Soils of

Naduruloulou Agricultural Research Station,

Viti Levu, Fiji

R.W.P. Palmer
NZ Soil Bureau, New Plymouth

N .z. Soil Survey Report 82

DSIR Land Resources
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
Lower Hutt, New Zealand

1992

Crow n Copyright 1992

N.Z. Depart ment of Scientific and Industr ial Research

DSIR Land Resources
This docum ent may not be copied, reprod uced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transm itted in
whole or in part, in any form, or by any means, withou t the prior written permis
sion of the
Director, DSIR Land Resources, Private Bag, Lower Hutt.

Bibliographic Reference:
R.W.P. PALMER 1992: Soils of Naduru loulou Agricultural Research Station,
Viti Levu, Fiji.
N.Z. Soil Survey Report 82. 45 p.
ISSN 0110-2079

This publication includes:

Palmer, R.W.P.; Smith, S.M. 1986: Soil map of Naduru loulou Agricu ltural Resear
ch Station,
Viti Levu, Fiji. 1: 3000. NZ Soil Bureau Map 216.

FIJIAN SPELLING

During the period 1835-37, Missionaries produc ed a written langua ge from

the spoken Fijian.
They tried to represe nt complex Fijian sounds by single letters of the Roman
alphab et, and the
system they develo ped has been used ever since by Fijian people. The special
letters concer ned
are 'b', 'c', 'd', 'g' and 'q', and the following examples show how they are pronou
nced.
b is pronou nced 'mb' as in numbe r, e.g. Labasa = Lambasa
c is pronou nced 'th' as in that, e.g. Nawaicoba = Nawai thomba
dis pronou nced 'nd' as in end, e.g. Nadi = Nandi
g is pronou nced 'ng' as in sing, e.g. Sigatoka =Singatoka
q is pronou nced 'ng' as in finger, e.g. Yaqara = Yanggara
In practically all Fijian words, the accent is on the penulti mate syllable.

Soils of

Nadu rulou lou Agri cultu ral Resea!chSfiition,

Viti Levu , Fiji

R.W.P. Palmer
NZ Soil Bureau, New Plymout h

N.Z. Soil Survey Report 82

DSIR Land Resources
Departm ent of Scientific and Industria l Research
Lower Hutt, New Zealand
1992

CONTENTS

Page
SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
SOIL-FORMING FACTORS
Physiography and parent materials
Climate
Vegetation
Crops at Naduruloulou

5
5
5
6
7
8

SURVEY METHODS
Field methods
Laboratory methods

8
8
8

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Entisols
Histosols
Inceptisols
Ultisols

10

10
12
12

13

DESCRIPTION OF SOIL TAXONOMIC UNITS

Entisols
(Typic) Hydraquent
(Histic) Hydraquent
Tropaquent
Tropofluvent
Histosols
Terrie Tropofibrist
Inceptisols
Typic Tropaquept
Aerie Tropaquept
Typic Humitropepts
(Aquic) Humitropept
Typic Eutropept
Fluvaquentic Eutropept
Fluventic Eutropept
Ultisol
Typic Palehumult

14
14
14
14
15
15

SOIL MAP UNITS

21

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

23

REFERENCES

24

APPENDIX

1 Glossary of terms used in Soil Taxonomy

2 Soil profile descriptions and analytical data

16
16
16
16
17
17

18
19
19
20
20
20

25
27

~aileka
"

Jav~

II

Dobuiievu Res. Stn

II
Legalega Res. Stn

VITU LEVU

Nadie

Waidradra Res. Stn 11

11111 Nawaicoba Res. Stn

OVALAU

'8K5''"~

Naduruloulou Res. Sm
).._
Ill
Nausori
KorooMa Res. Stn Ill

,JI Sigatoka Res. Stn

Sigatoka

''"

20s

.
~IJI 1~~ANDS

:..

NIUE ISLAND
COOK

TONGAN, \7LANDS
locallOn of surwy

160"W

170W

'O

ISLA~DS '.

.:

,, 1
I
I

I
so s

30S

KERMADEC ISLANDS

South Pac11ic Ocean

110w

160W

Figure 1. Location map of Naduruloulou Agricultural Research Station.

SUMMARY

The soils of Nadurulou lou Agricultural Research Station, in south-east ern Viti Levu, Fiji are
described in this report and shown on an accompanying map at 1:3000 scale. The report
describes soil-forming factors and the pedological characteristics of the soils, and classifies
the
according to USDA Soil Taxonomy.
~:ltation covers about 99 ha. Hill country occupies about 50 ha and has a soil cover
consisting mainly of Typic Humitrope pts with a small area of Typic Palehumults. Valley
and swamplan d occupy 46 ha and soils include Terrie Tropofibrists, Hydraquen ts and
Tropaquepts. A levee, beside a large river, occupies 3 ha and has a soil cover consisting of
EutTopepts and Tropofluvents.

INTROD UCTION

suloulou Agricultural Research Station is situated on the north bank of the Rewa River
km NE of Suva, in south-eastern Viti Levu, Fiji. It occupies about 99 ha, of which
hill country, 46 ha is valley floors and swamplan d, and 3 ha is a levee beside the
Rewa River.
The station is used for experiments with tree crops, mainly cocoa, which cover 5 ha and also
nursery propagatio n of tree seedlings. Fish ponds cover about 6 ha of swamplan d
used for breeding grass carp for release into waterways to control aquatic weeds.
from Koronivia Research Station are grazed on grassland.
survey of Nadurulou lou was carried out by the New Zealand Soil Bureau under
contract to the NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs as part of a bilateral aid project between the
Zealand and Fijian Governments.
work and soil sampling were done over a two-week period in April/May 1982.

SOIL-FO RMING FACTORS

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND PARENT MATERIALS

At Nadurulou lou a series of hilly ridges extends into swamplan d. Three landscape units are
recognised; the hill country, valley floors (including swamplan d), and a levee beside the
Rewa River. The hill country rises to about 50 m above the surroundin g land is mostly
moderately steep to steep land (Taylor and Pohlen 1979) with small areas of rolling and
moderately steep slopes. Large slumps have occurred and are most evident on the slopes
surroundin g the main plantation. They have a complete vegetation cover and do not appear

to be currently active. The slump deposits often have a hummocky surface and have steep
or very steep scarp slopes above them. The geology of the hill country has been described
by Hirst (1967). Two marine sedimentary formations have been mapped, the Waindina (Hirst
uses a phonetic spelling) sandstone in the southern part of the station and the Nathua
sandstone in the northern part. Waindina sandstone is a member of the Miocene-Pliocene
Suva Group and consists of well stratified, gently warped, siltstones and sandstones. Hirst
does not give a general description of its mineralogy. Nathua sandstone overlies the
Waindina sandstone and is a member of the Pliocene-Pleistocene Mba Group. Hirst states
that it is similar to the Waindina sandstone and that most beds have more quartzose than
ferromagnesian constituents. The transition between the Waindina and Nathua sandstones
is gradational and could not be recognised during the soil survey.
Valley floors and swamplan d are flat and are infilled with clayey, kaolinitic, sediments
derived from the surroundin g hill country. Towards the more poorly drained parts the
sediments are covered with poorly decomposed fibrous peat, which is derived mainly from
the remains of grasses and sedges. In the southern part of the station, drains have been
installed in and around the main plantation and near the fish ponds. The resultant lowering
of the water table has generally caused soils to become firmer and more consolidated than
those of undrained areas.
The levee forms a flat to gently sloping surface above steep banks of the Rewa River.
Alluvium forming the levee and infilling adjacent valleys is derived from several rock types
within the catchment of the Rewa River. These include marine sedimentary rocks (Nathua
sandstone and others), intermediate and basic volcanic rocks, and rocks consisting mainly of
tonalite, with some diorite and granodiorite (Twyford and Wright 1965; Hirst 1967). The
alluvium consists of a considerable portion of pre-weathered material as well as unweather ed
primary minerals.
CLIMATE
Fiji has a tropical maritime climate which is strongly influenced by the southeast trade winds.
On Viti Levu there is a differentiation into windward and leeward climatic zones. Windward
areas, on the eastern side of Viti Levu, have high rainfalls and little or no dry season and are
commonly referred to as being in the "wet" zone. Leeward areas, to the west, have lower
rainfalls and a pronounce d dry season and are referred to as the "dry" zone. Nadurulou lou
is in the windward or "wet'' climatic zone.
Rainfall recordings, only, are available from Nadurulou lou (see Tables 1 and 2). This data
shows that Nadurulou lou receives a high rainfall with the winter months having the lower
rainfalls and number of raindays. Koronivia Agricultural Research Station is the nearest
place to Nadurulou lou where a wide range of climatic data is recorded. It is 9 km to the
south and probably has a similar climate to Naduruloulou. Air temperatures at Koronivia
are high and show a small seasonal variation (Table 3).
Soil temperatures (Table 4) at Koronivia suggest an isohyperthermic soil temperatur e regime
(Soil Survey Staff 1975). (Unfortunately, they have been recorded at 30 cm depth, rather than
at the required 50 cm.) It is likely that soil temperatures are similar at Nadurulou lou.
Further climatic information from Koronivia Agricultural Research Station may be obtained
from the Fiji Meteorological Service Information Sheets 57 and 60 (1980), or from a soil
survey report of the station (Leslie 1984).

7
VEGETATION
Hill country in the northern part of the station is covered by indigenous forest. In the central
part there are clearings with patches of scrub and tall grass. In the southern part of the
station the hill country has a varied cover which includes grazing pasture, forest with exotic
species included, scrub, and tree crops.
In the valley floors and swamplands the more poorly drained areas have tall grasses and
..,...,'A"'M" with patches of small trees and scrub. An area of forest, dominated by sago palms
vitiensis), occurs in the northern swampland. Valley floors and swampland in
part of the station have been drained and are used for tree crops and grazing
Tht:: levee, beside the Rewa River, is used for tree and other crops and also for houses and
buildings.
Tabl,

Rainfall (mm) at Naduruloulou 1932 - 19761

Jan

373

froi

370

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jui

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

410

390

273

175

151

155

220

238

296

357

3410

Meteorological Service Information Sheet No. 68, 1981

Tab

Raindays at Naduruloulou 1932 - 198012

Jan

Feb

20

2fror.

