EXPERIMENT 2: FREE AND FORCE VORTEX

TABLE OF CONTENT:
No.

Title

Pages

Abstracts/Summary

Introduction

Aims

Theory

Apparatus

10

Methodology/Procedure

12

Results

15

Calculations

18

Discussion

30

10

Conclusion

32

11

Recommendations

33

12

References/Appendix

32

2.1: ABSTRACT/SUMMARY
1

Vortex is the rotation of fluid elements around a common center. Its concept was being
used in various types of industry such as turbine design and creating standard safety against
natural disaster. This experiment was carried out to study the relationship between the surface

shape of free and forced vortex. It also to study on the angular velocity of a rotating liquid in a
cylindrical tank. Theoretically, the angular velocity of the fluid was manipulated by adjusting the
control valve to provide different flow rate of fluid flow. The height of vortex profile was
measured when it maintained constantly at its maximum height. After carried the experiment, it
can be conclude that the height of vortex profile increased as the vortex radius decreased. This
conclusion is obtained from the result of the experiment. For forced vortex , when the angular
velocity of the fluid in the cylinder increases, the depth of each pointer at the different vortex
radius will also increase due to the formation of semi parabolic shape. Therefore, it was
concluded that the height of water surface level is relative to the lowest point of the surface of a
forced vortex flow was directly proportional to the angular velocity of a rotating liquid in a
cylindrical tank and is inversely proportional to the squared radius at which it was measured.

2.2: INTRODUCTION
2

In fluid dynamics a vortex is a region, in a fluid medium, in which the flow is mostly

rotating on an axis line, the vortical flow that occurs either on a straight-axis or a curved-axis.
Moreover, the plurals of vortex are vortices and vortexes. Examples of vortices occur in nature,

perhaps the most common being a tornado or a whirlpool. A tornado is formed by high winds
whirling around an area of extremely low pressure and characterised by a funnel shaped cloud.
Whirlpools can occur where tides flowing in different directions meet or at the base of waterfalls
where the effect is a spiraling or swirling of the water again producing a funnel shape.
Basically there are two types of motion translation and rotation. The two may exist
independently or simultaneously. If now an element is represented, it may be subjected to
deformation. This can be linear or angular. If the motion of the particles is purely translational
and the distortion is symmetrical, the flow is irrotational and the vorticity. Example: Flownet
application. Forced vortex is also known as flywheel vortex. = v C r Free vortex is also known as
potential vortex. = v r C. Compound vortex combination of free and forced vortex also known as
Rankine vortex. Spiral vortex (free vortex and a radial flow). Rotation of a fluid, moving as a
solid, about an axis is called forced vortex motion. Every particle of fluid will have same angular
velocity. Free vortex motion is each particle moves in a circular path with speed varying
inversely as the distance from the centre = vr constant.
This experiment is related to the free and forced vortex flow of fluid in rigid-body rotation
within a cylindrical tank. As mentioned in paragraph 1, vortex is the rotation of fluid elements
around a common center. Mostly the fluid flows in a spinning motion about an imaginary axis,
straight or curved. That motion pattern is called a vortical flow. There are two types of vortices,
which are forced and free. The fluid (or gas) circles around a center in a forced vortex, while in a
free vortex, the medium spirals towards the center.
In an industry and in a real world, the applications of the vortex flow can be seen in a
various area such as turbine design, natural phenomenon and in creating safety against natural
disaster. Thus, the findings of the experiment are very important to help the engineers to design a
good turbine as the flow of water through the runner of turbine is a good example that used the
principle of forced vortex flow. The findings also can help engineer in designing a good
technology in minimizing the effect of natural disaster such as tornado and hurricane.
Furthermore, the knowledge gain from this experiment will help students to apply the correct
concept in a real situation related to vortex flow as they already experienced it.
3

Generally, the apparatus for the study of the shape of "free and forced vortices" consists of a

