Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
TU
or
ld
MANUAL
HEAT TRANSFER LAB
ld
or
JN
TU
CONTENTS
Page
ld
Experiments on Conduction
1. Composite Wall
2. Lagged Pipe
or
05
09
12
13
Experiments on Convection
18
6. Natural Convection
25
TU
7. Forced Convection
31
Experiments on Radiation
34
39
JN
49
43
60
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Experiments on Conduction
ld
Experiments on Convection
or
Convection)
TU
Experiments on Radiation
8. Determination of Stefan Boltzman Constant
9. Determination of Emissivity of test plate
JN
phase change
ACCECERIES OF EQUIPMENTS
Thermometer (0-1100C) - 1
ii)
Bulb (100W) 1
iii)
Beaker (Glass) -1
or
i)
ld
ii)
Measuring Jar 1
iii)
i)
Thermometer (0-1100C) - 3
TU
ii)
Stop Watch - 1
JN
i)
ii
experiments.
2. Increase voltage slowly.
or
ld
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TU
readings.
iii
ld
INTRODUCTION
or
plaster of paris etc. are also used for heat insulation. In order to
determine the appropriate thickness of insulation, knowledge of thermal
APPARATUS
TU
JN
and six thermocouples are on the inner surface of outer sphere, which
are connected to a multi channel digital temperature indicator.
SPECIFICATIONS
1. Inner sphere- 100mm O.D., halved construction
2. Outer sphere- 200mm I.D., halved construction
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Keep dimmerstat knob at ZERO position and switch ON the
equipment.
2. Slowly rotate the dimmerstat knob, so that voltage is applied
across the heater. Let the temperatures rise.
ld
or
Sl.
Temperatures
T1
T2
THEORY
T3
T4
T5
T6
Heat input
T7
T8
T9
T10
Volts
Amps
No.
TU
JN
Q dr
x dT
4k r 2
Q 0 dr 0
dT
4k ri r 2 Ti
Q 1 1
x (Ti T0 )
4k ri r0
or Q
4 kri ro (Ti To )
( r0 ri )
ld
CALCULATIONS
Watts
or
1. Heater input = Q = V x I
Ti
T1 T2 T3 T4
4
0C
T0
Q(r0 ri )
W/mK
4 .ri. ro .( Ti To )
at
Ti To
2
TU
Now
PRECAUTIONS
JN
RESULT
or
ld
JN
TU
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
ld
structure.
APPARATUS
or
- 25 cm x 25 mm thick
TU
b. Bakelite - 25 cm x 10 mm thick
c. Brass
- 25 cm x 10 mm thick
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Start the supply of heater. By varying the dimmerstat adjust the
JN
CONDUCTIVITY
a. M.S
2.5 cm
46 W / m K
b. Bakelite
1.0 cm
0.223 W / m K
c. Brass
1.0 cm
110 W / m K
OBSERVATIONS
Sl.No.
Heat Supplied
Temperatures 0C
(Watts)
T1
T2
T3
CALCULATIONS
1) Mean readings,
(T1 T2 )
2
TA
b)
TB
c)
TC
(T5 T6 )
2
d)
TD
(T7 T8 )
2
0C
(T3 T4 )
2
T5
T6
T7
T8
or
a)
T4
ld
Voltmeter Ammeter
0C
0C
0C
TU
JN
Q
A
Watt / m 2
total
T A TD
m2
q
K /W
composite
q .b
T A TD
W /m/k
PRECAUTIONS
1. Keep the dimmerstat zero before start
2. Increase voltage slowly
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed
4. Do not increase voltage above 200 V
ld
or
TB
Mild Steel
TC
Temperature, 0C
TA
Bakelite
TD
Brass
25
35
45
Thickness of slab
TU
RESULT
JN
ld
or
JN
TU
1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
3. Temperature indicator
4 Main switch
5. Heater Control
6. Water connection
A. Heater B & B1 M.S. Plate C & C1 Bakelite D & D1 Brass plate E & E1
Cooling plate
LAGGED PIPE
AIM
1. To determine heat flow rate through the lagged pipe and compare it
with the heater input for known value of thermal conductivity of
lagging material.
ld
or
Between first two cylinders the insulating material with which lagging is
to be done is filled compactly.
TU
JN
PROCEDURE
1) Start the supplies of heater and by varying dimmerstat adjust the
input for desired value (range 60 to 120 Watts) by using voltmeter and
ammeter, also start water supply.