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

19

18

15

14

13

12

13

14

15

16

187

Meteorological Service Information Sheet No. 70 (provisional) 1981

Table 3. Air temperature (C) at Koronivia Agricultural Research Station 1965 -19791

daily maximum
Ave.rage daily minimum
Average daily temperature
HJ.ghest maximum
monthly maximum
Lowest maximum
Highest minimum
Average monthly minimum
Lowest minimum
1

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

30.1
22.8
26.5
35.0
32.5
25.0
28.8
20.2
16.1

302
22.8
26.5
34.0
32.5
23.9
27.5
20.3
15.0

30.1
22.5
26.3
33.1
322
24.9

29.0
21.8
25.4
33.3
31.7
23.5
26.4
18.0
13.3

27.9
20.6
24.3
35.4
31.0
22.7
26.0
17.0
14.9

26.1
19.1
22.6
32.7
29.8
21.1
23.9
15.1
12.8

26.3
19.3
22.8
31.9
29.9
20.2
23.9
15.7
13.9

26.8
19.4
23.1
31.4
30.0
20.4
25.2
15.5
10.8

27.5
20.6
24.0
31.9
30.6
21.1
26.1
16.1
13.0

28.4
21.1
24.8
34.0
31.1
22.8
25.0
17.7
15.4

29.3
22.1
25.7
32.4
31.5
25.5

28.3
21.0
24.7

262
19.8
13.0

from Fiji Meteorological Service Information Sheet No. 57 (1980)

27.3
20.4
23.8
322
30.6
22.6
24.4
17.7
15.0

25.5
19.1
17.3

8
0
Station 1965 - 1971
Table 4. Average soil temperat ure ( C) at 0.3 mat Koronivia Agricultural Research

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

27.7

27.6

27.7

26.5

24.9

24.4

23.8

23.6

24.4

24.6

26.0

26.9

25.7

2from Fiji Meteorological Service Annual Meteorological Summaries (1965 - 1971)

CROPS AT NADUR ULOUL OU

h
Information on crops grown at Naduru loulou has been obtained from Annual Researc
at
crop
tree
ental
Reports of the Fiji Department of Agriculture. Cocoa is the main experim
Naduruloulou. Minor crops include macadamia nuts, vanilla, black pepper, cardamoms, and
d
fruit trees including citrus varieties. A cane-like plant, duruka (Saccharum edule), is harveste
sale.
for
ted
propaga
are
s
seedling
as a food crop. A varied range of mainly fruit tree

SURVEY METH ODS

FIELD METHO DS

Different landforms were delineated by air photo interpretation. Soil description sites were
mostly along traverse lines within each type of landform, and soils were described from pits
and auger observations. Soils in the valley floors and swampl ands that had high water tables
the
were examined only by auger observation. Soil boundaries were determi ned by relating
the
in
changes
with
ond
corresp
not
did
soils to the landscape. Where soil boundaries
sites.
ion
landscape they were drawn by interpolations between soil descript
Air photographs comprised stereo-pairs taken in 1978 at an approximate scale of 1: 20 OOO.
Enlargements, at approximately 1:2000 scale, were used for plotting observations in the field.
Terms used for soil descriptions are those of Soil Survey Method (Taylor and Pohlen 1979)
except that horizon designation follows FAO methods (FAO 1974) for mineral horizons and
for
the System of Soil Classification of Canada (Canada Department of Agriculture 1970)
Staff
organic horizons. Soils are classified according to USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey
1975).
LABORATORY METHO DS

s
Profiles considered to represent the range of soils identified were sampled. Analyse
sufficient only for the classification of the soils were done. Chemical and particle-size
,
analyses were made at Koronivia Agricultural Research Station, Fiji. Mineralogical analyses
Land
DSIR
at
made
as well as a few additional chemical and particle-size analyses, were
Resources, Taita.

Ratings used for chemical analyses are given in Table 9 (Appendix 2). Methods are described
below.

Air-dry soil was stirred with water at a soil:water ratio of 1:2.5 and pH readings taken using
a glass electrode after the sample had been left standing overnight.
Carbon
Determinations were made according to the method of Walkely and Black (1934), in which
unreduced potassium dichromate is titrated with ferrous ammonium sulphate using
diphenylamine as an indicator.
Cation exchange
Exchangeable cations were displaced from the soil with 1M ammonium acetate (at neutral
pH) by a shaking procedure. Ca, Mg, K and Na were measured by atomic adsorption
spectrometry. The summation of these is termed sum of bases (2:. bases).
Cation exchange capacity was measured by displacing "exchange acidity" with barium
acetate and titrating the acidity with standard alkali. It was not carried out at a fixed pH
value. The term "exchange acidity'' used here is, therefore, not that presently understood
at DSIR Land Resoures, where it applies to a similar measurement applied at a fixed pH of
8.2. Thus:
CEC

= I. bases + "exchange acidity"

(by barium acetate)

Base saturation (BS) is that proportion of the CEC which is occupied by exchangeable bases
expressed as a percentage and is calculated thus:
BS = 2: bases x 100
CEC

Particle-size analysis
This was carried out using a hydrometer method adapted from NZ Standard 4402 (Standards
Association of New Zealand 1980).
Soil Mineralogy
This was done by methods commonly used at DSIR Land Resources and described by Wells
and Smidt (1978).

10

SOIL CLASSIFICATION
t entities
Soil Taxonomic Units are individual kinds of soils that can be recognised as distinc
and one soil
and hence classified. In this survey the taxonomic units comprise soil series
a grouping
is
series
soil
A
5).
(Table
variant. They are assembled in a Pedological Legend
s and are
regime
re
moistu
of soils which have similar profiles, similar temperature and
unit is
mic
derived from the same or similar parent materials. At series level the soil taxono
soil variant
a tightly defined central concept with a defined range of variation around it. The
is of small
it
e
becaus
but,
series
e
separat
a
as
is used for a soil which could be recognised
les.
resemb
closely
extent, it is named as a variant of the soil series it most
my (Soil
In this survey the soil series have been defined according to USDA Soil Taxono
than
sizes
Survey Staff 1975). However, each series may include a wider range of particle
my. It is
is permitted within the strict usage of the soil series in USDA Soil Taxono
excessive
avoids
This
als.
potenti
tural
considered that the series still have similar agricul
names.
soil
subdivision of established series and a proliferation of new
and Wright
Concepts of soil series used in this survey generally follow those of Twyford
been more
(1965). However, the permissible range of characteristics for each soil series has
been done
has
This
ced.
introdu
been
closely defined. Consequently, seven new series have
mainly to fulfil USDA Soil Taxonomy requirements.
s: USDA Soil
Table 6 lists the soil series according to the three different classification system
and Wright
Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975), the FAO system (1974) and the Twyford
classification (1965).
ENTISOLS

either ochric
Entisols are soils with weak profile development. Those described here have
s.
or histic epipedons but no diagnostic subsurface horizon
long periods
The Batiki series is classified as an Aquent because it is saturated with water for
It is further
and has the required greyish colours which are due to the reduction of iron.
inn values
classified as a Hydra quent because the soft and unconsolidated nature results
ups of
Subgro
1.0.
than
greater
often
(Soil Survey Staff 1975, p. 49) greater than 0.7 and
series
Batiki
The
my.
Taxono
Hydraq uents have not been defined but are implied in Soil
would be classified within an implied Typic subgroup.

11
Table 5. Soil taxonomic units arranged pedologically according to Soil Taxonomy*

Order

Subgroup
or
Great group

Series*

Families included in series

Entisols

Typic1 Hydraquent

Batiki

Histic1 .Hydraquent

Wainikai

fine, kaolinitic, acid, isohyperthermic

very-fine, kaolinitlc, acid, isohyperthermic
fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic
very-fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic
fine, kaolinitlc, acid, isohyperthermic
very-fine, kaolinitic, acid, isohyperthermic
coarse-loamy, mixed3, nonacid, isohyperthen:nic

Tropaquent2

Nukunikula

Tropofluvent2

Toga

Histosols

Terrie Tropofibrist

Naduruloulou clayey, kaolinitic, dysic, isohyperthermic

Inceptisols

Typic Tropaquept

Nausorl

Aerie Tropaquept

Koroqaqa

Typic Humitropept

Lobau

Typic Humitropept

Visa

Typic Humitropept

Sote

Aquic2 Humitropept
Typic Eutropept
Fluvaquentic Eutropept
Fluventic Eutropept

Darla
Muanisei
Tamanua
Rew a

fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic

very-fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic
fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic
very-fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic
fine-loamy, mixed3, isohyperthermic
fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
fine-loamy, mixed3, isohyperthermic
fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
very-fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
fine, kaolinitlc, isohyperthermic
coarse-loamy, mixed3, isohyperthermic
fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
fine-silty, mixed3, isohyperthermic

Typic Palehumult

Drekeinakelo

clayey, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic

l!ltisols

*The series defined for this survey may include a wider range of soil textural classes than is permitted within the individual
particle size classes used to define the soil families in the United States Department of Agriculture Soil Taxonomy. The series
here defined are thus not necessarily confined to a single family in Soil Taxonomy and differ from the concept of series as used
in the United States. Any particular series as defined here is thought to include a sufficiently narrow range of textural classes
for individual profiles within the series to have broadly similar agricultural potentials. The series have been so defined to avoid
an excessive subdivision of the already well established local series, with consequent proliferation of new geographic names.
1
Subgroups not defined in Soil Taxonomy.
21bis is an implied subgroup in Soil Taxonomy and introduced in this survey.
3Tightly aggregated kaolinitic clay present in sand fraction.

The Wainikai series is the similar to the Batiki series but differs in having a histic rather than
an ochric epipedon. It could be classified within an implied Histic subgroup of Hydraquepts.
The Nukunikula series is firmer and more consolidated than either the Batiki or the WaLnikai
series but is also classified as an Entisol because it lacks subsoil structure and therefore, a
cambic horizon. It is classified, further, as a Tropaquent because of its wetness and grey
colours and because the difference between mean summer and winter soil temperatures, at
50 cm depth, is less than 5C. No subgroups are currently defined or implied.

12
Table 6. Soil series classified by three different classification systems.
Series

Soil Taxonomy
(subgroup)1

FAO/Unesco 2

Batiki
Wainikai
Nukunikula
Toga
Naduruloulou
Nausori
Koroqaqa
Lobau

Typic4 Hydraquent
Histic Hydraquent
Tropaquent
Tropofluvent
Terrie Tropofibrist
Typic Tropaquept
Aerie Tropaquept
Typic Hurnitropept
Typic Hurnitropept
Typic Hurnitropept
Aquic4 Humitropept
Typic Eutropept
Fluvaquentic Eutropept
Fluventic Eutropept
Typic Palehumult

Dystric Gleysol
Humic Gleysol
Dystric Gleysol
Eutric Fluvisol
Dystric Histosol
Dystric Gleysol
Dystric Gleysol
Dystric Cambisol
Dystric Cambisol
Chromic Cambisol
Dystric Gleysol
Eutric Cambisol
Eutric Gleysol
Eutric Cambisol
Humic Nitosol

Visa
Sote
Daria
Muanisei
Tamanua
Rewa
Drekeinakelo

Twyford and Wright (1965)

Gley
Gley
Gley
Recent
Organic
Gley
Gley
Humic latosol
Humic latosol
Humic latosol
Humic latosol
Recent
Recent
Recent
Humic latosol

Soil Survey Staff (1975).

FAO (1974).

All soils formed in zone with no dry season.

This is an implied subgroup in Soil Taxonomy and introduced in this survey.

The Toga series is derived from successive layers of alluvium and lacks subsoil structure.
It is, therefore, also classified as an Entisol. An irregular decrease in carbon content down
the profile, as suggested by buried A horizons, results in the series being classified as a
Fluvent. The small difference between mean summer and winter soil temperatures, as
described above, results in it being placed in the great group of Tropofluvents. No
subgroups are yet defined or implied.
HISTOSOLS

These are derived principally from organic soil materials and have a histic epipedon.
The Naduruloulou series is a Fibrist because it is are derived from weakly decomposed,
fibrous peat. It is further classified as a Tropofibrist because the difference between mean
summer and winter soil temperatures, at 50 cm depth, is assumed to be less than 5C. It
occurs within the Terrie subgroup since the peat rests on mineral soil above 130 cm depth.
INCEPTISOLS

These are more developed than the Entisols.

epipedons and cambic diagnostic horizons.

