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Reverse link operations

In contrast to the forward link of the IS-856, which had very little similarity
with IS-2000 system, the reverse link of IS-856 system is quite similar to the
reverse link of IS-2000.
IS-856 and IS-2000 reverse link operation similarities:
power control and soft handoff supported

BPSK modulation on I & Q carrier to reduce peak to average ratio

distinct user PN sequence for source ID

data rates from 9.6 to 153.6 Kbps

transmits pilot and data channels

IS-856 only reverse link operations:

transmits MAC and ACK channels

MAC information

reverse rate indicator (RRI)

data rate control (DRC)

Reverse direction user traffic

Reverse traffic flow travels from the user through the radio access network to
the packet data network/internet. An example of this is when a user is uploading a file to the internet or sending an email. Please see Figure 14,
Reverse direction traffic on page 48 for a diagram of reverse traffic flow
through a CDMA2000 1xEV-DO network.
Figure 14
Reverse direction traffic
Reverse Direction Traffic
Packet
Data
Network
PDSN
Carrier's
Private Data
Network
DO--RNC
DO

Metro Cell
BTS

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Reverse channel structure

In the reverse direction (access terminal to the access network), if the access
terminal is not on the traffic channel (connected), it uses access channel to
access the system. The access and traffic channels are code-multiplexed,
where one or more channels are Walsh-spread simultaneously. Figure 15
depicts the structure of the reverse channel.
Figure 15
Reverse channels
Reverse Channel Structure

Access

Pilot

Traffic

Data

Medium
Access
Control

Pilot

Reverse
Rate
Indicator

ACK

Data

Date
Rate
Control

Figure 16 displays the reverse channel structure and the channels transmitted
in both the connected and idle state.

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Figure 16
Reverse channel structure

Reverse Channel Structure

Access
Terminal

Idle state
Access Channel
Data
Pilot
Channel Channel

Access
Terminal

Connected state
Traffic Channel
Pilot
MAC
ACK
Data
Channel Channel Channel Channel

Metro Cell
BTS

In access channel mode, the access terminal is idle and transmits pilot and
data channels (please see Figure 17, Access channel on page 52 for more
information). The pilot channel is transmitted for preamble purposes as well
as for time synchronization. The data channel carries any common channel
control messages from access terminal when access terminal is not in
connected state (does not have a dedicated channel). While transmitting data
channels, the access terminal also transmits pilot channels continuously.
In the traffic channel mode, the access terminal is in the connected state and
transmits the following channels:
Pilot channel: Again, the purpose of pilot channel transmission is similar
as above. It provides time synchronization to the receiver and enables
coherent demodulation by the receiver.

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Medium access channel: Here, the access terminal transmits the reverse
rate indicator (RRI) to notify the receiver of the rate of transmission. This
way, the receiver does not have to execute any rate matching algorithms.
In addition, the access terminal also sends the data rate control (DRC)
information, which is the requested forward data rate from a selected
sector.

ACK channel: The access terminal performs a physical layer

acknowledgment procedure and sends ACK (acknowledgment) or NAK
(negative acknowledgment) for each physical layer slot received.

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Data channel: The data channel in traffic channel mode carries both the
user traffic and dedicated control messages. The data rate of this channel
varies from 9.6 to 153.6 Kbps.

Reverse channel usage

Once the access terminal in a CDMA2000 1xEV-DO system completes the
initialization process, it is either in idle (not connected) state and monitoring
the forward control channel or is in connected state and monitoring both
forward traffic and control channels. While the access terminal is in idle state,
since there is no traffic channel allocated to the access terminal, the access
terminal uses the access channel (pilot and data channels) to communicate
with the access network. In this situation, it uses open loop power control and
access probe mechanism similar to IS-95/IS-2000 to communicate with
access network. When the access terminal is in connected state, the access
terminal uses traffic channel and sends pilot, ACK, MAC and data to the
access network and the transmit power of access terminal is controlled by the
access network.
Access mechanism
The access channel is used by the access terminal to initiate communication
with the access network or to respond to an access terminal directed message.
The access channel consists of a pilot channel and a data channel.
On the access channel, the access terminal sends a series of access probes
until it receives a response from the access network and the timer expires. An
access probe consists of a preamble followed by one or more access channel
physical layer packets. During the preamble transmission, only the pilot
channel is transmitted. During the access channel physical layer packet
transmission, both the pilot channel and the data channel are transmitted.
The output power of the pilot channel during the preamble portion of an
access probe is higher than it is during the data portion of the probe by an
amount such that the total output power of the preamble and data portions of
the access probe are the same. Please see Figure 17, Access channel on page
52 for more information.