Lagged pipe
Ammeter
Thermocouple Readings
T1
T2
CALCULATIONS
Mean readings
inside
middle
Outer
T4
T5
T6
T1 T2
2
T3 T4
T3
ld
Volt
or
Sl.No.
2
T T6
5
2
TU
k = thermal conductivity W / m K
JN
i) Now, first we find out the theoretical heat flow rate through the
composite cylinder
Q
inside
outside
r
r
1 1
1
Loge m
Loge 0
2L k 1
ri
k2
rm
k1 = 0.22 W/moK & k2 = 0.13 W/m0K, where Actual heat input, Qact = V.I.
ii) Now from known value of heat flow rate, value of combined thermal
conductivity of lagging material can be calculated.
10
Lagged pipe
Q act
2Lk( Ti To )
loge (r0 / ri )
k2
W /m
W /m
K.
or
k1
ld
asbestos powder and the space between pipes of 8.5 cm and 10.5 cm
V/S
Log e (r / ri )
Log e (ro / ri )
TU
JN
11
Lagged pipe
or
ld
TU
JN
12
Lagged pipe
ld
INTRODUCTION
or
energy
from
TU
carry
higher
temperature
region
to
lower
JN
13
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a copper bar, one end of which is heated by an
electric heater and the other end is cooled by a water-circulated heat
sink. The middle portion, i.e. Test section of the bar is covered by a shell
containing insulation. The bar temperature is measured at 8 different
ld
A gate valve
or
TU
3. Start cooling water supply through the heat sink and adjust it to
around 350- 400 cc per minute.
JN
5. When all the temperatures remain steady, note down all the
observations and complete the observation table.
14
OBSERVATION TABLE
Sl.
No.
T3
T4
T5
T6
Water
Temp.oC
T9
T11
T8
T10
Water flow
rate
Lit/Sec.
T12
ld
T1
Shell
Temp.oC
Using the temperatures of the bar at various points, plot the temperature
or
distribution along the length of the bar and determine the slopes of the
graph (i.e. temperature drop per unit length) dT/dx at the sections AA,
BB and CC as shown in figure.
CALCULATIONS
Heat is flowing through the bar from heater end to water heat sink.
When steady state is reached, heat passing through the section CC of the
bar is heat taken by water.
TU
Where,
JN
dT
Now, Qcc = -kcc .A
dx cc
D2
W / moC
15
= Qcc +
Kbb =
W/mo C
or
ld
2 k .L2 (T3 T9 )
log e (r0 / ri )
Where,L2 = 0.090 m
dT
Qaa = -kaa. .A
dx aa
Kaa =
RESULTS
W/moC
TU
1) Temperature of the bar decreases from hot end to cool end, which
satisfies the
JN
16
ld
TU
or
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17
ld
INTRODUCTION
Extended surfaces or fins are used to increase the heat transfer rates
from a surface to the surrounding fluid wherever it is not possible to
or
temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. Fins are
fabricated in variety of forms. Fins around the air cooled engines are a
common example. As the fins extend from primary heat transfer surface,
the temperature difference with the surrounding fluid diminishes towards
APPARATUS
TU
length of fin and a thermocouple notes the duct fluid temperature. When
top cover over the fin is opened and heating started, performance of fin
with natural convection can be evaluated and with top cover closed and
blower started, fin can be tested in forced convection.
SPECIFICATIONS
JN
thermocouple positions along the length, made of brass, mild steel and
aluminum - one each.
Fin is screwed in heater block which is heated by a band heater.
2) Duct- 150 x 100mm cross-section, 1000mm long connected to suction
side of blower
3) FHP centrifugal blower with orifice and flow control valve on discharge
side.
18
ld
or
Heat is conducted along the length of fin and also lost to surroundings.
Applying first law of thermodynamics to a control volume along the
length of fin at a station which is at length x from the base
d 2T
h.P
0
2
k f .A
dX
(1)
TU
(C1 .e mx ) (C2 .e mx )
Where m
(2)
h.P
k f .A
(3)
JN
d
0 at x = L,
dx
Cosh [m( L X )]
T Tf
1 T1 T f
Cosh [m.L].
(4)
This is the equation for temperature distribution along the length of the
fin. Temperatures T1 and Tf will be known for the given situation and the
value of h depend upon mode of convection i.e. natural or forced.
19
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
INPUT
No.
V
Manometer
Fin Temperature
Duct fluid
difference
oC
temp. oC
H (m of water)
T1 T2
T3
T4
T5
T6 (Tf)
ld
Sl.