250mm diameter cylindrical, transparent vessel 180mm depth, having two pairs of diametrically
opposed inlet tubes of 9.0mm and 12.5mm diameter. The 12.5 diameter inlet tubes which are

angles at 15 to the diameter, so that a swirling motion is imparted to the liquid entering the
vessel, are used as entry tubes for the free vortex experiment. A smooth outlet is centrally
positioned in the base of the vessel and a set of push-in orifices of 24, 16, 12 and 8mm diameter
is supplied to reduce the outlet diameter to a suitable value. The profile of the vortex formed at
the top of the vessel is determined by a gauge, housed on a diametrically mounted bridge piece,
which measures the diameter of the vortex at various depths. This gives the co-ordinate points
required to plot the vortex profile. The forced vortex is created in the vessel described above by
using as the inlet the 90mm bore tubes which are angled at 60 to the diameter. The input water
from these tubes impinges on a simple two blade paddle which acts as a stirrer / flow
straightener. The water "leaves" the vessel via the 12.5mm diameter angled tubes which are used
as "entry tubes for the free vortex experiment. The two bladed paddle rotates on a vertical shaft
supported by a bushed plug, in the hole used as the outlet for the free vortex experiment, and
located at the top by a suitable hole in the bridge piece fitting across the diameter of the vessel.
This bridge piece also houses the probes required to determine the co-ordinates of the vortex
profile to be measured.
For this experiment, SOLTEQ Free and Forced Vortex (Model: FM42) has been used. This
SOLTEQ Free and Forced Vortex (model FM42) has been designed for students experiments to
produce and measure free and forced vortices. It consists of a clear acrylic cylinder where the
free vortex is generated by water discharging through an interchangeable orifice in the base of
the cylinder. The resulting profile is then measured using a combined caliper and depth scale.
The forced vortex is induced by a paddle rotated by jets of water at the cylinder base.
The profile of the forced vortex is then determined using a series of depth gauges. Velocity
at any point in the free or forced vortex may be measured using the appropriate pitot tube
supplied. A secondary flow at the base of the free vortex demonstrated by means of dye crystals
(not supplied).

4
2.3:
AIMS

2.3.1 Experiment 1: Free Vortex

1. To study on surface profile and speed.

2. To find a relation between surface profile and speed.
2.3.2 Experiment 2: Forced Vortex
1. To study on surface profile and angular velocity.
2. To find a relation between surface profile and total head.

2.4: THEORY
Free Cylindrical Vortex
When a liquid is flowing out of a tank through a hole at the bottom of the tank, free vortex is
formed with the number of oscillation depending on the distortion that created the flow. The
liquid is moving spirally towards the center following current, energy per unit mass is assumed
to be constant when energy loss by viscosity is neglected. If, while the mass of water is rotating,
the central exit hole is plugged, the flow of water in the vertical plane ceases and the motion
becomes one of simple rotation in the horizontal plane. This is known as free cylindrical vortex.
Bernoullis theorem can be used because the movement is along the flow axis,

p V2

z cons tan t
pg 2 g
For horizontal plane, the relation becomes

p V2

cons tan t
pg 2 g
Integration of the above relation with r gives

1 dp V dV
. .
0
pg dr g dr

(1)

Next, consider a pair of stream line being divided with distance, r and is in same horizontal
plane and are linked by a fluid tube with wide A. The centrifugal force of the tube is balanced

by the pressure difference between both ends, that is

V 2 dp
pg.A.r.
.r.A
gr dr
pgV 2 dp

gr
dr

(2)

Combine (1) and (2) to produce

V 2 V dV
.
0
gr g dr
dV V
0
dr r
Integrate above relation to obtain
ln r + ln V = Constant
Vr = K (Constant)

K
r

In free cylinder vortex, velocity is inversely proportional to distance from spiral axis, Bernoullis
theorem is used to determine surface profile as follow:

V2
z C (Cons tan t )
2g

(4)

Substitute (3) into (4)

