English Grammar Rules

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Above or over?
from English Grammar Today
When we use above as a preposition, it means higher than. Its meaning is close to that of the
preposition over. In the following sentences, overcan be used instead of above:
The waves came up above her head and she started screaming. (or came up over her head )
She is a nervous flier. But once the plane got above the clouds, she started to relax. (or
got over the clouds )
We use above, but not over, to refer to things that are at an upper or higher level:
[a chalet is a small wooden building usually found in mountainous areas]
Do they live in that chalet above the village?
Not: Do they live in that chalet over the village?
We usually use above, but not over, when there is no contact between the things referred
to. Over or on top of have a more general meaning, and can be used when one thing touches or
covers another:
They made her comfortable and put a blanket over her.
Not: They made her comfortable and put a blanket above her.
We normally use over not above with numbers:
I get over sixty emails a day.
Not: I get above sixty emails a day.
If you weigh over 100 kilograms, then you may need to start a diet.
Not: If you weigh above 100 kilograms
Warning:
When we talk about temperatures in relation to zero or (the) average, we use above not over:
It was three degrees above zero.
Not: It was three degrees over zero.
When we refer to temperatures in other contexts, we can normally useabove or over:
The temperature is already above 30 degrees. (or over 30 degrees.)
Typical errors
We dont use over to mean higher level.

Most of the race is 500 metres above sea level.
Not: Most of the race is 500 over sea level.
We dont use above when one thing touches or covers another.
Pour some cream over the tart and serve it warm.
Not: Pour some cream above the tart
We dont use above with numbers.
Over 100 people complained about the programme.
Not: Above 100 people complained
Up

Up is an adverb, a preposition and an adjective.
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Up is the opposite of down. It refers to movement to a higher level.
Up as an adverb
We use up as an adverb to talk about movement towards a higher position, value, number or
level:
She put the books up on the highest shelf.
The good weather has pushed sales of summer clothes up.
We light the fire every night and that heats the room up.
Up as a preposition
We use up to talk about a higher position or movement to a higher position:
He was up a ladder painting.
My grandparents live just up the road.
I followed Vivian up the stairs, where there was a small dining room.
As we were climbing up the narrow mountain road, we could see the sea below.
Up as an adjective
We use up as an adjective usually to talk about increases in prices, levels or amounts:
The price of fuel is up again.
It was cold yesterday but the temperature is up today.
Spoken English:
In informal speaking, we say that something is up when something is wrong. We use the
phrase Whats up? to ask whats happening:
Katrina was in that morning. She noticed that something was up and she came over to see me.
Whats wrong? she asked. Nothing. Nothings wrong. Ive had rather a surprising piece of
news, thats all. Why, whats up?
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Up to with numbers
We use up to with numbers and amounts when we are being approximate. It means as much
as or not more than:
There were up to 100 guests at the wedding.
[Inspector Morse is a popular British TV detective series]
Behind each episode of Inspector Morse, theres a crew of up to 80 technicians who make the
gentleman detective look his best.
Over
We use over as a preposition and an adverb to refer to something at a higher position than
something else, sometimes involving movement from one side to another:
From the castle tower, you can see [PREP]over the whole city.
We toasted marshmallows [PREP]over the fire.
We drove high up [PREP]over the mountains on a narrow dangerous road.
Suddenly a plane flew [ADV]over and dropped hundreds of leaflets.
Come over often means to come to the speakers home:
You must come [ADV]over and have dinner with us some time.
Especially when we use them as adverbs, over can mean the same asacross:
We walked over to the shop. (or We walked across to the shop the shop is on the other side
of the road)
I was going across to say hello when I realised that I couldnt remember his name. (or I was
going over to say meaning to the other side of the street or room)
Across or through?
Movement
When we talk about movement from one side to another but in something, such as long grass
or a forest, we use through instead ofacross:
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I love walking through the forest. (through stresses being in the forest as I walk)
Not: I love walking across the forest.
When my dog runs through long grass, its difficult to find him. (throughstresses that the dog is
in the grass)
Not: When my dog runs across long grass
Time
When referring to a period of time from start to finish, American English speakers often
use through where British English speakers say from to/till :
The office is open Monday through Friday, 9 am5 pm. (preferred British form: from Monday to
Friday)
Warning:
We use over, not through, to refer to periods of time from start to finish when a number is
specified (of days, weeks, etc.):
Over the last few days, I have been thinking a lot about quitting my job.
Across, over and through: typical errors
When moving from one side to another while surrounded by something, we

use through not across:
We cycled through a number of small villages.
Not: We cycled across a number of small villages.
When we talk about something extending or moving from one side to another, we
use across not on:
The papers were spread across the table.
Not: The papers were spread on the table.
We dont use through when were talking about periods of time from start to finish and
we mention a specific number of days, weeks, etc:
We havent seen each other much over the last four years.
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Not: We havent seen each other much through the last four years.
(Across, over or through ? from English Grammar Today Cambridge University Press.)
In, into

In and into are prepositions.
In, into: position and direction

We use in to talk about where something is in relation to a larger area around it:
A:
Wheres Jane?
B:
Shes in the garden.
Ive left my keys in the car.
We use into to talk about the movement of something, usually with a verb that expresses
movement (e.g. go, come). It shows where something is or was going:
A:
Wheres Jane?
B:
Shes gone into the house.
Helen came into the room.
Compare
Shes gone for a walk in the garden.
She is in the garden walking.
She walked into the garden.
She entered the garden.
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With some verbs (e.g. put, fall, jump, dive) we can use either in or intowith no difference in
meaning:
Can you put the milk in/into the fridge?
Her keys fell in/into the canal.
Into: enthusiasm, interest

We use be into to express enthusiasm or strong interest for something:
Hes really into his work.
Im into classical music and Thai food.
Change into, turn into

We use into after verbs describing change:
Weve translated the course into six different languages.
She changed into her swimming costume and went for a swim.
They divided the cake into four pieces.
Not: They divided the cake in four pieces.
In: phrasal verbs

We use in to make a number of phrasal verbs:
I was feeling very tired and I couldnt really take in what she was saying.(understand)
Please call in and see us next time youre in the area. (visit us briefly)
A good learners dictionary will include the most common phrasal verbs with in.
Along or alongside?
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Along and alongside are prepositions or adverbs.
Along
As a preposition, along means in a line next to something long and thin, e.g. a road, a path:
There were lots of shops along the main street.
I saw three different boats along the bank of the river.
We use along as an adverb with verbs of motion meaning together with:
Why dont you come along with us to the party?
They said theyd bring the bikes along and we can ride to the swimming pool.
Alongside
As a preposition, alongside means close beside, next to or together with:
The trees alongside the fence have all been damaged by the wind.(near)
Put your bike alongside mine. (next to)
I find it difficult to cope with this illness alongside all my other problems.(together with)
We also use alongside as an adverb, meaning along the side of or next to something:
I parked my car in the drive and William parked his alongside.
pastpreposition, adverb
UK /pst/ US /pst/
past preposition, adverb (POSITION)

A2 in or to a position that is further than a particular point:I live on Station Road, just past
the post office.Three boys went past us on mountain bikes.Was that Peter who just jogged past
in those bright pink shorts?
More examples
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She walked right past me without noticing me.

As the battleship sailed past, everyone on deck waved.
Back in the 1960s he had hair down past his shoulders.
The police car drove past at a terrific speed.
The demonstrators formed a solid wall to stop the police from getting past them.
Thesaurus
past preposition, adverb (TIME)

used to say what the time is when it is a particularnumber of minutes after
an hour:It's five/ten/a quarter/twenty/twenty-five/half past three.I need to leave at twenty
past or I'll miss that train.
A1
above a particular age or further than a particular point:She's past the age where
she needs a babysitter.Do what you want, I'm past caring (= I don't care any longer).
B2
Thesaurus
Idioms
be past it
be past your sell-by date
More...
pastadjective
UK /pst/ US /pst/
past adjective (TIME BEFORE)

[before noun] used to refer to a period of time before and until
the present:The average temperature worldwide has risen by about
onedegree Fahrenheit in the past 100 years.I've been walking three miles a day for the past
30 years.He was the fifth climber to die on these mountains over the past
two days.In centuries/years past (= many centuries/years ago) even visitingthe
next village was considered a long journey.
B1
[before noun] having happened or existed before now:I know from past experience that
you can't judge byappearances.The prime minister's family have been instructed not
to discuss his past life with the press.
B1
[after verb] finished:I'm feeling much better now that the cold weather is past.
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More examples
Thesaurus
past adjective (GRAMMAR)

[before noun] language of the past tense:"Must" does not have a past form.
More examples
Grammar
Definite time in the pastWe use the past simple to refer to definite time in the past (when we
specify the time or how long) and usually with past time expressions such as yesterday, two
weeks ago, last year, in 1995:
Time up to nowWe use the present perfect to talk about time up to now, that is, events that took
place in the past but which connect with the present. The present perfect is often used with time
expressions which indicate time up to now, for example today, this year, in the last six
months:
More...
pastnoun [S]
UK /pst/ US /pst/
past noun [S] (TIME BEFORE)

B1 the period before and until, but not including, thepresent time:Evolution can explain the
past, but it can never predict the future.In the past, this sort of work was all done
by hand.By winning the 1500 metres, he joins some of the great names ofthe past.
a past
a part of someone's life in which they did unacceptableor dishonest things:He's a

man with a past.
past noun [S] (GRAMMAR)

language the form of a verb used to describe actions,events,
or states that happened or existed before thepresent time:The past of "change" is
"changed".
A2
Grammar
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Definite time in the pastWe use the past simple to refer to definite time in the past (when we
specify the time or how long) and usually with past time expressions such as yesterday, two
weeks ago, last year, in 1995:
Time up to nowWe use the present perfect to talk about time up to now, that is, events that took
place in the past but which connect with the present. The present perfect is often used with time
expressions which indicate time up to now, for example today, this year, in the last six
months:
PastThere are a number of ways of talking about the past:
More...
Prepositions of Time - at, in, on

We use:
at for a PRECISE TIME
in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
on for DAYS and DATES
at
PRECISE
TIME
in
MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and
LONG PERIODS
on
DAYS and DATES
at 3 o'clock
in May
on Sunday
at 10.30am
in summer
on Tuesdays
at noon
in the summer
on 6 March
at
dinnertime
in 1990
on 25 Dec. 2010
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at bedtime
in the 1990s
on Christmas Day
at sunrise
in the next century
on Independence
Day
at sunset
in the Ice Age
on my birthday
at the
moment
in the past/future
on New Year's Eve
Look at these examples:
I have a meeting at 9am.
The shop closes at midnight.
Jane went home at lunchtime.
In England, it often snows in December.
Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
Do you work on Mondays?
Her birthday is on 20 November.
Where will you be on New Year's Day?
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Expression
Example
at night
The stars shine at night.
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at the weekend*
I don't usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas*/Easter
I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time
We finished the test at the same time.
at present
He's not home at present. Try later.
*Note that in some varieties of English people say "on the weekend" and "on Christmas".
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
in
on
in the morning
on Tuesday morning
in the mornings
on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s)
on Sunday afternoon(s)
in the evening(s)
on Monday evening(s)
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
I went to London last June. (not in last June)
He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
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We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)
By

