Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Soil
Mechanics
Lectures
Third
Students
Year
Chapter One
Soil Formation and Basic-Relation ships
Soil
Is any uncemented or weakly cemented accumulation of mineral particles
formed by weathering of rocks, the void between the particles containing
water/ or air. Weak cementation can be due to carbonates or oxides
precipitated between the particles or due to organic carbonates or oxides
precipitated between the particles or due to organic matter.
Depending on the method of deposition, soils can be grouped into two
categories:
1- Residual soils:
The soils which remain at the place of disintegration of parent rock.
2- Transported soils :
The soils, which carried away from their place of disintegration to
some other place by transporting agencies.
The transporting agencies may be classified as:
i)
iii)gravity
iv) Ice
Weathering
Which are usually results from atmospheric processes action
on the rock at or near the earth surface.
Soil
Gravel , Dia
> 2
Sand
Silt
Clay
Clay minerals: There are two basic structure units that form types of
the minerals in the clay:
a) Tetrahedral Unit : Consists of four oxygen atoms (or hydroxyls, if
needed to balance the structure) and one silicon a tom.
Elevation
Tetrahedral sheet
. 4 +
b) Octahedral Unit (consist of six hydroxyl ion at apices of an
octahedral enclosing an aluminum ion at the center).
Formation of Minerals
The combination of two sheets of silica and gibbsite in different arrangements
and condition lead to the formation of different clay minerals such as :
1- Kaolinite Mineral :
This is the most common mineral is the kaolin. The structure is composed of a
single tetrahedral sheet and a single alumina octahedral sheet as shown in figure
below:
1- Strong Hydrogen Bond So not affected
by water
2- And its also called China clay
3-
2- Illite has a basic structure consisting of two silica sheets with a central alumina sheet.
There is a potassium bond between the layers.
Clay Particle
Clay structures:
1) - Dispersed structure
2) - flocculated structure
Dispersed
More strength
Lower strength
Permeability is higher
permeability is less
Low compressibility
higher compressibility
Basic Relationships:
Weight Wt = Ww + Ws
Volume Vt = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw
+ Vs
Where
: total weight of soil
Total Volume
Weight of water
: Volume of Void
: Weight of solid
: Volume of air
Weight of air 0
Volume of water
: Volume of Soild
1-
2-
Water content %
$
,
"# % = $ '(( )* +# = $ '((
$%
,%
Void ratio , e
v/
e =
v0
4- Porosity (n%)
33
1% = '((
34
5- Air content A%
36
5% = '((
34
6- Bulk Density (total density), 74
9
8 = :
3-
/:
7-
Dry density ,
7;*< =
,%
34
(=,#,> ) )* (
10
B=
,>
E% =
E% =
7%
7$
C%
C$
, % 3 %
7$
$% 3%
C$
,%
3% 7$
$%
3% C$
Density, 7%
,
$
7% = % , C% = %
10- Solid
3%
3%
'HG
1
'I1
4- 5 = 1(' %)
5- 5 =
GI+E%
6- 74 =
7- 74 =
8- 7% =
9-
'HG
E% ('H+)
'HG
E% H%G
'HG
E% HG
7$ )* C4 =
7$ )* C4 =
E% ('H+)
'HG
E% H%G
'HG
E% H G
C$
C$
7 )* C% =
C
'HG $
'HG $
E
E
7;*< = % 7$ )* C; = % C$
'HG
'HG
10-
11-
7GKK. = 7 = 7%64 7$
CGKK = C =
E% I'
'HG
C$
Some typical values of void ratio, moisture content in a saturated condition, and dry unit
weight for soils in a natural state are given in the following table:
Table 1- Void ratio, Moisture Content, and Dry Unit Weight for some Typical Soils in a
Natural State.
