Unit-1 ;

(Part-A )
Basics of Engineering Heat Transfer.
1.A.9. FOURIERs LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION.(One dimensional Fouriers heat
conduction equation in a slab or Basic law of Heat conduction)
The Fouriers law states that the rate of heat transfer , q, is equal to product of:
i) Area , A normal to the heat flow
Area, A, normal to the direction of heat flow in m2.
dT
ii)Temperature gradient at the section,
, in 0K/mt ie: the rate of change of
dx
temperature
with reference to the distance in the direction of heat flow.
iii)Thermal conductivity , K, which is the property of the material in KW/m 0K.
This is expressed mathematically as basic heat conduction equation.
dQ
dT
Q=
= K A
-------------------------------(1-A.9.1)
d
dx
where Q is quantity of heat conducted in given time expressed as KW or KJ/sec.
dT
The temperature gradient
is negative since heat flows in the direction of
dx
decreasing temperature. The assumptions in stating the above equation are
i)Heat flow in Y and Z directions is zero ie one dimensional flow.
ii)Temperature in any plane perpendicular to X-axis is uniform through- out the plane.
iii)K is uniform through out the material.
Temperature distribution in Solids is shown below
T Direction of heat flow
T Direction of heat flow
in direction increasing x
in direction decreasing x
and decreasing
temperature
and decreasing temperature
dT
1
is ve.
dx
dT
is + ve
1
-dT
Tx
dx
T1
+ dT
q
2
2
TT
+dx
+dx
T2
x
L
x2
x1
x1
x2
x increasing
(x2 x1) is negative
( x2 x1) is positive
Fig-(a)
Fig-(b)
Fig-(c)
Fig1.A.2(a)-Temperature distribution
Fig-1.A.2-(b),(c)- Sign convection for conduction
flow. for steady state condition through
plane wall.
One dimensional steady state heat conduction equation for a uniform slab.
Integrating equation 1-9-1, we get the temperature of slab at distance from one end ;
At x = x1 ; t = t1 and at x = x2 ; t = t2 . Heat flows from x1 to x2 and
temperature t1 is greater than t2.
Q dx = K A dt

x2

or; Q

t2

dx

KA

x1

dt
t1

Q(x2 x1) = KA (t2 t1)

K A( t 2t 1)
Q =
( x 2x 1)
K A(t 2t 1)
Hence;
Q =
---------------------------(1-A.9.2)
L
where L = (x2 x1) is the thickness of slab. and
(i) Q is in Kw or KJ/sec, (ii) A in mt2
(iii) (t2 t1) is in 0C or 0K
(iv) L in mt. (v) K in Kw/m 0C
Also temperature gradient is expressed as negative since heat flows in decrease of
temperature and it is calculated as below from the graph.
(t 1t 2)
( t 2t 1 )
dt
=
=
---------------(1-A.9.3)
dx
( x 2x 1)
L
This is the temperature distribution equation found directly from Fouriers law.
dT
q
Note:- Inference from the temperature gradient
=
dx
K
dT
Q
dT
We have Q = K A
or
= q = K
dx
A
dx
dT
q
ie:
=
; analyzing this equation, for the same value of heat , q ,
dx
K
dT
if K is low (ie for insulators),
is large (slope of temperature distribution is large)
dx
and there will be a large temperature difference across the wall.
dT
If K is high (ie for conductors),
is small (slope of temperature distribution is
dx
small ) and there will be a small temperature difference across the wall.
t1

t1
Slope is less
t3
Slope is more
t2

a) Insulator,
b) Conductor
Slope of temp. distribution is large.
Slope of temperature distribution is small
Fig-1.A-3: Temperature distribution in insulator and conductor
Note:- Mathematical explination to add negative sign.
dt/dx is negative along positive direction of heat flow ie positive direction of x.

When we integrate dt with in limits from t1 to t2 we get (t2-t1), which is negative quantity.
To make the quantity q as positive we must add another negative sign to make result
positive.
Temperature distribution in slab derived from fundamental heat flow (Fouriers law)
equation. ( or one dimensional temperature distribution equation derived from heat
flow through slab)
Temperature in plane slab varies linearly along direction of distance, x-direction.& t1 t2
We have from Fouriers law;
dq
dt
Q=
= K A
d
dx
Q
or dt = (
) dx.
KA
Q
= C1 dx
( taking C1 =
)
KA
Integrating, t = C1 x + C2 ------------------------------(a)
Constants are obtained by using the conditions as;
At x = x1 ; t = t1 and x = x2 ; t = t2
t1 = C1 x1 + C2 ------------------ (b) and
t2 = C1 x2 + C2 --------------------(c)
t1
t
(c) (b) gives ;
(t2 t1) = C1 (x2 x1)
t2
(t 2t 1)
or C1 =
( x 2x 1)
Substituting in (2) , we get
(t 2t 1)
t1 = x1.
+ C2
t1 t2
( x 2x 1)
(t 2t 1)
or C2 = t1 x1.
x1 x
x2
( x 2x 1)
Substitute C1 and C2 in (1) and simplifying, we get non dimensional form of temperature
profile as;
(t 2t 1)
(t 2t 1)
t= [
] x + t1 x1.
( x 2x 1)
( x 2x 1)
(t 2t 1)
(t 1t)
( xx 1 )
(t t1 ) =
(x x1) ie
=
-------------(1-A.9.4)
(x 2x 1)
(t 1t 2 )
( x 2x 1)
Thus the temperature distribution is linear across the wall. Also the expression does not
contain the thermal conductivity. Hence the temperature distribution is independent of the
thermal conductivity of material, whether it is steel or wood or asbestos.
Note: The derivation of temperature profile by the above method is tedious and
assumption is vague. The general conduction equation is used to find the temperature
distribution in the material.
1.A.10. Thermal Conductivity (K)
K A( t 2t 1)
Equation of Fouriers law , ie Q = , defines the thermal
L
conductivity.

QL
. watt/ mt 0K.
[ A (t 1 t 2 )]
Thus K is defined as rate of heat flow (q= Q/A) per unit distance and per unit degree of
temperature difference. Thermal conductivity is the thermodynamic property of material.
The variation of thermal conductivity is linear, for most cases, and varies with the
temperature as per relation, K =K0 (I t) . Its temperature profile is shown in figure
below. Where K0 = Thermal conductivity at Zero temperature. and = Coefficient of
thermal conductivity. It is negative for metallic conductors and positive for insulating
material.
Hence K =

0 ie is positive,(for Insulators)
t1
=0
t2
0, ie is negative,(for Conductors)
Fig-1.A.4:Temperature profile in conduction with variable conductivity
K-varies lowest to insulators , air-0.0263 W/mK, to highest ,silver-429 W/m K.
The gasses with higher molecular weight (more density) have smaller thermal conductivities
than those with lower molecular weights.
The ratio of the thermal and electrical conductivities is same for all metals at same
temperature. This ratio is directly proportional to absolute temperature of the metal.
K
K
T or
= constant = 2.45 x 10-8 w- ohm / K2 for all metals. This is called
Ge
GeT
as Lorenz number.( Lo). The thermal and electrical conductivities of metal increases with
decrease in temperature. Electrical conductivity increases to infinity at absolute zero
temperature. This corresponds to the super conductivity of metals.
1
The Electrical Conductance or Conductivity =
where Re is electrical resistance.
Re
1.A-11. Thermal resistance and Thermal conductance in conduction Heat transfer and
Electrical Analogy with Equivalent electrical circuit.
Fouriers law for rate of heat flow of heat conduction is
KA (T 1T 2 )
Q=
( where T1 > T2)
L

=
=

(T 1T 2 )
L
KA
(T 1T 2 )
R th

---------------------------1-A.11.1

L
= Thermal resistance of material
---------------1-A.11.2
KA
(T 1T 2 )
Rth =
or
hence, its unit is 0K / watt
Q
Thermal conductance (Gth ) is reciprocal of thermal Resistance.
Resistance
1
KA
Thermal Conductance = Gth =
=
W/K
-------------1- A.11.3
R th
L
(Its unit is Watt / 0K If it is K per unit area then unit is Watt /m2 0K)
Electrical analogy between flow of heat and Electricity is as below:
(E1E 2)
V
As per Ohms Law i =
=
--------------------------- (a)
Re
Re
Where
i = Current in amperes;
( E1E 2) = Potential difference in Volts;
Re = Electrical resistance in Ohms
The Fouriers law of conduction gives;
(T 1T 2 )
(T 1T 2 )
KA (T 1T 2 )
Q=
=
=
( where T1 > T2) ---------------(b)
L
R th
L
KA
(T 1T 2 )
L
Where Rth =
=
is the thermal resistance
KA
Q
where

Rth =

L
L
T1
T2
Rth = (

L
)
KA

a)Temperature profile in slab

i
E1

E2
i=

Re
( E1E 2)
Re
b) Electrial circuit.