K2
z C
2 gr 2
K2
Cz
2 gr 2
6

(5)

2
That is, equation for hyperbolic curve yx = A that is symmetry to axis of rotation and is

horizontal to z = C

Free Vortex
Movement in free vortex is different with free cylindrical vortex because free vortex contains
radical velocity towards center. Equation for such situation can be generated by considering the
water passes through round segments towards is diameter, where energy passing any tube and is
kept constant until

p V2

z cons tan t
pg 2 g
If A and V is surface area and velocity of a particular position while A1 and V1 are surface area
and velocity at distance r from center circle,
AV = A1V1 = Constant
By taking A = Kr,

r1V 1
r

If z is constant,
2

p r1 V1

C
pg 2 gr 2
2

p
rV
C 1 12
pg
2 gr

(6)

Also,
2

p1 V1

C
pg 2 g
p p1 V1 r1 V1

pg
2 g 2 gr 2
2

p p1 V1
r

{1 12 }
pg
2g
r1
2

(7)

Free vortex can be said as combination of cylinder vortex and radial flow. Velocity is inversely
proportional to radius in every case. Angle between flow axis and radius vector at any point is
constant and these axis from the spiral pattern.
Forced Vortex
As we know, angular velocity is constant, V= wr
Increase in radial pressure is given by

dp
V2
p
p 2 r
dr
r
p2

r2

dp p rdr
2

p1

r1

p2 p1
By taking

p1 p0

when

1
2
2
p 2 (r2 r1 )
2

r1 0 , and p2 p

and

r2 r

p p0 w 2 2

r
pg
2g
Because, p/pg = h, so

2 2
h h0
r
2g
2 2
h h0
r
2g
This is a parabolic equation.
Surface profile for forced vortex can be represented by equation:

2r 2
z
2g
8

Distribution of total head can be represented by equation:

2r 2
H
g
Z = surface profile
= angular velocity
r = radius
g = gravity
H = total head
Angular velocity can be calculated by:

2.5: APPARATUS

2 revolution
time(sec)

Orifice of diameter 8mm, 12mm, 16mm,

24mm

Profile measuring gauge

Paddle

Assembly View
10

Bridge

Profile measuring gauge

9.0 mm diameter, Nozzle

Three way inlet valve

12.5 mm diameter, Nozzle

Inlet

Surface profile

Outlet valve

Outlet

10

Pitot tube

11

orifice

12

Paddle

11

2.6: METHODOLOGY/PROCEDURE
General Start Up:

1. The hydraulic bench tank is filled with water.

2. The study bench is placed on the hydraulic bench.
3. All the accessories must be make sure are ready on the bench such as surface probe,
profile measuring gauge, pitot tube, paddle and orifices.
4. The inlet and outlet hose is set up.
5. The stand of the equipment is adjusted to reach the horizontal position.
General Shut Down
1. The valves are closed and the pump is switched off.
2. The orifices, paddle and other accessories are removed from the cylindrical vessel.
3. The water is drain off from the unit when it is not in used.
Safety Precaution
1. A proper lab coat must be worn while doing the experiment.
2. The sharpened object is being aware during conducting the experiment.
3. When water is splashed out from tank, that area must be mopped immediately to avoid
slippery floor.
2.6.1 Experiment 1: Free Vortex
1. The general start-up procedures are performed.
2. An orifice with diameter 24mm is selected and it is placed on the base of cylinder tank.
3. The output valve is closed and the inlet 3-way valve is adjusted to let the water flows into
the tank from two pipes with 12.5 mm diameter. The water is flow out through the
orifice.
4. The pump is switched on and the control valve on the hydraulic bench is opened slowly
until the tank limit. The water level is maintained by adjusting the control valve.
5. After the water level is stable, the vortex profile is collected by measuring the vortex
diameter for several planes using the profile measuring gauge.
6. The profile measuring gauge is pushed down until the both of sharp point touch the water
surface.
7. The measured height, h (from the top of the profile measuring gauge to the bridge) is
recorded. The value of a (distance from the bridge to the surface of the water level
12

(bottom level of the cutout)) is obtained.