At Naduruloulou, they all have ochric

The Nausori and Koroqaqa series are classified as Aquepts as they have the required greyish
subsoil colours which are due to the reduction of iron under waterlogged conditions. The
difference between mean summer and winter soil temperatures, at 50 cm depth, is less than
5C and so both soils are classified as Tropaquepts. Soils meeting the colour requirements

13
of the Typic subgroup were assigned to the Nausori
Better-drained soils, which are
classified as the Aerie subgroup, were assigned to the Koroqaqa series.
The Lobau, Visa and Sote series are classified as Tropepts, since they have isohyperthermic
soil temperature regimes. They meet the low base saturation and high carbon content
requirements for Humitropepts and occur in the Typic subgroup.
The Daria series may also be classified as a Hurnitropept. However, poorer profile drainage
has resulted in subsoil gley mottling and the soil is classified within an implied Aquic, rather
than Typic, subgroup. The Aquic subgroup is not formally identified but its existence is
implied from the definition of the Typic subgroup. Soils of the Muanisei, Tamanua and
Rewa series are also grouped within the suborder of Tropepts. Analyses of Muanisei and
Rewa series show that base saturations exceed 50% between 25 cm and 1 m depth. It is
expected that those for Tamanua series would be similar. Therefore the soils are classified as
Eutropepts. Soils of Muanisei series are well drained and meet the criteria for the Typic
subgroup. Soils of Rewa series have a carbon content that decreases irregularly with depth
and so are classified within the Fluventic subgroup. Buried A horizons in Tamanua series
suggest that carbon contents also decrease in an irregular fashion with depth. Also, the soil
has pale coloured gley mottles, indicative of poorer drainage, and so they classify as a
Fluvaque:ntic Eutropept.
ULTISO LS

Ultisols

more strongly weathered than the Inceptisols.

The Drekehiakelo series has an ochric epipedon and an argillic horizon. It is classified as an
Ultisol since it has a base saturation (by sum of cations) which is less than 35% at 1.25 m
below the upper boundary of the argillic horizon. It further classifies as a Hurnult since there
is more than 0.9% carbon in the upper 15 cm of the argillic horizon. The series occurs within
the great group of Palehumults because it meets the requirements for low weatherable
mineral content in the argillic horizon and has no significant decrease in clay content with
depth.

14

DESCRIPTION OF SOIL TAXONOMIC UNITS

Characteristic features of each soil taxonomic unit are described in this section. More
detailed information is given in NZ Soil Bureau Soil Taxonomic Unit Descriptions No. 10
(Palmer 1986).
ENTISOLS

(Typic) Hydraquent

Batiki series
The Batiki series is a new soil series introduced in this survey for very poorly drained soils
of the valley floors and swamplands, derived from fine-textured alluvium and colluvium.
Profiles have dark brown A horizons, up to 30 cm thick, over grey and greenish grey Cr
horizons which may have ochreous mottling. A horizons may contain some poorly
decomposed plant remains and although their organic carbon contents are high, they still
constitute mineral soil material. Their textures vary from silt loam to clay loam or silty clay
loam. Upper Cr horizons are dark grey. Lower Cr horizons, below about 50 cm depth, are
greenish grey or grey. Because the water table is at or near the surface, at least during the
wet season, all horizons are soft, unconsolidated, and structureless.
A profile sampled from a narrow valley was strongly acid and had a kaolinitic clay fraction.
The Batiki series lies between the Nukunikula and Wainikai series in a soil drainage
sequence. The Wainikai series has a similar Cr horizon but differs in that it has a peaty
surface horizon. The Nukunikula series has similar horizons but is firmer and more
consolidated. This has resulted from the installation of deep surface drains which have
lowered the water table. Areas in which the Batiki series occurs have had some artificial
drainage but this has not been sufficient to result in a consolidation of the soils.
(Histic) Hydraquent

Wainikai series
The Wainikai series is a new series introduced in this survey for very poorly drained soils
of the valley floors and swampland that have a thin layer of peat over fine-textured alluvium
and colluvium. These soils appeared to have no artificial drainage.
Profiles have a dark brown structureless Of horizon of poorly decomposed fibrous peat at
the surface. This varies from 20 to 40 cm thick and constitutes a histic epipedon. It rests on
a dark grey or olive grey Cr horizon. Below about 50 cm the Cr horizons are greenish grey
and may have ochreous mottling. Textures are clay or silty clay loam. In some profiles, a
dark coloured Ah horizon may form at the top of the mineral soil and under the peat layer.
A buried A horizon occurred at 1 m depth in one of the profiles observed. As the water
table is at or near the surface all horizons are soft, unconsolidated, and structureless.

15
A profile sampled at the edge of swampland had surface Of and underlying Ah horizons that
were strongly acid and Cr horizons that were moderately acid. The clay fraction of the
mineral soil was kaolinitic.
The Wainikai series occurs between the Batiki and Naduruloulou series in a drainage
sequence. Soils of Naduruloulou series have a deeper layer of peat (40-130 cm) and are
classified as Histosols.
Tropaquent

Nukunikula series
The Nukunikula series is a new series introduced in this survey for poorly to very poorly
drained soils of artificially drained valley floors and swampland. The soils are derived from
fine-textured alluvium and colluvium. The series is a minor unit in this survey and has been
established from only three auger observations. It is named, however, in the expectation of
a wider occurrence elsewhere.
Profiles have dark brownish A horizons overlying dark grey Cr horizons which become
greenish grey below about 50 cm and which may have ochreous mottling. A horizons are
of silty clay loam or silty clay texture, generally massive and may contain some poorly
decomposed plant remains. Subsoil horizons are of silty clay or clay textures and, in the
auger observations, appeared to be massive. A cambic horizon was not, therefore,
recognised. The water table was near the surface at the time of observation and is probably
at or near the surface at least for the wet season. Soils of the Nukunikula series were not
sampled but comparisons with Nausori and Batiki series suggest that they are moderately
to strongly acid and have kaolinitic clay fraction.
Tropofluvent

Toga series
The Toga series was introduced by Leslie (1984), in the soil survey of Koronivia Agricultural
Research Station, to include well-drained very recent soils derived from alluvium and which
had no development of a B horizon. The concept is followed in this survey. One detailed
observation of the Toga series was made. This was made on the crest of the levee beside the
Rewa River. An Ap horizon, 12 cm thick, rested on a C horizon which, in tum overlaid' a
buried A horizon at a depth of 29 cm. Below this were two further C horizons. The horizons
were friable or very friable and the A horizons had weakly developed nut or blocky
structures. Textures varied down the profile from sandy loams in the Ap and C horizon to
sandy clay loam in the buried A horizon to sandy loam and clay in the underlying C
horizons. These variations in texture and the presence of a buried soil show that the profile
is derived from successive alluvial accumulations. The development of only an A horizon
in the upper profile indicates the recent nature of the latest deposits and suggests that the
site is still one of accumulation. This is confirmed by reports of residents on recent
No profile of the Toga series was sampled for analysis. It is likely to have similar
and mineralogical properties to a profile of the Muanisei series which was sampled.
(1984) provides some analytical information from Toga soils.

16
The Muanisei series occurs on the same part of the levee as the Toga series but differs in that
it has developed a B horizon and occur where alluvium has accumulated more slowly.
The Rewa series is also related to Toga series but it forms on the backslopes of the levee and
is moderately well drained. Profiles have finer textures and have developed B horizons.
HISTOSOLS

Terrie Tropofibrist

Naduruloulou series
Naduruloulou series is a new name introduced in this survey for soils of the valley floors
and swampland, which are derived from a moderately deep or deep layer of peat over finetextured alluvium and colluvium. They are very poorly drained, have no artificial drainage,
and the water table is probably at or near the surface for most of the year. Where grass and
reeds grow, there is usually a mat of plants, roots and dead matter to allow passage on foot.
The surface, however, rises and falls, giving the impression of a floating mass. Where sago
palms grow, there is no surface mat and water covers the surface. It is then almost
impossible to cross. Profiles have dark brown Of horizons, between 40 and 130 cm thick, of
poorly decomposed, fibrous peat which is mainly derived from the poorly decomposed
remains of grasses and reeds. They rest on greenish grey or grey Cr horizons, of clay or silty
clay texture, which may have a few ochreous mottles. Because of the extreme wetness of the
soil, all horizons are soft, unconsolidated and massive.
A profile sampled from swampland between hilly ridges had Of horizons which were
strongly and extremely acid and a C horizon that was moderately acid, becoming slightly
acid with depth. The clay fraction was kaolinitic.
Soils of the Naduruloulou series are very similar to the Wainikai series and differ only in
having a deeper surface layer of peat.
INCEPTISOLS

Typic Tropaquept

Nausori series
Soils of the Nausori series are poorly drained and occur on artificially drained swampland.
They are derived from fine-textured alluvium and colluvium.
Ag horizons are dark brown, up to 20 cm thick, and have pale-coloured and ochreous
mottles. They have weakly developed nut or blocky structures and silty clay loam textures.
Bg horizons are grey or olive and they also have pale and ochreous mottling. The Bg
horizons have weakly developed blocky structures and are recognised as cambic horizons.
Cg horizons are greenish grey and are also mottled. Both B and C horizons have clay
textures. At the time of the survey, water tables occurred at depths varying between 50 and
70 cm.

17
A profile sampled from open swampland was moderately acid and had a kaolinitic clay
fraction.
The Nausori series lies between the Nukunikula and Koroqaqa series in a drainage sequence.
All three occur in land which has been subjected to artificial drainage. Differences in the
effects of the artificial drainage are considered to have caused a separation of the three soil
series. The Nukunikula series occurs in more poorly drained sites and has a higher water
table. Profiles do not appear to have developed subsoil structure. The Koroqaqa series has
better drainage and subsoils have a wider range of colours which vary to more reddish hues.
Aerie Tropaquept

Koroqaqa series
The Koroqaqa series is a new series introduced in this survey for imperfectly drained soils
of artificially drained swampland and valley floors. They are derived from fine-textured
alluvium and colluvium.
Profiles have dark-coloured Ag horizons up to 30 cm thick. These overlie brownish or
greyish brown Bg horizons with both pale-coloured and ochreous mottling which may also
extend into the A horizon. A and B horizons occur at varying depths below 40 cm and have
similar colours to the Bg horizons. Soil textures are clayey and consistencies vary from very
friable to firm.
A profile was sampled, from a cocoa plantation, in a valley between hilly ridges. The soil
was strongly acid, becoming moderately acid with depth, and the clay fraction was kaolinitic.
Typic Humitropepts

Lobau series
Soils of Lobau series are well drained and often shallow, and occur on the hill country.
They are derived from moderately weathered sandstones and siltstones. Twyford and
Wright (1965) included Lobau steepland clay (83f) in Visa Set (83) and described it as a
steepland soil equivalent to Sote soils (described later in this report). The Lobau series name
is now taken from this association with steeplands and Sote series and is applied to soils of
a different profile morphology that may occur on any landscape. Lobau series was observed
on hill crests, mid slopes, and toe slopes, mostly in steep or very steep land.
Profiles have dark-coloured A horizons, up to 20 cm thick, overlying brown Bw horizons.
A and B horizons have clay, clay loam, or sandy clay loam textures, are friable or firm and
have nut or blocky structures. They may include a few moderately weathered rock
fragments. The combined depth of A and B horizons varies from 15 cm to over 1 m, but in
60% of observations it was less than 50 cm. C horizons are weathered parent rock and
include material of varied colours ranging from reds to browns and very pale browns. The
C horizons vary from being very friable to firm, and have clayey textures. Fragments of the
firmer horizons can, with a little effort, be rubbed between the fingers to material of a fine
texture. Fractures of the original parent rock are sometimes preserved and they may be
coated with deposits of iron-manganese oxides.