Qk
T1
Rk

T2
L
KA

(T 1T 2 )
L
where Rk =
KA
Rk
c) Equivalent Thermal circuit & Conduction resistance.
Fig: 1.A-5. Electrical Analogy of Conduction
Comparing the above equations (a) & (b), the following quantities are analogous to each
other while considering the electrical circuit in equivalent to a thermal circuit.
Electrical circuit.
Thermal circuit.
1) Current , i, in amperes
1) Heat flow rate , q , in watts
2)Voltage , V= (E2 E1) in volts
2) Temperature difference, t = (T1 T2)
(Electrical Potential difference)
(Thermal potential difference)
3) Electrical Resistance, Re , in Ohms
3)Thermal resistance, Rth = L/KA, in 0C/watt
4) Charge, C, in coulomb
4) Heat flow , Q , in Joules
Thus a thermal circuit can be formed which is analogous to electrical circuit as an
experimental set up. This is done because the quantities of electrical parameters can be easily
measured comparing to the thermal parameters.
1.A-12. Convection heat transfer and Newtons law.
Convection is the energy transfer across a system boundary due to temperature
difference by the combined mechanism of intermolecular interaction and bulk
transport of molecules. Convection needs fluid matter. Convection is of two types.
Convection Free or Natural Convection, which is induced by the buoyancy forces.
Forced Convection, which is induced by the external means.
Whether the convection process is natural or forced, there is always a boundary layer
adjacent to the wall where the velocity and temperature vary from wall to the fluid stream
mp) and heat is transferred from the wall to the fluid.
Qk

Figure 1.6 (a), as below shows the velocity and temperature profiles in the boundary
layer of natural convection for a fluid flow on hot vertical- plate. The velocity at first
increases with increase of distance from the surface, reaches maximum and then decreases to
approach zero value. The reason for this behavior is that action of viscosity diminishes
rapidly with distance from the surface, while the density differences more slowly. The
buoyancy force decreases as the fluid density approaches that of unheated surrounding fluid
flow. The temperature curve with in the boundary layer approaches T asymptotically
Figure 1.6(b) shows the velocity and Temperature profiles of forced convection on horizontal
hot plate at temperature Tw and fluid temperature T . Prof.Prandtl suggested that the
fluid of flow can be divided in to two regions; a thin layer next to the wall, which is called as
Velocity boundary layer where the shear stress is confined, and the regions outside this
layer, where the fluid is ideal ie, non-viscous and in-compressible.
The Velocity boundary layer thickness, u or h , is defined as the distance from
wall where velocity, u = 0.99 u ; ie fluid velocity (u) is 99% of the stream velocity (
u .

u
= 0.99
u
As a result of viscous forces at the wall (on the surface of wall) the velocity of the fluid is
zero and increases to the u (velocity of fluid) as shown.
A thermal boundary layer thickness, t is defined as the thickness from the wall
where the temperature difference (Tw T ) = 0.99 (Tw - T . In thermal boundary
layer, the temperature varies from Tw to T . In general t is not equal to u .
T W T
ie :
= 0.99
T W T
The thermal boundary layer is regarded as consisting of stationary fluid film as shown in
fig 1.6, below, through which heat is conducted and then transported by fluid motion.
Thermal conductivity of fluid film is taken as k f and rate of heat transfer is calculated.
Vertical hot plate.
Tw
T
Boundary layery
Flow
y
Temperature profile
velocity profile
Velocity profile
T
u
Temp.profile
Boundary layer
ie :

uy

Ty

Laminar flow
y
y=0, u =0
Tw
a) Natural convection on vertical plate
b) Forced convection on horizontal plate
T
Tw = temperature of hot plate;
= temperature of fluid stream

Fig:1.A-6: Velocity and Temperature profile during convection

1.A-13) Newtons Law of Convection:
Newton proposed a fundamental equation for heat transfer through convection.
This law states that, The heat flow rate is proportional to product of area perpendicular to
As ( T w - T ) or Qc =
heat flow and the temperature difference; ie Qc
hc As ( T w - T ). This equation is called as equation of Newtons law of cooling.
where Qc = Convective heat flow from the surface in watt or J/sec.
It is scalar quantity.
As = Surface area from which convection occurs in m2
hc = convective heat transfer coefficient in w/ m2 0K. It is not thermodynamic
property of material, but may depend on geometry of surface , flow
characteristics, thermodynamic properties of fluid etc. It is the
proportionality constant in above equation.
T
T
( w ) = t = temperature difference between the hot surface and fluid in 0K

The rate of heat transfer from the wall to fluid is,

(T T w )
(T W T )
Qc = k f As
= k f As
---------------------1-At
t
13-1
where, kf is thermal conductivity of fluid film, over the hot plate.

The film or surface coefficient of heat transfer, hc

, is defined as ratio of thermal

kf
conductivity to the thickness of thermal boundary layer. ie; hc =
t
Q
h
Hence equation 1-A-13-1 becomes that :
=
As ( T w - T )
c
c
-----------------1-A.13-2
1.A-14.Convective heat transfer coefficient (h)
Consider heat flow from horizontal plate to the fluid flowing over it. A boundary layer is
formed over the plate. Then the heat transfer to the fluid in thermal boundary layer is
conveyed by convection heat transfer.
Stationary Fluid film
Kf
TA
Tw
q
Hot Fluid-A
T1
T2
T

St.Line adjacent
to wall
Curve in fluid

TB
Cold Fluid-B

Fig-(a)-Vertical plate.

Fig-(b)-from fluid-A to fluid-B

through the wall
Fig:1.A-8 : Heat transfer through a stationary film.
The temperature distribution is a curve in the fluid flow and is a straight line in the
fluid film adjacent to wall, (like that in solid wall). The distribution is shown from a wall,
t
Qc =
A s ( t w - t )-- --------- As
]y=0 = hc
y
--1-A.14-1
(Q c / A s )
hc =
then,
( t w t )
t

y =0
h

y
or
=
c
(t w t )
t

y =0

y
From this expression we say that, value of h depends on slope =
--1(t w t )
A.14-2
which is the slope of temperature distribution in the boundary layer adjacent to the wall.
Convective heat transfer coefficient has the units of in w/ m2 0K. It is not thermodynamic
property of material, but may depend on thermal conductivity, geometry of surface , flow
characteristics, thermodynamic properties of fluid and physical properties such as density,
viscosity, specific heat . It is the proportionality constant in the equation framed in Newtons
equation for heat convection.

[ ]

[ ]

1.A-15) Convective heat transfer Resistance and equivalent electrical circuit.

a) The Newtons equation for Convection heat transfer is;

Q = h A (t ) = h A( tw t

(t w t )
1
hA

Where; Thermal resistance offered by fluid film =

(t w t )
(R th )c
1
hc A s

( Rth ) c =

(T w T )
Qc

-----1-A.15-1
Its unit is 0C/watt
Thermal Conductance in convection = (Gth) convection = hA Watt/ 0C ------------1-A.15.2
Comparing with Ohms law, Circuit is given below in fig: (a), below.
The figure (b) shows the Circuit of Combined convection and conduction heat flow through
stationary fluid film and a wall separating the two fluids.
Important: It is seen that the thermal resistances in combined conduction and convection are
shown in series in the electrical circuit. (However the resistances in combined convection
and radiation will be shown as parallel resistances in the circuit)
Fluid film
t1

i = Qc
t1
E1

t2
Rc =

1
hA

Rconvection =
i =
Qc =

( E1E 2)
Re
(t 1t 2 )
=
1
hA

1
hA

t2
E2

(t 1t 2 )
R convection

Qc
Fig (a): Circuit of convection heat flow through stationary fluid film
L

TA

TA
T1

TB

T2

Qc

R1 =

1
h2 A
h1

h2

TB

T1
1
h1 A

T2
,

R2 =

L
KA

R3

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
( T 1T 2)
(T 1T 2 )
1
L
1
Qc =
=
+
+
R total
h1 A K A h2 A
Fig (b): Circuit of Combined convection and conduction heat flow through stationary
fluid film and a wall separating the two fluids
Fig 1.A-9. Circuit of convection heat flow. through stationary fluid film.

1.A-16. Radiation and its mechanism:

1.A-17. Absorptivity, Reflectivity and Transmissivity.
If Q is the total radiant energy incident on the surface of a body:i) Some part,QA will be absorbed, ii) Some part, QR will be reflected and iii) Some part,
QTr will be transmitted. By energy balance;
QA
QR
QTr
QA + QR + QTr = Q or
+
+
= 1 or + + = 1 ------1Q
Q
Q
A.17-1
QA
i) =
; called as absorptivity. -------------1-A.17.2
Q
Absorptivity,, is Fraction of incident energy which is absorbed
QR
ii) =
; called as reflectivity ------------ 1.A-17.3
Q
Reflectivity, , is the fraction of incident energy which is reflected.
QTr
iii) =
; called as transmissivity. or Transmittance.------------ 1.A-17.4
Q
Transmissivity, , is the fraction of incident energy which is transmitted
Transmissivity,,is fraction of incident energy which is transmitted through body.
b) i -Angle made by incident ray with the normal is angle of incidence
r Angle made by the reflected ray with the normal is angle of reflection
Normal
Incident Radiation
Q
i

Reflected Radiation
QR
r
i Angle of incidence
r Angle of radiation

QA
QTr
Transmitted radiation
Fig:- 1.A-10, Radiation incident on a body
Specular reflection: When the surface is highly polished, the angle of incidence ( i is
equal to the angle of reflection ( r and this type of reflection is called as Specular
reflection.