8. The pitot tube is used to measure the velocity by sinking it into the water at the depth of 5
mm from the water surface. The depth of the pitot tube is measured in the water, H.
9. Steps 3 to 8 are repeated for another orifice with diameter 12mm, 16mm and 8mm
respectively.

10. The coordinates of vortex profile is plotted for all diameter of orifice in graph and the
gradient of the graph is calculated by:

K2 1
X
.
2g r 2
11. The graph of velocity which is calculated from the pitot tube reading versus the radius of
the profile is plotted.

V (2 gH ) 0.5
Theoretically, the velocity can be calculated by using the following equation:

K
r

2.6.2 Experiment 2: Force Vortex

1. The general start-up procedures are performed.
2. A closed pump with two pedals is placed on the base of the cylinder tank.
3. The output valve is closed and the inlet 3-way valve is adjusted to let the water flowsinto
the tank from two pipes with 9.0 mm diameter. The water can flow out through another
two pipes with 12.5 mm diameter.
4. The water is being made sure flow out from the tank with the siphon effect by raising the
13

hose to above the water level in the tank.

5. The outlet hose is being made sure filled with water before letting the water to flow into
the sump tank in the hydraulic bench.

6. The angular speed of the pedals is measured by counting the number of circles in a
certain times.
7. The surface probe is pushed down until the sharp point touch the water surface.
8. The measured height, (from the top of the measuring gauge to bridge) is recorded.
9. Steps 4 to 8 are repeated with different volumetric flow rate.
10. The coordinates of vortex profile is plotted for different angular velocity.
11. The calculated vortex profile in the same graph is plotted as they related as

2 2
h h0
r
2g
Both experimental and calculated profile is compared.

2.7: RESULTS
2.7.1: Experiment 1: Free Vortex
Orifice diameter = 24 mm
Distance from bridge to water surface, a = 205 mm
Diameter at center, D

Measured height, h

Pitot tube head,

Pressure head / depth

(mm)

(mm)

differences, H (mm)

of pitot tube, X (mm)

53

100

10

25

53

100

10

25

53

98

10

27

14

Note: X(mm) = profile measuring gauge whole length (330mm) - h - a

Orifice diameter = 16 mm
Distance from bridge to water surface, a = 231 mm
Diameter at center, D

Measured height, h

Pitot tube head,

Pressure head / depth

(mm)

(mm)

differences, H (mm)

of pitot tube, X (mm)

41

91

35

90

10

32

95

Note: X(mm) = profile measuring gauge whole length (330mm) - h - a

Orifice diameter = 12 mm
Distance from bridge to water surface, a = 205 mm
Diameter at center, D

Measured height, h

Pitot tube head,

Pressure head / depth

(mm)

(mm)

differences, H (mm)

of pitot tube, X (mm)

32

120

28

110

15

24

110

15

Note: X(mm) = profile measuring gauge whole length (330mm) - h - a

15

Orifice diameter = 8 mm

Distance from bridge to water surface, a = 240 mm

Diameter at center, D

Measured height, h

Pitot tube head,

Pressure head / depth

(mm)

(mm)

differences, H (mm)

of pitot tube, X (mm)

26

9.5

80.5

22

10.5

79.5

22

8.3

81.7

Note: X(mm) = profile measuring gauge whole length (330mm) - h - a

2.7.2: Experiment 2: Forced Vortex

Distance From Center
(mm)

h0 (mm)
First Reading

Second Reading

Third Reading

75

90

68

30

75

93

73

70

80

95

76

110

85

103

80

No. of revolution in

32

32

32

3.35

3.35

3.35

60 sec
Angular velocity
16

(rad/sec)