Type of Soil
Void ratio
Natural moisture
content in a
saturated state (%)
Loose uniform
sand
0.8
30
14.5
Dense uniform
sand
0.45
16
18
11
0.65
25
16
0.4
15
19
Stiff clay
0.6
21
17
Soft clay
0.9-1.4
30-50
11.5-14.5
N
O
P.PQR
S.STSRUV
Unit weight ,_ =
N]
O
Water content , c =
N]
^V
N
PPQRIPR\T
PR\T
_ =
19.5 =
= 0.125 de 12.5%
f (1 + ch )
_
1+i
2.68(1 + .125)
10
1+i
e = 0.538
Porosity, n=
SHk
R.T\l
S.T\l
= 0.3490 ~0.35
Degree of saturation , S=
R.SPTP.ql
R.T\l
p. i = f . ch
= 62.267%
12
13.95
=
= 1970.3 Z[/\
7.08 10I\
SH
SQR.\
SHR.RQl
= 1794.4
Mt =
P.qq
1794.4 =
SHk
1000
S.e = f . c
^
O
i
0.48
=
= 0.324
1+i
1.48
1794.4 =
=
^
f
M
1+i
v =
e = 0.48
u =
Mt =
^V
S.PT
= 12.7 Z[
SRRR
v = v v
.Rl SRUV
S = 54.3%
= 0.00125 \
v = 7.08 10I\ 0.00125 = 0.00583 \
Example 3:In the natural state, a moist soil has a volume of 0.0093 \ and weighs 177.6
N. The oven dry weight of the soil is 153.6 N. If f = 2.71 . Calculate the moisture
content, moist unit weight, dry unit weight, void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation.
Solution: ch =
_ =
S.qIST\.q
ST\.q
= 15.6 %
177.6
b
=
= 19096 \ = 19.1 Zb\
0.0093
_t =
153.6
b
=
= 16516 \ ~16.52 Zb\
0.0093
13
e=
e =
O
O
, =
R.RR\T
R.RRTl
R.ST\q
P.SSR
= 0.0058 \
u =
p. i = f . c
SHk
R.q
SHR.q
= 0.375
S = 70.46%
Example 4: A soil specimen has a volume of 0.05 m3 and a mass of 87.5 kg. If the water
content is 15% and specific gravity is 2.68. Determine 1) void ratio 2) porosity 3) dry unit
weight 4) saturated unit weight 5) degree of saturation.
Solution:
M =
~h =
^
^
= 0.15 =
l.TI^
^
v =
e =
/
/
R.RPSq
R.RPl
S.e = f . ch
76
=
= 0.028 \
f M
2.68 1000
SH
R.
SHR.
= 0.43
f
2.68
_ =
10 = 15.14 Zb/\
1+i
1 + 0.77
f + i
2.68 + 0.77
_ =
10 = 19.49 Zb/\
1+i
1 + 0.77
S*0.77 =2.68* 0.15
= 76 Z[
= 0.77 , n =
_t =
_ =
87.5
=
= 1750 Z[/\
v
0.05
S= 52.2%
tH
k
H k
SHk
SHk
SHk
SHk
14
Example 6: Given mass of wet sample = 254 gm, void ratio = 0.6133, volume of air = 1.9
cm3, mass of solid =210 gm. Determine degree of saturation, air content and dry unit
weight.
= 254 210 = 44 [
44
= = 44 y\
M
1
v = v + v = 44 + 1.9 = 45.9
0.6133 =
p =
T.Q
v = 74 y\
v
44
0.6133
(1 0.95)
=
= 95.8% = u(1 ) =
v
45.9
1 + 0.6133
= 0.019
Mt =
v
210
[
= 1.75 \ _t = 17.5 Zb/\
120
y
3.8 P
) 7.6 = 86.192 y\
2
37.5
= 37.5 y\
1
~
130.5
=
= 47.8 y\
f _
2.73 1
15
\.T
\l.\lQ
= 97.6%
Example 8: Given: mass of wet sample =254.1gm, void ratio = 0.6133, volume of air =
1.9 cm3, mass of solids = 210 gm. Determine: Degree of saturation, Air content, dry unit
weight.
Solution:
Mass of water = 254.1 -210= 44.1 gm
Volume of water = = 44.1 y\
i=
0.6133 =
0.6133 =
p =
A=
SHk
.S
q
H
.SHS.Q
46
v = 75. y\
v
= 95.8%
(1 ) =
R.qS\\
SHR.qS\\
(1 0.958) = 0.015 7
v = v + v = 46 + 75 = 121 y\
f =
_t =
~
210
=
= 2.8
v _
75 1
f
2.8
_ _t =
10 = 17.355 Zb\
1 + i
1 + 0.6133
Or Mt =
^
PSR
SPS
= 1.7355 [/y\
_t =
SHk
_ =
P.P
SHR.
