Illumination

Dr. Intisar Ali

Light
That part of radiant energy from a hot body
which produced the visual sensation on
human eye is called light.
Light may be defined as electromagnetic
radiation that is capable of affecting the sense
of sight.
Those EM waves that are visible (light) have
wave-lengths that range from 0.00004 to
c = fl c = 3 x 10 m/s
0.00007 cm.
8

Red,
Red,l l
0.00007
cmcm
0.00007

Violet,
l l
Violet,
0.00004 cm

0.00004 cm

Frequency wavelength

f (Hz)

1024
1023
1022
1021
1020
1019
1018
1017
1016
1015
1014
1013
1012
1011
1010
109
108
107
106
105
104

l ( nm)

Gamma rays

X-rays
Ultraviolet
Infrared rays
Short Radio
waves

Broadcast Radio
Long Radio
waves

10-7
10-6
10-4
10-3
10-1
1 10
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010
1011
1012
1013

The EM Spectrum
A wavelength of one nanometer 1
nm is:
1 nm = 1 x 10-9 m

Visible Spectrum
400 nm 700 nm

Red 700 nm Violet 400 nm

c = fl

c = 3 x 108 m/s

Properties of Light
Any study of the nature of light must explain the following
observed properties:
Rectilinear propagation: Light travels in straight lines.
Reflection: Light striking a smooth surface turns back into the
original medium.
Refraction: Light bends when entering a transparent medium.

Reflection

Refraction (Snells Law)

When light travels from one medium to another it refracts (bends and
changes velocity)

Any Examples .

Reflection Loss

Total Internal Reflection ?

Total Internal Reflection

Light Transmission and the Lamberts

Law of Absorption

Light Transmission and the Lamberts

Law of Absorption

Diffusion (Scattering)

Filtering
Transmissive Filtering
Reflective Filtering

Sensitivity and Luminosity

Sensitivity curve

Human eyes are not equally

sensitive to all colors.

The relative sensitivity of any

wavelength is called the
luminosity factor.

Sensitivity

Eyes are most sensitive in the

mid-range near l = 555 nm.

555 nm

400 nm

700 nm

Wavelength l

Yellow light appears brighter to the eye

than does red light.
40 W

40 W

Plane Angle Vs Solid Angle

The angle subtended at a point by two converging lines lying in the same
plane is called plane angle. It is measured in radians and equal to the ratio of
the length of the arc to its radius,
= arc/ radius = l/ r radians

The angle subtended by the partial surface area of a sphere at its centre is
called as solid angle. It is measured in steradians and equal to the ratio of
area of the surface to the square of radius of sphere,
= area of surface/ square of radius = A/ r2 steradians

Luminous Flux
The total quantity of radiant energy per
second responsible for visual sensation from a
luminous body is called Luminous Flux.
OR
It is the light wave, emitted by the body which
produces sensations in human eye

It is represented as F or and measured in

lumens.

Luminous Intensity
Luminous intensity in any particular direction is the luminous
flux emitted by the source per unit solid angle in that
direction.
It is denoted by E and its unit is candela or candle power (CP) .
Luminous intensity of source in a particular direction,
E=/

Candle Power
The light radiating capacity of a source is
called its candle power. The number of
lumens given out by a source per unit solid
angle in a given direction is called its candle
power. It is denoted by C.P.
Total flux emitted = CP X solid angle
= CP X 4

Reduction Factor
Reduction factor of a source of light is
the ratio of its mean spherical candle
power (MSCP) to its mean horizontal
candle power (MHCP).
Reduction Factor (RF) = MSCP/ MHCP

Illumination
When light falls on a surface, it becomes
visible, the phenomenon is called as
illumination.
It is defined as luminous flux falling on a
surface per unit area. It is denoted by I
and measured in lumen per square meter
or meter- candle.
I = / A = CP X /Area lux

Lux
One meter candle or lux is defined as the
illumination produced by a uniform
source of one CP on the inner surface of
a sphere of radius one meter.
Other units are Foot Candle, Metre
Candle, Nit, Stiff

Glare
Glare is defined as the brightness within the field
of vision of such a character so as to cause
discomfort and interference in vision.