A) NATURAL CONVECTION
Open the duct cover over the fin. Ensure proper earthing to the unit and
When the
or
temperatures remain steady, note down the temperatures of the fin and
duct fluid temperature.
INPUT
NO.
V
Fin temperatures oC
Sl.
T1
T2
T3
T4
oC
T5
T6 (Tf)
B) FORCED CONVECTION
TU
Adjust the
dimmerstat so that about 100 110v are supplied to the heater. When
the temperatures become steady, note down all the temperatures and
manometer difference
JN
CALCULATIONS
Nomenclature:
20
ld
or
TU
Pr = Prandtl number =
g. .D 3T
Cp.
(take from data book.)
k air
JN
21
tanh [ mL ]
mL
FORCED CONVECTION
For flow across Horizontal cylinder loosing heat by forced convection,
from data book, page number 100.
---------- for 4 < Re < 40
Vtmf
Vtmf . D
V . (Tmf 273)
(T f 273)
or
Where, Re
ld
Q Cd
d2
4
V Q / Duct cross sec tional area Q /(0.15 X 0.1) m / s
TU
JN
PRECAUTIONS
1. Operate all the switches and controls gently
2. Do not obstruct the suction of the duct or discharge pipe
3. Open the duct cover over the fin for natural convection experiment
22
4. Fill up water in the manometer and close duct cover for forced
convection experiment
5. Proper earthing to the unit is necessary
6. While replacing the fins, be careful for fixing the thermocouples.
Incorrectly fixed thermocouples may show erratic readings
T2
23
T4
23
T5
23
10
or
23
T3
ld
T1
Natural Convection
Forced Convection
TU
Fin Temperature, C
GRAPH
Fig 2: Variation of fin temperature along the length of fin with natural
convection and forced convection.
JN
RESULTS
Natural convection:
Heat transfer coefficient =
Efficiency of pin fin =
Forced convection:
Heat transfer coefficient =
Efficiency of pin fin =
23
or
ld
1. Manometer
2. Ammeter
3. Voltmeter
4. Temperature indicator
5. Selector switch
6. Blower switch
7. Heater control
8. Main switch
9. Suction duct
10. Orifice meter
JN
TU
24
ld
INTRODUCTION
due to the temperature difference between the surface and the fluid and
is not created by any external agency. The present experimental set up is
or
and its comparison with the value obtained by using and appropriate
TU
is kept in the vertical tube which in turn heats the tube surface. The
heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection.
The
temperature
of
the
vertical
tube
is
measured
by
seven
JN
25
THEORY
When a hot body is kept in still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the
surrounding fluid by natural convection. The fluid layer in contact with
the hot body gets heated, rises up due to the decrease in its density and
ld
the cold fluid rushes in to take place. The process is continuous and the
heat transfer takes place due to the relative motion of hot and cold fluid
particles.
The heat transfer coefficient is given by:
Q QR
A s ( Ts Ta )
(1)
or
(T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 )
7
TU
K respectively.
JN
g.L3 .T C
hxL
A
x K
2
k
(2)
26
Where
hxL
is called the Nusselt number.
k
g .L3 .T
= is called the Grashof Number and
v2
C .
k
ld
or
For gases
(T f 273)
TU
and n of equation (2) have been determined and the following empirical
correlations obtained from data book, page number 120.
JN
hL
= 0.59 (Gr.Pr.)0.25 for 104 < Gr.Pr. < 109
k
hL
= 0.10 (Gr.Pr.)1/3 for 109 < Gr.Pr. < 1013
k
(3)
(4)
All the properties of the fluid are determined at the mean film
temperature (Tf)
27
PROCEDURE
1. Put ON the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the
required heat input (say 40 W, 60 W, 70 W etc).
2. Wait till the steady state is reached, which is confirmed from
temperature readings ( T1- T7)
ld
1) O.D. Cylinder = 38 mm
or
OBSERVATIONS
2) Length of cylinder = 500 mm
3) Input to heater = V. I Watts
Volt
Amp
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
Sl.No.
Temperature, 0C
CALCULATIONS
TU
T = T1 to T7 and h = Q/[As(T-Ta)]
3) Compare the experimentally obtained value with the predictions of
JN
PRECAUTIONS
1. Proper earthing is necessary for the equipment.
2. Keep dimmerstat to ZERO volt position before putting on main
switch and increase it slowly.
28
ld
lengths (approx) and beyond that there is little variation in the value of
or
boundary layers. The last point shows some what increase in the value
RESULTS
JN
TU
29
or
ld
JN
TU
30
ld
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of a circular pipe, through which cold fluid, i.e.
air is being forced.
or
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
TU
Vol
No
JN
Sl.