2.8: CALCULATIONS
2.8.1: Experiment 1: Free Vortex
Orifice diameter = 24 mm
Distance from bridge to water surface, a = 205 mm
Diameter

Measured

Pitot tube

Pressure

Velocity,

at center,

height, h

head,

head /

V (mm/s)

D (mm)

(mm)

difference

depth of

s, H

pitot

(mm)

tube, X

r (mm)

r2

1
r2

(mm)
17

58

100

10

25

442.945

29

841

0.001189

55

100

14

25

524.099

27.5

756.25

0.001322

53

98

16

27

560.286

26.5

702.25

0.001424

Note: X(mm) = profile measuring gauge whole length (330mm) - h - a

Gradient of the graph = 8089.5 mm2

K2
8089.5mm 2
2g
Therefore, K = 12598.25 mm2/sec

K 12598.25

503.93
r
25
mm/sec

As a result;
r (mm)

Calculated Velocity

Velocity (mm/sec)

(mm/sec)

18

25

503.93

442.945

25

503.93

524.099

27

466.60

560.286

Where; Series 1 = Calculated Value , Series 2 = Theoretical Value

Orifice diameter = 16 mm
Distance from bridge to water surface, a = 231 mm
Diameter

Measured

Pitot tube

Pressure

Velocity,

at center,

height, h

head,

head /

V (mm/s)

D (mm)

(mm)

difference

depth of

s, H

pitot tube,

(mm)

X (mm)

19

r (mm)

r2

1
r2

41

95

370.594

20.5

420.25

0.00238

35

91

396.182

17.5

306.25

0.003265

32

90

10

442.945

16.0

256

0.003906

Note: X(mm) = profile measuring gauge whole length (330mm) - h - a

Gradient of the graph = 3352.7 mm2

K2
3352.7 mm 2
2g
Therefore, K = 8110.49 mm2/sec

K 8110 .45

395.63
r
20.5
mm/sec

As a result;
r (mm)

Calculated Velocity

Velocity (mm/sec)

(mm/sec)

20

20.5

395.63

370.594

17.5

463.45

396.182

16.0

506.90

442.945

Where; Series 1 = Calculated Value , Series 2 = Theoretical Value

Orifice diameter = 12 mm
Distance from bridge to water surface, a = 205 mm
Diameter

Measured

Pitot tube

Pressure

Velocity,

at center,

height, h

head,

head /

V (mm/s)

D (mm)

(mm)

difference

depth of

s, H

pitot tube,

(mm)

X (mm)

21

r (mm)

r2

1
r2

32

120

242.611

16

256

0.003906

28

110

15

313.209

14

196

0.005102

24

110

15

343.103

12

144

0.006944

Note: X(mm) = profile measuring gauge whole length (330mm) - h - a

Gradient of the graph = 3012.9 mm2

K2
3012.9mm 2
2g
Therefore, K = 7688.50 mm2/sec

K 7688.50

480.53
r
16
mm/sec

As a result;
r (mm)

Calculated Velocity

Velocity (mm/sec)

(mm/sec)

22

16

480.53

242.611

14

549.18

313.209

12

640.71

343.103

Where; Series 1 = Calculated Value , Series 2 = Theoretical Value

Orifice diameter = 8 mm
Distance from bridge to water surface, a = 240 mm
Diameter

Measured

Pitot tube

Pressure

Velocity,

at center,

height, h

head,

head /

V (mm/s)

D (mm)

(mm)

difference

depth of

s, H

pitot tube,

(mm)

X (mm)

23

r (mm)

r2

1
r2

26

10.5

79.5

242.611

13

169

0.005917

22

9.5

80.5

280.143

11

121

0.008264

22

8.3

81.7

343.103

11

121

0.008264

Note: X(mm) = profile measuring gauge whole length (330mm) - h - a

Gradient of the graph = 681.72 mm2

K2
681.72mm 2
2g
Therefore, K = 3657.23 mm2/sec

K 3657.23

281.33
r
13
mm/sec

As a result;
r (mm)