By is a preposition or an adverb.
By and time
We use by meaning not later than to refer to arrangements and deadlines:
They said that the plumber would be here by Monday.
The postman is always here by 11 am.
We use by the time, meaning when, to connect an action that has happened or will have
happened before a second action. The action that happened second comes after by the time:
By the time [action 2]you wake up, [action 1]Ill have finished work! (When you wake up, I will have
finished work)
Not: By the time you will wake up
Unfortunately the man had died by the time the ambulance arrived.(When the ambulance
arrived, the man had already died.)
See also:
Before, by, till, until
By and the passive

When we use the passive voice, we can use a phrase with by to say who did the action:
The new street was opened by the Mayor.
The wedding cake was made by Henrys mother.
See also:
Passives with an agent
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Passives without an agent
By meaning how to do something

We use by + -ing form to describe how to do something:
By pressing this button, you turn on the alarm system. Then by enteringthe code 0089, you
can turn it off again.
We use by + noun to describe how someone travels or communicates, or how things are
processed:
Ill send it by email; I can send it by post as well if you wish.
Can I pay by credit card?
We say by car, by bus, by plane, etc. but if there is a determiner (e.g.a/an, the, some, my, his)
before the noun, we say in or on.
Compare
We went by train to Pisa.

Its easier to get there by car.
by + mode of transport
Did you travel by plane?

Ill have to go on the 5 am train.
Barbara is travelling in Anns car.
on/in + determiner + mode of

transport
Have you ever travelled in a small

plane?
Warning:
When we walk, we say on foot:
It takes me just 20 minutes to get to work on foot.
Not: to get to work by foot.
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By + myself etc.
When we say by +
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself,ourselves, yourselves, themselves, it means
alone. We sometimes useall for emphasis:
They painted the whole house by themselves! (They did it alone.)
I was all by myself in the house last night but I didnt mind. (I was alone.)
Did you build that castle all by yourself? (Did you do it alone?)
See also:
Pronouns: reflexive (myself, themselves, etc.)
By and place
We use by to mean beside or at the side of:
Theres a lovely caf by the river. We could go there. (The caf is beside the river.)
By and near have a similar meaning but by refers to a shorter distance:
Compare
I live by a football stadium.
The stadium is beside my house.
I live near a football stadium. The stadium is in my neighbourhood.

We also use by to mean movement past something:
Three people walked by the house as Henry opened the door. (They walked past the house.)
By as an adverb is often used in this sense:
Lisa waved as she went by. (She passed the house without stopping.)
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By and measurements and amounts

We use by to talk about measurements, and increases and decreases in amounts:
My bedroom is just three metres by two metres! (three metres in one direction and two metres
in the other direction)
When you work part-time, you are usually paid by the hour.
The price of fuel has increased by 12% this year.
By meaning during
We sometimes use by + day and by + night to mean during the day or the night:
He works by night and sleeps by day.
By meaning written or composed

We use by when we talk about the writers of books, songs, poems, symphonies, etc.:
Whats the name of the latest song by U2?
This website makes works by Beethoven available free for downloading.
You will find other meanings of by in a good learners dictionary.
By: typical errors
We say by car, by bus, by plane etc. but if there is a determiner (e.g.a/an, the, some,
his), we say in or on:
They always travel on the bus.
Not: by the bus.
We use by, not with, to talk about the action of something:

He got into the house by breaking the window. (action)
Not: with breaking the window.
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We use with, not by, to refer to the object or instrument that we use to do something!
He broke the window with a rock. (object/instrument)
Not: by a rock.
On, onto
On and onto are prepositions.
We use on when we refer to a position on a surface (on the table, on the ocean, on the moon,
on the roof, on the bus):
Your keys are on the table.
The men were standing on the roof.
We use onto to talk about direction or movement to a position on a surface, usually with a verb
that expresses movement:
The cat climbed onto the roof.
She emptied the suitcase full of clothes onto the floor.
We use on to describe a position along a road or river or by the sea or by a lake:
The hotel is on the road opposite the beach.
They have a fabulous house on a lake in Ireland.
We use onto to describe movement towards an end position along a road or river:
The path leads onto the main road.
We use on or onto with very little difference in meaning to refer to attachment or movement of
something to something else. Onto gives a stronger feeling of movement:
Theres a battery pack with the camera that you can clip onto a belt.
You can save the data onto your hard disk.
Have you put the pictures on your memory stick?
With

With is a preposition.
With meaning in the same place as

With means in the same place as someone or something or accompanying:
She arrived with her boyfriend.
I dont like tea with milk.
There was a free phone with the car.
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With: reactions and feelings

With often follows adjectives which refer to reactions and feelings:
Are you happy with your music lessons?
The teacher got angry with them because they were behaving badly.
Im delighted with this new jacket.
With meaning using

We use with to refer to what we use to do something:
They opened the package with a knife.
Ill tie it with some tape to keep it closed.
He cleaned the table with a cloth he found in the kitchen.
With meaning having

We use with to mean having or possessing:
Its the house with the really big gates.
She woke with terrible toothache.
The Commonwealth Institute used to be a building with a very unusual roof in Kensington.
With meaning because of

Spoken English:
We use with to mean because of or as a result of. This is especially common in speaking:
With all this work, Id better stay in tonight.
I couldnt sleep with the noise of the traffic.
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With: other uses

With is used with the following words:
She made contact with Marina after ten years.
Not: She made contact Marina after ten years. or She made contact to Marina after ten years.
He always helped Xavier with the cooking.
Not: He always helped Xavier the cooking. or He always helped Xavier by the cooking.
The company provide us with a car and a uniform.
Not: The company provide us a car and a uniform.
My parents were strict with me when I was a child.
Not: My parents were strict to me when I was a child.
They agree/disagree with bullfighting. (They approve/disapprove of it)
Not: They agree/disagree to bullfighting.
Shes really good with computers.
Not: Shes really good in computers.
Communicating with new customers is important in my job.
Not: Communicating to new customers is important in my job.
We had some difficulties with the production of the manual.
Not: We had some difficulties to produce the manual.
Warning:
With often follows adjectives to describe feelings:

I was disappointed with the food.
Not: I was disappointed the food.
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Im so bored with this small town.

Not: Im so bored about this small town.
Warning:
But note that with is not used with married:

Brian is married to Helen, isnt he?
Not: Brian is married with Helen, isnt he?
Without

The preposition without means not having something or lacking something:
I cant drink tea without milk.
I found myself in a strange country, without money and with no one to turn to.
When without is followed by a singular countable noun, we use a/an:
Dont go out without a hat. Its very cold.
Not: Dont go without hat.
Without + -ing form can also mean if someone does not do something:
I couldnt get the picture out of the frame without breaking the glass. (if I did not break the
glass)
Typical errors
We dont omit the indefinite article a/an after without + singular countable noun:
How can you live without a telephone nowadays?
Not: without telephone
We dont use without to mean apart from or in addition to:
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Apart from my mother tongue, I can speak two other languages.
Not: Without my mother-tongue
Without has a negative meaning. We dont use another negative word immediately after
it:
The flight was delayed and we had to wait for five hours withoutanything to eat or drink.
Not: without nothing to eat or drink.
(Without from English Grammar Today Cambridge University Press.)
Hear or listen (to)?

Hearing is an event; it is something which happens to us as a natural process. Listening is an
action; it is something we do consciously.
Compare
hearing is an event.
Suddenly I heard a noise.
Someone was in the garden.
Did you hear the thunder last
night?
[on the phone]
The line is very bad. I
cant hearyou.
listening is an action.
I listened very carefully to what she

said and wrote it all down.
Do you listen to the radio in bed?
George! Listen to me! I have
something important to tell you.
Sometimes we can use either hear or listen to, depending on whether we want to emphasise the
event or the action:
Did you hear that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday?(emphasis on the event)
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Did you listen to that interview with David Beckham on the radio yesterday? (emphasis on the
action)
I love hearing/listening to the sound of falling rain.
We dont normally use hear in the continuous form. We often use hearwith can:
[on an internet phone call]
I can hear you really clearly.
Not: Im hearing you really clearly.
Warning:
We use to after listen before an object:

Every morning I listen to my Mozart CD while Im having breakfast. It prepares me mentally for
the day.
Not: Every morning I listen my Mozart CD
We use listen without to if we do not mention the object, or if it is a discourse marker:
Meena, listen! I dont want you staying out late!
Listen, I was wondering if you could help me. (discourse marker beginning a new topic or phase
of a conversation)
The music was beautiful. We just sat there and listened.
Look

We use the verb look to mean turn our eyes in a particular direction to see something. It is
followed by at to refer to the person or thing which we see:
Hes looking at me.
Not: Hes looking me.
Look, theres a massive spider!
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Dont look now.

[In a shop]
A:
Can I help you?

B:
No thank you, Im just looking.