Amp.
Temperatures
Manomete
r
Difference
T1
T2
T3
T4
31
T5
T6
T7
hw
CALCULATIONS
1. Air inlet temp T1 =
C
0
1.293 x 273
273 T1
kg/m3
ld
4. Diameter of orifice = 22 mm
Manometer difference = Water head = hw meters
Air head, ha = hw (w / a)
Where w = density of water = 1000 Kg/m3
or
Q Cd a0 2 gha m3 /sec.
Where Cd = 0.64
kg/sec.
Velocity of air, V
Q
m/sec.
a
m2
TU
Tm
Ts
(T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 )
5
(T 1 T 7)
2
0C
0C
JN
Ta = atmospheric temperature = T1
hexpt
Qair Q R
A(Ts Tm )
W/m2 K
VxD
32
= Kinematic Viscosity at Tm
D = 0.033 m
If ReD < 2300, flow is laminar.
For laminar flow, NuD =
h.D
= 4.36, from data book, page number 109.
k air
ld
For turbulent flow, NuD = 0.023 (ReD)0.8 (Pr.)n from data book, page
number 110.
Where n = 0.4 when fluid is being heated.
Determine htheo from NuD.
or
Note: The calculated values and actual values may differ appreciably
because of heat losses.
conduction and heat loss through insulation over the heater is not
considered, but they are present.
TU
JN
RESULT
33
or
ld
JN
TU
34
ld
INTRODUCTION
or
and reflectivity are zero and absorptivity is unity. Stefan Boltzmann Law
states that emissivity of a surface is proportional to fourth power of
E T4
or E = T4
TU
JN
APPARATUS
obtained from a hot water tank, fitted to the panel, in which water is
heated by an electric immersion heater. The hot water is taken around
the hemisphere, so that hemisphere temperature rises. The test disc is
then inserted at the center. Thermocouples are fitted inside hemisphere
to average out hemisphere temperature. Another thermocouple fitted at
34
the center of test disc measures the temperature of test disc. A timer
with a small buzzer is provided to note down the disc temperatures at the
time intervals of 5 seconds.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
sufficient water in the heater tank.
2. Put ON the heater.
ld
1. See that water inlet cock of water jacket is closed and fill up
3. Blacken the test disc with the help of lamp black and let it cool.
or
6. See that drain cock of water jacket is closed and open water inlet
cock.
At the start of
timer cycle, insert test disc into the hole at the bottom of
TU
hemisphere.
11.
JN
OBSERVATIONS
35
Time Interval
(Sec)
(oC)
0
25
50
ld
75
100
125
175
CALCULATIONS
or
150
m2 (d = 20 mm)
3) Plot a graph of temperature rise of test disc with time as base and
dT
dt
att 0
Hemisphere temperature, TH =
K / sec
T1 T2 T3 T4
273.15 K
4
TU
JN
Q = m. cP. (dT/dt)t=0
36
m.c P .( dT / dt ) t 0
4
4
A.(TH TD )
W/ m2 K4
ld
2) Put OFF the heater before draining the water from heater tank.
or
JN
TU
Water tank
Main switch
Temperature indicator
Temperature selector switch
Buzzer switch
Heater switch
Shell
37
or
ld
JN
TU
38
EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT
AIM
To determine the emissivity of the test plate.
INTRODUCTION
surroundings.
The
rate
of
thermal
ld
All the bodies emit and absorb the thermal radiation to and from
radiation
depends
upon
the
or
The radiant flux, emitted from the surface is called emissive power (E).
The emissivity of a surface is ratio of emissive power of a surface to that
TU
APPARATUS
JN
dimensions. Mica heaters are provided inside the plates. The plates are
mounted in an enclosure to provide undisturbed surroundings. One of
the plates is blackened outside for use as a comparator (because black
surface has = 1). Another plate is having natural surface finish. Input
to heaters can be controlled by separator dimmer stats. Heater input is
measured on common ammeter and voltmeter.
One thermocouple is
39
Emissivity measurement
ld
The plate enclosure is provided with Perspex acrylic sheet at the front.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Blacken one of the plates with the help of lamp black (Normally
blackening is necessary)
or
5. Keep the meter selector switch (toggle switch) at the black plate
side position.
TU
8. Adjust test plate voltage slightly less than that of black plate (say
100- 110 volts)
9. Check the temperatures (after, say 10 min) and adjust the dimmers
so that temperatures of both the plates are equal and steady.
Normally, very minor adjustments are required for this.