Calculated Velocity

Velocity (mm/sec)

(mm/sec)

24

13

281.33

242.611

11

332.48

280.143

11

332.48

343.103

Where; Series 1 = Calculated Value , Series 2 = Theoretical Value

2.7.2: Experiment 2: Forced Vortex

Distance From Center
(mm)

h0 (mm)
First Reading

Second Reading

Third Reading

75

90

68

30

75

93

73

70

80

95

76

110

85

103

80

No. of revolution in

32

32

32

25

60 sec

Angular velocity

3.35

3.35

(rad/sec)

Sample calculation
For the first volumetric flow rate :
Number of revolutions in 60 seconds: 32

2(3.142)x32
60

2 revolution
60
=

w2 2
h0
r
2
g
h=

=3.35 rad/sec

(3.35) 2
75
(37.5) 2
2(9810)
=

= 75.80 (calculated)

For the second volumetric flow rate :

Number of revolutions in 60 seconds: 32

2(3.142)x32
60

2 revolution
60
=

w2 2
h0
r
2
g
h=
26

(3.35) 2
93
(46.5) 2
2(9810)
=

For the third volumetric flow rate :

Number of revolutions in 60 seconds: 32

=3.35 rad/sec

= 94.24 (calculated)

3.35

2(3.142)x32
60

2 revolution
60
=

w2 2
h0
r
2
g
h=

=3.35 rad/sec

(3.35) 2
73
(36.5) 2
2(9810)
=

= 73.76(calculated)

Calculated Values:
Distance from Center (mm)

First

Second

Third

75

90

68

30

75.80

91.24

73.76

70

80.92

96.29

76.83

110

86.03

104.52

80.92

Angular velocity (rad/sec)

3.35

3.35

3.35

27

Graph 1: Graph of Forced Vortex for First Trial

Where; Series 1 = Calculated Value , Series 2 = Theoretical Value

Graph 2: Graph of Forced Vortex for Second Trial

28

Where; Series 1 = Calculated Value , Series 2 = Theoretical Value

Graph 3: Graph of Forced Vortex for Third Trial

Where; Series 1 = Calculated Value , Series 2 = Theoretical Value

2.9: DISCUUSION
When water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base, a free vortex is
formed, the degree of rotation being dependent in initial disturbance. The water moves spirally
towards the center with stream line in motion, so that, neglecting losses caused by viscosity, the
energy per unit mass remains constant. If, while the mass is rotating, the central hole is plugged,
the flow of water in the vertical plane ceases and the motion becomes one of simple rotation in
the horizontal plane, and is known as free cylindrical vortex.
The free vortex experiment needed us to make an observation upon the vortex formed
while using different size of pitot which will give also different shape of vortex. Three different
29 diameter of orifice has been used in this experiment and it was found that the largest orifices
in

diameter, give the larger and fast vortex produced and follows by orifices with medium diameter
and the smallest vortex produces using smallest orifice diameter. This phenomena occurs because

the vortex formed is depend on the size of the orifice used. From the experiment, clearly the
larger the orifice used, the larger the vortex formed. This occurs because when the orifice size
gets larger the more water can flow out from the tank and caused it not accumulated. This vortex
was formed by the force of water flow in the tank and the flow pattern formed is in
circumferential.
From the result, graph of pressure head (pitot tube depth) against 1/r2 is plotted. Also
graph of velocity against radius is plotted. Based on the graph, it shown that velocity increased as
the radius decrease. Pressure head (pitot tube depth) increased as the value of 1/r2 decreased.
Forced vortex flow can be generated by rotating a cylinder containing water about its
axis.Under steady conditions, each particle will move with the same angular velocity and there
will not be any relative motion between fluid particles. Streamlines for such a flow will be
concentric circles and the total energy is constant along a streamline but varies from one
streamline to another.
In second experiment, the propeller was used to determine the revolution of the propeller
per second (rps). As water flow into the container, it will force the propeller to move. After
increase the velocity, the propeller will spin with more speed. Then, the velocity of the water
need to be maintains and we put the needle to touch the surface of the water. As for the forced
vortex experiment, we calculate the number of revolution based on the rotating blades that
formed the forced vortex also the length of the needles when it touched the water surface and
compare its value to the calculated length using specified equation. The average velocity head,
hc for the 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 revolutions in the forced vortex experiment was determined
Based on the graph, all angular speed gives the same result on the trend line which is
when the radius increased, the depth decreased. For all the graphs, some of the measured depth
of the vortex is slightly different from the theoretical values. The different in height between the
measured and the theoretical is due to the error that occurs during the experiment was conducted.
30

