Introduction

If an operation is performed on a system and the physical properties of the system remain
invariant ,then the operation is known as the symmetry operation.
The symmetry operator commutes with the Hamiltonian,
[H,O]=0
As they commute ,the symmetry operator (O) and Hamiltonian share a basis in which they
are diagonal .Hence ,

< >= 0

which means that <O> is conserved and quantum numbers associated with O are good
quantum numbers. If the symmetry operator is Hermitian ,then there is a conserved
measurable quantity. Symmetry operators should be unitary operators for probability
conservation .
In quantum mechanics symmetry operation can be both continuous and discrete , whereas in
classical mechanics symmetry is only continuous. Space translation and time translation are
two examples of continuous symmetry operations ,while parity ,time reversal ,charge
conjugation are few examples of discrete symmetry operations.
Momentum is the generator of space translation and Hamiltonian is the generator of time
translation.
If a system has motion in multi-dimensions under a potential which is spatially symmetric
,then the system will have degenerate states. For example , particle in a 3d box has
degenerate levels(except the 111,222,. levels).
From the parity operation ,we'll see that space coordinates and linear momentum doesn't
remain invariant under parity operation. So X and p operators anti-commute with the Parity
operator. So these operators and parity can't have simultaneous eigenstates. But angular
momentum(orbital ,spin ,total) operator commutes with the parity operator and so remains
invariant under parity operation.
Parity selection rule gives us the condition for radiative transitions between two states .For
weak interaction Parity doesn't remain conserved.
Time reversal operator is an anti-linear operator and the complex conjugate of the wave
function (coordinate representation and momentum representation) is the time reversal of the
actual wave function.

Position Eigenkets:
To extend the idea of measurements of observables exhibiting continuous spectra , it is best
to work with a position ( or coordinate ) operator .
Let be a Position operator in 1d.
|x'> and x' are Eigen states and Eigen values of the Position operator respectively .
So
| >= | >
The state Ket for an arbitrary physical state can be expressed in terms of position basis
|x'>} as

|> = | >< | > . (1)

This is because

| >< | = .(2)

Where is the identity operator.

The relation 2 is known as the completeness relation.
The inner product <x'| > is known as the position spaced wave function ( ) for the state
|> .
So
( ) =<x'| > .(3)

Spatial Translations:
How do we describe translations in Quantum Mechanics? Suppose we start with a state that
is well localized around x'. Let us consider an operation that changes this state into welllocalized state around x'+a , with everything else (for example, the spin direction)
unchanged. Such an operation is defined to be an infinitesimal translation by a and the
operator that does the job is denoted by T(a):
T(a)|x'>=|x'+a> ..(1)
The right hand side of equation 1 is again a position eigenket with eigenvalue x'+a. So |x'> is
not an eigenket of the translation operator.
We know an arbitrary state ket |> can be expressed in terms of position eigenkets:

|>= | >< | > (2)

The position spaced wave function for the state |> is

( ) =< | > .

We can examine the effect of translation operator on |>:

<x|T(a)|>= < |()| >< | >

= < | + > ( ) dx'

= ( ( + )) ( )
This is because for continuous spectra the orthogonality condition becomes <x|x'>=(x-x') .

So
<x|T(a)|>= ( ) .(3)
In other words
( ) (
) ().
In this approach we are asking how the same state ket would look to another observer whose
coordinate system is shifted by -a.
Properties of Ttanslation operator:
1.The first property we demand is the unitary property imposed by probability conservation
.It is reasonable to require that if the state ket |> normalized to unity ,the translated ket
T(a)|> also be normalized to unity ,so
<|>=< |()+ ()| >=