JN
10.
steady state.
OBSERVATIONS
Plate
Input
V
Surface temperature,
0C
Test plate
T1 =
Black plate
T2 =
40
Emissivity measurement
Enclose temperature, T3 =
0C
CALCULATIONS
1. Enclose temperature:
0C
= (T3 + 273.15) 0K
=T2 =
TS = (T+273.15) 0K
or
ld
TE =T3 =
(i)
TU
(ii)
JN
41
Emissivity measurement
PRECAUTIONS
1. Black plate should be perfectly blackened.
2. Never put your hand or papers over the holes provided at the top of
enclosure.
the wall.
4. Operate all the switches and knobs gently.
ld
or
JN
TU
42
Emissivity measurement
ld
Heat exchangers are the devices in which the heat is transferred from one
fluid to another. Exchange of heat is required at many industrial
or
TU
Thus hot and cold fluids are alternately passed through the medium. iii)
Direct contact type in this type, the fluids are not separated but they
mix with each other and heat passes directly from one fluid to the other.
Transfer type heat exchangers are the type most widely used. In transfer
type heat exchangers, three types of flow arrangements are used, viz.
parallel, counter or cross flow. In parallel flow, the fluids flow in the same
JN
Hot
water flows through the inner tube in one direction. Cold fluid is cold
water, which flows through annulus. Control valves are provided so that
43
ld
or
copper tube
1. Start the water supply. Adjust the water supply on hot and cold
sides.
TU
After temperatures become steady, note down the readings and fill
JN
6. Wait until the steady state is reached and note down the readings.
44
OBSERVATION
HOT WATER
FLOW
Temperatures
Inlet
Outlet
0C
0C
Time for 1
Lit. Water
xh sec
Temperatures
Inlet
0C
Parallel
Flow
Lit. Water
Outlet
0C
xc sec
or
Counter
Time for 1
ld
TYPE OF
COLD WATER
Flow
CALCULATIONS
0C
0C
xh kg/s
TU
JN
Ti = thi - tci
Ti = thi - tco
To = tho - tco
To = tho - tci
45
ld
or
mh c p (t hi t ho )
[mc p ]min (t hi t ci )
TU
1. Never switch on the geyser unless there is water supply through it.
2. If the red indicator on geyser goes off during operation, increase the
water supply, because it indicates that water temperature exceeds
the set limit.
JN
results.
46
RESULTS
HEAT TRANSFER
TYPE
RATE
LMTD
Heat Transfer
Effective
Coefficient
- ness
OF
Inside
Outside
(Watts)
(Watts)
Ui
0C
W/m2k
Parallel
W/m2k
or
Flow
UO
ld
FLOW
Counter
JN
TU
Flow
47
or
ld
1. Tci
2. Tho
3. V4
4. V3
JN
TU
5. Thi
6. V1
7. Tco
8. V2
Parallel flow
Cross flow
V1 & V4 open
V2 & V3 open
V2 & V3 close
V1 & V4 close
48
ld
INTRODUCTION
or
APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of two condensers, which are fitted inside a glass
cylinder, which is clamped between two flanges. Steam from steam
TU
JN
49
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Fill up the water in the steam generator and close the water-filling
valve.
Start water supply through the condensers.
Close the steam control valve, switch on the supply and start the
heater.
After some time, steam will be generated. Close water flow through
one of the condensers.
Open steam control valve and allow steam to enter the cylinder and
or
ld
Open drain valve and ensure that air in the cylinder is expelled
out.
Wait for some time for steady state, and note down all the readings.
TU
OBSERVATIONS
Drop wise Condensation
Steam Pressure, kg/cm2
Water flow rate, LPH
JN
50
oC
oC
kg/sec
or
ld
Q
o
W / m 2 C (for both film
A(Ts Tw )
TU
JN
h fg . 2 .g.k 3
h 0.943
(Ts Tw )..L
Where
in steam tables)
= Density of water, Kg / m3
g = Gravitational acceleration, m / sec2
k = Thermal conductivity of water W / mo C
51
(Ts TW )
2
ld
coefficient only)
In film wise condensation, film of water acts as barrier to heat transfer
where as, in case of drop formation, there is no barrier to heat transfer,
But
or
PRECAUTIONS
TU
RESULTS
JN
52
or
ld
6. Temperature indicator
7. Selector switch
8. Heater control
9. Main switch
JN
TU
4. Steam pressure
53
ld
INTRODUCTION
or
called boiling. Boiling is of various types, the type depending upon the
temperature difference between the surface and the liquid. The different
types are indicated in figure, in which a typical experimental boiling
curve obtained in a saturated pool of liquid is drawn. The heat flux
supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw Ts) the difference between
the temperature of the surface and the saturation temperature of the
liquid. It is seen that the boiling curve can be divided into three regions.