Diffuse reflection: When the surface is rough, the incident radiation is distributed in all
directions, and the reflection is said to be diffuse reflection.
c) Most gases have high values of, and low values of and . Air at atmospheric pressure
and temperature is transparent to thermal radiation. Air has = 1 and = = 0.
Gases like CO2 and H2O vapor are highly absorptive to thermal radiation ( =1) at certain
ranges of wave lengths.
Black Body:
Black body concept is important in heat transfer problems as the ideal gas concept in
thermodtnamics.A body absorbs all incident radiation is called as black body. which
means = 1 ie: = 0 and = 0 . A black body is also best emitter ie: emissivity of black
body is equal to unity, ie: =1.Black body is a perfect emitter and absorber, ie = 1 &
=1,
There is no perfect black body (having = 1 ) in nature. The term black is used, since most
black colored surfaces normally shows high values of absorptivity, and they also absorb all
visible light rays, because of this absorption, they appear black to our eyes. There are some
surfaces which absorb nearly all incident radiation, yet do not appear black, Ex: Ice, Snow,
white-washed walls have absorptivities greater than 0.95.and hence called as Black bodies;
but they appear white to the eye.
Emissive Power: (E) and ( E )
The total emissive power(E), of a body is defined as the total radiant energy emitted by
the hot body at a certain temperature per unit time and unit surface area at all wave lengths
The monochromatic emissive power( E ), of a body is defined as the radiant energy
emitted by the hot body at a certain temperature per unit time and unit surface area at
particular wave length ( .
Emissivity: ( );
Emissivity is the ratio of radiation emitted by a gray body surface to the radiation emitted
by a black body at same temperature and is denoted by and its value varies from 0 to 1.
Actual radiation of gray body at temperatureT degree Kelvin
Radiation of blac k body at temperature T degree Kelvin
The emissivity of a surface indicates how efficient the gray body surface emits the radiation
compared to an ideal black body radiation. The value of emissivity is a radiation property of
the surface. Its value depends on the surface characteristics. The emissivity of gray body
surface is less than unity. ie: < 1 for gray body and = 1 for the black body.
1.A-18. STEFAN BOLTZMAN LAW
The law states that total emissive power ( or total radiation energy emitted) of a black
body is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. ie: Eb T s4 .
Eb = b A T s4
Where,
Eb = Maximum rate of heat Emission by a black body at given temperature T0 Kelvin of
surface in Watts (or Emissive power of black body)
b = Stefan- Boltzman constant
= 5.67 x 108 w/m2 K4 (or in MKS units = 487.6 x 1010 Kcal / hr m2K4)
A = Area of the surface emitting radiation in m2
Ts = Absolute temperature of the surface in 0K = ( t0C + 273)
(Note:- Only single letter Eb is used to denote the black body radiation and above equation is
for black body emission from the surface of black body)
1.A-19. Emission by a Real surface ( Gray body)

The radiant energy emitted by a real surface is less than that emitted by an ideal emitter,
(black body). Hence to take account of the gray nature of such surfaces we introduce another
factor, emissivity in the above equation, which relates the radiations of the gray surface to
that of ideal black surface.
The radiant energy emitted by real surface = ER = b A T4 .------------------------1.A-19.1
1.A-20. Radiation between two bodies.
In heat transfer problems we are mainly concerned with the radiation heat transfer
between two bodies and not just the radiation emitted by a body alone.
Normally a body radiating heat also, simultaneously, receives the radiation from other
bodies. Before going to the actual equations we must know about the shape factor.
Shape factor is defined as the fraction of radient energy emitted from one surface of a body
and received by other body directly and is denoted by F12 . This is also known as
Configuration factor or angle factor or view factor or geometric factor. F12 means
fraction of energy leaving surface -1 and falling on surface -2.
Radiation
Total radiation
F12 =
1falling on2 surface 1

Q12
F12 =
b A 1 T 41
Q 21
F21 is also defined as F21 =
Like wise
.
b A 2 T 42
F12 = A 2
F21 .-----1-A.20-1
and reciprocity theorem is defined as; A 1
Case-i:- Radiation heat transfer between two black bodies.
Consider a black body surface-1 of area A1 , at temperature of T1 and another black body
surface-2 of area A2 at temperature T2 are exchanging radiation heat. [If A1 is so small
compared to A2, and A1 is surrounded by the large area A2, then these two surfaces are
considered as black bodies. It is because all heat received by the enclosing round surface -2
will be absorbed by it and hence it is considered as black body. Since the area of surface-1 is
small and enclosed it acts as perfect absorber and also emitter as its temperature comes in
equilibrium with surfacs-2, and hence called as black body.]
Radiation leaving 1 and falling on-2 is ; Q12 = F12 . b A 1 T 41
Radiation falling on 1 out of energy emitted by 2 is ; Q21 = F21 . b A 2 T 42
Hence net exchange between two faces is;
4
Q12 = b A1 F 12 T 41
b A2 F21 T 2
= b A1 F 12 ( T 14T 42
----------------------------------------1.A-20-2
4
4
Q12 = b A2 F21 (( T 1 T 2
F12 = A 2
F21 )
or
( since A 1
-----1.A-20-3
The net radiant heat transfer between two black bodies is given by equations 1.20-1 or
1.20-2;
Case-2:- Radiation Heat transfer from real surface to black surface
Consider a real surface-1 at temperature T1 surrounded by a black surface-2 at temperature
T2 then the heat transfer from real surface to black surface is given by;
Q = 1 b A1 ( T 14T 42 ( since emissivity 1 is for a real body)----1-A-20-4
The net exchange of heat between two radiating surfaces is due to the fact that one at
high temperature radiates more and receiving less energy for absorption. An isolated body
which remains at constant temperature emits just as much energy by radiation as it receives
for absorption. In actual radiation transfer, we must remember, that only part of radiation

leaving one surface reach other surface and remaining is lost to surroundings. This is due to
the fact that electromagnetic radiation (rays) travel in straight lines and only part of the rays
which are towards the receiving surface, are intersected. Hence we must introduce another
factor called as view factor or configuration factor (F1-2) for gray body radiation heat
transfer. This indicates the fraction of radiation leaving from surface-1 to other surface-2 ie
F1-2. (If the radiation from Surface2 to surface-1 is considered, then the factor is indicated as
F2-1 ). (Note: same notation is being used for the shape factor of Black body and Real body,
but they are of different values)
Hence Q1-2 = F1-2 1 b A1 (T14 T24). --------------------------1.A-20.5
The Real body view factors for different configurations are given in tables.
Note: If the radiation is in between black surface enclosed by another black surface,
then 1 =1 and F1-2 = 1
Case-3:- Radiation Heat transfer from gray surface Reflections and equivalent
electrical circuit.
The calculations of radiation between the two black surfaces is relatively easy because
all the radiation energy which strikes the surface is assumed as absorbed. The main problem
in black body radiation was to determine the shape factor, but once it is found the calculation
of radiant heat transfer between black bodies is very easy. However when the non black
surfaces are involved, the calculations are complex, because the whole energy is not absorbed
and some are reflected and some is transferred. We have to assume that the surfaces under
analysis are diffuse the radiation and are at uniform in temperature. In such cases we have to
consider Surface Resistance and Space resistance.This gives the surface resistance to
Radiation in forming the electrical circuit
G

J = Eb +

Q
A
Eb

= (J G )
J

(E bJ )
Q = A (J - G)
Q = ( 1 )
[
]
A
V
( 1 )
]
Rth = Rsurface = [
Current, i =
Rth
A
Fig: 1.A-11- Radiation over a surface of gray body.
Surface Resistance:Two New terms are defined for finding heat exchange between non-black surfaces.
i) Irradiation G; It is total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time and per unit
area; ie: Watt / sec m2 .
ii) Radiosity- J ; It is total radiation which leaves the surface per unit time and unit area
Radiosity is the sum of energy emitted and energy reflected when transmitted energy is zero.
ie: J = Eb + G -----------------1.A-20.6
Since transmissivity is zero, = 0, then, + = 1

or

= 1

or

=1

since
from Kirchoffs identity, we

have =
Substituting value in 1.17-5, we get J = Eb + (1 G
J E b
Hence G =
----------1.A-20.7
(1)
The net energy leaving the surface per unit area is
Q
= (J G )
A
Substituting G from 1-A-20.7
J E b
J E b
Q
=[J] ie Q = A [J ]
----------------1.AA
(1)
(1)
20-8
( E bJ )
A [J J J + Eb ]
A ( E bJ )
=
=
= ( 1 )
(1)
(1)
[
]
A
(E bJ )
ie Q = ( 1 )
--------------- ---------------1.A-20-9;
[
]
A
Equation 1.A-20-9 is useful for conceiving the electrical circuit equivalent to thermal circuit
equivalent to electrical circuit as shown .
( 1 )
, is called as surface resistance in the radiation
The quantity in denominator, ie:
A
heat transfer electrical circuit. The quantity in Numerator, ( Eb J ) , is considered as
potential difference.
The heat flow, Q is current. The network circuit is shown in fig 1-A-11.