This condition is guaranteed by demanding that the infinitesimal translation operator be

unitary.So
< ()+ () =
2.For the second property , suppose we consider two successive infinitesimal translationsfirst by a1 and subsequently by a2, where a1 and a2 need not be in the same direction .We
expect the net result to be just a single translation operation by the vector sum a 1+a2 ,so we
demand that
T(a1)T(a2)=T(a1+a2)
3.For the third property ,suppose we consider a translation in the opposite direction; we
expect the opposite-direction translation to be the same as the inverse of the original
translation:
T(-a)= 1 ()
4.For the fourth property , we demand that as a 0, the translation operation reduce to the
identity operation:
0 () =
and the difference between T(a) and the identity operator be of first order in a.
We now demonstrate that if we take the infinitesimal translation operator to be
( ) = .
where the components of K, kx , Ky, Kz are Hermitian operators,then all the properties listed
are satisfied .Because
+ ( )( ) = ( + + . )( . )
= ( ). + [( )2 ]
~
Similarly we can prove other three properties from the definition of T(dx').

The generator of Translations:

The translation operator can be understood better by considering infinitesimal translation. For
this purpose ,we let a is infinitely small.
The translation operator can be expressed as

T(a)= + (2 )

The operator G is called the generator.

( the factor of is put in for notational convenience ).

Now let's find an explicit expression for G:
Since

< |()| >= ( )

Expand both sides to the 1st power in a :

< |

| > = ( )

Since < | | > = ( ) ,therefore

< | | > =

.(1)

This implies that G=P ,the linear momentum operator .

What we have found is that momentum is the generator of translations. In other words
momentum generator operator is associated with the infinitesimal translation .
Finite Translations:
Now let's determine the operator T(b) associated with finite translations. The idea is to
repeatedly apply the translation operator to build up a finite translation:
Since
( ) =

translates a system by an infinitesimal amount a ,therefore if we

apply this operator N times (where b=Na ,we will have a finite translation by b ).
So
() = ()

= lim ( )

T(b) =

(2)

This is because

(1 ) =
So once you know how to describe an infinitesimal change ( here translation ) ,you can
readily describe finite changes too.
Translation invariance of a physical system:
Having defined the translation operator , we can now talk about the notion of translational
invariance:
Suppose we have some isolated physical system .If we assume that space is homogeneous
,then if we translate that physical system to some new location in space ,any experimental
results we obtain at the new location should be identical in all respects to those at the original
location. This is known as translational invariance or translational symmetry.
If | > satisfies the Schrdinger equation then T(a) | > also satisfy the Schrdinger
equation .So

()| >= ()| >

or' ()

| > = ()| >

or' | > = + ()()| >

Since | > satisfies the Schrdinger equation ,therefore
+ ()() =
So if the system has translational symmetry ,then the required condition is
+ ()() = (3)
Said differently ,the translational operator commutes with the Hamiltonian of the system if
the system has translational symmetry.
[T(a) ,H ]=0 .(4)
Conservation law associated with translation symmetry:
In classical physics ,anytime you have a system with a continuous symmetry , then
Noether's theorem declares that there is some conserved quantity associated with the
symmetry .An analogous situation is also found in quantum mechanics. Let's investigate
Translation invariance in quantum mechanics means [T(a),H]=0

Focusing on infinitesimal translations ,we have

, ] = 0

or' [P,H]=0
signifying that the Hamiltonian (of a translational invariant system ) must commute with the
generator of the symmetry group (in this case ,momentum )
Now, recall Ehrenfest's theorem describing the time evolution of expectation values

< >=

< [, ] > +<

>

So substituting into Ehrenfest's theorem the generator of the symmetry P and noting that it
commutes with Hamiltonian (and that it has no explicit time dependence ) yields:

< >= 0

This is the law of momentum conservation in quantum mechanics .

So due to translational symmetry of the system ,the expectation value of momentum doesn't
change in time ,which is the quantum-mechanical law of energy conservation.