18
The Lobau series was not sampled for laboratory analysis. A comparison with the Visa series
suggests that it will be a moderately to strongly acid soil with a medium to low base
saturation and a kaolinitic clay fraction.
The Visa series differs in that profiles include both brown and red Bw horizons and are
generally deeper than in the Lobau series.

Visa series
Soils of the Visa series are well drained soil and occur on hill country. They are derived
from moderately to strongly weathered sandstones and siltstones. The series name is taken
from Visa Set (83) of Twyford and Wright (1965) which was defined for soils only of
steeplands. In this survey the name is used for soils that may occur on any landscape. The
Visa series was observed on hill crests, mid slopes and toe slopes.
Profiles have dark brown A horizons up to 20 cm thick. They have clay or clay loam
textures, are friable, and have nut structures. The Bw horizon consists of two subhorizons.
Upper Bw horizons vary up to 30 cm thick and are brown to dark brown. They are friable,
have clay or clay loam textures and nut structures. Lower Bw horizons are red or yellowish
red. They are clayey textured, friable, or firm and have blocky structures. The combined
depth of A and B horizons varies from 50 cm to over 1 m. C horizons are similar to those
described for Lobau series and show a variegated pattern of reds, browns, and paler colours.
A profile sampled from steepland was moderately to strongly acid with base saturations
varying from medium in the upper horizons to low at depth. Exchangeable calcium values
were medium; magnesium high to low; potassium low and sodium values medium. The clay
fraction was kaolinitic.

Sote series
The Sote series differs from the Lobau and Visa series in being a more strongly weathered
soil, as indicated by the dominantl y red subsoils.
A weakly gleyed subsoil variant is moderately well drained and has weak gleying of ped
faces and pores in subsoil horizons. Ped-face colours are paler, varying from brown to
yellow, and do not appear to be associated with clay cutans. Matrix colours are red. It is
considered that slowly permeable subsoils temporarily perch water in the soil and this results
in weak gleying of surfaces and pores whilst ped interiors remain unaffected. The gleying
effect is enhanced by the high rainfalls and by lateral seepage of water. The Sote variant was
observed mostly on mid slopes and low-angle benches.
(Aquic) Humitropept

Daria series
Soils of the Daria series are moderately well to imperfectly drained. Lateral seepage of water,
or a slowly permeable subsoil, results in weak gleying of the subsoil. The soils are more
strongly gleyed than the Sote weakly gleyed subsoil variant and occur mainly on lower
slopes in hill country.

19
Ag horizons are up to 20 cm thick, brown to dark brown, and of clay loam texture. They
have ochreous and pale-coloured mottles. Bg horizons are clay textured, vary from strong
brown to red, and also have ochreous and pale mottles. A and B horizons are friable or firm
and have nut or blocky structures. Their combined thickness varies from 50 cm to over 1 m.
C horizons are red or yellowish red with pale-coloured as
as ochreous mottles. They
are firm and have clay loam or sandy clay loam textures. All horizons may include a few
fragments of weathered parent rock.
profile sampled from a toeslope in hill country was strongly acid with low or very low
saturations. Exchangeable calcium values were low and very low; magnesium medium
varying to low at depth; potassium low and very low and sodium medium. The clay fraction
kaolinitic.

Eutropept

Muanisei series
The Muanisei series is a new series introduced in this survey for well-drained soils of the
levee crest, which have developed a B horizon. This is a minor unit in this survey and has
bem. established from only one profile description. The series is established, however, since
it considered that it will be more extensive elsewhere.
profile described, the Ap horizon was 22 cm thick, dark greyish brown and had
day loam texture. The Bw horizon was 30 cm, brown to dark brown, and had a clay
;,;xture. A and B horizons were both friable and had weakly developed blocky
st:m.ctures. The C horizon was also brown to dark brown and friable, but it had a sandy
t;;;xture and was massive.
The profile was slightly acid with a very high base saturation. Exchangeable calcium and
magnesium values were high and sodium medium. A noticeable feature was the very low
exchangeable potassium values. Organic carbon values decreased regularly with depth. This
unexpected for a soil derived from alluvial accumulations. Particle-size analyses did,
ncnNr::'lJPr show marked variations down the profile. The clay fraction was kaolinitic and the
fraction consisted mainly of quartz, feldspar and aggregates of kaolin.
1entic Eutropept

Tamanua series
:1n:i.anua series comprises imperfectly drained soils derived from alluvium and occurs
backslopes of levees. Profiles are characterised by gleyed B horizons and palemottling in the subsoil.
description was made. The upper part of the profile was 40 cm thick and consisted
horizon, to 20 cm, over a Bg horizon. Below this were two buried soils, each with
horizons. A horizons varied from greyish brown to dark grey and had ochreous
B horizons were brown or yellowish brown and had both pale coloured and
mottles. The soil was friable, becoming firm in the lower buried soil, and it had
textures. The Ap horizon had a nut structure and subsoil horizons had prismatic
structures or are massive. The profile was not sampled for laboratory analyses.

20
The Tamanua series was first defined in the Navua Pre-Investment Study (1969) of the Navua
River system in southern Viti Levu. The Rewa series, described below, also occurs on
the
backslopes of levees but differs in having better drainage and only ochreous mottling in
the
subsoil.
Fluvent ic Eutrope pt

Rewa series
Soils of the Rewa series are moderately well drained and are derived from alluvium. Profiles
are characterised by B horizons which have ochreous mottling. One detailed description was
made of a profile which was from an area of tree crops and which also was sampled
for
analysis. The upper part of the profile consisted of a thin Ap horizon overlying Bw and
Bg
horizons. Below this, at 54 cm depth, was a buried soil with A and Bg horizons. Horizon
s
were friable, apart from the firm buried A horizon, and textures varied from silt loam in
the
Ap horizon to clay loams and clay in the subsoil. Yellowish red mottling occurred in
the
upper Bg and underlying horizons. All horizons had blocky structures.
This profile was moderately acid and had high base saturation values. Exchangeable calcium
values were high, magnesium high or very high, and sodium values medium. The
exchangeable potassium values were high in the A horizon but low in the rest of the soil.
The high potassium value in the topsoil is considered unusual, especially when compar
ed
to the very low values obtained from Muanisei series. This may have resulted from fertilise
r
additions. Organic carbon values decreased irregularly with depth, as would be expecte
d
from a soil derived from alluvial accumulations. The clay fraction was kaolinitic and
the
sand fraction consisted mainly of quartz, feldspar, and aggregates of kaolin.
ULTISOL

Typic Palehum ult

Drekeinakelo series
The Drekeinakelo series is a new series introduced in this survey for well-drained soils of
the
hill country, characterised by red subsoils in which ped faces have thin brown clay skins.
The Drekeinakelo series resembles the Sote series and would have been included in Sote
Set
(27) by Twyford and Wright (1965). It is subdivided from the Sote series which does not
have evidence of clay movement in its profiles. The Drekeinakelo series was observed
on
a rolling slope underlain by slump debris, a level mid slope bench and on a strongly
to
steeply sloping mid slope bench.
Profiles have dark brown A horizons, up to 20 cm thick, which are friable or very friable and
have nut structures. Bt horizons vary from 40 to over 80 cm thick and are mostly red. They
are friable or firm and have blocky structures. Ped faces and pores have thin brown clay
skins which become more distinct as soil exposed in a pit face dries out. C horizons are also
red and are friable or firm. They may preserve traces of bedding from the parent rock and
may have a small amount of very pale brown or white material. Textures in these soils
include clay loams and clays.

21

A profile sampled from a large slump deposit was strongly acid with low and medium base
saturation values. Exchangeable calcium values were low and medium, magnesium values
were high, potassium values low and sodium values medium. The clay fraction was
kaolinitic.

SOIL MAP UNITS

Soil map units are the discrete units shown on a soil map and delineated by soil boundary
lines. Soil map units include a greater range of soil variation than is permitted within the
corresponding soil taxonomic units (series). Because of this, the term "soils" rather than
"series" is used when referring to map units.
Each map unit represents an area dominated by a single soil or, over almost half of the
station, an area in which two or more soils dominate. The map units are marked by symbols
which represent the dominant soils. When multiple symbols are used they are given in the
assumed order of abundance of the soils they represent.
In this survey, slope phases of hill country map units are shown. Phases are subdivisions
based on characteristics significant to land use.
Detailed descriptions of the map units are not warranted owing to the localised nature of the
survey, the small size of each delineation on the map and the clear relationships of the soils
with different landscape features. Instead, Table 7 lists the soils according to the position
that they occupy in the landscape, their drainage and degree of weathering. Table 8 lists the
map units and the areas they occupy.
Table 7. Soils arranged physiographically
SOILS OF THE LEVEES
From loamy textured alluvium
Frequently accumulating
Well drained
Toga soils
Slowly accumulating
Well drained
Muanisei soils
From silty and clayey textured alluvium
Slowly accumulating
Moderately well drained
Rewa soils
Imperfectly drained
Tamanua soils

3
4

22
SOILS OF THE VALLEY FLOORS AND SWAMPLAND
From clayey textured alluvium and colluvium
Imperfectly drained
Koroqaqa soils
Poorly drained
Nausori soils
Poorly to very poorly drained
Nukunikula soils
Very poorly drained
Batiki soils
From shallow peat over clayey textured alluvium and colluvium
Very poorly drained
Wainikai soils
From moderately deep to very deep peat over clayey textured
alluvium and colluvium
Very poorly drained
Naduruloulo u
SOILS OF THE HILL COUNTRY
From in situ sandstone and siltstone and slump deposits
Moderately weathered
Well drained
Lobau soils, moderately steep to steep phase
Moderately to strongly weathered
Well drained
Visa soils, moderately steep to steep phase
Strongly weathered
Well drained
Sote soils, rolling phase
Sote soils, moderately steep to steep phase
Moderately well drained
Sote soils, moderately steep phase, weakly gleyed
subsoil variant
Well drained
Drekeinakelo soils, rolling phase
Drekeinakelo soils, moderately steep to
steep phase
From colluvium derived from sandstones and siltstones
Imperfectly to moderately well drained
Daria soils, rolling phase

5
6

7
8

10

11
12
13
13a
13b
14
14a
15

23
Table 8.

Soil map unit areas

Map unit
1
2

Area (ha)

1.0
1.0

0.4

0.5
6.0

5
6
7
8
9
10

3.7

2.0
3.8
10.0

13.5

Map unit
11
12 + 11
13
13a + 12 + 11
13a + 14
13b
14
15

Fish Ponds
Buildings, yards
Total area

Area (ha)
1.6

18.0
0.6
21.3
3.1

2.5
0.7

1.8
6.1

1.2
98.8

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of the NZ Ministry of Foreign Affairs, for
funding, and the Research Division of the Fiji Ministry of Primary Industries for providing
transport and field assistance during the survey. Thanks are due to Satendra Singh and
analytical staff of Koronivia Research Station, Fiji, for laboratory analyses.
Thanks are also due to the following staff from NZ Soil Bureau: S. M. Smith, with whom
the field work was shared; J. D. Cowie and D. M. Leslie for soil correlation and supervising
the preparation of the map, legends and other L11formation; and L. C. Blakemore, J. S.
Whitton and associated staff for providing supplementa ry laboratory analyses and
mineralogical deterrnina tions.