Space Resistance:
Now consider the exchange of radiant energy between two gray surfaces A1 and A2, when
both are viewing each other ;
Q12 = J 1
A1
F12J 2
A2
F21
A1
AA
J1
Q12

J2

1
1
or
A 1 F 12
A 2 F 21
(J 1J 2 )
V
Q12 =
1
. ie: Current, i =
Rth
A 2 F 21
Fig.1.A-12:Radiatin between two surfaces and electrical circuit with space resistance.
A2

Rth =

A1
F12
The radiation that leaves the surface 1 and reaches the surface 2 = J 1
J
A
F21
The radiation that leaves the surface 2 and reaches the surface 1 =
2
2
A1
F12J 2
A2
The net exchange between two surfaces is, Q12
= J1
F21
F12=
A2
F21
Since A 1
Q
A
F
J
J

F21 ( J 1J 2
We have
=
( 1 2
or Q12 = A 2
12
1
12
(J 1J 2 )
(J 1J 2 )
1
1
ie: Q12 =
or Q12 =
. ---------1.A-20-10
A 1 F 12
A 2 F 21
1
1
The quantity
or
is called as Space resistance in constructing the net
A 1 F 12
A 2 F 21
work.
The net work circuit is shown in fig 1.A-12.
Combined Net Work of Surface and Space Resistances for two surfaces:
The two net work elements as shown in figures 1.11 and 1.12 represents the essentials of
radiation net work method.To construct a network for a particular radiation heat transfer
( 1 )
problem, we need only to connect the surface resistance
to each surface and a
A
1
space resistance
between the radiosity potentials from m surfaces to n
A m F mn
surfaces.
and the net work is shown in figure 1.13.For example two surfaces exchange heat with each
other and nothing else would be represented by the net work shown below fig:1.13. The net
heat transfer would be the overall potential difference divided by the sum of resistances.
E
[ b 1E b 2]
Qnet = ( 11)
( 12 ) -----------1.A-20-11
1
+[
]+
1 A 1
A1 F12
2 A 2

Eb 2

Eb 1

J1

Rsurface1 =

( 11 )

J2

1
A 1 F 12

Rspace =

Rsurface2 =

( 12 )

1 A 1
2 A 2
Fig.1-A-13:-Radiation net work for two surfaces which see each 0ther and nothing else.
Here Total resistance Rr =

( 11 )
1 A 1

+[

( 12)
1
]+
A 1 F 12
2 A 2

Above equation can also be written as in terms of temperatures by using Eb1 = b A1 T 14

and Eb2 = b A2 T 24 with Surface and Space resistances.
Q12 = (Fg )1-2 b A1 (T14 T24)
where (Fg )1-2 is called as Gray body Factor and is given by;

1
(Fg )1-2 =

( 11)
1

][ ] [
+

F 12

A 1 ( 12 )
A2
2

1
1 A1 1
1 +
+
1
1
F 12 A 2 2

[ ]

-----1.A-20.12
Also we can write reciprocity theorem A1F1-2 = A2F2-1 (this will be proved latter)
Simplified relation of Radiation exchange:
Simplified radiation heat transfer equation , when the temperature difference between
exchanging bodies, ie (T1 T2), is very less compared to both temperatures, is derived as
below. As a specific case, when the emitting area A1 is very less compared to the receiving
area A2 , then the gray body factor (F)1-2 = .
Q1-2 = b A1 (T14 T24)
= b A1 (T12 + T22) (T12 - T22)
= b A1 (T12 + T22) (T1 + T2) (T1- T2)
T 1 +T 2
= b A1 4 (Tm)3 (T1- T2)
;
where Tm =
2
or Q1-2 = hr A1 (T1- T2) ------------------------------------------ 1.A-20.13
T 1 +T 2
where hr = b (T12 + T22) (T1 + T2) or hr = 4 b (Tm)3 where Tm =
2
It is a good approximation to the radiation heat transfer which resembles the convective heat
transfer rate.
T 1 +T 2
Where hr = 4 b (Tm)3 where Tm =
2
At 250C ie 2980K, we calculate hr as: hr = 4 5.67 x 10-8 x (298)3 = 6 -----1.A-20-14
This value of hr =6 can be used as the radiation heat transfer coefficient and equation
Q1-2 = hr A1 (T1- T2) can be used to calculate the radiation heat transfer.
1
The resistance to radiation heat transfer is taken as Rr =
and this resistance
hr A 1
is always taken as parallel resistance when combined with convection or conduction
resistances.
Above Resistance and equivalent electrical circuit.
Eb 1

Eb 2

1
hr A 1
Fig.1.A-14. Circuit of radiation thermal resistance with hr
Rr =

Radiation among three bodies seeing each other.

A three body problem deals with the bodies exchange heat with each other.
(J 1J 2 )
1
Heat exchange between the body-1 and body-2 is; Q12 =
A 1 F 12
(J 1J 3 )
Q
1
Heat exchange between the body-1 and body-3 is;
=
13
A 3 F 13
By using the net work theory, the resistances form a triangle as shown in Fig-1.15.and the
Kirchhoffs current law is used to find the net heat transfer to each body.
The Kirchhoffs current law states that the sum of currents entering the node is zero.
Node-1
Node-2
1
( 11 )
( 12 )
A 1 F 12
1 A 1
2 A 2

Eb 1

Eb 2

J1

J2

1
A 1 F 13

1
A 2 F 23
Node-3

J3

( 13 )
3 A 3

Eb 3
Fig 1.A-15: Radiation net work for three surfaces seeing each other and nothing else.
Net- work is solved for heat as sum of heat (currents) entering nodes 1, 2, and 3 are zero.
ie: At node - J 1 , we can write, (the quantities are taken towards the node)
Eb 1J 1
J 2 J 1
J 3 J 1
+
1
+
1
=0
-----------1.A-20-15
( 11)
A1 F 12
A1 F 13
1 A 1
At node J2 , we can write that,

Eb 2J 2

( 12)

J 1 J 2
1
A1 F 12

2 A2
At Node-J3, we can write that,
Eb 3J 3
J 1 J 3
+
1
( 13)
A
F
3 A3
1 13

J 3 J 2
1
A2F

= 0 -------------- 1.A-20-16

23

J 2 J 3
1
A2 F23

=0

------------1.A-20-17

and Eb1 = b T 14
& Eb2 = b T 24 & Eb3 = b T 34
-------------1.A-20-18
By using equations 1-20-14 , 15, 16, and 17, we can find values of J1 , J2 , and J3 .
Eb 1J 1
Eb 2J 2

By using one of the equations, Q1 =

( 11)
1 A 1

, Q2 =

( 12)
2 A 2

and Q3 =

Eb 3J 3

( 13)

3 A3
etc can be found.

Chapter-1 (Part-B)
1,B-1) Conduction through a composite wall , Series Resistances (Electrical analogy)
Fig. below shows a composite wall having three layers of different materials tightly fitted
to one another.The layers are of each thickness L 1 , L 2 , and L 3 meters. They are with the
thermal conductivities of K1 , K2 , K3 in watt/ m 0K. at their average temperatures. The
surface temperatures of the wall are T1 and T4 in degree kelvin at inside and out side. The
interface temperatures are T2 and T3. Consider the area perpendicular to heat flow is A
square meters. Let the temperatures T1 > T2 > T3 > T4 .
Analysis assumes that there is a perfect contact between layers and no temperature drop
occurs at the interface between the material layers of composite structure.
The corresponding electrical circuit is also shown below.
Layer-

T1 1

K1

L1
Area A

Layer2
K2

Layer3
K3

L2

L3

T1 > T2 > T3 > T4

T4

T2

T3

T1

T4
T2

T3

L1
L2
R2 =
K1A
K2 A
Fig 1.B-1. Conduction through three resistance.
R1 =

R3 =

L3
K3A

Under steady state conditions, the heat flow does not vary across the wall , ie; it is same at
each and every layer.
K 1 A(T 1T 2)
K 2 A(T 2T 3)
K 3 A(T 3T 4 )
Hence q =
=
=
L1
L2
L3
Thus the temperature drop in each layer is indicated as;
L1
L2
L3
(T1 T2) = q
;
(T2 T3) = q
; (T3 T4) = q
K1 A
K2 A
K3A
Adding all the terms, we get temperature difference across the composite wall.
L1
L2
L3
(T1 T4 ) = q [
+
+
]
K1A
K2 A
K3A
T 1T 4
L1
L2
L3
or q =
-------------1.21.1
[
+
+
]
K1 A K2 A K3 A
T 1T 4
q=
R 1+ R 2+ R 3
T 1T 4
V
=
-----------------------------------------1.21.2 ( like i =
)
R
Rtotal
where Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
Where R1 , R2 , R3 are conductive thermal resistances and in series circuit the total
resistance is equal to sum of all resistances in series.It appear in the same way as the
electrical resistors are connected in series.
The above analysis can be extended to n-layers of composite wall as below
T 1T n +1
q=
---------1.21.3
R 1+ R 2+ R3 +Rn
1.B-2. Conduction through a composite wall , Parallel Resistances (Electrical analogy)
A composite slab is assumed to made of two layers of different materials at top and bottom
along Y-direction as shown. The heat flows from left side to right side along the X-direction.
The entire left side face is held at temperature T 1 and right side face is held at temperature
T2 . The conductivities of two layers are K 1 and K2. The thickness of the layers is
considered as L1 and L2 . Area perpendicular to heat flow is considered as A1 and A2 .
(L1 may be equal to L2 and equal to L ; but A1 may not be equal to A2 )
The total heat transfer, because A and B are in parallel, is Q = QA + QB
T1
A1
Q
A2

L
Layer-1
K1

L1 = L2 = L

Layer-2
K2

R1

T1

T2

L
K1 A
T2

R2
1
R total

L
K2A
1 1
+
R1 R2
=

(Like the addition of electrical resistances which are

parallel)
R 1+ R 2
R1 R 2
1
Rtotal =
=
or
R total
R1 R 2
R 1+ R 2
Fig-1.B-2. Conduction through two resistances in parallel.
T 1T 2
T 1T 2
Hence Q = [ K1 A1
] + [ K2 A2
]
L
L
[T 1T 2 ]
[T 1T 2 ]
[T 1T 2 ]
[ T 1T 2 ]
=
L
+
L
=
+
R1
R2
K1 A 1
K2 A 2
1
1
= [ T 1 T 2 [
+
]
R1
R2
1

= [ T 1 T 2 [
(since parallel resistances are added as
R total
1
=
R total
[T 1T 2 ]
=
----------------1.22-1
Rtotal
[T 1T 2 ]
R1 R 2
or
Q=
R1 + R2

1 1
+
R1 R2

1.B-3) Thermal Resistance of multiple layers in Series and parallel (Electrical analogy)
Some cases of
heat transfer has to deal with
the series and parallel walls as shown below
MaterialMaterialin fig: 1.18. 1
4
L
L
=
L
1
2
3
K1
K4 L4
A1
A4 = A1
Material
T1
-2
K2
A2

Q
A1
Material
-3
K3
A3

T2

Tx

Ty

L2
K 2 A2

R2 =

T1
T2

T2

R1 =

L1
K 1 A1

Tx

Ty
R4 =

R3 =

L3
K 3 A3

L4
K 4 A4

( but L3 = L2 )

Fig-1.B-3: Heat conduction through resistances in series and parallel.