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Figure 17
Access channel

Transmit power

Access mechanism

Data (Q)
Pilot (I)

Pilot (I)

Preamble
Frame

Access
Captule

Time

Note: The access channel physical layer packets are transmitted at a fixed
data rate of 9.6 Kbps.
Access channel structure
The access channel has two component channels: pilot and data. The pilot
channel is purely for time synchronization for the receiver and so it does not
have any real information bits. Since all 0s are sent on the pilot channel, there
is no need for data protection. However, it is orthogonally spread with W0 in
order to send it simultaneously with the data channel.
The data channel is transmitted at the fixed rate of 9.6 Kbps. It is
appropriately coded using turbo coding (coding rate of ) block interleaving
and repetition, followed by orthogonal spreading using 4-bit Walsh code W2.
Finally, the relative gain (relative to pilot channel) is applied before both the
pilot and data channels are applied access channel specific long PN sequence.
Reverse traffic channel
In the reverse link, the IS-856 traffic channel is composed of the following
channels: pilot, MAC, ACK and data. These channels are mapped to I and Q
channel and quadrature spread using long PN sequence. This long PN
sequence is generated using a user specific long code mask, which in turn, is
generated using assigned UATI.
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On the pilot channel, the reverse rate indicator bits are time-multiplexed with
the pilot bits and they are spread using 16 bit Walsh code W0. This forms one
of the inputs to the I-channel. The ACK channel is protected with repetition
followed by spreading with 8-bit Walsh code W4.
The data rate control (DRC) bits are also encoded and repeated for proper
data protection. These bits are spread using 16-bit Walsh cover W8. The data
bits are transmitted at rates that vary from 9.6 Kbps to 153 Kbps. These bits
are protected (encoded, interleaved and repeated) to form symbols at the rate
of 307.4 Kbps. These symbols are then spread using 4-bit Walsh code W2.
The ACK, DRC and data channels are applied appropriate gain relative to the
pilot channel and then are quadrature spread using a user specific long code.
This completes the physical layer base-band processing of the reverse traffic
channel.
Reverse rate indicator
The reverse rate indicator (RRI) channel is used by the access terminal to
indicate the data rate at which the data channel is transmitted. This avoids the
complexity of rate matching algorithm at the access network. The data rate is
represented by a 3-bit RRI field (000 for data rate 0 to 101 for 153.6 kbps).
This 3-bit symbol is sent to the access network on the reverse traffic channel
for every physical layer packet (at every 26.67 ms or every 16 slots). This
three bit RRI is first encoded and then repeated to generate 256 binary
symbols. These symbols are then time-multiplexed with the pilot channel
symbols (ratio of 1:7) and span the same time interval as the corresponding
physical layer packet (please see Figure 18).
Figure 18
Reverse rate indicator

Reverse Rate Indicator (RRI)

256
chips

Pilot

RRI

1 slot (1.67 ms) = 2048 chips

These time-division multiplexed pilot and RRI channels symbols are spread
with the 16-bit Walsh code that produces 256 chips in every slot. The RRI
chips are time-division multiplexed in the first 256 chips of every slot.
When no physical layer packet is transmitted on the reverse traffic channel,
the access terminal selects RRI = 000 to indicate data rate of 0 kbps. The RRI

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bits are not transmitted on the access channel since the access channel
transmission is at the fixed rate of 9.6 Kbps.
Reverse ACK channel
In IS-856, acknowledgment is provided at the physical layer. This provides
quick response from the receiver (access terminal) to the transmitter (access
network). The access network transmits the physical layer packet with proper
data protection. This involves some amount of repetition as well. The entire
packet may be split into one or more (up to 16) slots.
If the physical layer packet is split into more than one slot, then these slots,
instead of transmitting in consecutive slots, are transmitted in multi-slots that
are separated by exactly four slots. This timing allows the access terminal to
process and respond with the physical layer acknowledgment (either ACK or
NAK). If the access network receives a NAK for a transmitted slot, it
continues the transmission of the next slot. If it receives an ACK for a
transmitted slot, it considers successful transmission of an entire packet and
terminates the transmission of the remaining slots of the current packet. This
results in increased average throughput for the entire sector.
Figure 19
Reverse ACK transmission/hybrid ARQ
Packet transmission (Forward Traffic Channel)