24

REFERENCES

BLAKEMORE, L. C.; SEARLE, P. L.; DALY, B. K. 1987: Methods for chemical analyses of
soils. NZ Soil Bureau Scientific Report 80. 103 p.
CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1970: The System of Soil Classification for
Canada. Queen's Printer, Ottawa. 249 p.
FAO 1974: Soil Horizon Designations. Pp. 20-33 in "FAQ-UNESCO Soil Map of the
World, 1:5 OOO OOO. Vol. 1, Legend". Unesco, Paris.
HIRST, J. A. 1965: Geology of East and North-east Viti Levu. Geological Survey of Fiji,
Bulletin 12. 51 p. and maps. Government Printer, Suva, Fiji.
LESLIE, D. M. 1984: Soils of Koronivia Agriculture Research Station, Viti Levu, Fiji. NZ
Soil Survey Report 75. 46 p.
NAVUA PRE-INVESTMENT STUDY 1969: Prepared for the Government of Fiji and the
Ministry of Overseas Development, London, by Huntings Technical Services Ltd
and Sir M. MacDonald and Partners. 3 volumes.
PALMER, R. W. P. 1986: Soil taxonomic unit descriptions for Naduruloulou Agricultural
Research Station, Viti Levu, Fiji. New Zealand Soil Bureau Taxonomic Unit
Descriptions No. 10.
SOIL SURVEY STAFF 1975: Soil Taxonomy. A basic system of soil classification for
making and interpreting soil surveys. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil
Conservation Service, Handbook No. 436. 754 p.
STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF NZ 1980: Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering
Purposes. Part 1.
TAYLOR, N. H.; POHLEN, I.
Bulletin 25. 242 p.

J.

1979: Soil survey method. (Revised). NZ Soil Bureau

TWYFORD, I. T.; WRIGHT, A. C. S. 1965: The Soil Resources of the Fiji Island. Vols. 1
and 2, Government of Fiji, Suva. 570 p.
WALKELY, A.; BLACK, I. A. 1934: An examination of the Degtjareff method for
determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid
titration method. Soil Science 37: 29-38.
WELLS, N.; SMIDT, R. E. 1978: D. Methods for mineral and element analysis. NZ Soil

Bureau Scientific Report 10D.

25

APPENDIX 1 GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN SOIL TAXONOMY

The following definitions are greatly simplified versions of those given in USDA Soil Taxonomy
(Soil Survey Staff 1975). They are intended only as a guide to understanding this report and
they should not be used for soil classification.
Aquents A suborder of Entisols comprising soils which are saturated with water at some time
of the year, or are artificially drained, and have greyish colours which are due to the reduction
of iron.
Aquepts A suborder of Inceptisols comprising soils which are saturated with water at some
time of the year, or are artificially drained, and have greyish colours which are due to the
reduction of iron.
Argillic horizon A mineral diagnostic subsurface horizon which has accumulated significant
amounts of clay through translocation from overlying horizons. Often recognised by the
occurrence of clay skins (see below) in the soil.
Aquic moisture regime One in which reducing conditions occur, during some part of the year,
because of the absence of dissolved oxygen resulting from saturation by ground water.
Cambic horizon A mineral, diagnostic subsurface horizon that has a texture of loamy very fine
sand or finer and has soil structure rather than rock structure. It is characterised by the
alteration of the parent materials, as may be shown by colour differences with underlying
horizons, but it still retains some weatherable minerals. It is not cemented or indurated and it
has not accumulated sufficient clay, by translocation from overlying horizons, to be regarded as
an argillic horizon.
Clay skins Thin coatings of clay on the surfaces of soil peds, mineral grains and soil pores.

Entisols An order in Soil Taxonomy comprising soils of weak profile development which have
no subsurface diagnostic horizons within 1 m of the surface.
Epipedon A surface horizon.
Fibrists A suborder of Histosols comprising organic soils which have a high content of
undecomposed plant fibres.
Fluvents A suborder of Entisols which includes soils derived from recent alluvial sediments.
Usually, they are stratified and their organic carbon content decreases irregularly with depth.
Histic epipedon A thin, organic soil horizon that forms at or near the surface and may be
underlain by further organic materials or by mineral soil. It is saturated with water for some

26
part of the year.
Histosols An order in Soil Taxonomy which, in this survey, comprises soils which have more
than 40 cm of organic soil materials in the upper 80 cm of the profile. All include histic
epipedons within the organic soil materials.
Humults A suborder in Soil Taxonomy comprising Ultisols with a high content of organic
carbon.
Inceptisols An order in Soil Taxonomy comprising soils with horizons that have formed mainly
from the alteration of parent materials and do not have marked accumulations of removals of
soil materials such as clays, sesquioxides, or humus.
Isohyper thermic temperat ure regime Mean annual soil temperatures, at 50 cm depth, equal or
exceed 22C, and the difference between mean summer and winter soil temperatures is less than
50C.

n value This refers to the relationship between the soil water content under field conditions, and
the contents of inorganic clay and humus. It is assessed in the field by squeezing a soil sample
in the hand. Soils which flow with difficulty between the fingers have n values between 0.7
and 1.0; those that flow easily have n values exceeding 1.0. The measurement has been used
in this survey to identify H ydraquents.
Tropepts A suborder of Inceptisols in which mean annual soil temperatures, at a depth of 50
cm, equal or exceed 8C, and the difference between mean summer and mean winter
temperatures is less than 5C.
Ultisols An order in Soil Taxonomy comprising mineral soils which have an argillic horizon
with a low base saturation.

27

APPENDIX 2

SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTIO NS AND ANALYTICAL

DATA

The following soil descriptions and analytical data are of profiles considered representative of
the soil taxonomic units described in this survey.
The soils are arranged in alphabetical order. Methods of description are those outlined by Taylor
and Pohlen (1979), except for horizon designations. Horizon designation follows F.A.O. methods
(FAO 1974) for mineral horizons and the System of Soil Classification for Canada (Canada
Department of Agriculture 1970) for organic horizons.
Methods of analysis are explained on page of this report. Ratings for chemical properties as
used by Koronivia Laboratory, Fiji, and NZ Soil Bureau are given in Table 9.
Table 9. Ratings for chemical properties
Exchangeable cations
Organic
carbon
Ratings

(%)

Ca

Mg

Na

pH
(1:2.5 soil:water)

(meq/100 g)
Very high

>20

>20

10-20

Medium
Low

High

Very low

CEC

BS

bases

(%)

(meq/100 g)

>8.0

>1.2

>2.0

10-20

3.0-S.O

0.6-1.2

0.7-2.0

4-10

5-10

1.0-3.0

0.3--0.6

2-4

2-5

0.3-1.0

0.2-0.3

<2

<2

<0.3

<0.2

>9.0 (extr. alkaline)

8.2-9.0 (str. alkaline)
7.6-8.3 (mod. alkaline)

>40

>25

80-100

7.1-7.5 (sli. alkaline)

6.6-7.0 (near neutral)

25-40

15-25

60--80

0.3--0.7

6.0-6.5 (sli. acid)

5.3-5.9 (mod. acid)

12-25

7-15

40-60

0.1-0.3

4.5-5.2 (str. acid)

6-12

3-7

20-40

<6

<3

<20

<0.1

<4.5

(extr. acid)

The following ratings for chemical properties are used by DSIR Land Resources (Blakemore et
al. 1987) for New Zealand soils. Whilst the results reported are not for New Zealand soils, and
the methods used for the analyses (especially CEC) are different, the ratings are probably still
a reasonable guide.

28

Ratings

Very high
High
Medium
Low
Very low

pH (1:2.5 soil:water)

2: bases
--(m.e. %)---

CEC

>9.0 (extr. alkaline)

>40
8.4-9.0 (str. alkaline)
7.6-8.4 (mod. alkaline)
7.1-7.5 (sli. alkaline)
25-40
6.6-7.0 (near neutral)
6.0-6.5 (sli. acid)
12-25
5.3-5.9 (mod. acid)
4.5-5.2 (str. acid)
6-12
<4.5 (ext. acid)
<6

BS
%

>25

80-100

15-25

60-80

7-15

40-60

3-7
<3

20-40
<20

Note: m.e.% equals (millimoles +ion charge no.) per 100 g

Particle size analyses are present ed using the size classifications of the United States Departm
ent
of Agriculture (from Soil Survey Staff 1975). These are as follows:
Very coarse sand
2-1 mm
Coarse sand
1-0.5 mm
Medium sand
0.5-0.2 5 mm
Fine sand
0.25-0. 1 mm
Very fine sand
0.1-0.0 5 mm
Silt
0.05 - 0.002 mm
Clay
<0.002 mm
In addition, the content of fine clay (<0.0002 mm) has been determi ned in supplem
entary
analyses of some horizons from 3 profiles in order to check the presence of argillic diagnos
tic
horizons.

29
Soil name:
BATIK! SILTY CLAY LOAM
Profile no.: Nd 35
Laboratory no.: KRS T1391-1395
Elevation (M): 12
Landform: Swampy valley between hilly ridges
Relief: Flat
Parent material: Fine-textured alluvium and colluvium
Drainage: Very poorly drained
Classification: (Typic) Hydraquent, fine and very-fine, kaolinitic, acid, isohyperthermic
Implied subgroup, introduced in this survey
Horizon Depth
(cm)

Description

Aul

0-20
(20)

Wet; dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) silty clay loam; slightly sticky;
slightly plastic; massive; many poorly decomposed plant remains;
many fine roots; indistinct boundary.

Au2

20-30
(10)

Wet; very dark greyish brown (10YR3/2) silty clay loam; slightly
sticky; slightly plastic; massive; many poorly decomposed plant
remains; many fine roots; distinct boundary.

Cr

30-125
(95)

Wet; greenish grey (5G 5/1) clay; many (15%) distinct medium
strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) mottles; sticky; plastic; massive; few
fine roots.

Diagnostic
features
Oehrle
epipedon

Note: All horizons have n values greater than 1.0.

Lab
no.

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

KRS T1391
T1392
T1393
T1395

0-20
20-30
30-50
75-100

Aul
Au2
Cr
Cr

Lab
no.

Depth

Horizon

(cm)

KRS T1391
T1392
T1393
T1394
T1395

0-20
20-30
30-50
50-70
75-100

Aul
Au2
Cr
Cr
Cr

pH
H,O

Organic matter C
(%)

4.7
4.7
5.2
5.3

13.7
11.9

Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)

2-1

1..0.5

0.5-0.25

0.25-0.1

0.1-0.05

0.05-0.002

<0.002

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

0
2
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0

2
2
3
2
2

33
35
50
41
28

64
60
47
57
70

0
0
0
0
0

30
Soil name:
DARIA CLAY LOAM
Profile no.: Nd 78
Laboratory n'O.: KRS T1396-1400
Elevation (m): 17
Landform: Toe slope in hill country
Relief: Moderately sloping (13)
Parent material: Marine sandstones and siltstones
Drainage: Imperfectly to moderately well drained
Classification: "(Aquic) Humitropept, fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
Implied subgroup, introduced in this survey
Horizon

Depth
(cm)

Description

Diagnostic
features

Ag

0-lS
(1S)

Moist; brown to dary brown (lOYR 4/3) clay loam; many (10%)
medium distinct yellowish red (SYR S/6) and many (10%_ fine
faint greyish brown (2.SY S/2) mottles (which occur mainly
towards the base of the horizon); friable; sticky; plastic; weakly
developed medium nut structure; many fine roots; distinct
smooth boundary.

Bg

15-S3
(38)

Moist; brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) clay; many (20%) fine

prominent strong brown (7.SYR 5/6) motiles on ped faces and
many (15%) fine distinct grey (SY 5/1) motiles along pores and
root channels; friable; sticky; plastic; weakly developed coarse
blocky structure; few fine roots; indistinct wavy boundary.