Warning:
We dont use look with if or whether. We use see instead:

Can you see if there are any biscuits in the cupboard?
Not: Can you look if there are
Look is used to form a number of phrasal and prepositional verbs (look for, after, look up, etc.). A
good dictionary will give you information on these verbs.
See also:
Look at, see or watch?
Look as a linking verb

We often use look as a linking verb like appear, be, become, seem. As a linking verb, look does
not take an object and it is followed by a phrase or clause which gives more information about
the subject (a complement):
That picture looks old.
That jacket looks very expensive.
Look as a linking verb is sometimes followed by like, as if or as though:
look like + noun phrase

He looks like someone famous.
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It looks like a nice day outside.
look as if/as though + clause

She looks as if she is going to cry.
They looked as though they had seen a ghost.
See also:
Linking verbs
Look as a discourse marker

We sometimes use look as a discourse marker but it needs to be used carefully as it is very
strong. We use it when we are explaining something or making a point, especially when we are
annoyed or speaking very forcefully:
[in a political debate]
Look, too many people have died in this war.
[a boss talking to an employee]
Look, Mark, you have been late for work every day this week. Is there a reason?
Look at, see or watch?
Look at
When we look at something, we direct our eyes in its direction and pay attention to it:
[the speaker is sitting at her computer]
Come and look at this photo Carina sent me.
Look at the rabbit!
Warning:
25 | P a g e
When look has an object, it is followed by at:

Look at the rain. Its so heavy.
Not: Look the rain.
See
See means noticing something using our eyes. The past simple form issaw and the -ed form
is seen:
I saw Trevor at the shopping centre yesterday.
Has anyone seen my glasses?
Watch as a verb
Watch is similar to look at, but it usually means that we look at something for a period of time,
especially something that is changing or moving:
We watch television every evening.
I like to sit at the window to watch whats happening in the garden.
Warning:
We use see, not watch, when we talk about being at sports matches or public performances, such
as films, theatre and dramas. However, wewatch the television:
We saw a wonderful new film last night. Youll have to go and see it while its in the cinema.
Not: We watched Youll have to go and watch
Compare
I watched Phantom of the Opera last night

on DVD.
I was at home.
I saw Phantom of the Opera last night.
I was at a theatre or
26 | P a g e
cinema.
When we look at something for a long time, we use watch, not see.
Compare
We watched whales
jumping out of the water.
Watch focuses on the process of seeing: we

spent time looking at the whales.
See focuses more on the finished event. It

We saw whales jumping out
doesnt suggest that we spent much time
of the water.
looking at the whales.
Look at, see or watch: typical errors

When there is an object, we use at after look:
If you go for a walk by the river, you can look at the beautiful scenery.
Not: you can look the beautiful scenery.
We dont use watch to talk about things that we see without trying:
If you go to the forest, you might see some deer.

Not: you might watch some deer.
We dont use watch when referring to a film in the cinema:
A:
Were going to the cinema tonight.

B:
What are you going to see? (Not: What are you going to watch?)
A:
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Im not sure. I really want to see the new Rocky movie but Nancy said shes not interested in that.
Not: I really want to watch the new Rocky movie
We use watch, not see, when we refer to something on the television:
At night, I like to watch the television.

Not: I like to see the television.
Would
Would: form
Affirmative form
Would comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
Dad would sing to us every evening.
Would cannot be used with another modal verb:
When Tracy opened the door, she thought she would find an empty room.
Not: she thought she would might find an empty room. or she thought she might would
find an empty room.
Negative form
The negative form of would is wouldnt. We dont use dont, doesnt, didntwith would:
There wouldnt be any food in the house.
Not: There didnt would be any food in the house.
We use the full form would not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasise something:
28 | P a g e
Your father would not approve.
The subject and would change position to form questions. We dont usedo, does, did:
Would that be a good idea?
Not: Does this would that be a good idea?
Wouldnt that be a good idea?
We can use would and wouldnt in question tags:
She wouldnt be any help, would she?
They would enjoy that, wouldnt they?
Would: uses
Requests
We often use would to make requests. It is a more polite and indirect form of will.
Compare
Will you make dinner?
direct
Would you make dinner?
less direct
See also:
Would or will?
Conditional sentences
We often use would (or the contracted form d) in the main clause of a conditional sentence
when we talk about imagined situations:
If we had left earlier, we would have been able to stop off for a coffee on the way.
29 | P a g e
If we went to Chile, wed have to go to Argentina as well. Id love to see both.
See also:
Conditionals
Habitual actions in the past

We use would to refer to typical habitual actions and events in the past. This is usually a formal
use and it often occurs in stories (narratives):
I had a friend from Albany, which is about 36 miles away, and we wouldmeet every Thursday
morning and she would help us.
Then he would wash; then he would eat his toast; then he would read his paper by the bright
burning fire of electric coals.
Warning:
We cant use would in this way to talk about states. In these cases, we say used to instead
of would:
I used to live in Melbourne when I was a kid.
Not: I would live in Melbourne when I was a kid.
See also:
Used to
Talking about the future in the past

We use would to talk about the future in the past. The speaker looks forward in time from a point
in the past (underlined below):
When I was young I thought that in years to come I would be really tall.
When I broke my leg, I thought I would never dance again.
Reported clauses
We use would as the past form of will in reported clauses.
30 | P a g e
statement with will
reported
Ill pay for the food, said

Tom.
Tom said that he would pay for the food.
Weather forecast:
There will be clear skies in
the morning but it will be
cloudy for the afternoon.
The weather forecast said that

there wouldbe clear skies in the
morning but that itwould be cloudy for
the afternoon.
See also:
Would or will?
Reported speech
Willingness in the past

We use would to talk about willingness in past time situations. We usually use the negative
form wouldnt in this case:
The CD wasnt working so I brought it back to the shop but they wouldntgive me my money
back because they said the box had already been opened.
Being less direct

We often use would with verbs such as advise, imagine, recommend, say, suggest, think to
make what we say less direct.
advise
Id advise you to keep working on your grammar.
imagine
Id imagine it cant be easy for you.
recommen
Id recommend that you try this size. (formal)
d
31 | P a g e
say
Id say you are about 40.
suggest
Wed suggest that you take this route. Its more scenic.
(formal)
think
Its much further than Dublin, I would think.
Would or will?
We can use would as a more formal or polite alternative to will in requests. We often use the
phrase would you mind + -ing in polite requests.
Compare
Will you give me a wake-up call at 7 Would you mind giving me a

am, please?
wake-up call at 7 am, please?
Will you excuse me just one second?
Would you excuse me just one

second?
Using would makes the request

more formal and polite.
Will and would can both refer to willingness. We use will for present and future time and would,
usually in the negative, for past time:
John will carry your suitcase. Its far too heavy for you. (present)
The taxi driver wouldnt take more than four in the car. (past)
Warning:
There are a number of phrases with would where will cannot be used:
Would you like your steak well cooked?
Not: Will you like your steak well cooked?
32 | P a g e
Would you mind introducing me to him?
Not: Will you mind introducing me to him?
Would you rather pay by credit card?
Not: Will you rather pay by credit card?
Should
Should: forms
Affirmative form
Should comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
I should go home now.
Should cannot be used with another modal verb:
It should probably be sunny at that time of year.
Not: It should may be sunny or It may should be sunny
Negative form
The negative form of should is shouldnt. We dont use dont, doesnt, didnt with should:
There shouldnt be many people at the beach today.
We use the full form should not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasis something:
We should not forget those who have given their lives in the defence of freedom.
33 | P a g e
See also:
Modal verbs
Question form
The subject and should change position to form questions.
Warning:
We dont use do, does, did:

Should I turn on the air conditioning?
Not: Do I should I turn on the air conditioning?
Shouldnt you be studying now?
We use should and shouldnt in question tags:
I shouldnt have told her that, should I?
They should be getting back on Sunday, shouldnt they?
Should: uses
What is ideal or desired
We use should most commonly to talk about what is the ideal or best thing to do in a situation:
There should be more public hospitals.
They should reduce the price of petrol. Its so expensive.
There should be four more candles on the cake.
We use should have + -ed form to talk about things that were ideal in the past but which didnt
happen. It can express regret:
Everyone knows that this is a busy restaurant. They should have madea reservation.
I should have studied harder when I was young. I wish I had gone to college.
34 | P a g e
Advice and suggestions

We often use should to give advice and make suggestions:
You should tell him what you think.
We should leave it until tomorrow; its late now.
See also:
Suggest
Suggestions
What is likely to happen

We also use should to talk about what is likely to happen:
Shall we start? Lukes delayed but he says he should be here in ten minutes.
There should be a very big crowd at the party. Mary has so many friends.
Conditional sentences
Warning:
We sometimes use should in hypothetical conditional clauses with if to express possibility. It is

formal:
[information leaflet in a hotel room]
If you should wish to use the Internet, there is a code available at the reception desk.
If you should decide not to go on the trip, you will get a full refund.
If
Conditionals
If + should
35 | P a g e
Warning:
We can also use Should you as an alternative to If you should in these situations by changing the
order of the subject and the verb. Compare these two sentences with the examples above. They
have the same meaning and they are also formal:
Should you wish to use the Internet, there is a code available at the reception desk.
Should you decide not to go on the trip, you will get a full refund.
Thanking
Spoken English:
In speaking, we often say you shouldnt have when someone gives us a gift:
A:
I got you something from Texas. A cowboy hat.

B:
Oh Ken, you shouldnt have!
Surprise or regret
We sometimes use should to express surprise or regret about something that happened:
Im amazed that he should have done something so stupid.
Im sorry that he should be so upset by what I said.
Should and would

We use should as a more formal alternative to would with I and we in conditional clauses.
Compare
formal
neutral
I/We should love to meet her again I/We would love to meet her again
36 | P a g e
formal
neutral
if I/we had a chance.
if I/we had a chance.
We use should as a more formal alternative to would when we want to be less direct.
Compare
formal
neutral
I should think that a lot of people

will be interested.
I would think that a lot of people

will be interested.
Should and ought to

Should and ought to have similar meanings and uses. Ought to is more formal and less common
than should:
We should clean up the garden.
We ought to clean up the garden.
Should is much more common in negatives and questions than ought to:
Should we keep a seat for Margaret? (more common than Ought we to keep a seat ?)
He shouldnt speak to his parents in that way. (more common than He oughtnt/ought not to
speak
Neither, neither nor and not either
Neither as a determiner
Neither allows us to make a negative statement about two people or things at the same
time. Neither goes before singular countable nouns. We use it to say not either in relation to
two things. Neither can be pronounced /na(r)/ or /ni:(r)/.
37 | P a g e
Neither parent came to meet the teacher. (The mother didnt come and the father didnt come.)
Neither dress fitted her. (There were two dresses and not one of them fitted her.)
We use neither of before pronouns and plural countable nouns which have a determiner (my,
his, the) before them:
Neither of us went to the concert.
Neither of the birthday cards was suitable.
Spoken English:
In formal styles, we use neither of with a singular verb when it is the subject. However, in
informal speaking, people often use plural verbs:
Neither of my best friends was around.
Neither of them were interested in going to university.
In speaking, we can use neither on its own in replies when we are referring to two things that
have already been mentioned:
A:
Mike, which would you prefer, tea or coffee?
B:
Neither thanks. Ive just had a coffee.
Neither nor
We can use neither as a conjunction with nor. It connects two or more negative alternatives.
This can sound formal in speaking:
Neither Brian nor his wife mentioned anything about moving house.(Brian didnt mention that
they were moving house and his wife didnt mention that they were moving house.)
Neither Italy nor France got to the quarter finals last year.
The less formal alternative is to use and not either:
Italy didnt get to the quarter finals last year and France didnt either.
38 | P a g e
See also:
Not either
Not with neither and nor