10 = 16
^V
2.72 + 0.7
10 = 20.11 Zb/\
1 + 0.7
_ =
f . ch =
=
_t =
=
SH
SH
SHk
SH
= p i
SH
= =
SHk
= =
=i
References :
1- Soil mechanics
R.F. Craig
17
2- Soil mechanics
T.W.Lamb, R.V.Whitman
3- Soil Mechanics
Basic Concepts and Engineering Applications
A.Aysen
18
Chapter Two
Liquid limit (L.L): is defined as the moisture content in percent at which the
soil changes from liquid to plastic state.
19
Plastic Limit (P.L.): The moisture contents in % at which the soil changes from
plastic to semi solid state.
Shrinkage Limit (S.L.): The moisture contents in % at which the soil changes
from semi solid to solid state.
Plasticity Index (P.I.): it is the range in moisture content when the soil exhibited
its plastic behavior:
. . = . . .
Liquidity Index (L.I. or IL) : a relation between the natural moisture contents
(c ) and (L.L.) and (P.L.) in form:
20
Activity: is the degree of plasticity of the clay size fraction of the soil and is
expressed as:
yv} =
.
% d yw} i zeywi
Plasticity Chart: based on Atterberg limits, the plasticity chart was developed
by Casagrande to classify the fine grained soil.
Some useful notes:
v Constant at all stages
Degree of saturation (S %) at S.L. and up to =100%
21
Degree of Saturation in the region from S.L. and below < 100%
vt = v .. -------vt = v ..
it = i..
Relative Density: is the ration of the actual density to the maximum possible
density of the soil it is expressed in terms of void ratio.
(%) =
Or
(%) =
i^I i
100
i^ i^
100
Description
loose
medium
Dense
22
^V
SHk
10
17.3 =
i = 0.53
0.82 =
=
k IR.T\
P.qT
SHk
10
k Ik
k Ik
100
i^ = 0.94
k IR.
f
2.65
_ =
10
1 + 0.94
1 + i^
= 13.65 Zb\
_t ( wddi) =
(SH )
SHk
i = 0.52
=
_
20.45 =
=
k Ik
k Ik
P.qT(SHR.Sl)
SHk
10
0.85 0.52
100 = 76.74%
0.85 0.42
Example 3: A dry sample of soil having the following properties, L.L. = 52%,
P.L. = 30%, f = 2.7, e= 0.53. Find: Shrinkage limit, { density, dry unit
weight, and air content at dry state.
Solution
23
Dry sample
p. i. = f . ch.
it = i]k = 0.53
1*0.53 =2.7 *S.L
S.L.= 19.6%
Mt =
SHk
M
Mt =
P.
SHR.T\
1 = 1.764
s=0
= u =
i
0.53
=
= 0.346
1+i
1 + 0.53
]^
h^V
= 34.6%
Example 4: A saturated soil sample has a volume of 20 y\ at its L.L Given
L.L= 42% , P.L.= 30% , S.L.= 17% , f = 2.74. Find the min. volume the soil
can attain.
The minimum volume
occurs at S.L. or at dry
state.
v = v + v
v : is constant along all
state.
At L.L.
p. i = f . ch
24
v.. = v..
= 4.33 + 9.3
25
Solution:
0.202
=
v
97
= 2.08 [/y\
f + i
2.08 =
1
3 = #,>
1+i
3 = #,>
W= 0.202 kg
(1)
W= 0.167 kg
202.167
ch =
=
= 21%
167
p. i = f . ch
1*e = f 0.21 (2)
Solving (1) and (2)
^
At dry state : Mt = =
i = 0.565 u{ f = 2.69
\
1.96 [/y
P.qQ
But Mt =
M
1.92
=
1
SHk
SHk.
i.. = 0.4
1 0.4 = 2.69 c..
p. i. = 2.69 c..
c.. = 15%
=
26
27
Chapter three
Soil Compaction
Soil compaction is one of the most critical components in the construction of roads,
airfield, embankments and foundations. The durability and stability of a structure are
related to the achievement of proper soil compaction. Structural failure of roads, airfield
and the damage caused by foundation settlement can often be traced back to the failure to
achieve proper soil compaction.