10
II a
TU
10
Nucleate
boiling
JN
Heat
flux,
2
W/m
Film
boiling
II
II b
Bubbles
rise
III a
III b
Radiation
C
coming in to
play
Unstable
film
Bubbles
condense
10
III
Stable film
10
10
0
00
Excess temperature (Tw - Ts)
I)
II)
III)
54
1000
0
ld
or
free surface. In the second part (II-b) the rate of bubble formation as well
as the number of locations where they are formed increase. Some of the
bubbles now rise all the way to the free surface.
the rate of formation of bubbles is so high, that they start to coalesce and
blanket the surface with a vapour film. This is the beginning of region (III)
viz, film boiling. In the first part of this region (III-a) the vapour film is
unstable, so that film boiling may be occurring on a portion of the heated
surface area, while nucleate boiling may be occurring on the remaining
area. In the second part (III-b) a stable film covers the entire surface. At
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the end of region (II) the boiling curve reaches a peak (point A). Beyond
this, in region (III-A) in spite of increasing temperature difference, the
heat flow increases with the formation of a vapour film. The heat flux
passes through a minimum (point B) at the end of region (III-a). It starts
to increase again with (Tw Ts) only when stable film boiling begins and
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55
ld
or
occurring in any process, one must state that (i) whether it is forced
convection boiling or pool boiling, (ii) whether the liquid is saturated or
sub cooled and (iii) whether is in the natural convection nucleate of film
region.
APPARATUS
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The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass housing the test heater and
heater coil for heating of the water. This heater coil is direct connected to
the mains (Heater R1) and the test wire is also connected to mains via.
variac. An ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter across it to
read the current and voltage respectively. The glass container is kept on a
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stand. There is provision of observing the test heater wire with the help
of a lamp light from back and the heater wire can be view a lens.
SPECEIFICATIONS
1) Glass container Diameter 250 mm
Height 100 cm
56
mm
ld
or
test wire the change over from natural convection to nucleate boiling can
be seen. The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number
can be visualized followed by the vigorous bubbles formation and their
immediate carrying over to surface and ending this in the breaking of
PROCEDURE
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3) Connect the heater coil R-1 (1KW Nichrome coil) and test heater
wire
across
the
studs
and
make
the
necessary
electrical
connections.
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8) Go on increasing the voltage till wire brakes and carefully note the
voltage and current at this point.
57
PRECAUTIONS
1) Keep the variac to zero voltage position before starting the
experiments.
2) Take sufficient amount of distilled water in the container so that
both the heaters are completely immersed.
ld
4) Do not touch the water or terminal points when the main switch
ON.
or
6) After the attainment of critical heat flux decrease slowly the voltage
and bring it to zero position.
OBSERVATIONS
m.
Ammeter Reading
Voltmeter Reading
(I Amps)
(V volts)
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water OC
Note: - The ammeter and voltmeter readings are to be note down when
wire melts.
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CALCULATIONS
Q V.I
A A
W / m2
3. Zubfer has given following equation for calculating peak heat flux in
saturated pool boiling.
58
qtheor
. g ( L v
Q
0.18 h fg v LV
2
A
1/ 4
= Density of Liquid
hfg, LV , L and
ld
LV
or
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TU
59
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Heater switch
Lamp switch
Main switch
Heater control
Class container
Heater fitting
ld
with comparison.
INTRODUCTION
Heat pipe is an interesting device, which is used to transfer heat from one
or
Heat pipe basically consist of a stainless steel pipe, sealed at both the
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The apparatus consists of three pipes, viz., a heat pipe, copper pipe and a
stainless steel pipe. All the pipes have same physical dimensions.
Copper and Stainless steel pipes serve the purpose of comparison of heat
pipe performance with copper pipe as good conductor of heat and with
stainless steel pipe as same material of construction.
mounted vertically with a band heater at lower end and a water filled
heat sink at upper end. When heaters start heating the pipes, begin to
transfer the heat to heat sinks. Rapid rise of temperature of water in the
heat pipe heat sink demonstrates high [apparent] thermal conductivity of
60
ld
ends, evacuated & filled partially with distilled water one no.