BCg

Cambic
horizon

Moist; yellowish red (5YR 5/6) clay; many (10%) fine distinct
light yellowish brown (2.SY 6/4) motiles and abundant (30%) fine
faint light bluish grey (SB 7 /1) motiles along pores and root
channels; firm; sticky; plastic; massive to weakly developed
coarse blocky structure; few fine roots.

53-100
(47)

Lab. no.

KRS

Oehrle
epipedon

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

0-15
15-53
53-80
80-100

Ag
Bg
BCg
BCg

T1407
T1408
T1409
T1410

H2o

pH

Organic
matter C
(%)

S.2
5.2
5.0
5.2

S.2
1.3
0.6
0.5

Cation exchange
Lab. no.

KRS

Depth
(cm)

T1407
T1408
T1409
T1410

N7aa
N78 b

L bases

Ag
Bg
BCg
BCg

CEC
(me.%)

(me.%)

BS
(%)

Ca
(me.%)

Mg
(me.%)

K
(me.%)

Na
(me.%)

21.7
20.2
21.8
21.6

8.34
4.42
2.90
2.27

38

4.91
2.03
1.04
0.88

2.76
1.7S
1.29
0.83

0.22
0.13
0.20
0.19

0.45
0.51
0.37
0.37

22

13
11

Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)

Lab.no.

KRS

0-lS
15-53
53-80
80-10

Horizon

Depth
(cm)

T1407
T1408
T1409
T1410

0-15
15-53
53--80
80-100
()-15
15-53

Hori
zon

21

10.5

mm

mm

Ag
Bg
BCg
BCg
Ag

Bg

Supplementary analyses done at DSIR Land Resources.

0
1
0
0

2
1

0.5
0.25

0.25
0.1

0.1
0.05

0.050.002

mm

mm

mm

mm

4
2

13
5

8
5
6
6

33
26

3
5

32
31

<0.002

<0.0002

mm

mm

40
60
58
56
45
65

fine cla;r:
total clay

26

0.59

39

0.60

31
Soll mime:
DREKEINA.KELO SILTY CLAY LOAM
Profile no.: Nd 54
Laboratory no.: KRS T1396-1400
Elevation (m): 22
Landform: Large rotational slump deposit, now well covered marine sandstones and siltstones
Relief: Rolling slopes (6)
Parent material: Slump deposits derived from strongly weathered marine sandstones and siltstones
Drainage: Well drained
Classification: Typis Palehumult, clayey, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
Horizon

Depth
{cm)

Description

Diagnostic
features

Ap

0-19
(19)

Moist; brown to dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) silty clay loam; friable;
slightly sticky; plastic; weakly developed very fine nut structure;
many fine roots; distinct wavy boundary.

Btl

19-53
(34)

Moist; red (2.5Y 4/8) clay; firm; sticky; plastic; moderately

developed medium blocky structure; many thin distinct brown
(7.5YR 5/4) and strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) cutans on ped faces
and in pores; many fine roots; diffuse boundary.

53-100

Moist; red (2.5YR 4/8) clay; friable; sticky; plastic; weakly

developed coarse blocky structure; few thin faint brown (7.SYR
5 / 4) and strong brown (7.5YR 5 / 6) cutans on ped faces and in
pores; few fine roots.

Bt2

(47)

Lab. no.

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

Oehrle
epipedon

Argillic
horizon

Organic matter

pH

HzO

(%)
KRS

T1396
T1397
T1398
T1399
T1400

Ap

0-19
19-53
53-80
80-100
125-150

5.2
5.2
5.1
5.1
5.0

Btl

Bt2
Bt2
Bt2

4.2
1.9
0.64
0.54
0.43
Cation exchange

Lab. no.

Depth
(cm)

Hori
zon

.}: bases
(me.%)

CEC
(me.%)
KRS

T1396
T1397
T1398
T1399
T1400

BS
(%)

Ca
(me.%)

Mg
(me.%)

K
(me.%)

Na
(me.%)

0-19
19-53
53-80
80-100
125-150

Ap
Bt1
Bt2
Bt2
Bt2

20.2
22.1
26.5
27.4
27.0

8.15
8.35
10.5
11.0
11.5

40
38
49
40
43

4.42
4.67
6.49
7.15
7.82

3.04
3.02
3.14
2.99
2.94

0.31
0.16
0.23
0.22
0.24

038

125-150

Bt2

27.8

11.1

40

7.8

2.91

0.23

0.14

0.50
0.65
0.65
0.46

also, Exchange acidity= 28.3 meJ100 g

and BS (by sum of cations) = 28%

Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)

Lab. no.

KRS

N54

Depth
(cm)

T1398
T1397
T1398
T1399
T1400

a
b*

0-19
19-53

Hori
zon

80-100
125-150

Ap
Bt1
Bt2
Bt2
Bt2

0-19
19-53

Ap
Bt1

53-80

supplementary analyses done at DSIR Land Resources

fine clay

21

10.5

mm

mm

1
0

1
0

0
0

0.5
0.25

0.25
0.1

0.1
0.05

mm

mm

mm

0.002
mm

5
0
0
0
0

12
8
4
4
2

12
7
3
3
4

29
25
28
28
31

0.05-

<0.00
2

<0.00

mm

mm

02

total clay

39
59
64
65
62
48
61

30
40

0.63

0.66

32
Soil name:
KOROQAQA SILTY CLAY LOAM
Profile no.: Nd 3
Laboratory no.: KRS T1372-1376
Elevation (m): 12
Landform: Narrow valley between hilly ridges
Relief: Flat
Parent material: Fine-textured alluvium and colluvium
Drainage: Imperfectly drained
Classification: Aerie Tropaquept, fine and very fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic

Moist; yellowish brown (lOYR 5/5) silty clay loam; many (5%) medium distinct
light brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2) and many (3%) fine faint brown to strong brown
(7.5YR 4/5) mottles; friable; slightly sticky; plastic; weakly developed medium
blocky structure; few fine roots; distinct smooth boundary.

0-11

Agl

Diagnostic
features

Description

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

(11)

Oehrle
epipedon

Ag2

11-29
(18)

Moist; brown to dark brown (lOYR 4/3) silty clay loam; many (15%) medium
distinct light brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2) and many (15%) fine distinct strong brown
(7 /5YR 5/6) mottles; friable; slightly sticky; plastic; moderately developed coarse
nut structure; few fine roots; indistinct, smooth boundary.

Bg

29-46
(17)

Moist; greyish brown (2.5Y 5/2) silty clay loam; many (15%) medium distinct light
brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2) and many (10%) fine distinct yellowish red (5YR 4/6)
mottles; friable; slightly sticky; plastic; moderately developed medium blocky
structure; many pores and root channels lined with soft yellowish red (5YR 5/8)
iron oxide; few fine roots; sharp wavy boundary.

Cgl

46-66
(20)

Moist; olive grey (SY 5/2) silty clay loam; many (15%) medium distinct yellowish
red {5YR 5/8) and many (5%) fine distinct very dark grey to dark brown {7.5YR
3/1) mottles; firm; slightly sticky; plastic; massive; no roots; sharp wavy boundary.

Cg2

66-100
(34)

Moist; light brownish grey to light yellowish brown (2.5YR 6/3) silty clay loam
with abundant (30%) fine distinct yellowish red (5YR 5/6) mottles; friable; slightly
sticky; plastic; massive; soft yellowish red 5YR 5/6) iron oxide deposits along a few
pores and root channels; no roots.

Lab. no.

KRS

T1372
T1373
T1374
T1375
T1376

Cambic
horizon

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

pH
H 20

Organic matter C*
(%)

0-11
11-29
29-46
46-66
66-100

Agl
Ag2
Bg
Cgl
Cg2

5.1
5.0
5.0
5.3
5.6

2.2
2.0
2.0
1.0
0.6

Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)

Lab. no.

Depth
(cm)

KRS

T1372
T1373
T1374
T1375
T1376

0-11
11-29
29-46
46-&>
66-100

N3 a

0-11

11-29

Horizon

Agl
Ag2
Bg
Cgl

Cg2

2-1

1-0.s

mm

mm

0
0
0
0
0

Agl
Ag2

Supplementary analyses done at DSIR Land Resources.

0
0
0
0
0

0.50.25

0.250.1

0.1o.os

o.os-

<0.002

<0.0002

0.002

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

1
0
0
0
1

1
1
0
1

4
1
3
2
3

59
55
52

55

56

fine clal:
total clay

35
43
45
42
39
58
61

30
32

0.52
0.53

33
Soil name:
LOBAU CLAY
Profile no.: Nd 38
Laboratory no.: Not sampled for analysis
Elevation (m): 40 m
Landform: Mid slope in hill country
Relief: Very steep slope (41)
Parent material: Marine sandstones and siltstones
Drainage: Well drained
Classification:
Typic Humitropept, fine-loamy and fine, mixed* and kaolinitic, isohypertherrnic
*Tightly aggregated kaolinitic clay present in sand fraction
Horizon

Depth
(cm)

Description

Diagnostic
features

0-18
(18)

Moist; very dark greyish brown (lOYR 3/2) clay; friable; sticky;
plastic; moderately developed medium nut structure; few
medium stones of strongly weathered sandstone; many fine roots;
indistinct wavy boundary.

Oehrle
epipedon

Bwl

18-60

Moist; brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/4) clay; friable; sticky;

plastic; weakly developed medium blocky structure; many
medium stones of strongly weathered sandstone; few fine roots;
diffuse boundary.

(42)

Bw2

60-100
(40)

Moist; dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) clay loam; friable; sticky;
plastic; weakly developed medium blocky structure; no stones
few fine roots.

Cambic
horizon

34
Soil name: MUANISEI SANDY CLAY LOAM
Profile no.: Nd 101 Laboratory no.: KRS T1420-1424
Elevation (m): 12
Landform: Levee crest
Relief: Flat
Parent material: Alluvium
Drainage: Well drained
Classification: Typic Eutropept, coarse-loamy, mixed, isohyperthmic

* Tightly aggregated kaolinitic clay present in sand fraction

Horizon

Depth
(cm)

Description

Diagnostic
features

Ap

0-22
(22)

Bw

22-52
(30)

Moist; brown to dark brown (10YR 4/3) clay loam; friable; slightly sticky;
plastic; weakly developed coarse blocky structure; many fine roots;
indistinct boundary.

52-100
(48)

Moist; brown to dark brown (10YR 4/3) sandy loam; friable; non-sticky;
non-plastic; massive; few fine roots.

Moist; dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2) sandy clay loam; friable; slightly
sticky; plastic; weakly developed fine blocky structure; many fine roots;
diffuse boundary.

Oehrle
epipedon

Cambic
horizon

Note: Some stones up to 3 cm in size in A horizon; these may have been scattered from the road rather than deposited by the river.

Lab. no.
KRS

T1420
T1421
T1422
T1423
T1424

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

pH
H,,O

Organic matter C
(%)

0-22
22-52
52-80
80-100
100-125

Ap
Bw

6.0
6.4
6.2
6.2
6.7

2.0
0.85
0.21
0.17
0.08

c
c
c

Cation exchange
Lab. no.

KRS

T1420
T1421
T1422
T1423
T1424

Depth
(cm)

0-22
22-52
52-80
80-100
100-125

Horizon

Ap
Bw

c
c
c

L bases
CEC
(me.%)

(me.%)

28.8
28.2
26.9
30.3
27.0

21.4
22.8
22.0
25.1
22.8

BS
(%)
74
81
82

83
84

Ca
(me.%)

Mg
(me.%)

K
(me.%)

Na
(me.%)

14.8
15.9
15.0
16.8
15.4

5.94
6.32
6.63
7.64
6.76

0.19
0.11
0.10
0.12
0.12

0.48
0.51
0.31
0.50
0.57

Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)

Lab. no.