Compaction of soil:
Compaction is the process of increasing the density of a soil by packing the particles
closer together with a reduction in the volume of air only. Compaction increases the dry
density and decreases the void ratio.
Purpose of compaction:
12345-
28
The effect of types of soil on the dry density using the same
compaction Energy.
29
30
Compaction curve
Compaction Test
The compaction test is performed to determine the relationship between the
moisture content and the dry density of a soil for specific compactive effort. The
compactive effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil
mass. Several different methods are used to compact soil in field, and some
examples include tamping, kneading, vibration, and static load compaction. This
test will be carried out by using impact compaction method using the type of
equipment and methodology developed by R.R.Proctor in 1933, therefore , the test
is also known as the proctor test.
Two types of compaction tests are routinely performed: (1) The standard Proctor
and (2) The modified Proctor test.
Type
test
of No.
of Volume
Weight of Height of
blows per of mold hammer
drops
>
layer
(kg)
cm
(#, )
3
25
1000
2.5
30
of No.
layer
Standard
Proctor
Modified
Proctor
Compaction Effort =
25
1000
4.5
45
Test Procedure :
1- a sufficient quantity of air-dried soil in large mixing pan (say 3 kg)
2- Determine the weight of the compaction mold with its base (without the
collar).
3- Start with initial water such (3% of Soil weight)
4- Add the water to the soil and mix it thoroughly into the soil until the soil gets
uniform color (see figure B and C).
5- Assemble the compaction mold to the base, place soil in the mold and
compact the soil in the number of equal layers specified by the type of
compaction method (see photo D and E).
The number of drops per layer is dependent upon the type of compaction.
The drops should be applied at a uniform rate not exceeding around 1.5
31
seconds per drops, and the rammer should provide uniform coverage of the
specimen surface.
6- The soil should completely fill the cylinder and the last compacted layer
must extend slightly above the collar joint. If the soil below the collar joint at
the completion of the drops, the test point must be repeated.
7- Carefully remove the collar and trim off the compacted soil so that it is
completely even with the top of the mold.(see photo F).
8- Weigh the compacted soil while it's in the mold and to the base, and record
the mass (see Photo G). Determine the wet mass of the soil by subtracting
the weight of the mold and base.
9- Remove the soil from the mold using a mechanical extruder (see Photo H)
and take the soil moisture content samples from the top and bottom of the
specimen (see Photo i). Determine the water content.
10Place the soil specimen in the large tray and break up
the soil until it appears visually as if it will pass through the #4 sieve, add 3%
more water on the soil and remix as in step 4. Repeat step 5 through 9 until a
peak value is reached followed by two slightly lesser compacted soil masses.
Analysis:
1- Calculate the moisture content of each compacted soil specimen.
2- Compute the wet density in grams per cm3 of the compacted soil by dividing
the wet mass by the volume of the mold used.
3- Compute the dry density using the weight density and the water content
determined in step 1. Use the following formula:
Mk
Mt =
1 + ch
4- Plot the dry density values on the y-axis and the moisture contents on the xaxis. Draw a smooth curve connecting the plotted points.
5- On the same graph draw a curve of Saturation line ( Zero air void line ) using
the following Equation :
Mt =
M
SHk
For S= 1 i = f ch
p. i = f . ch
Assume values of water content and find dry density, then plot the zero air
void line which must be parallel to the moist side of compaction curve and
never intersect it , If so that mean there is some error.
To plot Air content line (A%) use the following equation:
32
Mt =
f (1 )
M
1 + c f
33
Compaction Equipments:
123456-
34
2.3
2.2
2.1
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
Their state of compaction can be obtained by relating dry density to the minimum and
maximum dry densities and as in the following equation:
=
_t^ _t _^
i^ i
=
i^ i^
_t _^ _^
Relative compaction:
Or Degree of compaction is a means of comparing the field density with Laboratory results and
is defined as the ratio of the dry density in the field to the maximum dry density in the
Laboratory and in most construction works, the degree of compaction is specified as 95 % or
more.