2. Copper and stainless steel pipes of same size as that of heat pipe
one each
or
for
longitudinal
temperatures
and
three
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to unit.
heaters. As same dimmer stat supplies power to all heaters and all
heaters are of same capacity, power input to all the heaters remains
same. This makes the comparison simpler. Go on noting down the
temperatures of water in heat sinks every 5 min (stir the water before
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noting down the temperature. After around 30 minutes, note down the
longitudinal temperature of the pipes, from the temperatures
indicator. Replace the water when pipes become cool lower than 45oC
61
OBSERVATIONS
I) Heat sink water temperatures
Time, minutes
S.S Pipe
Copper Pipe
Heat Pipe
Heat sink
Heat sink
Heat sink
ld
0 min
5 min
10 min
15 min
or
20 min
25 min
30 min
S.S. Pipe
Heat Pipe
T6
T1
T1
T2
T2
T8
T3
T3
T9
T4
T4
T10
T5
T5
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T7
PRECAUTIONS
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GRAPHS
1. Plot the graph of heat sink water temperature rise up to 30
minutes
62
T1
T3
T4
T5
10
110
80
90
150
ld
450
10
or
10
15
20
25
30
Time, t, min
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Longitudinal
Temperature, 0C
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10
120
200
290
440
450
Height of pipe, mm
Fig.3: Variation of surface temperature along the length of the pipe after
30 min.
63
RESULT
Graphs are plotted and the performance of heat pipe is compared with
stainless steel pipe and copper pipe. Heat pipe conducts much heat than
conventional conductors. In longitudinal temperature distribution graph,
or
ld
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TU
64
ANS: The rate of flow of heat through a homogeneous body is directly proportional to the area of b
cross section at right angles to the direction of heat flow and temperature difference with
2. Difference between steady state and unsteady state.
ld
ANS: A steady process is one which is not dependent on time, ie., rate of heat transfer does not
vary with time. There can be no change of internal energy of the system.
W
or
When the temperature at various points in a system do change with time, the process is
called an Unsteady or transient process.
ANS: Thermal diffusivity tells us how fast the heat is propagated or it diffuses through a material
during changes of temperature with time. Larger the value of thermal diffusivity, the shorter
is the time required for the applied heat to penetrate deeper into the solid.
ANS: (i) By the drift of free electrons in the case of metallic solids.
TU
5. Give the one-dimensional steady state heat conduction equation with internal heat
generation.
ANS:
+ =0
6. Give the one-dimensional unsteady steady state heat conduction equation with internal
heat generation.
2
ANS: 2 + = .
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ANS: =
ANS:
2
2
+ 2 +
2
2
= .
9. Give the increasing and decreasing order of thermal conductivity for solids, liquids and
gases.
ANS: Thermal conductivity of solids > liquids >gases.
Prepared by B. V. S. RAGHU VAMSI, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 1
10. Which materials will have higher and lower thermal conductivity values?
ANS: Pure metals have high thermal conductivity and Gases, insulating materials have low thermal
conductivity.
For pure metals it decreases with increase in temperature whereas for gases and insulating
metals it increases with rise in temperature.
ANS: =
ld
11. Write the formula for heat transfer through a hollow cylinder.
1 2
ln 2
1
2
ANS: =
or
12. Write the formula for heat transfer through a hollow sphere.
1 2
2 1
4 1 2
13. Give the equations critical thickness of insulation for sphere and cylinder.
For sphere 2 = =
0
2
ANS:
1
2 1
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1 4
+ +
16. How the thermal conductivity will vary with temperature gradient?
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ANS: That the rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the difference in temperatures between
the body and its surroundings.
Q = hA(ts tf)
ANS: When a fluid flows over a duct or a solid body and the temperatures of the fluid and the solid
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surfaces are different, then the heat transfer will takes place between fluid and solid surface
due to the motion of fluid relative to the surface. This type of heat transfer is called
Convection.
If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy forces resulting from the density variation
caused by the temperature difference in the fluid, heat transfer is said to be free or natural
ld
convection.
If the fluid motion is set up by an external agency like fan or blower, heat transfer is
termed as forced convection.
W
or
ANS: In natural convection the fluid circulates due to the difference in the densities of hot and cold
fluids.
In forced convection work is done to blow or pump the fluid.
4. Define the following with formulae and mention their significance.
i.
Nusselt number: Ratio of heat flow rate by convection under unit temperature gradient to
the heat flow rate by conduction under unit temperature gradient through stationary
thickness of L meters.
ii.
Grashoff number: Ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of
viscous force.
2 3
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iii.
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iv.
v.
.