1
1 1
+
The parallel resistances are first added as
=
R 2,3
R2 R3
R2 R3
R2,3 =
R 2+ R 3
and R2,3 is now in series with R1 and R4 hence
Rtotal = R1 + R2-3 + R4
R2 R3
= R1 +
+ R4
R 2+ R 3
[ T 1T 2 ]
From this equation, Rtotal is calculated and Q =
Rtotal
1.B-4. Thermal Resistance of slab including convection resistance:Consider a block of thicknesses as LA, and thermal conductivity KA separating the fluids on
both sides with convective coefficients h1 and h2 . Let A is the area normal to the heat flow.
Let T1 and T2 are surface temperatures of slab and TA and TB are temperatures of fluids A and
B. Let they are assumed to be insulated on top, bottom, front and back.
Since the energy will flow first through block from fluid A and then through fluid B, we say
that the resistances are thermally in series arrangement.
Surface films on both sides.
L
Fluid A
TA
TA
T12

T2

TB
T1

T2

Qc

TB

1
h2 A
h1

h2
Fluid-B

R1 =

1
h1 A

R2 =

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
(T A T B )
1
L
1
Qc =
+
+
h1 A K A h2 A

L
KA

R3

(T A T B )
R total

Fluid films on both sides

Fig (1.19): Circuit of Combined convection and conduction heat flow through stationary
fluid film and a wall separating the two fluids
(Note: Temp. Distribution in surface film is a curve, It is convex at entry and concave at exit.
Temperature distribution in solid is a straight line. Temperature distribution in fluid is a st.
line.)
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 +R5
(for a series circuit, the total resistance is sum of all resistances and the
resistances of conduction and convection are treated as series circuit))
The steady state heat flow rate through the walls is given by:
T A T B
Q=
Rtotal
1.B-5) Combined Convection and Radiation:
Heat is transferred from a hot body by natural convection and radiation.
Referring to convection heat transfer equation, we have:
(T 1T 2 )
(T 1T 2 )
T
T

Q C = hc A (
=
=
1
1
2
R Convection
hA
QR = b A1 (T14 T24)
= b A1 (T12 + T22) (T12 - T22)
= b A1 (T12 + T22) (T1 + T2) (T1- T2)
= hr A1 (T1 T2)
where hr = b (T1 + T2) (T12 + T22)
or hr can be approximated as; hr = b 4 (Tm)3 ( where Tm = (T1 + T2) / 2 )
( Here the value (T1 + T2) (T12 + T22) is replaced with 4.Tm3
(T 1T 2 )
(T 1T 2 )
1
or QR = hr A1 (T1- T2)
=
=
R tRadiation
hr A 1
It is a good approximation to the radiation heat transfer which resembles the convective heat
transfer rate.
Where hr = 4 b (Tm)3 where Tm = (T1 + T2)/2 & hr = 6 at atmospheric conditions.
The resistances are now drawn in parallel circuit. Note that the radiation resistance is
drawn as parallel resistance when combined with convective resistances. (but convective
and conductive resistances are drawn in series as shown above)
The equivalent physical system and thermal circuit for combined heat transfer between
bodies 1 and 2 are shown in fig: 1.B-4.
Total radiation Q = Qc + QR
= hc A ( T 1 T 2 + hr A (T1- T2) = ( hc +h R A (
T 1 T 2

A (T 1 T 2 )
1
(hc + hR )
A2

T2

Surrounding air at T2
QC = hc A1 ( T 1 T 2
QR = hr A1 (T1- T2)

Surface at T1
Fig-1.B-4 a):- Physical system.
Q1-2 = hr A1 (T1- T2)
where hr = b (T12 + T22) (T1 + T2) or hr = 4 b (Tm)3 where Tm =

RConvection

T 1 +T 2
2

1
hC A 1

T1

T2
RRadiation
1

R total
R1 R 2
R 1+ R 2

=
1

R Convection R Radiation

1
hR A1
=

1 1
+
R1 R2

R 1+ R 2
R1 R 2

or

Rtotal

Fig-1-B-4b):- Electrical circuit, (Thermal circuit)

Fig:-1.B-4); Thermal circuit with conduction and radiation in parallel .

1-B-6. Combined heat transfer Coefficient or Overall heat transfer coefficient. (U)
The three layer wall and the electrical circuit is shown in fig:1.21.
TH is the temperature of hot fluid, T C is temperature of cold fluid. T1 and T4 are the surface
temperatures of wall. T2 , T3 are inter surface temperatures. L1 , L2 , L3 are thickness of the
layers. K1 , K2 and K3 are thermal conductivities of three layers. hhot and hcold are convective
coefficients of hot and cold fluids.

L1

L1
L3

L2

L2

LayerT1 1
K1

TH
Q
Area A

T2

L3

Layer2
K2

Layer3
K3

T3

T4

TH > T1 > T2 > T3 > T4 > TC

TC

TH

TC
T1
R1 =

RH =

1
hhot A

T2

L1
K1A

T3
R2 =

T4
L2
K2 A

R3 =
RC =

L3
K3A
1
hcold A

Fig: 1.B-5; Heat transfer through three layer composite wall with convection on both
exterior surfaces showing the temperature profile and thermal circuit
1) Flow of heat from the fluid at high temperature, TH, to the wall, is considered by
convection heat transfer in a film layer adjacent to wall.
Thermal resistance of film layer on hot fluid side
1
= R H = Rconvection,hot =
---------- ------hhot A
(i)
hhot is the convective heat transfer coefficient of the Hot fluid side.
2)Heat conduction through the solid wall of thickness L1 , and thermal conductivity K1 is:
Thermal resistance to heat conduction through wall of layer-1
L1
= R1 = Rconduction,layer1 =
-----(ii)
K1 A
3)Heat conduction through the solid wall of thickness L2 , and thermal conductivity K2 is:
Thermal resistance to heat conduction through wall of layer-2
L2
= R2 = Rconduction,layer-2 =
-----(iii)
K2 A
4)Heat conduction through the solid wall of thickness L3 , and thermal conductivity K3 is:
Thermal resistance to heat conduction through wall of layer-3
L3
= R3 = Rconduction,layer-3 =
----- -----(iv)
K3 A
5)Heat convection from wall to the cold fluid at temperature, TC is
Thermal resistance of the film layer on cold fluid side
1
= RC = Rconvection-Cold =
-------- --(v)
hcold A
ha is the convective coefficient of the cold fluid side.
Hence the total thermal resistance to heat flow from temperature TH to TC is

Rtotal = RH + R1 + R2 + R3 + RC =
L3
1
+
h
K3 A
cold A
Hence the heat flow from TH to TC is given by
Q =

T H T C
R total

T H T C
R total

1
hhot A

L1
K1A

L2
K2A

T H T C
L
L
L
1
1
+ 1 + 2 + 3 +
hhot A K 1 A K 2 A K 3 A hcold A

--------------------(vi)
Usually the heat flow through composite structure is written in the form
(T H T C )
Q = UA ( T H T C ) =
---------------------------------(vii)
1
UA
Where U represents over all heat transfer coefficient.
This coefficient represents the intensity of heat transfer from one fluid to other fluid through
a separating wall. Numerically, the U is the quantity of heat passing through unit area of wall
per a unit degree of temperature difference, while considering all the modes of heat transfer.
Its unit is watt / m2. oK. sec.
Comparing the equations (vi) and (vii) we can write that
L
L
L
1
1
1
+ 1 + 2 + 3 +
=
-------------(viii)
UA
hhot A K 1 A K 2 A K 3 A hcold A
L L L
1
1
1
+ 1 + 2+ 3+
Hence
=
U
hhot K 1 K 2 K 3 hcold
=RH + R1 + R2 + R3 + RC
1
or U =
--------------------------------------------1.23.3
R H + R 1 + R 2 + R3 + R C
Apparently the overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of over all thermal
resistance to the heat flow. The U depends on geometry of separating wall, its thermal
properties and convective coefficients on both sides.
Numerically the over all heat transfer coefficient equals to the quantity of heat passing
through unit area of wall surface in unit time at a temperature difference of unit degree. The
dimentional unit of U is W/ m2-deg.
The over all surface coefficient has its numerical value same whether the heat flows
from either side incase of a slab or multi layer slab. It is because the area considered
perpendicular to heat flow is same on both sides.
Hence U O AO = Ui Ai , where UO is overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside
surface and Ui is the overall heat transfer based on inside surface
L1
L2
L
1
1
1
+
+
+ 3 +
ie
=
U O AO
hhot A O K 1 A O K 2 A O K 3 AO hcold A O
L
L
L
1
1
1
+ 1 + 2 + 3 +
and;
=
U i Ai
hhot A i K 1 Ai K 2 Ai K 3 Ai hcold A i
L L L
1
1
1
1
+ 1 + 2+ 3+
=
=
UO
Ui
hhot K 1 K 2 K 3 hcold
(However in case of heat flow in cylinders the values of U are different for the different
directions. If heat flows from inside of a cylinder to out side and based on inside area it
is denoted as Ui , called as Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inside surface. If