Slot 1

Slot 2

Slot 3

Slot 4

ACK transmission (Reverse Traffic Channel)

NAK*

NAK

* ACK/NAK half slot transmission

NAK

ACK

Metro Cell
BTS

Transmission ends

Figure 19 depicts user packet transmission in the forward traffic channel

(from the access network to the access terminal) and ACK/NAK transmission
on the reverse traffic channel (from the access terminal to the access
network). The forward traffic is transmitted in four slots at a four slot interval.
For every slot received by the access terminal, a ACK or NAK is sent back to
the access network pending the success of the receipt of the physical layer
packet. As the original packet sent to the access terminal is transmitted after
data protection is applied, it is possible the access terminal can receive the
packet before all four slots are received. This is called early
acknowledgement and this method of acknowledgement is called Hybrid
automatic repeat request (ARQ).

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If the first forward packet (slot one) is transmitted in slot "n", the
corresponding NAK/ACK is sent in the n+3rd slot (the fourth slot in the
example) in the reverse direction. The NAK/ACK is sent in the first half of
the slot giving the access terminal sufficient time to react to the NAK/ACK. If
the access network receives an NAK, the access network continues the
transmission of the remaining slot. If an ACK is received, the access network
schedules the transmission of a new packet.
Data rate control (DRC)
The data rate control (DRC) channel in the reverse traffic channel is used by
the access terminal to indicate to the access network the selected serving
sector and the requested data rate on the forward traffic channel.
The access terminal predicts the carrier-interference value for each sector in
the active set and selects the sector with the highest carrier-interference value.
Then it decides the best rate that can be supported by the predicted
carrier-interference value. It reports both the best rate and best sector
information to the access network. The access terminal updates the best sector
information often and reports the best sector and rate on the DRC channel.
The access terminal maintains the active set containing all the sectors that can
transmit to the access terminal. With each sector, a DRC cover (an 8-bit
orthogonal code) is associated. This association is established at the
connection setup time and it is updated every time a new sector is added to the
active set.

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Figure 20
Data rate selection

Data Rate Selection

Metro Cell A

Metro
o Cell B

Es

tim
ate

15
3.6

kb
p

te
ma

p
kb

ti
Es

Carrie
err--inter
ffere
ratio (lo ence
w)

Meto Cell BTS

errence
erffe
nte
in
Carrierr- ((low)
ratio

nce
terferre
err-inte
Carrie
)
h
i
ig
(
atio (h
ra

Estim
ate 1
53.6
kbps

Metro Cell BTS

CDMA2000
1xEV-DO
User

7.2
30

Metro Cell C
Active set
Available Cell

DRC Cover

Metro Cell A

00110011 (W18)

Metro Cell B

01010101 (W08)

Metro Cell C

00001111 (W28)

Metro Cell BTS

According to Figure 20, the best sector in the active set would be Metro Cell
B since it has the highest carrier-interference ratio compared to Metro Cells A
and C. The access terminal sends the supported data rate of Metro Cell B to
all the members in its active set (Metro Cells A, B and C), but only Metro Cell
B schedules transmission to the access terminal. The access terminal
transmits the rate (307.2 kbps) and sector information (Metro Cell B) to all
the members in the active set through the Data Rate Channel (DRC) in every
slot. The access network then transmits the best rate to the access terminal in
the forward direction.
Reverse link parameters
In the reverse link, the access terminal selects one of the data rates and sends
the data traffic at the selected data rate on the reverse traffic channel and it
also sends reverse rate indicator (RRI) in time division multiplexed fashion
with the pilot channel.

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Reverse link power control

In the reverse link, the power control command is repeated four times and is
sent on the MAC channel at 600 times per second (once every slot). One bit of
power control command is orthogonally spread with 64 bit Walsh code. This
way, the power control bits of all the access terminals are transmitted together
which are orthogonal to each other. The access network sends the power
control command in every slot for all the connected access terminals.