G643G ),6#4)1 . =
C;*< KG;
% )* 6% %G#K< 1 4G $)*B%
C,6 64 6.
So by using sand replacement method, find dry density at field then check the R.C
35
Core cutter
Sand Replacement method
Air-Ball on method
Penetrating Needle
Radiation Technique.
Example 1 :
The following results were obtained from a standard compaction test. Determine the Optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density. Plot the curves of 0%, 5% and 10% air content and gives
the value of air content at the maximum dry density. Given the volume of standard mold is 1000 cm3
and E% = . .
Mass (gm)
Water content (%)
1768
4
1929
6
2074
8
2178
10
Solution :
Calculate dry density for each test and tabulate the results.
+(%)
4
7$G4
1.768
>
7;*< =,#, 1.7
+(%)
A%
>
7;*< =,#, 0
7;*< =,#,> 5
7;*< =,#,> 10
6
1.929
1.82
4
2.44
2.32
2.20
8
2.074
1.92
6
2.32
2.2
2.09
36
8
2.22
2.11
2.00
10
2.178
1.98
10
2.13
2.02
1.92
12
2.106
1.88
12
2.04
1.94
1.84
14
2.052
1.8
14
1.96
1.86
1.76
16
2.007
1.73
16
1.88
1.79
1.69
Comaction Curve
2.1
2
1.9
1.8
Comaction Curve
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
0
10
15
20
15
20
Comaction Curve
Zero air void line
% 5A=
2.2
2
1.8
% 10A =
1.6
1.4
0
10
Figure show the Zero air void line and a line of 5 and 10% air content
37
38
Chapter Four
Soil Classification
Classification of soil is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behaviour. A classification for engineering
purposes should be based mainly on mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness,
strength. The class to which a soil belongs can be used in its description.
The aim of a classification system is to establish a set of conditions which will allow
useful comparisons to be made between different soils. The system must be simple. The
relevant criteria for classifying soils are the size distribution of particles and the plasticity
of the soil. Particle Size Distribution for measuring the distribution of particle sizes in a
soil sample, it is necessary to conduct different particle-size tests. Wet sieving is carried
out for separating fine grains from coarse grains by washing the soil specimen on a 75
micron sieve mesh.
1- Dry sieve analysis is carried out on particles coarser than 75 micron. Samples (with
fines removed) are dried and shaken through a set of sieves of descending size. The
weight retained in each sieve is measured. The cumulative percentage quantities
finer than the sieve sizes (passing each given sieve size) are then determined.
The resulting data is presented as a distribution curve with grain size along x-axis
(log scale) and percentage passing along y-axis (arithmetic scale).
U.S. Standard sieve sizes
39
40
In this method, the soil is placed as a suspension in a jar filled with distilled water to
which a deflocculating agent is added. The soil particles are then allowed to settle down.
The concentration of particles remaining in the suspension at a particular level can be
determined by using a hydrometer. Specific gravity readings of the solution at that same
level at different time intervals provide information about the size of particles that have
settled down and the mass of soil remaining in solution. The results are then plotted
between % finer (passing) and log size. Grain-Size Distribution Curve The size
The results are then plotted between % finer (passing) and log size. Grain-Size
Distribution Curve the size distribution curves, as obtained from coarse and fine grained
portions, can be combined to form one complete grain-size distribution curve (also
known as grading curve). A typical grading curve is shown.
41
To obtain the grading characteristics, three points are located first on the grading
curve. D60 = size at 60% finer by weight
D30 = size at 30% finer by weight
D10 = size at 10% finer by weight
The grading characteristics are then determined as follows:
1. Effective size = D10
2. Uniformity coefficient, Cu, =
3. Curvature coefficient, Cc , h =
(V )
If Cu > 4 for gravel and Cu > 6 for sand and Cc between 1 and 3 indicates a
well-graded soil (GW for gravel and SW for sand ). i.e. a soil which has a
distribution of particles over a wide size range
The consistency of a fine-grained soil refers to its firmness, and it varies with the
water content of the soil.
