb braking and lateral thrusts
and in the case of driven wheels, the drive and consequent torque reactions. If the
body is loaded, the suspension will deflect but the wheels will remain perpendicular to
the ground. However, when the body rolls, as on a bend, both wheels tend to lean
away from the turn with the inner wheel going negative camber and the outer wheel
positive camber. Spring deflections do not effect toe-in/toe-out or track width.
Semi Trailing Arms (page 31-34)
Skewing of the mounting of the suspension arms minimises the change to camber angle
by keeping the wheels as close as possible to the perpendicular. There are also
minimum changes to track and wheel alignment.
Without the aid of some other device, springing systems would need to be very stiff to
reduce the effect of body roll. A torsion anti-roll bar can be fitted to a suspension
system to enable softer springs to be used, which improves passenger comfort. The
anti-roll bar does not contribute to the springing system, but comes into action when
the body starts to roll or when one wheel is raised above the other on the same axle.
Anti-Roll Bar can be seen in Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering, Level 3,
MacMillan.
32
Control of Bounce Pitch and Roll

The three main body/chassis movements which must be limited in order to minimise the
effect on vehicle handling, are Bounce, a vertical movement of the body brought about
by spring compression, Pitch, a fore aft movement of the body normally brought about
due to the effects of driving and braking forces and Roll a side to side movement of the
body normally caused by cornering or single wheel deflection.
Body Roll
Because of the actions an reactions occurring at the same time it may be useful to view
a vehicle suspension system whilst considering the following information. Considering
the rear suspension system illustrated below it can be determined that the transverse
part of the anti-roll bar is secured to the body with rubber bushes held within metal
brackets. This method of attaching the bar ensures that the bar is firmly attached but
allows the bar to twist within the rubber mountings. Each end of the bar is turned
forwards to form side arms and attached to the lower suspension arms, either directly
or via a linkage. An example of an Anti-roll bar can be seen in Thornes, S .
Let us consider the action of the bar, let us assume the vehicle is turning to the right
which will cause the body to roll left. During this right turn the right hand wheel will
be the inner wheel and the left hand the outer wheel.
The body roll will tilt the transverse part of the bar at an angle pushing the left hand
arm downwards and at the same time lifting, lifting the right hand arm.
The result of this is that the two arms are trying to rotate in opposite directions and
transmit a torque from the lightly loaded inner end to the heavily loaded outer end.
The resulting effect is that the torsional windup will try to push the outer wheel
downwards. Because the wheel cannot go down an opposite reaction will take place
to try and lift the body, so counteracting some of the body downforce.
Pitch (squat)
All vehicles because of their suspended mass experience weight transfer when the
vehicle is either accelerating of braking. The suspension system must be designed to
counteract this effect. The diagram shown in Heisler A, Vehicle and Engine
Technology illustrates the effect of weight transfer due to acceleration, this effect
would be most prominent when accelerating from a rest position.
A pitch movement will be created which transfers weight from the front to the rear
wheels, as the front of the car lifts and the rear sinks, thereby making the car body
squat at the rear. Likewise the opposite effect occurs during braking also illustrated in
Heisler A, Vehicle and Engine Technology.
A leading and trailing arm suspension system can be arranged to counter the effect of
pitch, both forward weight transfer during braking dive and weight transfer due to
acceleration squat. When the vehicle accelerates forwards, the reaction to the driving
torque pivots the suspension arm about the axle in the opposite direction to
33
the input driving torque. Thus in the case of a front wheel drive vehicle (illustrated in
Heisler A, Vehicle and Engine Technology) the arm swings downwards and opposes
the front upward lift.
Likewise with a rear wheel drive vehicle the reaction to the driving torque swivels the
arm upward and so resists the rearward pitch caused by the weight transference from
the front to the rear axle. An example is shown in Heisler A, Vehicle and Engine
Technology.
For both situations of controlling body pitch caused by drive and braking, the length of
the suspension arms are of critical importance. The shorter they are the greater the
resistance they provide.
Some alternative suspension systems exist where inter-linking the suspension units fore
and aft controls the effects of body pitch.
Bounce
One of the characteristics of the suspension spring means that the energy temporarily
stored within the spring due to wheel deflection would be released once the wheel and
tyre assembly leave the irregularity on the road surface. Without the aid of a damper
or similar system this release of energy would result in an oscillation of compression
and rebound to be set up in the spring medium. This would have the effect of affecting
the vehicles centre of gravity and cause a serious deterioration in vehicle handling.
Increased tyre wear would result due to the effect of tyre tramp. The grip of the tyre
on the road surface would vary with the tyre rising and falling onto the road surface
creating a skid each time this occurred producing an uneven wear pattern around the
tyre tread. The operation of the damper as has previously been discussed converts the
energy stored in the spring medium into heat energy and therefore reduces the effect of
spring oscillation and body bounce. Some suspension systems do not use separate
dampers due to the system design, systems such as hydro-gas or hydro- elastic
suspensions have the effect produced by the damper inherent within their construction,
other arrangements such as the McPherson strut include the damper within the integral
unit of the strut.
34

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Automotive Engineering

Secondary Chassis Systems

First published 2001

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

SUBJECT SECTION 1: THE TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Investigation of gear ratios

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Final drive and differential

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Investigation of overall gear ratios

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Determining top gear ratio to provide maximum road speed

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

SUBJECT SECTION 2: THE BRAKING SYSTEM

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

The function of main components

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Slave Cylinder (drum brake)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Coefficient of Friction = Frictional Force

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Calculate the service brake and parking brake efficiencies

Minimum Brake Efficiencies Required

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Load-apportioning valve as shown in Denton, Motor Vehicle Engineering Level 3,

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

SUBJECT SECTION 3: THE STEERING SYSTEM

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

The principal of Ackerman steering (Rover Correspondence Course, Rover UK ) is

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Advantages of positive castor:

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Alignment checks must be carried out on a level surface

Slip angle and cornering

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Main components of the suspension system

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Damper (shock absorber)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Control of Bounce Pitch and Roll

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

Automotive Engineering: Secondary Chassis Systems (H)

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