heat flows from out side to inside and if taken as based on out side area, it is denoted as
Uo , called as Overall heat transfer coefficient based on out side surface. Thus the
cylinders have two overall heat transfer coefficients)
1.27. HEAT TRANSFER WITH INTERFACE RESISTANCE (or: Contact
Resistance)
Calculations of heat flow through a multi layer composite structure are made based on
assumptions that
i) There is a perfect contact between adjacent layers.
ii)The temperature profile is continuous at the interface, even though there is a
discontinuity in temperature gradient. This means, temperature profile in layer-1
and that of layer -2 meet at single point at interface, but the slope of profile in
layer 1 is different than the slope of profile un layer-2.
iii)There is no fall of temperature at the interface, ie insulation effect is there in
transfer of heat.
However, the interface contact will not be perfect from the microscopic point of view, and
they touch at some spots leaving air gaps in between the contact spots. This is due to surface
roughness and irregularities and obviously there is no single place of contact throughout. The
heat transfer through the air or fluid in the voids of interface gap is mainly due to conduction,
since there is no convection in such thin layer of fluid and radiation effects are negligible in
this thin layer. Since the thermal conductivity of the fluid entrapped in voids is quite small, it
plays the major role in adding the resistance to heat flow. Also the spot contacts at interface
implies that the area for heat flow at interface by conduction (by contact) will be small
compared to the geometric area of the face from which the heat enters.
Due to this apparent decrease in the heat flow area and also due to presence of air
voids, there occurs a large resistance to heat flow at the interface. The resistance is referred as
thermal contact resistance and it causes the drop in temperature between two materials
at the interface. Fig. 1.22 (a) shows the temperature distribution with out contact resistance
and fig: 1.22 (b) shows the temperature distribution with drop of temperature because of
contact resistance
(T2A T2B) =temp drop at interface
T2 is interface temperature.
T1

K1

K2

T1
T2A

T2

T3
T2 B

T3

L1

Fig: 1.B-6 (a)- No temperature drop ;

at interface, shows temp. distribution.

L2
Lg
Fig: 1.B-6 (b)- Temperature drop
at interface; shows temp.distribution

Performing the energy balance on two layers of contact, we can write that;

T 1T 2 A
T 2 B T 3
T 2 AT 2 B
L1
L2
Q=
=
1
=
-------------------(1)
hC A
K1 A
K2 A
where hc , in this equation, represents contact coefficient and (1/ hc A) is called as contact
resistance. This factor is more important in number of applications, because many heat
transfer applications involve mechanical joining of materials.
There are two principal contributions to the heat transfer at the joint:
a) The solid to- solid conduction at the spots of contact.
b) The conduction through entrapped gasses in the void spaces created by the point contact.
The second factor is the major resistance to the heat flow, because the thermal conductinity
of the gas is quite small in comparison with solids.
Designating :
Ac = contact area, Av = voids area, Lg = thickness of void space at interface,
Kf = thermal conductivity of fluid in voids, hc = contact coefficient,
A = Total cross- sectional area normal to heat flow. and taking the half of the length of void ,
ie Lg/2, on the side of layer- A and other half Lg/2 on to the side of layer-B, then
T 2 A T 2 B
T 2 AT 2 B
T 2 AT 2 B
Lg
Lg
Lg
Q=
+
=
1
+
hC A
2 K A A C 2 K B AC
K f Av
1
1
+
Lg
Lg
Lg
Hence, hC A
=
+
2 K A A C 2 K B AC K f A v
1
1
1
L
1
1
=
[
+
]
g
+
Lg
2 K A A C 2 K B AC
Kf Av
1
1
1
K B+ K A
1
=
[
+
]
Lg
Kf Av
2 AC K B K A
2 AC K B K A
1
K f Av
=
[
+
]
Lg
KB+ K A
1
2KB KA
1
AC
Av
hC =
[
+
K ] ------------1.23.1
Lg
( KB+ K A)
A
A f
In most cases the air is filled in voids and value of Kf is very small compared to
KA and KB. The problem to find contact coefficient from above equation is the measurement
of quantities Ac , Av , and Lg .
From the above physical model it can be concluded that,
1)The contact resistance increases with decrease in pressure in voids. However the esistance
will be decreased by increasing the pressure of fluid in voids.
2) The contact resistance decreases with increase of joint pressure.
3)Putting viscous liquid on interface reduce the contact resistance. A thermally conducting
liquid called, thermal grease such as silicone oil is applied between contact surfaces before
they are pressed against each other.It is commonly done in attaching electronic components
such as power transistors to heat sinks. Thermal resistances can be reduced markedly, as
much as 75%, by the use of thermal grease like DOW 340. This is used in soldering of
electronic components to power boards. The thermal resistance when stainless steel plates
are pressed will be in the range of 6 x 10- 4 to 25 x 10- 4 m2 K/w at atmospheric pressure.

1.C-1) HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH A HALLOW CYLINDER: (Heat flow in radial

direction) (Fourier uni directional heat conduction equation for hollow cylinder.)
i) Consider the cross section of a hollow cylinder as shown in figure
Let T1 and T2 are the temperatures at inside and outside surfaces and T1 > T2 .
Let r1 and r2 are inner and outer radii of cylinder. Let L is length of cylinder and K is
thermal conductivity of material.
Consider a cylindrical element of thickness dr at radius r.
Since the flow of heat is only in radial direction, the rate of heat flow, Q , is same through
inner surface, outer surface and any cylindrical surface in between.
dT
The rate of heat transfer, Q = - KA
by Fouriers Law.---1.C-1.1
dr
dT
dr
= -- K (2 r L)
Q
= -- (2 L K) dT
dr
r
Integrating with boundary conditions :
r
T
dr
At r = r1 , T = T1 and at r = r2 , T = T2 ; Q
= - 2 LK dT
r
r
T
r2
or Q ln (
) = (2 L K) (T2 T1) (here ln means the natural logaritham)
r1
2 L K (T 1 T 2 )
r
Hence Q =
----------(1.C.1.2 )
( T1 > T2 and r2 > r1)
ln( 2 )
r1
(T 1 T 2)
or Q =
---------(1.C-1.3)
R th
r
ln ( 2 )
Where Rth = Thermal resistance =
r1
--------(1.C.1.4)
2LK
The equivalent thermal circuit is also shown in fig 1.C-1b
dr
2

Q
r
r2

r1

Fig-a: Physical system of hallow cylinder

Q
T1

T2
r2
ln( )
Rth =
r1
(b)- Electrical circuit
2LK
Fig: 1.C-1: One dimentional heat flow in hollow cylinder and electrical circuit.
Note: The surface area of cylindrical surface changes with radius. Therefore the rate of heat
conduction through a cylinder is usually expressed per unit length rather than per unit area
Q
Q
as done in case of plane wall. qcylinder =
= Kj/ mt but qplane wall =
= KJ/ mt2
L
A

ii) Heat flow equation of hallow cylinder in the form written for a plane wall, takingwall
thickness.
Some times it is convenient to write the heat flow equation of hallow cylinder in the form
written for a plane wall, taking wall thickness; Then the wall thickness is (r2- r1) and area is
Am. This is given below.
2 L K (t 1 t 2 )
r
We have Q =
ln( 2 )
r1
Multiplying and dividing above Equation, with (r2 r1) , and also multiplying and
dividing the inside term of ln. term with 2 L. ( as we have PERIMETER AREA of cylinder
is 2 r L )
2 L(r 2 r 1) K (t 1 t 2 )
2 Lr
Q =
( r 2 r 1 ) ln( 2 L r 2 )
1
K ( A 2A 1 ) (t 1 t 2 )
K A m (t 1 t 2)
A2
=
=
( r2 r1 )
( r 2 r 1 ) ln( A )
1
t 2 t1
-----------------------------1,C-1.5
= - K Am [
r 2r 1
This equation resembles the heat transfer equation of plane wall.
( A 2 A 1 )
A
where Alm = Log- Mean area =
-------- ---------(1.C.1.6)
ln( 2 )
A1
A1 = Inside surface area = 2 r1 L
A2 = Out side surface area = 2 r2 L
r
r
( 2 1 = Wall Thickness of hollow cylinder.
Concept of Log-Mean radius:2 L(r 2 r 1)
( A 2 A 1 )
r
A
We have Log- Mean area =
=
ln( 2 )
ln( 2 )
r1
A1
= 2 L rm ------------ (1.C.1-7)
Obviously logarithemic mean radius of the cylinder tube is given as:
(r 2 r 1 )
r
rm =
------------------(1.C-1.8)
ln ( 2 )
r1
r2
r 2+ r 1
When
= 1, then the value of arithmetic mean radius ie r a=
differs
r1
2
r2
r2
from the value of logarithmetic radius ie rm = ln (
) by about 4%. If
= 1.5 ,
r1
r1
r2
then the deviation is by 1.3%. Hence when the value
< 2, the logarithametic mean
r1
radius can be avoided and in place of it we may use arithmetic mean with out appreciable
error.
However the log mean radius has important applications in designing the lagging of steam
pipes and insulation of electrical cables.