KRS

T1420
T1421
T1422
T1423
T1424

Depth

Hori-

(cm)

zon

0-22
22-52

52-80
80-100

100-125

Ap
Bw

c
c
c

2-1

1-0.5

mm

mm

0
1
0
5
0

1
1
3
5
3

0.50.25

0.250.1

0.10.05

0.050.002

mm

mm

mm

mm

3
0
10
4

14
16

12
17

47
43

34

23

25

5
27

8
17

50

23

33

16

<0.002
mm

23
22

35
Soil name:
NADURULOULOU PEAT
Profile no.: Nd 12
Laboratory no.: KRS Tl382-1385
Elevation (m):
10
Landform: Swampy valley between hilly ridges
Relief: Flat
Parent material: 50 cm fibrous peat over fine-textured alluvium and colluvium
Drainage: Very poorly drained
Classification: Terrie Tropofibrist, clayey, kaolinitic, dysic, isohyperthermic

Horizon

Depth
(cm)

Description

Diagnostic
features

Of1

0-20
(20)

Wet; dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) fibric peat; abundant slightly decomposed plant
leaves and stems up to 5 mm in diameter; structureless; indistinct boundary.

Of2

20-50
(30)

Wet; very dark grey (7.5YR 3/0) fibric peat; abundant slightly decomposed plant
leaves and stems; structureless; indistinct boundary.

Cr

50-125

Wet; greenish grey (5BG 5/1) silty clay with few (23) faint fine yellowish brown
(10YR 5/6) mottles; slightly sticky; plastic; massive.

Lab. no.
KRS

Tl382
Tl383
T1384
Tl385

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

0-20
20-50
50-75
75-100

Ofl
Of2
Cr
Cr

pH
H1 0

Organic matter C

4.6
4.2
5.5
6.1

21.9
19.9
2.8
2.2

(%)

Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)

Lab. no.

KRS

T1382
T1283
Tl384
T1385

Depth
(cm)

50-70
75-100

Hori
-zon

Cr
Cr

2-1
mm

0
0

1-0.5
mm

1
0

0.5-

0.25-

0.1-

0.05-

0.25

0.1

0.05

0.002

mm

mm

mm

mm

1
1

6
5

6
8

33
32

<0.002
mm

53
54

His tic
epipedon

Mineral soil
materials

36
NAUSORI SILTY CLAY LOAM
Soil name:
Laboratory no.: KRS T1415-1419
Profile no.: Nd 87
Elevation (m): 12
Landform: Swamp
Relief: Flat
Parent material: Fine-textured alluvium and colluvium
Drainage: Poorly drained
Classification: Typic Tropaquept, fine and very-fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic
Horizon

Diagnostic
features

Description

Depth
(cm)

Moist; brown to dark brown (lOYR 4/3) silty clay loam; many (5%) faint fine
light brownish grey (2.SY 6/2) and few (2%) distinct fine yellowish red (SYR
5/6) mottles; firm; sticky; plastic; weakly developed medium blocky structure;
many fine roots; indistinct smooth boundary.

Ag

0-21
(21)

Bg

21-57
(36)

Moist; olive grey (SY 5/2) clay; few (2%) distinct fine grey to light grey (SY 6/1)
and abundant (30%) distinct medium yellowish red (SY 6/1) and abundant
(303) distinct medium yellowish red (SYR 4/6) mottles; firm; sticky; plastic;
weakly developed coarse blocky structure; many fine roots; indistinct wavy
boundary.

S7-100
(43)

Moist; light olive grey (SY 6/2) clay; abundant (40%) distinct medium yellowish
brown (lOYR 5/6) and many (20%) distinct fine yellowish red (SYR 5/6)
mottles; firm; sticky; plastic; massive; few fine roots.

Cr

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

pH
H,O

0-21
21-57
57-80
80-100
100-125

Ag
Bg
Cr
Cr
Cr

5.5
5.8
5.6
5.6
5.9

Lab. no.

KRST

T1415
T1416
T1417
T1418
T1419

Oehrle
epipedon

Cambic
horizon

Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)

Depth
(cm)

Lab. no.

KRS

T1415
T1416
T1417
T1418
T1419

0-21
21-57
57-80
80-100
100-125

Horizon

Ag
Bg
Cr
Cr
Cr

2-1

1-0.5

mm

mm

0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

0.50.25

0.250.1

0.10.05

0.050.002

mm

mm

mm

mm

0
1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
2

3
1
2
3
2

47
51
56
58
62

<0.002

mm
50
46
42
39
34

37
Soil name:
NUKUNIK ULA SILTY CLAY
Profile no.: Nd 38
Laboratory no.: Not sampled for analysis
Elevation (m): 12
Landform: Swamp
Relief: Flat
Parent material: Fine-textured alluvium and colluvium
Drainage: Poorly to very poorly drained
Classification: "Tropaquent, fine and very-fine, kaolinitic, acid, isohypertherm ic
*Subgroups not defined.

Horizon

Depth
(cm)

Ap

0-15
(15)

Crl

15-60
(45)

Cr2

60-100
(40)

Description
Wet; brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/4) silty clay; slightly sticky; plastic;
massive; many poorly decomposed roots; many fine live roots; indistinct
boundary.
Wet; dark grey (SY 4/1) clay; abundant (303) medium distinct yellowish red
(5YR 5/7) mottles; slightly sticky; plastic; massive; few fine roots; indistinct
boundary.
Wet; greenish grey (5GY 5/1) clay; abundant (503) medium distinct dark
yellowish brown (lOYR 4/4) mottles; slightly sticky; plastic; massive; no roots.

Diagnostic
features
Oehrle
epipedon

38
REWA SILT LOAM
Soil name:
Laboratory no.: KRS T1401-1406
Nd 60
Profile no.:
Elevation (m): 12
Landform: Backslope of levee
Relief: Flat
Parent material: Alluvium
Drainage: Moderately well drained
Classification: Ruventic Eutropept, fine-silty, mixed, isohyperthermic
*Tightly aggregated kaolinitic clay present in sand fraction
Horizon

Diagnostic
features

Description

Depth
(cm)

Ap

0-8
(8)

Moist; very dark greyish brown (lOYR 3/2) silt loam; friable; slightly sticky;
slightly plastic; weakly developed fine blocky structure; abundant fine roots;
distinct smooth boundary.

Bw

8-25
(17)

Moist; brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/4) silty clay loam; friable; sticky; plastic;
moderately developed fine blocky structure; few fine roots; distinct smooth
boundary.

Oehrle
epipedon

Cambic
horizon
Bg

25-54
(29)

Moist; brown (7.SYR 5/4) clay loam; many (10%) faint medium yellowish red
(5YR 5/8) mottles; friable; sticky; plastic; weakly developed fine blocky
structure; a few strongly weathered sandstone gravels; few fine roots; distinct
smooth boundary.

Ab

54-SO
(26)

Moist; brown to dark brown (lOYR 4/3) clay; many (10%) faint medium
yellowish red (5YR 4/6) mottles; firm; sticky; plastic; weakly developed coarse
blocky structure; a few strongly weathered sandstone gravels; few fine roots;
indistict smooth boundary.

Bgb

80-100
(20)

Buried
horizons

Moist; yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4) sandy clay loam; abundant (30%) faint
medium yellowish red (5YR 4/6) mottles; friable; slightly sticky; plastic; weakly
developed coarse blocky structure; a few strongly weathered sandstone gravels;
no roots.
Lab. no.

KRST

T1401
T1402
T1403
T1404
T1405
T1406

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

pH
H 20

Organic
matter C
(%)

0-8
8-25
25-54
54-SO
80-100
100-125

Ap
Bw
Bg
Ab
Bgb
Bgb

5.3
5.7
5.4
5.9
6.0
6.0

3.7
1.1
1.7
1.3
0.81
0.61

Cation exchange
Depth
(cm)

Lab. no.

KRS

T1401
T1402
T1403
T1404
T1405
T1406

0-8
8-25
25-54
54-SO
80-100
100-125

Horizon

Ap
Bw
Bg
Ab
Bgb
Bgb

L.
CEC
(me.%)

bases
(me.%)

BS
(%)

Ca
(me.%)

Mg
(me.%)

K
(me.%)

Na
(me.%)

33.8
31.5
332
35.3
34.6
29.6

21.4
22.0
19.8
25.5
26.5
23.4

63
70
60

13.9
12.8
12.9
13.4
13.8

5.94
8.48
5.89
11.3
11.9
11.5

1.06
0.23
0.53
0.22
0.23
0.30

0.42
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.56
0.47

72
76
79

11.1

39
Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)
Lab. no.

Depth
(cm)

KRS

T1401
T1402
T1403
T1404
T1405
T1406

0-8
8-25
25-54
54-80
80-100

100-125

Horizon

Ap
Bw
Bg
Ab
Bgb
Bgb

2-1

1-0.5

mm

mm

2
1
0
0
0

2
1

2
1
0
0

0.50.25

0.250.1

0.10.05

0.050.002

mm

mm

mm

mm

4
3
4
3

8
4
2
6
9
2

9
5

43
53

57

4
0

44

11

47
53

<0.002

mm
32
33
30
40
29
44

40
Soil name:
SOTE CLAY LOAM
Profile no.: Nd 80
Laboratory no.: KRS T1411-1414
Elevation (m): 37
Landform: Ridge crest in hill country
Relief: Very gently sloping (1)
Parent material: Marine sandstones and siltstones
Drainage: Well drained
Classification: Typic Humitropept, fine and very-fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
Horizon Depth
(cm)

Description

Moist; brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/ 4) clay loam; friable; sticky;

plastic; moderately developed fine nut structure; few fine roots;
distinct smooth boundary.

0-13
(13)

A/B

Diagnostic
features

13-22

Moist; brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/4) and red (2.SYR 5/8) clay
loam; friable; sticky; plastic; moderately developed medium nut
structure with worm cast granules; few fine roots; distinct wavy
boundary.

(9)

Bw

22-65
(43)

Moist; red (2.SYR 5/8) clay; firm; sticky; plastic; weakly

developed medium blocky structure; few fine roots; indistinct
wavy boundary.

65-100
(35)

Moist; red (2.5YR 5/8) and pale yellow (2.5Y 7 /4) clay; firm;
sticky; plastic; massive; a few small strongly weathered stones of
parent rock present.

Depth
(cm)

Lab
no.

KRS

T1411
T1412
T1413
T1414

Depth
(cm)

T1411
T1412
T1413
T1414

Lab
no.

Horizon

0-13
13-22
22-65
65-100

Lab
no.