Media access control layer

The media access control (MAC) layer is responsible for determining

scheduling and transmission policies. The MAC layer determines the best
possible data rate on a slot-by-slot basis in both directions. The physical layer
is responsible for actual transmission procedures based on input from MAC
layer.
MAC functions
In the forward direction, the MAC layer is responsible for scheduling
transmission for different access terminals based on input given by these
terminals. The MAC also handles scheduling transmission for forward control
channel and forward traffic channel. The MAC is also responsible for
providing input to access terminals on the reverse link so that the access
terminal can adjust reverse link data rates.
In the reverse link, the MAC layer handles transmission and reception on
access and traffic channel. The reverse link MAC layer also provides input to
the access network on what is the best data rate and best sector based on the
existing channel conditions (please see Figure 20, Data rate selection on page
56). Finally, the MAC layer is responsible for best possible data for
transmission on the reverse link.
MAC layer protocols
The IS-856 MAC layer contains four protocols. Each protocol defines
procedures and messages for handling of one and only one channel. The
protocols are access, control, forward traffic and reverse traffic channels.
Access channel protocol: Access channel protocol defines procedures for
transmission on the access channel in the reverse direction. It defines
transmission timing and power characteristics for transmissions on the
access channel.

Control channel MAC protocol: This protocol defines the rules and
procedures for governing transmission on the forward control channel and
determines scheduling of control channel packets with traffic channel
packets. The protocol also defines how the access terminal acquires the
system in the reverse direction and monitors the control channel.

Forward traffic channel MAC protocol: This protocol defines the rules
and procedures governing transmission on forward traffic channel. This
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protocol interprets the DRC command sent from the access terminal and
schedules transmission for the access terminal in forward direction.

Reverse traffic channel MAC protocol: This protocol defines the rules and
processes governing transmission on the reverse traffic channel. It dictates
the rules the access terminal follows when transmitting the Data Rate
Control (DRC) channel, along with the rules the access network uses to
interpret this channel.

MAC states
The forward traffic channel (FTC) MAC protocol defines the procedures and
messages for transmission and reception on the FTC. The FTC-MAC is
responsible for scheduling transmission for different access terminals on FTC
at different rates. The FTC-MAC is activated when the access terminal moves
to connected state. The access terminal maintains one instance of FTC-MAC
when it is in connected state. The access network maintains one instance of
FTC-MAC for each access terminal in the connected state. Please see Figure
21 for the three possible MAC states.
Figure 21
MAC states

Deactivate

Inactive
State
eactivate
De

Variable
Rate State
Activate

Fixed
Rate State
Access Terminal
Dependant

The FTC-MAC can be in one of the three states when the access terminal is
activated. The various states are described briefly here:
Inactive state: This is the state of FTC-MAC when the access terminal is
in the idle state (not assigned a forward traffic channel).

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Variable rate state: The access terminal moves to this state when it is
assigned a forward traffic channel (assigned MACId and DRCCover from
one or more sectors). In this state, the FTC-MAC transmits to the access
terminal at a variable rate from the best sector in the access terminals

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active set. The access terminal reports the best rate and the best sector in
the reverse data rate control (DRC) channel.

Fixed rate state: In this state, the access terminal always receives traffic
from one particular sector in its active set at a fixed rate. The reasons for
moving to this state are implementation specific. The access terminal
decides the fixed rate and the sector from which it will receive the traffic.

MAC scheduler
Schedulers handle how data gets transmitted to the access terminals. The goal
of schedulers is to improve overall system throughput. The 1xEV-DO system
allocates bandwidth to different access terminals based on their reported data
rates. It is the responsibility of scheduler to allocate bandwidth to different ATs.
The scheduler is implemented at the sector. For 1xEV-DO, there are four
different schedulers available:
round-robin

best rate

equal opportunity

proportional fairness
Note: The only supported scheduler for 1xEV-DO is Proportional
fairness. The other schedulers are documented to described why
Proportional fairness is the most appropriate MAC scheduler.