iii)Special remarks.
a)The heat flow rate through a plane wall is same for all isothermal surfaces and hence the
temperature gradient remains constant for all isothermal surfaces. However in cylindrical
surface, the heat flux falls off inversely with radius. This is because the same heat has flow
through steadily increasing area. Thus the heat flux is proportional to 1/r.
This will be proved latter .
Thermal resistance:
The equation of heat transfer in terms of resistance;
T 1 T2
T 1 T2
Q = r 2r 1
=
(T1 T2
Rth
KAm
r 2r 1
where Rth =
K Am
( A 2 A 1 )
A
Where Am = Log- Mean area =
ln( 2 )
A1
iv) Temperature distribution across the cylindrical wall; derived from fundamental
Fourier equation.
Temperature across the cylindrical wall varies logarithamically with the radius.
Equation of temperature variation in cylindrical wall is derived from the heat flow equation.
We have equation for heat flow as
dt
Q= K.2rL.
dr .
Q
dr
dt =
2 LK .
r.
dr
= C1
r.
Integrating, t = C1 ln (r) + C2. ----------------------- (i)
where the constants C1 and C2 are evaluated from conditions
when r = r1 ; t = t1 and r = r2 ; t = t2
t1 = C1 ln (r1) + C2. ----------------------- (ii)
t2 = C1 ln (r2) + C2. ------------------------ (iii)
(iii) (ii) gives that
(t2 t1) = C1 ln (r2) C1 ln (r1)
= C1 ln (r2 / r1)
t 2t 1
r
Hence C1 =
-------------------------(iv)
ln( 2 )
r1
Substituting C1 in (ii).
(t 2t 1 )(ln r 1 )
r
t1 =
+ C2
ln ( 2 ).
r1
( t t )(ln r 1)
[ 2 1
]
r2
C2 = t 1
-------------------- (v)
ln( ).
r1
Substituting C1 and C2 from (iv) and (v) in equation (i) and simplifying, we get

the temperature distribution in dimensionless form as;

(t t )( ln r 1)
( t t )(ln r)
[ 2 1
]
[ 2 1
]

r2
r2
t= t1 +

--------1.24-8
ln( ).
ln( ) .
r1
r1
r
ln( )
(t t 1)
r1
=
--------------------------- 1.24.9

(t 2t 1 )

This shows that the temperature varies logarithamically with radius of cylinder.
Hence the profile is curve (like a hyperbola) in the cylindrical solid wall, (it is not a line
as in case of plane wall). It is independent of the value of K, ie type of material, steel, wood
or Rubber etc. Isotherms (or temperature profile of constant temperature) are concentric
circles lying between the inner and outer cylinder boundaries.
r2
This temperature profile is nearly linear for values of
= 1, but non linear for larger
r1
r2
values of
.
r1
Note:-Usually the above equation 1.24.8 is also derived from the general conduction equation
of temperature, instead of above method and will be shown in next chapter.
v) The heat flux is proportional to 1/r , is proved as below.
The heat flow rate through a plane wall is same for all isothermal surfaces and hence the
temperature gradient remains constant for all isothermal surfaces. However in cylindrical
surface, the heat flux falls off inversely with radius. This is because the same heat has to
flow through steadily increasing area. Thus the heat flux is proportional to 1/r.
dt
We have Heat flux = q = - K
dr
r
ln( )
r1
t t
t = t1 + 2 1 )

(t 2t 1 )
(t 2t 1 )
r
r
= t1 +
ln r ln r1
ln( 2 )
ln( 2 )
r1
r1
(t 2t 1 )
d
r
q=-K
{
ln r}
dr
ln( 2 )
r1
K (t 2t 1)
1
r2
=
r
ln( )
r1
1
1
Hence q
, ie q is proportional to
r
r

1.C-2): Heat conduction through multi cylindrical wall with internal and external
convective coefficient.
hi
K1
K2

T0
h
T3
T2
T1

ho

Ti
Layer-1 (Metal thickness of pipe) (R1)

r1

Layer-2 (layer of lagging) (R2)

Ti

To

r3
Q

Ti

r2
T1

T2

T3

To

Ri
R1
R2
R0
Fig:1.C-2).One dimentional heat flow through multi cylindrical wall ; electrical analogy.
a) Total Resistance considering the inside and outside convective coefficients.
Multi cylindrical walls are frequently employed to reduce heat losses such as in Steam pipes
lagging or increase the heat conduction such as in electrical cables. The above fig. 1.24
shows the pipe with a layer of Insulation. Consider a length, L of the cylinder.
1
Ri = Resistance of inside fluid film ( in Convection). =
2 r 1 L hi
r
ln ( 2 )
r1
R1 = Resistance of the first layer (in conduction) =
2 L K 1
r3
ln ( )
nd
r2
R2 = Resistance of the 2 layer layer (in conduction) =
2 L K 2
1
Ro = Resistance of out side fluid film ( in Convection). =
2 r 3 L ho
Rtotal = Ri (convection) + R1 (conduction) + R2 (conduction0 + Ro (convection0
r
r
ln ( 2 )
ln ( 3 )
1
1
r1
r2
=
+
+
+
--------1.C.2-1
2 r 1 L hi
2 r 3 L ho
2 L K 1
2 L K 2
T iT 0
Q =
Rtotal

T iT 0
r2
r
) ln( 3 )
------------------1.C.2.2
r1
r2
1
1
+
+
+
2 r 1 Lh i 2 L K 1 2 L K 2 2 r 3 L ho
Note: since convective coefficient is taken, we have to take inside film temperature, t i and
out side film temperature, to and not wall surface temperatures t1 and t3.
b)Total resistance in terms of logarithamic mean Area with out convective coefficient.
The total resistance = Rtotal
r 2r 1
r r
= R 1 + R2 =
--1.C.2.3
+ 3 2
K A m1
K A m2
( A 2 A 1)
Am1 =
where A1 = 2 r1 L and A2 = 2 r2 L
A2
ln[
]
A1.
( A 3 A 2)
Am2 =
where A3 = 2 r3 L and A4 = 2 r4 L
A3
ln[
]
A2.
The interface temperature is evaluated by using the following relation.
The rate of heat transfer is ;
T 1T 3
T 1T 2
T 2T 3
Q=
=
=
--------1.C.2.4
Rtotal
R1
R2
or Q =

ln(

][

c) Over all heat transfer coefficient. (Ui and Uo )

Since the heat flow area varies for a cylindrical tube, it becomes necessary to specify the area
on which U is based. Thus depending on whether the inner or outer area is specified, two
different values are defined for U.
Q = Ui Ai (Ti To ) = Uo Ao (Ti To ) for Ti To ------1.C.2.5
We have equation
T iT 0
r
r
ln( 2 ) ln( 3 )
Q=
-----------------1.C.2-2
r1
r2
1
1
+
+
+
2 r 1 Lh i 2 L K 1 2 L K 2 2 r 3 L ho
comparing 1.25.2 and 1.25.5. we get,
T iT 0
r
r
ln( 2 ) ln( 3 )
Ui 2 r1 L (Ti To ) =
r1
r2
1
1
+
+
+
2 r 1 Lh i 2 L K 1 2 L K 2 2 r 3 L ho
r
r
ln( 2 )
ln( 3 )
1
r1
r2 r1 1
= 1
--1.C.2-6
Ui
+r 1
+r 1
+
hi
K1
K2
r3 ho
where Ui is overall heat transfer coefficient on in side area.
Similarly over all heat transfer coefficient based on out side area, Uo is given as;
r2
r3
ln ( )
ln ( )
1
r3 1
1
} ------1.C.2-7
r1
r2
={
+ r3 (
+ r3 (
+
Uo
r 1 hi
ho

K1
K2
d) For a cylindrical wall the Heat flux is proportional to 1/r .

The heat flow rate through a plane wall is same for all iso-thermal surfaces and hence the
temperature gradient remains constant for all iso-termal surfaces. With a cylindrical surface,
the temperature gradient varies (reduces) with increase of radius and hence heat flux falls off
inversely with increase of radius. This has to be because the same amount of heat flows
steadily through an increasing area.
At any radius r, Heat flux, Q = - K (dt/dr)
per unit area
( T 2T 1) ( ln r )
(T 2T 1 )(ln r 1 )
T1
}
r
=--K d
+{

r
]

ln( 2 ).
ln 2 .
dr .
r1
r1

Substituting t from 1.24.8

K (t 2t 1)
Q = -ln (r 2/ r 1) .

1
r

()

------------------- 1.C.2.8

This equation shows that heat flux is proportional to

1
.
r

1.C-3): Heat conduction through a Spherical shell.

Consider heat conduction through the wall of hollow sphere of inner radius r1 and
outer radius r2 with constant thermal conductivity. The inner and outer surfaces are
maintained at temperatures of t1 and t2 respectively. Geometrical similarity of sphere indicate
that the heat flows only in radial direction. Inside temperature t 1 is greater than t2 and heat
flows radially outwards.
Consider the thin spherical strip of thickness dr at radius r. The heat flow through this strip
given by Fourier equation is
dT
dT
Q = KA
= K . 4 r2 .
--------1.C-3-1
dr .
dr .
(where A is area of spherical surface at radius r normal to heat flow.)

r
r1

T1

T1 Inside temperature
T2 Out side temperature.

r2

T2

r 2r 1
4 K r 2 r1
Fig: 1,C-3) Steady state heat conduction through Sphere and electrical analogy.
R=

Separating the variables of equation 1-c.3-1 and Integrating at given boundary conditions;
r2

Q dr
4 K r 2
r
1

T2

dT
T1

1
= ( T2 T1 )
r2
4 K ( T 1 T 2 ) r 1 r 2
Q=
----------1.C.3-2
(r 2r 1)
(T 1 T2)
(r r )
Hence
Q=
---------- 1.C.3.3
[ 2 1 ]
4 K r 1 r 2 .
r 2r 1
Resistance in case of Spherical shell = Rth =
----------1.C.3.4
4 K r 2 r1
Note-1:Quite often it is convenient to write the heat flow equation through a sphere
in the same way as that equation written for a plane wall considering thickness,
= (r2 r1) and equivalent area as Am .
K A gm ( T 1 T 2 )
Hence Q =
---------------1.C.3.5
(r 2 r 1)
4 K ( T 1 T 2 ) r 1 r 2
We have derived the equation 1.26-1 as Q =
(r 2r 1)
Comparing both equations above, we write;
Agm = 4 r1 r2. ----------------------------1.C.3.6
where, Agm = Geometric Mean area ,
= A1 A2
= ( 4 r 12 . 4 r 22 )
.
=4 r1 r2
(T 1 T 2)
Hence Q =
-------------------------1.C.3.7
(r r )
[ 2 1 ]
K Agm .
We can also specify geometric mean area as,
Agm = 4 rgm2 , where rgm = geometric mean radius. = r 1 r 2 -------1.30.8
(T 1 T 2)
( T 1 T 2)
Thermal resistance:. From equation1.26.6, we have Q =
=
(r 2 r 1)
Rth
[
]
K Agm .
( r 2r 1 )
where, Thermal resistance = Rth = K Agm . ) ---------------1.C.3.9

Different expressions for Thermal resistances are given below.