KRS

T1412
T1413
T1414

0-13
13-22
22-65
65-100

Organic matter C
(3)

4.8
4.9
5.0
4.9

4.9
2.3
0.79
0.35

Cambic
horizon

Cation exchange
Horizon

0-13
13-22
22-65
54-70

(cm)

pH
H 20

A
A/B
Bw

CEC
(me.3)

2. bases
(me.%)

BS
(%)

Ca
(me.%)

Mg
(me.%)

K
(me.%)

Na
(me.%)

A
A/B
Bw

31.4
28.0
24.7
26.7

8.53
4.04
2.31
2.14

27
14
9
8

4.21
1.74
0.73
0.79

3.72
1.74
0.87
0.76

0.23
0.17
0.17
0.21

0.37
0.39
0.54
0.38

2-1

1-0.5

mm

mm

0
0
0
0

1
0
1
1

Depth

KRS Tl411

Oehrle
epipedon

Horizon

A
A/B
Bw

Particle size (o/o fine-earth fraction)

0.5-0.25 0.25-o.1 0.1-0.05 0.05-0.002 <0.002
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm

4
3
2
1

8
5
4
2

7
5
6
4

23
25
31

42

57
62
56
50

41
Soil name:
SOTE CLAY, weakly gleyed subsoil variant
Profile no.: Nd 103
Laboratory no.: Not sampled for analysis
Elevation (m): 15
Land.form: Slope below low-angle bench in hill country
Relief: Moderately steep (25)
Parent material: Marine sandstones and siltstones
Drainage: Moderately well drained
Classification: Typic Humitropept, fine and very-fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic

Horizon

Depth

Description

(cm)

Ap

0-8

(8)
Bw

8-22
(14)

Bg

22-52
(30)

52-100
(48)

Moist; dark brown (7.5YR 3/3) clay; friable; sticky; plastic; moderately
developed fine nut structure; many fine roots; distinct smooth boundary.
Moist; brown to dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) and yellowish red (5YR 5/8) clay;
friable; sticky; plastic; moderately developed fine nut structure; few fine roots;
indisticnt irregular boundary.
Moist; red (2.5YR 4/8) clay; friable; sticky; plastic; weakly developed coarse
blocky structure; ped faces and root channels of light yellowish brown (lOYR
6/4) colour; a few small stones of strongly weathered sandstone; few fine roots;
indistinct irregular boundary.
Moist; yellowish red (SYR 5/8) light yellowish brown (lOYR 6/4) and strong
brown (7.5YR 5/6) clay loam; friable; sticky; plastic; massive; a few small stones
of strongly weathred sandstone; no roots noted.

Diagnostic
features
Oehrle
epipedon

Cambic
horizon

42
TAMA NUA CLAY
Soil name:
Laboratory no.: Not sampled for analysis
Profile no.: Nd 107
12
Elevation (m):
Landform: Backslope of levee
Relief: Flat
Parent material: Fine-textured alluvium
Drainage: Imperfectly drained
Classification: Fluvaquentic Eutropept, fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic

Horiz
on

Depth

Description

(cm)

Ap

0-20
(20)

Bg

20-40
(20)

reddish
Moist; greyish brown (lOYR 5/2) clay; many (10%) fine distinct dark
plastic;
brown (2.5YR 3/ 4) mottles, mainly along root channels; friable; sticky;
smooth
t
indistinc
roots;
fine
many
;
structure
nut
fine
ed
develop
weakly
boundary.
clay;
Moist; light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) and greyish brown (10YR 5/2)
fine
(10%)
many
and
3/4)
(2.5YR
brown
reddish
dark
many (10%) fine distinct
ed
distinct black (2.5YR 2.5/0) mottles; friable; sticky; plastic; weakly develop
coarse prismatic structure; few fine roots; distinct smooth boundary.
Moist; grey (lOYR 5/1) clay; many (10%) fine distinct dark reddish brown
black
(2.5YR 3/4) mottles along root channels and many (5%) fine distinct
prismatic
(2.5YR 2.5/0) mottles; friable; sticky; plastic; weakly developed coarse
y.
boundar
smooth
t
indistinc
roots;
fine
structure; few
brown
Moist; brown (7.5YR 5/4) clay; many (10%) medium distinct greyish
c
(2.5Y 5/2) mottles; friable; sticky; plastic; weakly developed coarse prismati
y.
boundar
smooth
distinct
roots;
structure; few very fine

Ab

40-54
(14)

Bgb

54-83
(29)

Ab2

83-100
(17)

ts of
Moist; dark grey (lOYR 4/1) clay; firm; sticky; plastic; massive; fragmen
of
charcoal and many unweath ered subangular sandstone stones at base
horizon; indistinct smooth boundary.

Bgb2

100-115
(15)

yellowish
Moist; yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4) clay; many (5%) fine distinct light
massive.
plastic;
sticky;
firm;
mottles;
6/4)
brown (10YR

Diagnostic
features
Oehrle
epipedon

Cambic
horizon

Buried
horizons

43
Soil name:
TOGA SANDY LOAM
Profile no.: Nd 121
Laboratory no.: Not sampled for analysis
Elevation (m): 12
Landform: Levee crest
Relief: Easy rolling (4)
Parent material: Alluvium
Drainage: Well drained
Classification: *Tropofluvent, coarse-loamy, mixed, nonacid, isohyperthermic
Subgroups not defined
*Tightly aggregated kaolinitic clay present in sand fraction
Horizon

Depth
(cm)

Description

Ap

0-12
(12)

Moist; dark brown (7.5YR 3/2) sandy loam; friable; slightly sticky; non-plastic;
weakly developed coarse blocky structure; few fine roots; distinct wavy
boundary.

12-29
(17)

Moist; brown to dark brown (7.5YR 4/2) sandy loam; many (203) faint fine
strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) mottles; very friable; slightly sticky; non-plastic;
massive; no roots; distinct wavy boundary.

Ab

29-43
(14)

Moist; dark grey (lOYR 4/1) sandy clay loam with many (203) distinct fine
dark reddish brown (5YR 3/4) mottles; friable; slightly sticky; plastic; weakly
developed medium nut structure; no roots; distinct wavy boundary.

Cb

43-58
(15)

Moist; greyish brown (lOYR 5/2) sandy loam; many (20%) faint fine dark
reddish brown (5YR 3/4) mottles; friable; slightly sticky; non-plastic; massive;
no roots; distinct wavy boundary.

Cb2

58-100
(42)

Moist; brown (lOYR 5/3) clay; many (103) faint fine yellowish red (5YR 4/6)
mottles; friable; sticky; plastic; massive; no roots.

Diagnostic
features
Oehrle
epipedon

Buried
horizons

44
Soil name:
VISA CLAY
Profile no.: Nd 105
Laboratory no.: KRS T1425-1428
Elevation (m): 30
Landform: Midslope in hill country
Relief: Steep (32)
Parent material: Marine sandstones and siltstones
Drainage: Well drained
Classification: Typic Humitropept, fine-loamy and fine, mixed and kaolinitic, isohyperthermic
'Tightly aggregated kaolinitic clay present in sand fraction.
Horizon
A

Depth
(cm)
0-11
(11)

Description

Diagnostic
features

Moist; brown to dark brown (7 /5YR 4/4) clay; friable; sticky; plastic;
moderately developed fine nut structure; a few small strongly weathered
stones; many fine roots; indistinct wavy boundary.

Oehrle

epipedon

Bwl

11-30
(19)

Moist; strong brown (7.5YR 4/6) clay; friable; sticky; plastic; moderately
developed fine nut structure; a few small and medium sized strongly
weathered stones; many fine roots; indistinct irregular boundary.

Bw2

30-60
(30)

Moist; strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) and yellowish red (5YR 5/8) clay loam; friable;
sticky; plastic; moderately developed fine nut structure; a few small and
medium sized strongly weathered stones; few fine roots; distinct irregular
boundary.

60-100
(40)

Cambic
horizon

Moist; yellowish red (5YR 5/8), red (2.5YR 4/8) and very pale brown (lOYR
7 /4) clay loam; firm; massive; this horizon is very strongly weathered parent
rock and has numerous iron/manganese oxide veins up to 5 mm thick along
former fractures and joints in the rock; a few fine roots.
Note: Bw2 horizon absent in some parts of pit.
Lab. no.

KRST

Horizon

Depth
(cm)
T1425
T1426
T1427
T1428

0-11
11-30
30-60
60-110

pH
H20

Organic
matter C
(%)

5.2
5.2
5.4
5.3

3.1
2.4
0.85
0.34

Bwl
Bw2

Cation exchange
Lab. no.

KRS

T1425
T1426
T1427
T1428

Depth
(cm)

0-11
11-30
30-60
60-110

Horizon

L bases

Bwl
Bw2

CEC
(me.%)

(me.%)

31.8
30.6
30.8
33.0

14.8
12.7
12.5
9.78

BS
(%)

Ca
(me.%)

Mg
(me.%)

(me.%)

Na
(me.%)

47
41
44
30

6.08
5.11
5.09
2.84

7.82
6.87
7.63
6.23

0.46
0.22
0.24
0.23

0.47
0.45
0.49
0.48

Particle size ('Yo fine-earth fraction)

Lab. no.

Depth
(cm)

KRS T1425
T1426
T1427
T1428

0-11
11-30
30-60

60-110

Hori
-zon

A
Bwl
Bw2

2-1
mm

0
0
1
0

1-0.5
mm

o.s0.25
mm

2
1
2

0.250.1
mm

0.10.05
mm

o.os-

<0.002

0.002
mm

mm

10
10
6
9

39
37
49
53

41

11

6
12

40
35

19

45
Soil name:
W AINIKAI PEAT
Profile no.: Nd 7
Laboratory no.: KRS T1377-1381
Elevation (m): 14
Landfonn: Swampy valley between hilly ridges
Relief: Flat
Parent material: 25 cm fibrous peat over fine-textured alluvium and colluvium
Drainage: Very poorly drained
Classification: (Histic) Hydraquent, fine and very-fine, kaolinitic, nonacid, isohyperthermic.
Implied subgroup, introduced in this survey.
Horizon

Depth

Description

Diagnostic
features
His tic
epipedon

(cm)

Of

0-25
(2S)

Wet; dark brown (7.SYR 3/2) fibric peat; abundant slightly decomposed leaves,
stems and roots of grassesand sedges; no structure; abundant fine live roots;
distinct boundary.

Ah

25-4S

Wet; dark greyish brown (10YR 4/2) clay loam; slightly sticky; plastic; massive;
some poorly decomposed roots; many live roots; indistinct boundary.

(20)

Crl

45-SS
(40)

Wet; olive grey (SY S/2) clay; many (S%) medium distinct grey to light grey (SY
6/1) and abundant (30%) medium prominent brown to strong brown (7.SYR
S/S) mottles; sticky; plastic; massive; no roots; distinct boundary.

Cr2

85-100

Wet; greenish grey (SBG 6/1) clay; many (5%) medium distinct brownish
yellow (lOYR 6/6) and few (2%) fine distinct very dark grey (10YR 3/1)
mottles; sticky; plastic; massive; distinct boundary.

(lS)

Mineral soil
material

Ab

100-125
Wet; brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/2) silty clay loam; slightly sticky; plastic.
(2S)
Note: Mineral horizons all have n values greater than 1.0.
Lab. no.

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

pH
H20

Organic
matter C
(%)

KRS T1377
T1378
T1379
T1380
T1381

0-25
25-4S
45-SS
85-100
100-125

Of
Ah
Crl
Cr2
Ab

4.8
S.2
S.6

21.6
6.9
1.3
0.89
2.9

s.s

S.6

Particle size (% fine-earth fraction)

Lab. no.

Depth
(cm)

KRS

T1377
T1378
T1379
T1380
T1381

0-25
25-45
45-85
85-100
100-125

Hori
zon

Of
Ah
Crl
Cr2
Ab

21

1-0.5

mm

mm

0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0

0.50.25

0.250.1

0.10.05

mm

mm

mm

1
0
1
1

3
1
3
7

2
1

s
7

o.os-

<0.002

0.002
mm

mm

35
33
30
34

59
65
60
Sl