A gradual increase in water content causes the soil to change from solid to semisolid to plastic to liquid states. The water contents at which the consistency
changes from one state to the other are called consistency limits (or Atterberg
limits). The three limits are known as the shrinkage limit (WS), plastic limit (WP),
and liquid limit (WL) as shown. The values of these limits can be obtained from
laboratory tests. (as explained in chapter 3)
42
Gravel, sand, silt, and clay are represented by group symbols G, S, M, and C
respectively. Physical weathering produces very coarse and coarse soils. Chemical
weathering produces generally fine soils.
Coarse-grained soils are those for which more than 50% of the soil material by
weight has particle sizes greater than 0.075 mm. They are basically divided into
either gravels (G) or sands (S). According to gradation, they are further grouped as
well-graded (W) or poorly graded (P). If fine soils are present, they are grouped as
containing silt fines (M) or as containing clay fines (C). For example, the
combined symbol SW refers to well-graded sand with no fines. Both the position
43
and the shape of the grading curve for a soil can aid in establishing its identity and
description. Some typical grading curves are shown.
44
Depending on the point in the chart, fine soils are divided into clays (C), silts (M),
or organic soils (O). The organic content is expressed as a percentage of the mass
of organic matter in a given mass of soil to the mass of the dry soil solids.
Soil classification using group symbols is as follows:
45
Activity "Clayey soils" necessarily do not consist of 100% clay size particles.
The proportion of clay mineral flakes (< 0.002 mm size) in a fine soil increases its
tendency to swell and shrink with changes in water content. This is called the
activity of the clayey soil, and it represents the degree of plasticity related to the
clay content.
=
Liquidity Index In fine soils, especially with clay size content, the existing state is
dependent on the current water content (w) with respect to the consistency limits
(or Atterberg limits). The liquidity index (LI) provides a quantitative measure of
the present
state.
=
Example 1:
46
Following are the results of a sieve analysis. Make the necessary calculations
and draw a particle size distribution curve.
U.S.sieve size
4
10
20
40
60
80
100
200
Pan
Solution:
Solution:
47
Find ,
qR
0.27
=
= 1.8
0.15
SR
(V )
h =
(R.S)
= R.PR.ST = 0.71
% passing # 200 less than 50% so the soil is coarse , and since % passing # 4= 100
so the soil is sand and since Cu less than 6 , so the soil is SP.
Home work :1- Following are the results of a sieve analysis:
U.S. Sieve No.
4
10
20
40
60
100
200
pan
Home work 1:
2- Classify the following soil according to USCS
U.S. Sieve Mass of soil
No.
retained on the
sieve in g
4
0
6
0
10
0
20
9.1
40
249.4
60
179.8
100
22.7
200
15.5
Pan
23.5
Pl: 25, L.L. = 40
49
50
Chapter Five
Soil Permeability and Flow
SOIL PERMEABILITY
A material is permeable if it contains continuous voids. All materials such as
rocks, concrete, soils etc. are permeable. The flow of water through all of them obeys
approximately the same laws. Hence, the difference between the flow of water through
rock or concrete is one of degree. The permeability of soils has a decisive effect on the
stability of foundations, seepage loss through embankments of reservoirs, drainage of
sub grades, excavation of open cuts in water bearing sand, rate of flow of water into
wells and many others.
Hydraulic Gradient
When water flows through a saturated soil mass there is certain resistance for the flow
because of the presence of solid matter. However, the laws of fluid mechanics which
are applicable for the flow of fluids through pipes are also applicable to flow of water
through soils. As per Bernoulli's
equation, the total head at any point in water under steady flow condition may be
expressed as
Total head = pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
Hydraulic Gradient
When water flows through a saturated soil mass there is certain resistance for the flow
because of the presence of solid matter. The laws of fluid mechanics which are
applicable for the flow of fluid through pipes are also applicable to flow of water
through soils. The total head at any point in water under steady flow condition may
be expressed as:
Total head = pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
51
The flow of water through a sample of soil of length L and crosssectional area A as shown in figure1:
vP
= + +
_ 2[
h
vhP
= + +
_ 2[
Figure
(1) flow of water through a soil sample
For all practical purposes the velocity head is a small quantity and may
be neglected.