When a clause with neither or nor is used after a negative clause, we invert the subject and the
verb after neither and nor:
He hadnt done any homework, neither had he brought any of his books to class.
We didnt get to see the castle, nor did we see the cathedral.
See also:
Conjunctions
Neither do I, Nor can she

We use neither and nor + auxiliary/modal verb + subject to mean also not:
A:
I hate snakes. I cant even look at a picture of a snake.
B:
Neither can I.
Not: I cant also.
A:
Jacqueline doesnt drive.
B:
Nor does Gina.
Not: Gina doesnt also.
See also:
So am I, so do I, Neither do I
39 | P a g e
Not either
We can use not either to mean also not, but we do not change the word order of the
auxiliary or modal verb and subject:
A:
I havent ever tasted caviar.
B:
I havent either. (or Neither have I./Nor have I.)
A:
I didnt see Lesley at the concert.
B:
I didnt either. (or Neither did I./Nor did I.)
In informal speaking, we often say me neither:
A:
I cant smell anything.
B:
Me neither. (or I cant either.)
Neither: typical errors
We use neither, not none, when we are talking about two people or things:
Books and television are different. Neither of them should replace the other.
Not: None of them
We dont normally use both (of) + not to make a negative statement about two people or
things:
Neither of these shirts is/are dry yet.
40 | P a g e
Not: Both of these shirts arent dry yet.
Take care to spell neither correctly: not niether or neighter.
Both

We use both to refer to two things or people together:
Both those chairs are occupied, Im afraid. (The two chairs are occupied.)
Are both your parents going to Chile? (Are your mother and father going to Chile?)
Both with nouns

When we use both before a determiner (e.g. a/an, the, she, his) + noun,both and both of can be
used:
She knew both my children. (or both of my children.)
Both her brothers are living in Canada. (or Both of her brothers )
We can use both before a noun:
This button starts both engines at the same time. (or both of the engines )
Are both cats female?
Both with pronouns

Pronoun + both
We can use both after a subject pronoun or an object pronoun:
We both prefer classical music.
Lets open them both now.
41 | P a g e
Both of + object pronoun

When we use both as part of a subject or object which is a pronoun, it may be followed by of +
an object pronoun:
We both dislike soap operas. (subject pronoun + both) or Both of usdislike soap operas.
(both + of + object pronoun)
She looked at both of us.
We usually use both of + object pronoun after prepositions:
He shouted at both of them. (preferred to He shouted at them both.)
Thatll be so nice for both of you. (preferred to Thatll be so nice for you both.)
Both as a pronoun
We can use both on its own as a pronoun:
There are two youth hostels in the city. Both are described as expensive, dirty, with poor lighting
and poor security.
Applicants for this course must speak French or German, preferablyboth.
Both: position
If both refers to the subject of a clause, we can use it in the normal mid position for adverbs,
between the subject and main verb, after a modal verb or the first auxiliary verb, or after be as a
main verb:
They both wanted to sell the house. (between the subject and the main verb)
They had both been refused entry to the nightclub. (after the first auxiliary or modal verb)
They were both very nice, kind and beautiful. (after be as a main verb)
Not: They both were very nice
See also:
42 | P a g e
Adverbs
Both in short answers

We use both on its own in short answers:
A:
Would you like something to drink?

B:
A coffee and a tea, please.

A:
Both?
B:
Yeah, one for me and one for Brenda. Shes joining us in a minute.
A:
Are you working on Monday or Wednesday next week?

B:
Both!
Not: The both.
Both of or neither of in negative clauses

We usually use neither of rather than both of not in negative clauses:
Neither of them can swim. (preferred to Both of them cant swim.)
Neither of my brothers lives at home any more. (preferred to Both of my brothers dont live at
home any more.)
43 | P a g e
When a negative verb is used, we use either (of). In informal speaking, we often use a plural verb
after either, even though it is a singular word:
She didnt like either dress. (She looked at two dresses.)
A:
Are Yvonne and Lesley both coming?

B:
We dont know if either of them are coming. (or, more formally, if either of them is coming.)
See also:
Either
Both and as a linking expression

We use both and to emphasise the link between two things. This makes a stronger connection
than and alone:
Both Britain and France agree on the treaty. (stronger link than Britain and France agree on the
treaty.)
She played both hockey and basketball when she was a student.(stronger link than She played
hockey and basketball when she was a student.)
See also:
Conjunctions
Both: typical errors
We dont use both with a negative verb; we use either instead:

There was not a considerable difference in percentages for either sex in terms of having a
Bachelors degree.
Not: There was not a considerable difference in percentages for both sex.
When we use the verb be as a main verb, both comes after the verb:
44 | P a g e
These films are both famous with people of all ages

Not: These films both are famous
Such
Such as a determiner
We can use such (as a determiner) before a noun phrase to add emphasis:
We visited such fascinating places on our trip through central Asia.
She has such lovely hair.
She lived in such loneliness. (formal)
We use such before the indefinite article, a/an:
We had such an awful meal at that restaurant!
Not: We had a such awful meal
Such meaning of this or that kind

In more formal situations, we can use such to mean of this or that kind. We can use it
before a/an or after expressions like the only, the first, the second:
You must not destroy peoples houses. I could never agree to such a plan. (a plan of that kind)
A college is offering a degree in pop music composition. It is the onlysuch course in the
country. (the only course of that kind)
Such that
We can use a that-clause after a noun phrase with such:
He is such a bad-tempered person that no one can work with him for long.
It was such a long and difficult exam that I was completely exhausted at the end.
45 | P a g e
As

As is a preposition or a conjunction.
As as a preposition
We use as with a noun to refer to the role or purpose of a person or thing:
I worked as a waiter when I was a student. Most of us did.
Not: I worked like a waiter
[The Daily Telegraph is a British newspaper]
The Daily Telegraph appointed Trevor Grove as its Sunday editor.
Internet shopping is seen as a cheaper alternative to shopping on the high street.
A sarong is essential holiday gear. It can be used as a beach towel, wrap, dress or scarf and
will take up no space in your bag.
Warning:
We dont use as + noun to mean similar to. We use like + noun:
Its almost like a real beach, but its actually artificial.
Not: Its almost as a real beach
I would like to have a white cat like the one in my dream.
Not: as the one in my dream
See also:
Like
46 | P a g e
As as a conjunction
The conjunction as has several different meanings. We use as when one event happens while
another is in progress (during the time that). In this case the verb after is often in the
continuous form:
They arrived as we were leaving. (time conjunction meaning while or when)
We use as to connect a result with a cause:
I went to bed at 9 pm as I had a plane to catch at 6 am. (reason and result meaning because)
We also use as to mean in the way that:
As the forecast predicted, the weather was dreadful for the whole of the weekend.
She arrived early, as I expected.
The same as
We use as with the same to talk about identical things:
Your jacket is the same colour as mine.
See also:
Same, similar, identical
As: simultaneous changes

We use as to introduce two events happening at the same time. After aswith this meaning, we
usually use a simple (rather than continuous) form of the verb:
As the show increases in popularity, more and more tickets are sold daily.
Compare
When you get older, moving

house gets harder.
One thing happens first and as a result

the second thing is true.
As you get older, moving house The two things happen at the same
47 | P a g e
gets harder.
time.
Not: While you get older
Warning:
We dont use as alone to introduce examples. We say such as:
They gave them gifts such as flowers and fruit and sang a special welcome song.
Not: gifts as flowers
So
So + adjective (so difficult), so + adverb (so slowly)

We often use so when we mean to such a great extent. With this meaning, so is a degree adverb
that modifies adjectives and other adverbs:
Using that camera is easy. Why is she making it so difficult?
Why is she so untidy?
Im sorry Im walking so slowly. Ive hurt my ankle.
It doesnt always work out so well.
We also use so as an intensifier to mean very, very:
That motorway is so dangerous. Everyone drives too fast.
Thats kind of you. Thanks so much for thinking of us.
We often use so with that:
Hes so lazy that he never helps out with the housework.
48 | P a g e
It was so dark (that) we could hardly see.

We dont use so before an adjective + a noun (attributive adjective). We use such:
She emailed us such lovely pictures of her and Enzo.
Not: so lovely pictures
We use such not so to modify noun phrases:
She is such a hard-working colleague.
Not: so a hard-working colleague.
Its taken them such a long time to send the travel brochures.
Not: so a long time
See also:
Such
So much and so many

We use so before much, many, little and few:
There were so many people on the beach it was difficult to get into the sea.
There are so few people who know what it is like in our country for other people from different
cultures.
Youve eaten so little and Ive eaten so much!
We use so much, not so, before comparatives:
I feel so much better after Ive been for a run in the park.
Not: I feel so better
My house is so much colder than yours.
49 | P a g e
So as a substitute form
So substituting for an adjective
In formal contexts we can use so instead of an adjective phrase after a verb:
The bus service was very unreliable when I was young and it remains soeven today. (It remains
very unreliable )
She is very anxious. Shes been so since the accident. (Shes been very anxious since the
accident.)
More so, less so

When we are comparing, we use more so and less so as substitutes:
The kitchen is very old-fashioned, the living room more so. (The living room is more oldfashioned than the kitchen.)
My old office was very dark; my new office less so. (My new office is less dark than my old
office.)
So as substitute
With some verbs, we often use so instead of repeating an object clause, especially in short
answers:
A:
Will Megan be at the meeting today?

B:
I think so. (I think Megan will be at the meeting today.)

The next train is going to be half an hour late. They told me so when I bought my ticket. (They
told me (that) the next train is going to be half an hour late.)
See also:
So and not with expect, hope, think, etc.
50 | P a g e
So with reporting verbs

Spoken English:
Especially in speaking, we sometimes use so in front position in short responses with reporting
verbs such as believe, say, tell, hear, read:
Shes the most popular singer. So everybody says, anyway.
A:
Janet got the job.

B:
So I heard. (I heard that Janet got the job.)