2.10: CONCLUSION
These experiments were carried out in order to determine the surface profile of a forced
vortex and to investigate the physical phenomena associated with a free vortex. An observation
upon vortex that formed and found that small diameter of pitot tube created small vortex whereas
large diameter of orifice created larger vortex. The speed of circulation of vortex is slow,
moderate and fast depends on the size of pitot tube respectively. In the forced vortex experiment,
the result as the average velocity head, hc for the complete revolution were obtained.
In this experiment, Hydraulic Bench Service Module and Free and Forced Vortex
Apparatus was used in order to achieve the objectives of this experiment. All of the criteria
31
which
are associated to both forced and free vortices have been determined. From the result of

this experiment, the conclusion that can be made here is that the formation of the vortex is

dependent on the size of the orifice used. The disturbance can destroy the orifice is when some
core object blocks the flow of water through the orifice.
The results that attained from this experiment is might deviate compared to the
information found from the theory. The inaccuracy results occurred in this experiment may
caused by some factor like human mistakes, equipment efficiency and other things.
In conclusion, the objective is achieved. As the rotation in the cylinder increases, the
radius of a vortex surface at the axis also will increase. From the results, graph for the three
different speed, the theoretical value for the depth at different vortex radius is slightly lower than
the actual value. Overall, it can be seen that the depth of the vortex surface, Z is inversely
proportional to the radius of vortex, r.

2.11: RECOMMENDATION
There are some or few recommendation in order to improve the experiment better. Firstly, the
depth gauge was not placed properly. The gauge supposedly placed at the surface of the water
but in this experiment, it might be dipped into the flowing water and cause inaccurate result in
the depth of the water level. Besides, the depth gauge is not really tight which means it easy to
slide. While removing the depth gauge it may slide a little bit which cause inaccurate reading.
Next, the maximum height of the vortex may not be constant because of the fluctuation of water
surface. The fluctuation happened because of the inconsistent water flow. Other than that, there is
also parallax error during taking the reading of the ruler. The last error is the inaccuracy while
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counting the rotating paddle blade. Due to fast rotation of the paddle blade, the human might do
error when counting the number of rotation of the blade. As a result, it will affect the time taken
for the blade to rotate.

2.12: REFERENCES/APPENDIX
1) Cengel, Y.A. & Cimbala J.M. (2006). Fluid Mechanics : Fundamentals and Applications. Flow
in pipes. New York : McGraw Hill, (324).
2) Laboratory Manual of CHE 465 Chemical Engineering Laboratory 1. Fakulti Kejuruteraan
Kimia, Universiti Teknologi Mara.
3) Science direct (n.d). Retrieved 19 April, 2015, from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1026309813000175
4) Chapter 7: Flow of Fluid (n.d). Retrieved 19 April, 2015, from
http://www.nptel.ac.in/courses/112104118/lecture-21/21-2_forced_vortex_flow.htm
5) Free and Forced Vortex (n.d). Retrieved 19 April, 2015, from http://www.jsmefed.org/experiment-e/2011_2/003.html
6) Bruce R. Munson, Donald F. Young, John Wiley & son, Inc, FUNDAMENTAL OF FLUID
MECHANICS, 2nd edition.

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