Lamp Efficiency

It is defined as the visible radiations

emitted by it in lumens per watt.
Usually, the light sources do not radiate
energy only in the visible spectrum. The
radiant energy is also accompanied with
infrared and ultra violet radiations.
Sun light produces majority of radiations in
the visible spectrum. The tungsten lamp
produces small radiations so its efficiency is
very poor.

Lamp efficiency
The efficiency of fluorescent lamp is more than
tungsten lamp.

Reflection Factor
Whole of the light incident on a reflecting
surface is not reflected. Some portion of it is
absorbed by the surface.
The ratio of the reflected light to the incident
light is called reflection factor.

Law of Illumination
The illumination on a surface depends upon
the luminous intensity, distance between the
source and surface and the direction of rays of
light. It is governed by following laws :
1. Inverse square law
2. Lamberts cosine law

Inverse Square Law

It states that the illumination of a surface is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance of the surface from
the source.
I 1/d2

Lamberts Cosine Law

This law states that the illumination on any surface is
proportional to the cosine of angle between the direction of the
incident flux and perpendicular to the area. I (1/d2)cos

Lighting Schemes
Lighting schemes are classified according
to the location, requirement and purpose
etc. are as under :
1. Direct lighting
2. Indirect lighting
3. Semi direct lighting
4. Semi indirect lighting
5. General lighting

Direct Lighting
As is clear from the name, in this system
almost 90 to 95 % light falls directly on the
object or the surface.
The light is made to fall upon the surface
with the help of deep reflectors. Such type
of lighting scheme is most used in
industries and commercial lighting.
Although this scheme is most efficient but
it is liable to cause glare and shadows.

Indirect Lighting

In this system, the light does not fall directly

on the surface but more than 90 % of light is
directed upwards by using diffusing
reflectors.
Here the ceiling acts as a source of light and
this light is uniformly distributed over the
surface and glare is reduced to minimum.
It provides shadow less illumination which is
useful for drawing offices and composing
rooms. It is also used for decoration
purposes in cinema halls, hotels etc.

Semi direct Lighting

This is also an efficient system of lighting and
chances of glare are also reduced.
Here transparent type shades are used
through which about 60 % light is directed
downward and 40 % is directed upward.
This also provides a uniform distribution of
light and is best suited for room with high
ceilings.

Semi indirect Lighting

In this system about 60 to 90 % of total light is
thrown upward to the ceiling for diffused
reflection and the rest reaches the working
plane directly.
It is mainly used for interior decoration.

General Lighting

Light is hanged from the ceiling.

Gives equal light on floors, ceiling, walls etc.
Utilization is very poor.
This system employs such type of luminaries,
shades and reflectors which give equal
illumination in all the directions.
Used in Industries, houses etc.

Design of Indoor Light Scheme

While designing a good lighting schemes, the
following points must be kept in mind :
1. It should provide adequate illumination.
2. It should provides uniformly distributed light
all over working plane.
3. It should avoid glare and shadows as far as
possible.
4. It should provide light of suitable colors.

Factors required for Light Scheme

The following factors are required to be
considered while designing the lighting
scheme :
1. Illumination level
2. Quality of light
3. Co efficient of utilization
4. Depreciation factor
5. Space height ratio

Illumination Level
This is the most vital factor in deciding the
number and wattage of luminaries so that we
are able to see and recognize the object
properly. Colors of the body have the property
of reflecting the light in different proportions,
degree of illumination, its distance from the
viewer, contrast between the object to be
seen and its surroundings.