Round-robin
Round robin schedulers are simple in nature, utilizing a first in, first out
strategy. Each user request gets put into a queue and when it is at the top of
the queue it receives the resource allocation requested.
Figure 22
Round-robin scheduler

Round-Robin Scheduler
User 3

User 2

Metro Cell
BTS

Data Packets

User 1

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Best rate
Best rate schedulers goals are to process the requests in the buffer with the
highest data rates first. This method achieves high system throughput since
the highest requested data rates always get scheduled. The drawback is that
users with low data rates can be withheld resources in favor of those with high
data rates.
Figure 23
Best rate scheduler

Best Rate Scheduler

Metro Cell
BTS

76.8 Kbps

Data Packets

153.6 Kbps

307.2 Kbps

Equal opportunity
Each user request is tracked in the buffer and the user with the lowest data rate
receives the resource allocation requested. The disadvantage of this is that the
overall throughput may be low especially if there are many low data rate
users. Further, users with high data rates may be withheld resources since the
lowest data rate users are processed first.
Figure 24
Equal opportunity scheduler
76.8 Kbps

Equal Opportunity Scheduler

Metro Cell
BTS

76.8 Kbps

Data Packets

153.6 Kbps

307.2 Kbps

Proportional fairness
The proportional fairness schedulers goal is to provide fairness to each user
regardless of their data rates. The scheduler maintains a moving average of
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DRC (data rate control) values and the scheduler transmits data to the access
terminal only when the DRC value is greater than or equal to the moving
average. The scheduler functions as follows: If an access terminal reports less
than average DRC values, it may appear the access terminal will not receive
any data at all. The access terminal gains credits with the system increasing
their priority to receive data. This increases overall throughput for individual
users as well as the whole system.
Figure 25
Proportional fairness scheduler

Proportional Fairness Scheduler

Metro Cell
BTS

76.8 Kbps

Data Packets
153.6 Kbps

307.2 Kbps

Handoffs

Forward link handoff

In the forward link, IS-856 does not support soft handoff. This is different
from IS-95 and IS-2000 systems where soft handoff is supported in the
forward link. For CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (IS-856), the access terminal
measures the forward links from all active base stations and chooses the best
one on a packet-by-packet basis. This effectively minimizes the resource
usage in the forward link since the best sector, as seen by the access terminal,
is the only sector transmitting at any given time. CDMA2000 1xEV-DO uses
full-power, time-division multiplexed (TDM) forward link transmission (for
more information on TDM, please see Time-division multiplexing on page
61).
Reverse link handoff
In the reverse link, IS-856 supports soft handoff similar to IS-95 and IS-2000.

Time-division multiplexing

The IS-856 air interface uses time division multiplexing (TDM) in the
forward direction to transmit to different users. At any given time, each user is
given a dedicated time slot for their traffic and receives data on a 1.25 MHz
radio carrier from a single sector. The entire 1.25 MHz carrier is dedicated to
that user for the time period.

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Figure 26, Time-division multiplexing on page 62 compares TDM and code

division multiplexing (CDM). The figure displays how TDM uses full time
full power where each user is allotted the entire bandwidth for a short period
of time compared to CDM where multiple users share power for an extended
period of time. In TDM, the entire bandwidth is used where in CDM, there is
a portion of unused power.
Figure 26
Time-division multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing
Time slot/
Channel

Maximum Power
User 4
Power

1.25 MHz carrier

Time

User 3
User 2

- Each user is on a different window period in time (time slot)

- A channel is a specific time slot on a specific frequency

User 1
Time

Code Division Multiplexing

Channel

Maximum Power
Unused power

1.25 MHz carrier

Power

User 3

Time

- Each user uses the same frequency all the time,

but are mixed with different distinguishing code patterns (Walsh codes)
- A channel is a unique set of code patterns

User 2
User 1
Time

The forward link is divided into slots of 1/600 second duration, and each slot
is assigned to an access terminal by a packet scheduler which resides in the
base station. Up to once per slot, each active access terminal measures the
forward link carrier-to-interference ratio (CIR), and uses this to index a table
of data rates. The supportable data rate is transmitted to the best serving base
station, at all times, by all active access terminals. A scheduler decides, for
each new slot, which terminal is to be served. The scheduler packages the
appropriate number of MAC packets into a physical layer packet, and begins
transmission to the terminal at the requested data rate.
The IS-856 system is based on the fixed power variable rate principle. The
sector transmits at full power to every access terminal. However, the data rate
is varied depending on the interference experienced by the access terminal.
The access terminal reports receivable data rates based on interference
conditions for every scheduling period. The network transmits to the access
terminal at that rate during that period.

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The time slot and data rate for each connected user is determined by the
scheduler so as to enhance CDMA2000 1xEV-DO aggregate forward data
throughput.

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