A:
The Council has given planning permission for another shopping centre in the city.
B:
So I read in the paper. (I read that the Council has given planning permission for another
shopping centre.)
So am I, so do I, Neither do I
We use so with be and with modal and auxiliary verbs to mean in the same way, as well or
too. We use it in order to avoid repeating a verb, especially in short responses with pronoun
subjects. When we use so in this way, we invert the verb and subject, and we do not repeat the
main verb (so + verb [= v] + subject [= s]):
Not only but also

We use not only X but also Y in formal contexts:
The war caused not only destruction and death but also generations of hatred between the
two communities.
The car not only is economical but also feels good to drive.
This investigation is not only one that is continuing and worldwide but also one that we expect
to continue for quite some time.
We can sometimes leave out also:
I identified with Denzel Washington not only as an actor but as a person.
51 | P a g e
To add emphasis, we can use not only at the beginning of a clause. When we do this, we invert
the subject and the verb:
Not only was it raining all day at the wedding but also the band was late.
Not only will they paint the outside of the house but also the inside.
When there is no auxiliary verb or main verb be, we use do, does, did:
Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didnt even apologise for forgetting it.
Yet

Yet is an adverb or conjunction.
Yet as an adverb
We use yet as an adverb to refer to a time which starts in the past and continues up to the
present. We use it mostly in negative statements or questions in the present perfect. It usually
comes in end position:
Kevin hasnt registered for class yet.
I havent finished my breakfast yet.
Has she emailed you yet?
Warning:
We dont use yet to refer to something that has happened. We usealready:
Shes booked the flights already.
Not: Shes booked the flights yet.
We dont use yet to talk about events that are continuing:
Elizabeth is still living in Manchester. Shes not moving to London till next month.
Not: Elizabeth is living yet or Elizabeth is yet living
Yet with negative statements

When we use yet in negative statements, it shows that an event is expected to happen in the
future:
52 | P a g e
Jason hasnt phoned yet. (I am expecting him to phone.)
I havent seen Who Framed Roger Rabbit yet. (I am expecting to see this film.)
Yet with questions

When we use yet in an affirmative question, it shows that the speaker is expecting something to
happen:
Is he home yet? (I expect that he will be home at some point.)
Has your passport arrived yet? (I expect that your passport will arrive in the post.)
Negative questions with yet can express an even stronger expectation that something will
happen. When we ask this type of question, we expect a negative answer:
Hasnt Richard arrived yet? (I strongly expect that he should have arrived.)
Havent you done your driving test yet? (I feel you should have done your driving test by now.)
Yet with affirmative statements

When we use yet in affirmative statements, it shows that a situation is continuing, even when we
might expect it not to continue:
Theres plenty of time yet. (even though you dont think so)
Weve got a lot more work to do yet. (even though you think we have finished)
Yet with superlatives

We often use yet after superlatives:
His latest film is his best yet. (The film is the best one he has made up to now.)
Two hours and 15 minutes thats Joness fastest marathon yet!
Yet as a conjunction
Yet as a conjunction means but or nevertheless. We use it to show contrast. It often occurs
after and:
So many questions and yet so few answers.
53 | P a g e
It felt strange and yet so wonderful to ski in the summer!
Yet for emphasis

We use yet for emphasis, with a meaning similar to even, especially
before more, another and again:
The cook arrived with yet another plate of cake.
The printers broken down yet again! (It has broken down many times before.)
As yet
As yet means up to now, but the situation will definitely change. We only use it in negative
contexts:
The film shows you the most typical places, as yet untouched by tourism, and how to get there.
Have yet to and be yet to

We use have yet to and be yet to in more formal contexts. We use them to refer to events which
are necessary or which must happen at some time, but which have not happened at the time of
speaking:
The price of the tickets for the concert has yet to be decided. (The price will be decided.)
The President and her husband are yet to arrive. (The President and her husband will arrive.)
Other, others, the other oranother?
Other
Other means additional or extra, or alternative, or different types of.
Other as a determiner
We can use other with singular uncountable nouns and with plural nouns:
The embassy website has general information about visas. Other travel information can be
obtained by calling the freephone number. (additional or extra information)
54 | P a g e
Some music calms people; other music has the opposite effect. (different types of music)
What other books by Charles Dickens have you read, apart from Oliver Twist? (additional or
extra books)
This ones too big. Do you have it in other sizes? (alternative sizes)
If we use other before a singular countable noun, we must use another determiner before it:
I dont like the red one. I prefer the other colour.
Not: I prefer other colour.
Jeremy is at university; our other son is still at school.
He got 100% in the final examination. No other student has ever achieved that.
Theres one other thing we need to discuss before we finish.
Warning:
Other as a determiner does not have a plural form:
Mandy and Charlotte stayed behind. The other girls went home.
Not: The others girls
See also:
Determiners (the, my, some, this)
Other as a pronoun
We can use other as a pronoun. As a pronoun, other has a plural form,others:
We have to solve this problem, more than any other, today.
Ill attach two photos to this email and Ill send others tomorrow.
The other
The other as a determiner
55 | P a g e
The other with a singular noun means the second of two things or people, or the opposite of a
set of two:
This computer here is new. The other computer is about five years old.
A:
Dyou know the Indian restaurant in Palmer Street?
B:
Yes.
A:
Well, the gift shop is on the other side of the street, directly opposite. (the opposite side)
The other with a plural noun means the remaining people or things in a group or set:
Joel and Karen are here, but where are the other kids? (the remaining people in a group)
Where are the other two dinner plates? I can only find four. (the remaining things in a set here
six plates)
The other as a pronoun

We can use the other as a pronoun, especially to refer back to something which has been
mentioned already in the sentence:
He had his hat in one hand and a bunch of flowers in the other.
She has two kittens, one is black and the other is all white.
Another
When we use the indefinite article an before other, we write it as one
word: another. Another means one more or an additional or extra, or an alternative or
different.
Another as a determiner
We use another with singular nouns:
Would you like another cup of coffee?
56 | P a g e
Youve met Linda, but I have another sister who you havent met, called Margaret.
I dont like this place. Is there another caf around here we could go to?(alternative or different)
Another as a pronoun
We can use another as a pronoun:
The applications are examined by one committee, then passed on toanother.
Other, others, the other or another: typical errors
When other is a determiner, it does not have a plural form:

These boxes are for books. The other boxes are for clothes.
Not: The others boxes
When other as a pronoun refers to more than one person or thing, it takes the plural
form, others:
Some scientists think we should reduce the number of flights to prevent global
warming; others disagree.
Not: other disagree.
Other must have a determiner before it when it comes in front of a singular countable
noun. If the noun is indefinite (e.g. a book, a woman, an idea), we use another:
Ive posted the first package. What shall I do with that other package?
Not: What shall I do with other package?
After a month in Bolivia, I was ready to move to another country.
Not: to move to other country.
We write another as one word:

There is another car park a little further down the same street.
57 | P a g e
Not: There is an other car park
Another is singular. We dont use it with plural nouns:

Other interesting places to visit include the old harbour and the castle.
Not: Another interesting places to visit
Much, a lot, lots, a good deal: adverbs

We use much, a lot, lots and a good deal as adverbs to refer to frequency, quantity and degree.
Much
We use much in questions and negative clauses to talk about degrees of something. We put it in
end position:
I dont like the sea much.
Warning:
We dont use much in affirmative clauses:

I hadnt seen my mother for a month. Id missed her a lot.
Not: Id missed her much.
In informal styles, we often use much in questions and negative clauses to mean very often:
Do you see Peter much?
I havent played tennis much this year.
In formal styles, we use much as an intensifier meaning really with verbs that express likes and
dislikes:
He much enjoyed his week in the 5-star hotel.
Thank you for your help. It was much appreciated.
58 | P a g e
Very much
We often use very much as an intensifier in affirmative and negative clauses and questions:
[in a formal letter]
Please find attached my report. I very much welcome your comments.
Is she very much like her father?
Warning:
With the verb like we dont put very much between the verb and its object:
I like comedy films very much.
Not: I like very much comedy films.
Too much, so much

We often use too much to mean an excessive amount, more than enough:
He talks too much.
You worry too much.
We can also use so much to mean to a large degree or a large amount or a lot:
Shes changed so much. I hardly recognised her.
Ive eaten so much.
See also:
Too
So
A lot, a good deal and a great deal

We can use a lot, a good deal and a great deal as adverbs of frequency, quantity or degree:
59 | P a g e
A:
Have you ever been to Brosh?

B:
Actually we go there a lot.

Im really hungry now. I didnt have a lot for breakfast.
A good deal and a great deal are more formal than a lot.
She always worries a great deal.
She always worries a lot.
Could
Could: form
Affirmative (+) form
Could comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another verb):
We could have lunch early.
Could cannot be used with another modal verb:
We could drive to France
Not: We could might drive to France. or We might could drive to France.
Negative () form
The negative form of could is couldnt. We dont use dont/doesnt/didntwith could:
He couldnt lift that. Its too heavy.
60 | P a g e
Not: He didnt could lift that
We can use the full form could not in formal contexts or when we want to emphasise something:
Fabio was frightened. He could not move his arm. It was stuck.
Question (?) form

The subject and could change position to form questions. We dont usedo/does/did:
Could I pay by credit card?
Not: Do I could pay by credit card?
We use could and couldnt in question tags:
I could come back tomorrow, couldnt I?
Could: uses
Possibility
We often use could to express possibility in the present and the future.
Compare
Its blue.
It could be blue. (present)
I am certain that it is blue. Its a

Im not certain that it is blue.
fact.
The storm will get worse.
The storm could get worse. (future)
Im certain that the storm will

get worse.
Im not certain that the storm will get

worse.
See also:
Can: uses
Suggestions
61 | P a g e
We often use could to make suggestions:
A:
Wills party is fancy-dress.
B:
Its Halloween.
C:
Oh right. I could go as Julius Caesar.
B:
Again? How many times have you done that?
A:
Ive got to be in the meeting at 10 and the train doesnt get in until 10.15.
B:
Could you get an earlier train?
Permission
We use could to ask for permission. Could is more formal and polite thancan:
Could I ask you a personal question?
Warning:
We dont use could to give or refuse permission. We use can:
A:
Could I leave early today?
B:
Yes, you can./No, you cant.
Not: Yes, you could./No, you couldnt.
62 | P a g e
See also:
Can
Could: past
We dont usually use could to talk about single events that happened in the past.
Past achievement
When actual past achievements are mentioned, we usually use was/were able to or managed
to but not could in affirmative clauses. This is because they are facts, rather than possibilities:
I was able to/managed to buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes.
Not: I could buy a wonderful bag to match my shoes.
We hired a car and we were able to/managed to drive 1,000 miles in one week.
Not: We hired a car and we could drive 1,000 miles in one week.
Ability
We use could to talk about past ability:
When I was young, I could easily touch my toes.
Possibility
We use could have + -ed form to talk about possibility in the past:
I could have been a lawyer.
They could have taken a taxi home instead of walking and getting wet.
Janette couldnt have done any better.
Guessing and predicting: couldnt as the negative ofmust

When we want to guess or predict something, we use couldnt as the negative form of must. We
use couldnt have + -ed form as the negative form of must have + -ed. Couldnt and couldnt
have + -ed form express strong possibility:
She must have made a mistake. It couldnt be true.
63 | P a g e
A firework couldnt have done all that damage.
See also:
Can
Could + smell, taste, think, believe, etc.