Illumination Level
Type of work
Offices
Schools
Industry
Shops
Hotels
Hospitals

recommended illumination level

100-400 lumens/ meter square
250-400 lumens/ meter square
1000 lumens/ meter square
250-500 lumens/ meter square
80-100 lumens/ meter square
250-3500 lumens/ meter square

Quality of Light
This means that the illumination should not be
harmful to the viewers. It should be glare free,
shadow less and contrast free. Direct glare
from the source of light is most common
factor. Presence of polished and glassy surface
will cause indirect glare unless diffused light is
used. Hard and long shadows can be avoided
by using a large number of lamps and
adjusting the mounting height.

Co efficient of Utilization
A surface to be illuminated receive light either
directly from the lamps or reflected from the
ceiling and walls or both. In this case, the total
flux reaching the surface will never be equal
to the flux emitted by the lamp, due to
absorption by reflectors, ceiling and walls.
Utilization factor = lumens reaching at the working place
total lumens emitted by the source
Usually it varies from 0.5 to 0.8.

Depreciation Factor
The total flux emitted by the source and its fitting
may be reduced due to deposition of dust
upon the surfaces. Similarly quantity of light
reflected from the ceiling and walls also
decreases with the passage of time. This is
called as depreciation facto.
Usually it varies from 1.3 to 1.6.

Space Height Ratio

The ratio of space (horizontal distance )
between the two adjacent lamps to the vertical
height of the lamps above the working plane is
called space height ratio.
So the distance between the lamps is not too
much. An ideal scheme could be when there is
large number of small size lamps are used also
it increases the cost of installation. So the
space height ratio is 1 to 1.5.

Polar Curves
Used to represent the luminous intensity or
distribution of light.
There are two types of polar curves:
1. Horizontal Polar Curve
2. Vertical Polar Curve

Types of Polar Curves

Horizontal Polar Curve:
This type of curve is plotted between the candle
power and the angular position, if the luminous
intensity is measured on the horizontal plane
about the vertical axis.

Vertical Polar Curve:

This type of curve is plotted between the candle
power and the angular position, if the luminous
intensity is measured on the vertical plane.

Polar Curves for Incandescent Lamp

Use of Polar Curves

Used to determine the actual illumination of a
surface by employing candle power in that
particular direction.
Used to calculate the MHCP and MSCP.
The MHCP of a lamp is determined from the
horizontal polar curves by taking the average of
all the candle powers in a horizontal direction.
MSCP of a symmetrical source is found out by
using Rousseaus Construction.

Rousseaus Construction

Photometry & Principles of

Photometer
Branch of science deals with the
measurement of luminous intensity of a given
source.

Inverse Square Law

Principle of Photometer

22
= 2
1

Photometer Heads
1. Bunsen Grease Spot Photometer

Photometer Heads
2. Lumer-Brodhun Photometer:
Equality of Brightness

Photometer Heads
Lumer-Brodhun Photometer
Contrast type

Photometer Heads
3. Flicker Photometer:

Electrical method of producing Light

Following are the methods of producing light :
1. By developing arc between two electrodes
2. By passing a current through a filament
3. By electric discharge through vapors or gases

Arc Lamp
An arc is the discharge that occurs when a gas
is ionized.
A high voltage is pulsed across the lamp to
"ignite" or "strike" the arc, after which the
discharge can be maintained at a lower
voltage.
The "strike" requires an electrical circuit with
an igniter and a ballast.

Arc Lamp
The principle of an arc lamp is that when two
electrodes carrying current are separated
through a small distance, an arc is struck
between them. The arc lamps were used in
the past for street lighting purposes but now a
day these are used when extreme brightness
is required.
Most commonly use arc lamp is
Carbon Arc Lamp

Carbon Arc Lamp

This is the oldest type of lamp and is still being
employed in cinema projectors and search lights.
It consists of two hard carbon rods (Electrodes).
The diameter of +ve electrode is double to that of
ve electrode. The ve electrode is generally fixed
and +ve electrode is placed in adjustable holder
and the process is manually or automatic.
The arc consists of carbon vapors surrounded by
orange red zone of burning carbon and pale
green flames.