Time translation Invariance:

Just as homogeneity of space means that performing the same experiment at different spatial
locations should yield equivalent results ,homogeneity of time dictates that performing the
same experiment at different moments in time should also yield equivalent results.
Moreover, just as we saw that invariance under spatial translations led to the law of
momentum conservation ,here we'll see that invariance under time-translation leads to the law
of energy conservation.
The Time-Translation operator:
Let U(T) be the time translation operator. So
()|(t) > = |(t + T) >
Time translation operator U(T) should be unitary .
The generator of time translations:
Infinitesimal time translation is defined as
()|() > = |( + ) >

Since U(0)=I ,therefore () =

Here G is the generator of time translations.

( ) |() >= |() > + | () >

By replacing the time - derivative on the right hand side by

|() > (from Schrdinger

equation ) yields G=H.

So the Hamiltonian is the generator of time translations.
Finite time translations:
Building up a finite time translation from a series of infinitesimal time translations
(analogous to what we did in the spatial translation case ) yields:
( ) =

A conservation law associated with time-translation invariance:

In the case of time translations, the generator of the group (being the Hamiltonian ) obviously
commutes with the Hamiltonian. So Ehrenfest's theorem applied to the generator yields

< > =<

>

So if the Hamiltonian doesn't explicitly depend on time ,then the expectation value of the
Hamiltonian-i.e., the average energy - doesn't change in time.

< >=0

This is the law of energy conservation.

So we may conclude that the conservation of energy (in an isolated system ) results from the
invariance of the Hamiltonian with respect to time translations .This time-translation
invariance (which implies the Hamiltonian contains no explicit time dependence ) is
associated with the homogeneity of time.

Discrete Symmetries:
So far we have considered continuous symmetry operations-that is, operations that can be
obtained by applying successively infinitesimal symmetry operations. Not all symmetry
operations useful in quantum mechanics are continuous. Such symmetry operations are called
discrete symmetry operations like parity ,lattice translation ,and time reversal.
1.Parity:

The parity operation , as applied to transformation on the coordinate system ,changes a

right handed (RH) system into a left handed (LH) system, as shown in the above figure. Here
we'll discuss a transformation on state kets under parity rather than on the coordinate system.
The space inverted state of a state ket |> is given by P|> ,where P is the parity
operator.
The expectation value of x(position) taken with respect to the space inverted state should
be opposite in sign of that taken with respect to the actual state.
So
< |+ | > = < || >
This is accomplished if
+ =
Operated by P from the right side ,we get
XP=-PX ,where we have used the fact that P is unitary because of probability
conservation. In other words ,X and P must anticommute.
Now | >= | > = ( )| >
where x' is the eigenvalue of X in the state |x'>.

So we can say that P|x'> is an eigenket of X with eigenvalue -x' ,so it must be the same as a
position eigenket |-x'> up to a phase factor ,which can be chosen to unity by convention.
So
P|x'>=|-x'>
or' P2|x'> = |x'>
or' P2=1
So +1 and -1 are eigenvalues of P.
P is also Hermitian in nature.
Now we'll see the effect of parity on linear momentum. Translation followed by parity is
equivalent to parity followed by translation in the opposite direction. So

PT(dx' )=T(-dx')P
or' P(1

) + = 1 +

,here p is the linear momentum.

From which follows

{P, p}=0 .
So P and p must ant commute.
Now we'll see the behaviour of orbital angular momentum (L),total angular momentum (J)
and spin angular momentum(S) under parity operation.
Since L=r x p and both r and p are odd under parity ,therefore L should be even under parity.
Mathematically
[P,L]=0
Since J is the generator of rotation and PD(R)=D(R)p ,where D(R) is the rotation matrix
,therefore [P,J]=0.
So J is also even under parity.
Since J=L+S ,therefore S should be even under parity ,i.e., [P,S]=0
Vectors that are odd under parity are called polar vectors, examples are linear momentum ,
Vectors that are even under parity are called axial vector, or pseudo vectors.