We use could to refer to single events that happened in the past, with verbs of the senses
(smell, taste, see, hear, touch, etc.) and mental processes
(think, believe, remember, understand etc.):
The food was terrible. I could taste nothing but salt.
We knew they were in there. We could hear voices inside.
He came and spoke to me, but I couldnt remember his name.
See also:
Be able to
Reporting can
We use could when reporting clauses with can as past events:
They told us we could wait in the hallway. (The original words were probably: You can wait in
the hallway.)
She said we could book the tickets online. (The speaker remembers hearing You can book the
tickets online.)
Criticism
We often use could have + -ed form to express disapproval or criticism:
You could have called to say you would be late. (You didnt call I think you should have
called.)
You could have tidied your room.
Regret
64 | P a g e
We use could have + -ed form to talk about things that did not happen and sometimes to
expresses regret:
He could have been a doctor.
I could have been famous.
We often use the expression how could you/she/he/they? to show disapproval (to show that we
dont like what someone has done):
Grandfather, how could you? How could you leave me?
How could you have gone without telling me?
A:
We had to give away our dog when we moved to England.
B:
Oh, how could you?
Use of simple past and simple present perfect

In British English, the use of Simple Past and Present Perfect is quite strict. As soon as
a time expression in the past is given, you have to use Simple Past. If there are no
signal words, you must decide if we just talk about an action in the past or if its
consequence in the present is important.
Note that the following explanations and exercises refer to British English only. In
American English, you can normally use Simple Past instead of Present Perfect. We
cannot accept this in our exercises, however, as this would lead to confusions amongst
those who have to learn the differences.
Certain time in the past or just / already / yet?
Do you want to express that an action happened at a certain time in the past (even if it
was just a few seconds ago) or that an action has just / already / not yet happened?
65 | P a g e
Simple Past
Present Perfect Simple
certain time in the past
just / already / not yet

Example:
I phoned Mary 2 minutes ago.
Example:
I have just phoned Mary.
Certain event in the past or how often so far?

Do you want to express when a certain action took place or whether / how often an
action has happened till now?
Simple Past
certain event in the past
whether / how often till now

Example:
He went to Canada last summer.
Example:
Have you ever been to Canada? / I have been to
Canada twice.
Emphasis on action or result?

Do you just want to express what happened in the past? Or do you want to emphasise
the result (a past action's consequence in the present)?
Simple Past
Emphasis on action
Emphasis on result
Example:
Example:
I bought a new bike.(just telling
I have bought a new bike. (With this sentence I actually
what I did in the past.)
want to express that I have a new bike now.)
66 | P a g e
Signal Words
Simple Past
yesterday
just
... ago
already
in 1990
up to now
the other day
until now / till now
last ...
ever
(not) yet
so far
lately / recently
Simple
Present
A: He speaks.
N: He does not
speak.
Q: Does he
speak?
action in the present taking

place once, never or several
times
facts
always, every , never,

normally, often, seldom,
sometimes, usually
if sentences type I (If
Italk, )
actions taking place one after

another
action set by a timetable or

schedule
Present
Progressive
Simple Past
A: He is
speaking.
N: He is not
speaking.
Q: Is he
speaking?
A: He spoke.
N: He did not
speak.
Q: Did he
speak?
action taking place in the

moment of speaking
at the moment, just, just

now, Listen!, Look!, now,
right now
action taking place only for a

limited period of time
action arranged for the future
action in the past taking

placeonce, never or several
times
actions taking place one after

another
action taking place in the

middle of another action
yesterday, 2 minutes ago,

in 1990, the other day,
last Friday
if sentence type II (If
Italked, )
67 | P a g e
Past
Progressive
A: He was
speaking.
N: He was not
speaking.
Q: Was he
speaking?
action going on at a certain
when, while, as long as
time in the past

actions taking place at the
same time
action in the past that is
interrupted by another action
Present
Perfect
Simple
A: He has
spoken.
N: He has not
spoken.
Q: Has he
spoken?
putting emphasis on
the result
action that is still going on
action that stopped recently
finished action that has an
already, ever, just, never,

not yet, so far, till now,
up to now
influence on the present
action that has taken place

once, never or several times before
the moment of speaking
Present
Perfect
Progressive
A: He has been
speaking.
N: He has not
been speaking.
Q: Has he been
speaking?
putting emphasis on
the course or duration (not the
all day, for 4 years, since

1993, how long?, the
whole week
result)
action that recently stopped
or is still going on
finished action that influenced
the present
Past Perfect
Simple
A: He had
spoken.
N: He had not
spoken.
Q: Had he
spoken?
action taking place before a

sometimes interchangeable
already, just, never, not

yet, once, until that day
if sentence type III (If
Ihad talked, )
with past perfect progressive
putting emphasis only on

thefact (not the duration)
Past Perfect
Progressive
A: He had been
speaking.
N: He had not
been speaking.
Q: Had he been
speaking?

sometimes interchangeable
with past perfect simple
putting emphasis on
for, since, the whole day,

all day
68 | P a g e
theduration or course of an
action
Future I
Simple
A: He will
speak.
N: He will not
speak.
Q: Will he
speak?
action in the future that

cannot be influenced
spontaneous decision
assumption with regard to the
in a year, next ,
tomorrow
If-Satz Typ I (If you ask
her, she will help you.)
assumption: I think,
probably, perhaps
future
Future I
Simple
(going to)
Future I
Progressive
A: He is going
to speak.
N: He is not
going to speak.
Q: Is he going
to speak?
A: He will be
speaking.
N: He will not
be speaking.
Q: Will he be
speaking?
in one year, next week,

tomorrow
conclusion with regard to the

future
action that is going on at a

certain time in the future
in one year, next week,

tomorrow
action that is sure to happen

in the near future
Future II
Simple
A: He will have
spoken.
N: He will not
have spoken.
Q: Will he have
spoken?
Future II
Progressive
A: He will have
been speaking.
N: He will not
have been
speaking.
Q: Will he have
been speaking?
Conditional I A: He would
Simple
speak.
N: He would
not speak.
Q: Would he
speak?
decision made for the future
action that will be finished at
by Monday, in a week
a certain time in the future

certain time in the future
for , the last couple of

hours, all day long
putting emphasis on
the courseof an action
action that might take place
if sentences type II
(If I were you, I would
go home.)
69 | P a g e
Conditional I A: He would be
Progressive speaking.
N: He would
not be
speaking.
Q: Would he be
speaking?
Conditional
II Simple
A: He would
have spoken.
N: He would
not have
spoken.
Q: Would he
have spoken?
Conditional
II
Progressive
A: He would
have been
speaking.
N: He would
not have been

speaking.
Q: Would he
have been
speaking?
action that might take place

putting emphasis on
the course/ duration of the action
action that might have taken

place in the past
if sentences type III

(If I had seen that,
Iwould have helped.)
action that might have taken

place in the past
puts emphasis on
the course /duration of the action
PREPOSITIONS:
LOCATORS IN
TIME AND PLACE
Select from the follow ing
Aprepositiondescribesarelationshipbetweenotherwordsinasentence.In
itself,awordlike"in"or"after"israthermeaninglessandhardtodefineinmere
words.Forinstance,whenyoudotrytodefineaprepositionlike"in"or"between"or
"on,"youinvariablyuseyourhandstoshowhowsomethingissituatedinrelationship
tosomethingelse.Prepositionsarenearlyalwayscombinedwithotherwordsin
structurescalledprepositionalphrases.Prepositionalphrasescanbemadeupofa
milliondifferentwords,buttheytendtobebuiltthesame:aprepositionfollowedby
70 | P a g e
adeterminerandanadjectiveortwo,followedbyapronounornoun(called
theobjectofthepreposition).Thiswholephrase,inturn,takesonamodifyingrole,
actingasanadjectiveoranadverb,locatingsomethingintimeandspace,modifying
anoun,ortellingwhenorwhereorunderwhatconditionssomethinghappened.
Considertheprofessor'sdeskandalltheprepositionalphraseswecanusewhile
talkingaboutit.
You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when
he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk orbeneath the
desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the
desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the
desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his
hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and
speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk.
Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk,
what's in the desk, what he paid for the desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can
walk toward the desk, to the desk, around the desk, bythe desk, and even past the desk while
he sits at the desk or leans against the desk.
All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the
class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad
mood[another adverbial construction].
Thosewordsinboldbluefontareallprepositions.Someprepositionsdootherthings
besideslocateinspaceortime"Mybrotherislikemyfather.""Everyoneinthe
classexceptmegottheanswer."butnearlyallofthemmodifyinonewayor
another.Itispossibleforaprepositionphrasetoactasanoun"Duringachurch
serviceisnotagoodtimetodiscusspicnicplans"or"IntheSouthPacificiswhereI
longtobe"butthisisseldomappropriateinformaloracademicwriting.
ClickHEREforalistofcommonprepositionsthatwillbeeasytoprintout.
You may have learned that ending a sentence with
a preposition is a serious breach of grammatical
etiquette. It doesn't take a grammarian to spot a
sentence-ending preposition, so this is an easy rule
to get caught up on (!). Although it is often easy to
remedy the offending preposition, sometimes it isn't,
and repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy
sentence. "Indicate the book you are quoting from" is
not greatly improved with "Indicate from which book
you are quoting."
71 | P a g e
Based on shaky historical precedent, the rule itself is

a latecomer to the rules of writing. Those who dislike
the rule are fond of recalling Churchill's rejoinder:
"That is nonsense up with which I shall not put." We
should also remember the child's complaint: "What
did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to
out of up for?"
Isitanywonderthatprepositionscreatesuchtroublesforstudentsforwhom
Englishisasecondlanguage?Wesayweareatthehospitaltovisitafriendwho
isinthehospital.Welieinbedbutonthecouch.Wewatchafilmatthetheater
butontelevision.Fornativespeakers,theselittlewordspresentlittledifficulty,buttry
tolearnanotherlanguage,anyotherlanguage,andyouwillquicklydiscoverthat
prepositionsaretroublesomewhereveryouliveandlearn.Thispagecontainssome
interesting(sometimestroublesome)prepositionswithbriefusagenotes.Toaddress
allthepotentialdifficultieswithprepositionsinidiomaticusagewouldrequire
volumes,andtheonlywayEnglishlanguagelearnerscanbegintomasterthe
intricaciesofprepositionusageisthroughpracticeandpayingcloseattentionto
speechandthewrittenword.Keepingagooddictionarycloseathand(tohand?)isan
importantfirststep.
Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