The water flows from the higher total head to lower total head. So the
water will flow from point B to C.
= ( +
) - ( +
Hydraulic gradient:
The potential drop between two adjacent equipotentials divided by the
distance between them is known as the hydraulic gradient.
DARCY'S LAW
Darcy in 1856 derived an empirical formula for the behavior of flow through
saturated soils. He found that the quantity of water q per sec flowing through a
cross-sectional area of soil under hydraulic gradient / can be expressed by the
formula
q = kiA
or the velocity of flow can be written as
=
53
at different temperature.
54
v
v
v = v =
v
u
A series of tests should be run, each at different rate of flow. Prior to running the
test a vacuum is applied to the specimen to ensure that the degree of saturation
under flow will be close to 100%.
2- Falling head permeability test:
For fine soils the falling-head test (Figure below) should be used. In the case of
fine soils, undisturbed specimens are normally tested. The length of the specimen
is l and the cross-sectional area A. the standpipe is filled with water and a
measurement is made of the time (S ) for water level (relative to the water level in
the reservoir) to fall from R d S . At any intermediate time t the water level in
t
t
. At time t the
difference in total head between the top and bottom of the specimen is h. then
applying Darcy's law:
=
{
w
{
=
{
w R
56
w
R
w
R
wu = 2.3
log
S
S S
S
Ensure that the degree of saturation remains close to 100%. A series of tests should
be run using different values of R u{ S
4P
= 10 u , = 3.14
= 12.56 uP
4
\
57
=
12
=
= 2, = 105 iy
6
SR
Therefore Z =
SP.TqPSRT
= 3.79
SRUV
kh
QL
hAt
SPRPR
qR\TqqR
~
1120
=
= 1.6 [y\
v
35 20
_ f
f
de i = 1
1+i
_t
2.68
1 = 0.675
1.6
i
u =
= 0.403
1+i
i =
58
qR
PR
v =
Q.TP SRUV
R.R\
59
60
3456-
Exercise:
1-
2-
3-
61
62
Example 1: For the Setup shown (Figure 5a), plot, ht, he, hp and the velocity of
flow?
1
2
3
Datum
6
Figure(5b)
Figure(5a)
Points
ht(ft)
(Figure 5b)
12
12
12
SPHR
=
=6
P
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
*
=
V I
VU
SPIR
q
he(ft)
(Figure 5b)
12
10
8
5
hp=ht-he(ft)
(Figure 5b)
0
2
4
1
V(ft/min)*=Ki
(Figure5c)
2
2
6
6
2
0
-2
0
6
2
=2
Seepage velocity = =
R.\\\
Figure(5c)
= 6 /u
63
Example 2
For the setup shown(Figure 6a) , Draw, ht, he , hp and velocity of flow ?
1
Datum
Figure ( 6)
b
1- Direction of flow is upward flow
(look to the water'symbole usaually water
flow from higher one to lower one)
2- List all point with direction of flow
3- Construct a table to solve the problem
Points ht(ft)
(Figure 6b)
1
2
3
he(ft)
hp=htV(ft/min)*=Ki
(Figure 6b) he(ft)
(Figure6c)
(Figure 6b)
16
0
2
14
5
9
16
16
16 + 12
= 14
2
4
12
8
5
12
12
I
SqISP
*
=
=
= 0.667
U
64
4
0
Seepage velocity = =
R.qq
R.\\\
= 2 /u
Example 3: For the setup shown(Figure below) , Draw, ht, he , hp and velocity of
flow ?
Figure (7a)
3
2
4
Ft/min)
5
Datum
1
Figure
Figure (7c)
Solution:
1- Assume any arbitrary line representing the datum and let it at elevation
=0(Figure 7a).