A) For Slab:
Rslab = / K A.
A = area of surface
(tt 1)
x
Temperature distribution in wall :
=
( x 2x 1)
(t 2t 1 )
r
ln ( 2 )
B) Cylinder: Rcylinder = Rth = Thermal resistance =
r1
2LK
r 2r 1
=
K Am
Q
4 K

1
r1

( A 2 A 1)
where Alm = Logarithamic mean area =
or Alm = 2 rlm. L
A2
ln[
]
A1.
(r 2 r 1)
where, logarithmic mean radius = rlm =
r2
ln[
]
r1.
when the ratio r2 /r1 < 2 then we can use arithmetic mean radius ra = (r1 + r2) / 2
instead of log mean radius, rlm. Arithmetic mean area, Aa = 2 ra. L
r
ln( )
(T T 1)
r1
Temperature distribution in cylinder is:
=

(T 2T 1 )

( r 2r 1)
] ;
C) Sphere: Rsphere = [
K Agm
where Agm = Geometric mean area
= A1 A2
= 4 r1 r2.
2
or Agm = 4 rgm where rgm = r 1 r 2
Temperature distribution in spherical shell.
The equation for temperature profile will be derived in the next chapter from the general
conduction equation in spherical coordinates.
However the final equation for the temp. profile is given below for information.
(t t 1)
( rr 1 )
r2
}
= {
-----------------------1.C.3.10
r.
(t 2 t 1 )
(r 2 r 1) .
IMPORTANT RESULT
The equation, above, indicates that the temperature distribution associated with radial
conduction through a sphere is represented by a hyperbola.
If the spherical shell with two layers of insulation and inside and outside film
coefficients
T 1 T 2
(r r )
(r r )
1
1
Q=
+[ 2 1 ]+[ 3 2 ]+
2
4 K r 3 r 2 . 4 r 32 h0
4 r 1 hi 4 K r 1 r 2 .
1.C-4) Critical Thickness of Insulation.
The belief that addition of insulation on a surface always brings down the heat loss is
wrong in some cases. The addition of insulation on the outer surface of cylindrical and
spherical shell walls (geometries which have non constant cross sectional areas at out side)
does not reduce the heat loss. In-fact under certain conditions , addition of insulation after
some thickness increases the heat loss. This thickness of insulation beyond which the heat
loss increases is called as Critical thickness of insulation.
Consider a thin walled metallic tube of length L, radius ri with inside fluid temperature ti
and ambient temperature, to, less than that of inside. Surrounding this tube an annular section
of insulation, thickness (r- ri) where r is outer radius of insulation. t1 and t2 are surface
temperatures of insulation layer. hi and h0 are convective coefficients at inside and out side
surfaces. K is thermal conductivity of Insulation material.
Insulation of variable thickness

Negligible metal thickness

h0 (outside film coef)
In side film coef.

hi
ti
t0

ri
r
t1
t2
t0
Q ti

t1
1
Rt1 =
2 r i L hi

t2

t0

r
1
ri
Rt2 =
Rt3 =
2 r L ho
2 KL
Fig:-1.C-4: Critical Thickness of Insulation
ln

Let Rt1 , Rt2 , Rt3 are thermal resistances of Inside film, insulation material and outside film
respectively. With the assumptions of:
1) Steady state conditions
2) One dimensional heat flow in radial direction only.
3) Negligible thermal resistance of material of tube wall.
4)Negligible radiation exchange between outer surface of insulation and surroundings.
The heat transmitted can be expressed as:
t it o
r
ln
Q=
------------- 1.27.1
ri
1
1
+
+
2 r i L hi 2 KL 2 r Lh o
Referring 1.27.1, the values K, ri , hi , h0 and L are constants. Therefore the resistance
depends on the radius, r , of insulation.
On examining the equation, with increase of r , ie thickness of insulation, the resistance of
insulation increases but the thermal resistance of outer film drops. The thermal resistance of
inside film coefficient is unaffected by the increase of r . Obviously, the addition of
insulation ,(increase of r) may lead to increase or decrease the rate of heat flow, depending
on the change of total resistance on increase of r.
The effect of insulation can be studied by differentiating the total resistance (of Dr of above
expression) with respect of r and setting to zero and finding the value of r .
r
ln
d Rt
d
ri
ie
=
[
]=0
1
1
+
+
dr
dr
2 r i L hi 2 KL 2 r L ho
1
1
1
1
x
x
=0
------(i)
2
2 L ho
2 KL
r
r

{since
d
dr

1
r

)=

1
2
r

d
dr

( ln

r
=
ri

d
dr

(ln r ln r1) =

1
r

0 =

1
r

and

1
1

K r r 2 h0 = 0
1
1
K

=0
or r =
K r h0
ho
To find whether the result maximize or minimize we have to find the
second derivative of (i).
2
1
1
1
d Rt
1
[2
x
]
=
-+
2
2
2 L ho
2 KL
r
r3
dr
1
K
1
ho2
ho3
[ 3]
= -+
{ Substituting r =
}
2

L
h
h
2 KL
K
o
K
o
ho 2
ho 2
= -+
3
3
2K L
K L
ho 2
=
which is positive hence condition is minimum.
K3 L
K
Hence r =
represents the condition for minimum resistance. Hence the heat flow is
ho
K
maximum at rc =
. Hence the insulation radius at which the thermal resistance is
ho
minimum is called as critical radius, rc . Critical radius depends only on thermal quantities
K and h0 only.
1.C-5) Dependence of heat loss on thickness of insulation.
At radius of insulation on a pipe equal to the critical radius, ie r = rc, then the thermal
resistance reaches the minimum value and the heat loss will be more than that bare pipe
looses. Hence the effect of insulation is to increase the heat loss rather than to reduce.
Dependence of heat loss on the thickness is shown in figure below, as two cases are
practically important.
K
Case 1) When rc is calculated by expression, rc =
it becomes ri < rc (Ex: Steam
ho
pipe)
Q
m
a
b
ie

rc
r*
r
Fig-1.C-5: ri < rc
The addition of insulation to bare pipe (point a of the figure) leads to increase of heat loss
until the thickness of insulation reaches radius of critical radius, rc . This is due to the
progressive decrease in the outside convective film resistance which predominates the
increase of insulation resistance and hence net result is total resistance decreases ;and the
ri

heat flow increases than that which bare pipe transmits.Any further increase of insulation
thickness (from m) reduces the heat loss from the peak value. However the heat loss will be
more till the thickness reaches the radius of r*, where the heat loss is equivalent to that
transmitted by the bare pipe. Hence an insulation thickness greater than the radius , r* must
be added to reduce the heat loss below that of un-insulated bare pipe. Hence for the steam
pipes where the heat loss must be minimum, the insulation (Lagging of steam pipes) is to
have radius more than r* .
The phenomenon of heat loss increase on addition of insulation is mostly occur when
insulating materials of poor quality is applied to the pipes and wires of small radius. This
situation is advantageous for insulating the electric wires and cables. The electric wires are
given a outer coating with a primary objective of providing protection from electrical
hazards, However it is advantageous to dissipate heat so that the conductor is kept with in the
safe temperature limits and current carrying capacity of cable increases.
Hence for electrical cables and wires, the insulation is coated to have radius nearer to
point m as shown in figure. ie: r0 = rc or ro rc for electrical cables.
K
Case-2) When rc is calculated by expression, rc =
it becomes ri > rc
ho
Q

rc
ri
Fig-1.C-6: ri > rc

r (pipe radius)

The effect of wall thickness (ie insulation thickness) dominates and insulation resistance
dominates the convective resistance and hence the overall thermal resistance increases. The
heat flow is reduced and the insulation acts as better lagging which obstruct the heat loss
from the pipes.
Heat insulation is main objective of the steam and refrigeration piping. For insulation to be
properly effective, the outer radius must be greater than the critical radius and choosen
material for insulation must be having quality such that it have low thermal conductivity.
1.C-6) Critical radius of insulation for spherical shells.
T 1T 2
(rr i)
1
1
We have Q =
+[
]+
2
4 r i hi 4 K r r i . 4 r 2 h0
(r r i)
1
1
+[
]+
Rt =
2
4 r i hi 4 K r r i . 4 r 2 h0
d Rt
=
dr

d
dr

Rt )
ie

d
dr

(r r i)
1
1
+[
]+
] = 0 (for minimum value of
2
4
K
r
r
.
4 r i hi
4 r 2 h0
i

1 rr 1
1 1
+
]=0
4 K . r r 1 4 h 0 r 2

1
1 1
1 1
{ }+
]=0
4 K . r 1 r 4 h0 r 2
2
1
+
=0
2
4 h0 r 3
4 K r .
2
1
=0
h0 r
K
2
1
=
h0 r
K
2K
2K
r=
ie rc =
h0
h0
d
dr