Weuseattodesignatespecifictimes.
Thetrainisdueat12:15p.m.
Weuseontodesignatedaysanddates.
MybrotheriscomingonMonday.
We'rehavingapartyontheFourthofJuly.
Weuseinfornonspecifictimesduringaday,amonth,aseason,orayear.
Shelikestojoginthemorning.
It'stoocoldinwintertorunoutside.
Hestartedthejobin1971.
He'sgoingtoquitinAugust.
Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in
72 | P a g e
Weuseatforspecificaddresses.
GrammarEnglishlivesat55BoretzRoadinDurham.
Weuseontodesignatenamesofstreets,avenues,etc.
HerhouseisonBoretzRoad.
Andweuseinforthenamesoflandareas(towns,counties,states,countries,and
continents).
ShelivesinDurham.
DurhamisinWindhamCounty.
WindhamCountyisinConnecticut.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on

and No Preposition
IN
(the) bed*
the bedroom
the car
(the) class*
the library*
school*
AT
class*
home
the library*
the office
school*
work
ON
the bed*
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
NO
PREPOSITI
ON
downstairs
downtown
inside
outside
upstairs
uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.
Prepositions of Movement: to
and No Preposition
Weusetoinordertoexpressmovementtowardaplace.
Theyweredrivingtoworktogether.
She'sgoingtothedentist'sofficethismorning.
Towardandtowardsarealsohelpfulprepositionstoexpressmovement.Theseare
simplyvariantspellingsofthesameword;usewhicheversoundsbettertoyou.
We'removingtowardthelight.
Thisisabigsteptowardstheproject'scompletion.
73 | P a g e
Withthewordshome,downtown,uptown,inside,outside,downstairs,upstairs,we
usenopreposition.
Grandmawentupstairs
Grandpawenthome.
Theybothwentoutside.
Prepositions of Time: for and since

Weuseforwhenwemeasuretime(seconds,minutes,hours,days,months,years).
Heheldhisbreathforsevenminutes.
She'slivedthereforsevenyears.
TheBritishandIrishhavebeenquarrelingforsevencenturies.
Weusesincewithaspecificdateortime.
He'sworkedheresince1970.
She'sbeensittinginthewaitingroomsincetwothirty.
Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

Prepositionsaresometimessofirmlyweddedtootherwordsthattheyhave
practicallybecomeoneword.(Infact,inotherlanguages,suchasGerman,they
wouldhavebecomeoneword.)Thisoccursinthreecategories:nouns,adjectives,and
verbs.
NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS

approval of
awareness of
belief in
concern for
confusion about
desire for
fondness for
grasp of
hatred of
hope for
interest in
love of
ADJECTIVES and
PREPOSITIONS
afraid of
angry at
aware of
fond of
happy about
interested in
proud of
similar to
sorry for
need for
participation in
reason for
respect for
success in
understanding of
74 | P a g e
capable of
jealous of
careless about made of
familiar with
married to
sure of
tired of
worried about
VERBS and PREPOSITIONS

apologize for
ask about
ask for
belong to
bring up
care for
find out
give up
grow up
look for
look forward to
look up
make up
pay for
prepare for
study for
talk about
think about
trust in
work for
worry about
Acombinationofverbandprepositioniscalledaphrasalverb.Thewordthatis
joinedtotheverbisthencalledaparticle.Pleaserefertothebriefsectionwehave
preparedonphrasalverbsforanexplanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
agreetoaproposal,withaperson,onaprice,inprinciple
argueaboutamatter,withaperson,fororagainstaproposition
comparetotoshowlikenesses,withtoshowdifferences(sometimessimilarities)
correspondtoathing,withaperson
differfromanunlikething,withaperson
liveatanaddress,inahouseorcity,onastreet,withotherpeople
Unnecessary Prepositions
Ineverydayspeech,wefallintosomebadhabits,usingprepositionswherethey
arenotnecessary.Itwouldbeagoodideatoeliminatethesewordsaltogether,butwe
mustbeespeciallycarefulnottousetheminformal,academicprose.
Shemetupwiththenewcoachinthehallway.
75 | P a g e
Thebookfelloffofthedesk.
Hethrewthebookoutofthewindow.
Shewouldn'tletthecatinsideofthehouse.[oruse"in"]
Wheredidtheygoto?
Putthelampinbackofthecouch.[use"behind"instead]
Whereisyourcollegeat?
Prepositions in Parallel Form

(ClickHEREforadefinitionanddiscussionofparallelism.)Whentwowordsor
phrasesareusedinparallelandrequirethesameprepositiontobeidiomatically
correct,theprepositiondoesnothavetobeusedtwice.
Youcanwearthatoutfitinsummerandinwinter.
Thefemalewasbothattractedbyanddistractedbythemale'sdance.
However,whentheidiomaticuseofphrasescallsfordifferentprepositions,wemust
becarefulnottoomitoneofthem.
Thechildrenwereinterestedinanddisgustedbythemovie.
Itwasclearthatthisplayercouldbothcontributetoandlearnfromeverygamehe
played.
Hewasfascinatedbyandenamoredofthisbeguilingwoman.
Of
Of is a preposition.
Of commonly introduces prepositional phrases which are complements of nouns, creating the
pattern: noun + of + noun. This pattern is very common, especially to indicate different parts,
pieces, amounts and groups:
Lima is the capital of Peru.
Twenty-four-hour TV news makes sure we all know the main events ofthe day.
Would you like some more pieces of toast?
We also commonly use of as a preposition after different adjectives (afraid of, generous of,
proud of) and verbs (approve of, dream of, think of):
I never thought she could take a flight on her own at her age. I feel very proud of her.
Best of luck with the interview tomorrow. Well be thinking of you.
We use the structure determiner + of + noun in expressions of quantity:
76 | P a g e
Most of the new workers in the country are from Turkey.
Some of my best friends are computer scientists.
Of is optional with all, both, half except before the object pronouns me, you, it, him, her, us,
them:
Both (of) the finance ministers have decided to resign.
All of them will be able to travel on the bus.
Not: All them will be able to
OF
Of - Possession
Of is mainly used as a possessive. For example,
He's a friend of mine.
The color of the house is red.
It is important to remember that it is more common to use the possessive 's' or the possessive
adjective in English, than to use 'of' - even if 'of' is grammatically correct. Thus, the sentences
above would generally be in these forms:
He's my friend.
The house's color is red.
Common Phrases with 'Of' - All of / Both of
Of is also commonly used with 'all' and 'both' to describe a common trait that many objects share.
For example,
All of the students in the class enjoy volleyball.
Both of the assignments are due at the end of the week.
Common Phrases with 'Of' - One of the most ...
Another common phrase with of is 'one of the + superlative form + plural noun + singular verb'.
This phrase is commonly used to focus on a specific object that stands our from a group. Notice
that although the plural noun is used, the singular phrase takes the singular conjugation of the
verb because the subject is 'One of the ...'. For example,
One of the most interesting things about my job is the people I meet.
One of the most difficult subjects for me is math.
FROM
From - Origins
77 | P a g e
From is generally used to express that something originates from something else, that something
comes from somewhere, or some person. For example,
Jack comes from Portland.
This formula derives from the work of Peter Schimmel.
This pearl comes from the South Pacific.
From - To / From - Until
From can also be used with the prepositions 'to' and 'until' to mark the beginning and ending
point of time of an action or state. Generally, 'from ... to' is used with past tenses, while 'from ...
until' is used when speaking about future actions. However, 'from ... to' can be used in most
situations. For example,
I played tennis from two until four in the afternoon yesterday.
We are meeting in Chicago from Monday until Thursday.
About

About is a preposition or an adverb.
About as a preposition
The most common meaning of about as a preposition is on the subject of or connected with:
Do you know anything about cricket?
Im very worried about my brother. Hes not well.
About is not as specific as on.
Warning:
There are some words we use with about:
complain, concern, excited, happy and worry:
He never complains about the pain.
Everybody was very concerned about the accident.
78 | P a g e
Im very excited about coming to France and I cant wait to see you.
Im very happy about my trip.
Please dont worry about me.
Warning:
There are some words we dont use with about:
aware, consider, description, discuss, experience and mention:
Shes not aware of the rules of the road.
Have you considered changing your career?
Can you give us a description of the bag?
Lets discuss the new schedule.
They have no experience of looking after children.
She didnt mention where the keys were.
ZERO CONDITIONAL
FORM
In zero conditional sentences, the tense in both parts of the sentence is the simple present.
If clause (condition)
Main clause (result)
If + simple present
simple present
If this thing happens
that thing happens.
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As in all conditional sentences, the order of the clauses is not fixed. You may have to rearrange the
pronouns and adjust punctuation when you change the order of the clauses, but the meaning is identical.
In zero conditional sentences, you can replace "if" with "when", because both express general truths. The
meaning will be unchanged.
EXAMPLES
If you heat ice, it melts.
Ice melts if you heat it.
When you heat ice, it melts.
Ice melts when you heat it.
If it rains, the grass gets wet.
The grass gets wet if it rains.
When it rains, the grass gets wet.
The grass gets wet when it rains.
FUNCTION
The zero conditional is used to make statements about the real world, and often refers to general truths,
such as scientific facts. In these sentences, the time is now or always and the situation is real and
possible.
EXAMPLES
If you freeze water, it becomes a solid.
Plants die if they don't get enough water.
If my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.
If public transport is efficient, people stop using their cars.
If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
The zero conditional is also often used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main clause.
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TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple present, and the tense in the
main clause is the simple future.
If + simple present
simple future
If this thing happens
that thing will happen.
EXAMPLES
If it rains, you will get wet.
You will get wet if it rains.
If Sally is late again I will be mad.
I will be mad if Sally is late again.
If you don't hurry, you will miss the bus.
You will miss the bus if you don't hurry.
FUNCTION
The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its probable result. These sentences are based
on facts, and they are used to make statements about the real world, and about particular situations. We
often use such sentences to give warnings. In type 1 conditional sentences, the time is the present or
future and the situation is real.
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EXAMPLES
If I have time, I'll finish that letter.
What will you do if you miss the plane?
Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.
If you drop that glass, it will break.
If you don't drop the gun, I'll shoot!
If you don't leave, I'll call the police.
In type 1 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of the future tense to
express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES
If you drop that glass, it might break.
I may finish that letter if I have time.
If he calls you, you should go.
If you buy my school supplies for me, I will be able to go to the park.
TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main
clause is the present conditional or thepresent continuous conditional.
If + simple past
present conditional or present continuous conditional
If this thing happened
that thing would happen.
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EXAMPLES
If it rained, you would get wet.
You would get wet if it rained.
If you went to bed earlier you wouldn't be so tired.
You wouldn't be so tired if you went to bed earlier.
If she fell, she would hurt herself.
She would hurt herself if she fell.
FUNCTION
The type 2 conditional refers to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result. These
sentences are not based on the actual situation. In type 2 conditional sentences, the time is now or any
time and the situation is hypothetical.
EXAMPLES
If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park. (But the weather is bad so we can't go.)
If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone a chicken. (But I am not the Queen.)
If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring.
If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her.
It is correct, and very common, to say "if I were" instead of "if I was" (subjunctive mood).
EXAMPLES
If I were taller, I would buy this dress.
If I were 20, I would travel the world.
If I were you, I would give up smoking.
If I were a plant, I would love the rain.
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In type 2 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of "would" to express
the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES
We might buy a larger house if we had more money
He could go to the concert if you gave him your ticket.
If he called me, I couldn't hear.
THE PRESENT CONDITIONAL TENSE