Carbon Arc Lamp

When the lamp is OFF, the two electrodes are
touching each other due to spring pressure on
+ve electrode. When the supply is ON a large
current is flow through electrodes. The
temperature of carbon electrode is increased and
thus the +ve electrode is pulled away against its
spring pressure through a small distance by coil
and thus an arc is struck between electrodes. This
arc is maintained by transfer of carbon particles
from one electrode to other electrode.

Carbon Arc Lamp

These particles travel from +ve electrode to ve
electrode, thus after sometime of operation +ve
electrode become hollow and ve become
pointed. Thats why +ve electrode is made double
than ve electrode.
In carbon arc lamp 85 % of light is given by +ve
electrode which produces high intensity light and
only 10 % by ve electrode and 5 % by air. The
temperature of +ve electrode is 4000 oC and that
of ve electrode is about 2500 oC. The luminous
efficiency of such lamps is about 9 lumen/watt.

ARC Lamps
For maintaining the arc, a minimum voltage required is
given by : V = (39 + 28 L ), where L is length of arc in
centimeter.

Flame Arc Lamp

85% Carbon, 15% Fluoride

Filament or Incandescent Lamp

Working Principle :
As we know when a room heater is switched
On , it gives out red light with heat at the
working temperature of 750 oC and at this
temperature the radiations are mostly in infra
red regions. This working principle is used to
develop the filament lamp.

Filament or Incandescent Lamp

When an electric current is passed through a
fine metallic wire , it raises the temperature of
wire. At low temperature only heat is
produced but at higher temperature light
radiations goes on increasing. As filament
lamp consists of fine wire of high resistive
material placed in an evacuated glass bulb.
This type of lamps are operated at the
temperature of 2500 oC .

Filament Lamp

A tungsten filament is enclosed in evacuated glass bulb but to

improve its performance some chemical like argon or nitrogen gas
are filled.

Properties of Metal for Filament

1. High melting point: so that it can be operated at
high temperature.
2. High specific resistance: so that it produces more
heat.
3. Low temperature coefficient: so that filament
resistance may not change at operating
temperature.
4. Low vapor pressure: so that it may not vaporize
5. High ductile: so that it may withstand mechanical
vibrations

Discharge Lamps

Sodium Vapor Lamp

This lamp consists of discharge tube made from
special heat resistance glass, containing a small
amount of metallic sodium, neon gas and two
electrodes. Neon gas is added to start the
discharge and to develop enough heat to
vaporised sodium. A long tube is required to get
more light. To reduce overall dimensions of the
lamp, the tube is generally bent into U-shape .

Sodium Vapor Lamp

Working Principle :
An electric discharge lamps require a high
voltage at staring and low voltage during
operation. So at starting a voltage of 450 V is
applied across the lamp to start the discharge.
After 10 to 15 minutes, the voltage falls to 150 V
because of low power factor. To improve the
power factor a capacitor is connected across the
supply. The color of light produce is yellowish.

Sodium Vapor Lamp

Fluorescent Tube
Working :
A choke is connected in series with the tube
which act as a blast and provide a high voltage
at starting glow in the tube. During running
condition the same choke absorbs some
supply voltage and remain the rated voltage of
across the tube. A capacitor is connected to
improve the power factor.

Fluorescent Tube
The colors produce by this tubes are as :
Material
Color
Zinc silicate
Green
Calcium tungsten
Blue
Cadmium borate
Pink
Calcium Holo phosphate White or day light
Magnesium tungsten
Bluish white

Fluorescent Tube

Advantages of Fluorescent Tube

1. Voltage fluctuation has very small effect on
light output.
2. The luminous efficiency is more as length of
rod is more.
3. It gives light close to natural light.
4. Heat radiations are negligible.

Disadvantages of Fluorescent Tube

1. Its brightness is less.
2. Initial cost is more
3. Overall maintenance cost is high.

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