Prepared by B. V. S. RAGHU VAMSI, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 3
vi.
w/m2k
Thermal conductivity
w/mk
Thermal diffusivity
wm2/kJ
ld
5. Write the units for heat transfer coefficient, thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity.
W
or
ANS: A heat exchanger is equipment which transfers the energy from hot fluid to cold fluid with
maximum rate and minimum investment.
7. Differences between parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow heat exchangers.
ANS:
Hot and cold fluids flow in Hot and cold fluids flow in Hot and cold fluids flow in
same direction.
opposite direction
perpendicular direction
When one of the fluids changes phase, it is immaterial whether it is a parallel or counter
or cross flow heat exchanger. Rate of heat transfer in all these modes is same.
8. What is the effectiveness of a heat exchanger?
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ANS: Effectiveness of heat exchanger is the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum possible
heat transfer.
9. Write the formulae for LMTD of parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers.
ANS: LMTD =
=
1 1 2 2
ln 1 1
2 2
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1 2 2 1
ln 1 2
2 1
ANS: It is a dimensionless parameter. It is a measure of the heat transfer size of a heat exchanger.
The Larger the value of the NTU, the closer the heat exchanger reaches its thermodynamic
limit of operation.
NTU=
11. How heat exchanger is classified based on specific heat capacity, Cmax & Cmin?
ANS: First calculate Cc & Ch ie., heat capacity of cold and hot fluids respectively. Then the one which
has the maximum will be Cmax and the other will be Cmin.
Prepared by B. V. S. RAGHU VAMSI, Asst. Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Page 4
If Ch < Cc or Cc , then the heat exchanger will be a Evaporator. The cold fluid
temperature will remain uniform and undergoes a phase change.
If Ch > Cc or Ch , then the heat exchanger will be a condenser. The hot fluid will remain
at a constant temperature, while the temperature of a cold fluid increases.
12. What is pool boiling and flow boiling?
ld
ANS: If the heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface, the boiling process is referred
to as POOL BOILING. The liquid above the hot surface is essentially stagnant and its motion
near surface is due to free convection. Ex: Boiling of water in a kettle.
FLOW BOILING occurs in a flowing stream and the boiling surface may itself be a portion of
W
or
13. What is the difference between critical heat flux and burnout point?
ANS: CRITICAL HEAT FLUX is the point of maximum heat flux on the boiling curve at which
transition from nucleate to film boiling initiates. It is also called as Boiling Crisis because the
boiling point beyond this point is unstable.
BURNOUT POINT is the peak heat flux point on the boiling curve which occurs at the end of
the radiation part of the film boiling. Equipment should be made to operate close to this point
but never beyond this.
14. In which systems design, the determination of critical heat flux is useful?
TU
ANS: To increase the effective area of surface thereby increasing the heat transfer by convection.
16. What are the various conditions in Fins?
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17. Out of parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow heat exchangers, which is more effective.
ANS: Emissive power of black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
2. Define absorptivity, transmittivity and reflectivity. Give the relation between them.
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3. Define emissivity.
ANS: It is a measure of how it emits radiant energy in comparison with a black surface at the same
4. State the properties of a black body.
ld
temperature.
ANS:1. It absorbs all the incident radiation falling on it and does not transmit or reflect regard less
2. It is a perfect emitter.
W
or
5. Give the materials for which absorptivity, transmittivity, reflectivity and emissivity value
Gases such as Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen have a transmittivity of practically unity.
For an opaque substance, = 0 and for a perfectly transparent surface, = 1.
For a non-reflecting surface, = 0 and for a perfect reflector, = 1
For a non-absorbing surface (white body), = 0 & for perfect absorber (black body), = 1
6. Define emissive power.
ANS: It is defined as energy emitted by a surface per unit time per unit area.
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Units: w/m2
ANS: It is defined as the rate of energy radiated per unit area of the surface per unit wavelength.
Units: w/m2
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ANS: If two bodies at different temperatures are placed in an evacuated adiabatic enclosure so that
they are not in contact through a solid or fluid medium, then the temperatures tend to
become equal. This mode of heat transfer is called radiation. This is maximum only when the
Page 6
ld
1. What are the various temperature measuring devices used in various Engineering
W
or
ANS: It is the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical discharge. Its value will vary with the type
of discharge measuring device.
3. In which applications Orifice, Venturimeter and simple U- tube manometer are used.
ANS: Orifice, Venturimeter To measure the discharge of a fluid in a pipe.
5. Define kinematic viscosity, dynamic viscosity & surface tension. Write the formulae and
mention their units.
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