The present conditional of any verb is composed of two elements:
would + the infinitive of the main verb, without "to"
Subject
+ would
+ infinitive
He
would
go
They
would
stay
TO GO: PRESENT CONDITIONAL

Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
Interrogativ
I would go
I wouldn't go
Would I go?
Wouldn't I go?
You would go
You wouldn't go
Would you go?
Wouldn't you
He would go
He wouldn't go
Would he go?
Wouldn't he g
She would go
She wouldn't go
Would she go?
Wouldn't she
We would go
We wouldn't go
Would we go?
Wouldn't we g
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Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
Interrogativ
They would go
They wouldn't go
Would they go?
Wouldn't they
TYPE 3 CONDITIONAL
FORM
In a Type 3 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in the main
clause is the perfect conditional or theperfect continuous conditional.
If + past perfect
perfect conditional or perfect continuous conditional
If this thing had happened
that thing would have happened.
EXAMPLES
If it had rained, you would have gotten wet.
You would have gotten wet if it had rained.
You would have passed your exam if you had worked harder.
If you had worked harder, you would have passed your exam.
I would have believed you if you hadn't lied to me before.
If you hadn't lied to me before, I would have believed you.
FUNCTION
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The type 3 conditional refers to an impossible condition in the past and its probable result in the past.
These sentences are truly hypothetical and unreal, because it is now too late for the condition or its result
to exist. There is always some implication of regret with type 3 conditional sentences. The reality is the
opposite of, or contrary to, what the sentence expresses. In type 3 conditional sentences, the time is
the past and the situation ishypothetical.
EXAMPLES
If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam. (But I didn't work hard, and I didn't pass
the exam.)
If I had known you were coming I would have baked a cake. (But I didn't know and I didn't bake a
cake.)
I would have been happy if you had called me on my birthday. (But you didn't call me and I am
not happy.)
In type 3 conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of "would" to express
the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES
If I had worked harder I might have passed the exam.
You could have been on time if you had caught the bus.
If he had called you, you could have gone.
If you bought my school supplies for me, I might be able to go to the park.
CONTRACTIONS
Both would and had can be contracted to 'd, which can be confusing if you are not confident with type 3
conditional sentences. Remember 2 rules:
1. would never appears in the if-clause so if 'd appears in the if clause, it must be abbreviating had.
2. had never appears before have so if 'd appears on a pronoun just before have, it must be
abbreviating would.
EXAMPLES
If I'd known you were in hospital, I'd have visited you.
If I had known you were in hospital, I would have visited you.
I'd have bought you a present if I'd known it was your birthday.
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I would have bought you a present if I had known it was your birthday.
If you'd given me your e-mail, I'd have written to you.
If you had given me your e-mail, I would have written to you.
THE PERFECT CONDITIONAL TENSE

The perfect conditional of any verb is composed of three elements:
would + have + past participle
Have followed by the past participle is used in other constructions as well. it is called the "perfect
infinitive".
Subject
+ would
+ have
+ past participle
He
would
have
gone
They
would
have
stayed
TO GO: PERFECT CONDITIONAL

Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
Interroga
I would have gone
I wouldn't have gone
Would I have gone?
Wouldn't
You would have gone
You wouldn't have gone
Would you have gone?
Wouldn't
He would have gone
He wouldn't have gone
Would he have gone?
Wouldn't
She would have gone
She wouldn't have gone
Would she have gone?
Wouldn't
We would have gone
We wouldn't have gone
Would we have gone?
Wouldn't
They would have gone
They wouldn't have gone
Would they have gone?
Wouldn't
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MIXED CONDITIONAL
It is possible for the two parts of a conditional sentence to refer to different times, and the resulting
sentence is a "mixed conditional" sentence. There are two types of mixed conditional sentence.
PRESENT RESULT OF A PAST CONDITION

FORM
In this type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the past perfect, and the tense in
the main clause is the present conditional.
If + past perfect
present conditional
If this thing had happened
that thing would happen.
EXAMPLES
If I had worked harder at school, I would have a better job now.
I would have a better job now if I had worked harder at school.
If we had looked at the map we wouldn't be lost.
We wouldn't be lost if we had looked at the map.
If you had caught that plane you would be dead now.
You would be dead now if you had caught that plane.
FUNCTION
This type of mixed conditional refers to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.
These sentences express a situation which is contrary to reality both in the past and in the present. In
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these mixed conditional sentences, the time is the past in the "if" clause and in the presentin the main
clause.
EXAMPLES
If I had studied I would have my driving license. (but I didn't study and now I don't have my
license)
I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job. (but I didn't take the job and I'm not a
millionaire)
If you had spent all your money, you wouldn't buy this jacket. (but you didn't spend all your money
and now you can buy this jacket)
In these mixed conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of would to
express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.
EXAMPLES
If you had crashed the car, you might be in trouble.
I could be a millionaire now if I had invested in ABC Plumbing.
If I had learned to ski, I might be on the slopes right now.
PAST RESULT OF PRESENT OR CONTINUING

CONDITION
FORM
In this second type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the
tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional.
If + simple past
perfect conditional
If this thing happened
that thing would have happened.
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EXAMPLES
If I wasn't afraid of spiders, I would have picked it up.
I would have picked it up if I wasn't afraid of spiders.
If we didn't trust him we would have sacked him months ago.
We would have sacked him months ago if we didn't trust him.
If I wasn't in the middle of another meeting, I would have been happy to help you.
I would have been happy to help you if I wasn't in the middle of another meeting.
FUNCTION
These mixed conditional sentences refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) pas
result. In these mixed conditional sentences, the time in the if clause is now or always and the time in the
main clause is before now. For example, "If I wasn't afraid of spiders" is contrary to present reality. I am
afraid of spiders. "I would have picked it up" is contrary to past reality. I didn't pick it up.
EXAMPLES
If she wasn't afraid of flying she wouldn't have travelled by boat.
I'd have been able to translate the letter if my Italian was better.
If I was a good cook, I'd have invited them to lunch.
If the elephant wasn't in love with the mouse, she'd have trodden on him by now.
Conditionals
A conditional sentence is a sentence containing the word if. There are three
common types* of conditional sentence:
1. if clause > present simple tense : main clause > future tense (will)
o
If you help me, I will help you.
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o
If I win the lottery, I will buy a new car.
If it snows tomorrow, we will go skiing.
2. if clause > past simple tense : main clause > would

o
If you knew her, you would agree with me.
If I won the lottery, I would buy a new car.
If it snowed tomorrow, we would go skiing.
3. if clause > past perfect tense : main clause > would have
o
If you had helped me, I would have helped you.
If I had won the lottery, I would have bought a new car.
If it had snowed yesterday, we would have gone skiing.
Of course, it is possible to start conditional sentences with the main clause:
I will buy a new car if I win the lottery.
I would buy a new car if I won the lottery.
I would have bought a new car if I had won the lottery.
English speakers choose one of the three conditional structures as follows:

1. Conditional one - to express a simple statement of fact or intent
o
I will buy a new car if I win the lottery.
I will go home if you don't stop criticizing me.
You will fail your exams if you don't start working harder.
She will lose all her friends if she continues to talk about them behind
their backs.
2. Conditional two - to refer to a present unreal situation or to a situation in the

future that the speaker thinks is unlikely to happen
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o
If I had a lot of money, I would buy a new car. (but I don't have a lot
of money)
If I were you, I would tell him you're sorry. (but I am not you)
If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house. (but I don't expect to
win the lottery)
If it snowed tomorrow, we would go skiing. (but I don't have much

hope that it will snow)
3. Conditional three - to refer to the past and situations that did not happen
o
If it had snowed yesterday, we would have gone skiing. (but it didn't

snow, so we didn't go skiing)
If you had studied harder, you would have passed your test. (but you
didn't study hard, so you didn't pass your test)
If I had known that, I would have told you. (but I didn't know, so I
didn't tell you)
If she hadn't been driving slowly, she would have had an accident.
(but she was driving slowly, so she didn't have an accident)
* Note: The way native speakers of English express conditions (use ifclauses) is much more varied than the 3 rigid combinations of tenses
exemplified on this page. Learners should consult a good grammar reference
work for a deeper understanding of this complex aspect of English grammar.

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We dont use over to mean higher level.

from English Grammar Today

Up is the opposite of down. It refers to movement to a higher level.

Across, over and through: typical errors

When moving from one side to another while surrounded by something, we

from English Grammar Today

In, into: position and direction

Shes gone for a walk in the garden.

She is in the garden walking.

She walked into the garden.

She entered the garden.

Into: enthusiasm, interest

Change into, turn into

In: phrasal verbs

from English Grammar Today

past preposition, adverb (POSITION)

She walked right past me without noticing me.

past preposition, adverb (TIME)

past adjective (TIME BEFORE)

past adjective (GRAMMAR)

past noun [S] (TIME BEFORE)

a part of someone's life in which they did unacceptableor dishonest things:He's a

past noun [S] (GRAMMAR)

Prepositions of Time - at, in, on

at for a PRECISE TIME

in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS

on for DAYS and DATES

in the next century

in the Ice Age

on New Year's Eve

Look at these examples:

I have a meeting at 9am.

The shop closes at midnight.

Jane went home at lunchtime.

In England, it often snows in December.

Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?

There should be a lot of progress in the next century.

Do you work on Mondays?

Her birthday is on 20 November.

Where will you be on New Year's Day?

The stars shine at night.

I don't usually work at the weekend.

I stay with my family at Christmas.

at the same time

We finished the test at the same time.

He's not home at present. Try later.

I went to London last June. (not in last June)

He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)

I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)

We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

from English Grammar Today

Before, by, till, until

By and the passive

Passives with an agent

Passives without an agent

By meaning how to do something

We went by train to Pisa.

Did you travel by plane?

on/in + determiner + mode of

Have you ever travelled in a small

Pronouns: reflexive (myself, themselves, etc.)

I live by a football stadium.

The stadium is beside my house.