Wave Function under parity:

Let us now look at the parity property of wave function. First, let be the wave function
of a spinless particle whose state ket is |>:
( ) =< | >
The wave function of the space-inverted state, represented by P|> ,is
<x'|P|>
=< | >

[P is Hermitian ]

=<-x'|>
=( )
If ( ) =

( ) then it is even parity.

and ( ) = ( ) then it is odd parity.

Since momentum operator anticommutes with the parity operator,so the momentum eigenket
is not expected to be a parity eigenket.An eigenket of orbital angular momentum is expected
to be a parity eigenket because L and P commute.To see how an eigenket of L 2 and Lz
behaves under parity,let us examine the properties of its wave function under space inversion,
<x'|,lm>= () (, )
Here l is the orbital angular momentum quantum number and m is the magnetic quantum
number.
The transformation x' is accomplished by letting

+
Use the form of the spherical harmonics (, ) ,we can show that
P (, ) =(-1)l (, )
Therefore, we can conclude that
P|,lm>=(-1)l |,lm>
So for l=odd integers ,spherical harmonics is odd parity

and for l=even integers, spherical harmonics is even parity.

For Bose-Einstein system ,the wave function is even parity because
=

1
2

[ (1) (2) + (2) (1)]

For Fermi-Dirac system ,the wave function is odd parity because

=

1
2

[ (1) (2) (2) (1)]

Parity-Selection Rule:
Suppose |> and |> are parity eigenstates:
P|>= | >
and
| >= | >
where | >
| > .

Now
< || >=< |+ + | >

, .

= (< || >)
which is impossible for a finite nonzero < || > unless .
So we can conclude that if = 0.
This selection rule, first expressed by Wigner ,is important in discussing radiative transitions
between atomic states. So radiative transitions take place between states of opposite parity as
a consequence of multipole expansion formalism. This rule was known phenomenologically
from analysis of spectral lines ,before the birth of quantum mechanics, as Laporte's rule.It
was Wigner who showed that Laporte's rule is a consequence of the parity-selection rule.
Our considerations can be generalized: Operators that are odd under parity ,like p ,have
nonvanishing matrix elements only between states of opposite parity.In contrast ,operators
that are even under parity connect states of the same parity.
Parity Nonconservation:
Parity does not remain invariant for weak interaction of elementary particles. This was
first showed by Lee and Yang in 1956by performing an experiment.Subsequent experiments

indeed showed that observable effects do depend on pseudoscalar quantities such as

correlation between <S> and p. The basic reason for parity nonconservation is that the weak
interaction Hamiltonian is not invariant under parity.

Time reversal symmetry:

In classical physics, the fundamental microscopic law governing behaviour (Newton's
law) is invariant under time reversal t .In other words ,if x(t) is a solution to
2

= 2 ,then the time reversed state , x(-t) (presuming that the forces depend

only on position , not on time or velocity ).Moreover ,since v= ,it follows that under time
reversal ,velocity ,and hence momentum , get reversed: p(t) ().
Likewise , angular momentum also gets flipped.
Now on to the quantum case
It's easier to work in the x-representation .Let (, ) denote the solution to the
Schrdinger equation

2 2

(, ) = [ 2

+ ( )] (, )

In quantum mechanics ,what does the time-reversed wave function look like?
Let's guess (, ) and see if it satisfies the Schrdinger equation or not.
Setting t , Schrdinger's equation becomes

2 2

(, ) = [ 2

+ ( )] (, )

Hence (, ) is not a solution to Schrdinger's equation.

However , if we take the complex conjugate of the above equation ,we find (, ) =
2 2

[ 2

+V(x)] (, )

So we see that (, ) is a solution to Schrdinger's equation .This represents the

appropriate time-reversed state in quantum mechanics.
So
(, ) (x, t)
Similarly we can show that in the momentum representation
(, ) (, )
Since the "time-reversal operator" involves complex conjugation ,it is not a linear operator.
So it is anti-linear.