2- The flow will be in horizontal direction (elevation head is constant)
3- Construct the table
Since pressure =3.4 psi=3.4*144= 489.6 lb/ft2
z =
Points
1
kk
k] k
ht(ft)
7.84
lQ.q= 7.84 ft
qP.
he(ft)
0
65
hp(ft)
8
2
3
4
5
7.84
3.92
0
0
3
3
3
0
=
5.84
0.92
-3
0
7.84 0
P
=
= 1.3
6
PI
Seepage velocity = =
S.\
R.\\\
= 3.9 /iy
Example 4
For the setup shown in figure 8:a) - Calculate the pressure head, elevation head,
total head and head loss at points B, C,D and F in centimeter of water. b)-Plot the
heads versus the elevation.
ht(cm)
40
he(cm)
35
66
hp(cm)
5
Head loss
0
C
D
F
40
20
0
20
7.5
-5
20
12.5
5
0
20
40
Figure (8)Example 4
Example (5): for the setup shown Calculate and plot total head, elevation head and
pressure head.
67
Example 5
Solution example 5:
Points
A
B
C
D
Ht(cm)
5
5
2.5
0
He(cm)
-5
-5
-5
-5
68
Hp(cm)
10
10
7.5
5
Head loss
0
0
2.5
5
Solution Example 5
Example -6 : For the set up shown , draw the variation of total head, pressure head
and elevation head along points A,B,C,D and E.
69
Example 6
Solution of
Example 6
Solution of Example 6
point
Total
Elevation
70
Pressure
Head Loss
Head(cm)
18.5
18.5
16
13.5
13.5
A
B
C
D
E
Head(cm)
8.5
6.5
4
1.5
0
Head(cm)
10
12
12
12
13.5
(cm)
0
0
2.5
5
5
Example 7: For the setup shown, Find total head (ht) , Elevation head (he) and
Pressure head(hp) for the soil the setup shown.
5 m
5 m
Datum
ZS = 10ZP
5 m
A
B
4m
ZS
4m
Example 7 setup
71
ZP
6m
D
3m
72
3.6 m
2
2.4 m
Soil I
3
Soil II
1.2 m
0.6 m
Points
1
2
3
4
5
Solution :
Datum
ht(m)
3.6
3.6
2.4
0
0
he(m)
3.6
2.4
1.2
0.6
0
hp(m)
0
1.2
1.2
-0.6
0.0
1- qI=qII
S h^/kh
2-
SRR
(P.IS.P)
Z = Z
0.37 =
R.T 9/0
SRR
(S.PIR.q)
0.1 (1)
+ = 3.6 (2)
= 1.2
Approach Velocity= ki
Approach velocity for soil I=Z = 1
73
S.P
(P.IS.P)
= 1 y/iy
Seepage velocity =
R.T
= 2 y/iy
For soil II
Approach velocity=Z = 0.5
Seepage velocity (II) =
R.\\\
P.
(S.PIR.q)
= 2 y/iy
= 6y/iy
Velocity (cm/sec)
74
Example 9: For the setup shown draw ht, he, hp and find the seepage force .
0.6 m
A
0.3 m
B
n=0.33, k=0.5 cm/sec
Soil
_ = 20.9 Zb\
0.6 m
Datum
Supporting
Screen
Poi
nts
A
B
C
ht(c
m)
0.9
0.9
1.5
he(c
m)
0.9
0.6
0.0
hp(c
m)
0
0.3
1.5
0.9
(ht (cm
0.6
(he(cm
(hp(cm
0.3
0
1.55-E-1
Elevation
(cm)
0.9
0.3
0.6
1.2
1.5
Zb
)
P
0.3*10=3
15.54
1.5*10=15
0.54
(/^ )
(
0
Zb
)
P
0.9
x(
0
0.3
*10=3kN/m2
0.6
0.6*20.9 =
12.54
75
+
6 kN/m2
9
15
Water pressure on soil sample (a) Boundary water pressure (b) Buoyancy water
pressure(static) (c) Pressure lost in seepage.
76
piiz[i deyi
_
=
= _
dwxi d dw
Quick condition: occurs in upward flow( for cohesionless soil) and when the
total stress equals to pore water pressure .
kkh = 0 = _ _ = 0
==
= h
_
77
Solution:
1- = =
UU
SR ^
S = 21.5
PS.TI
SR
P = 14
zP = P iP = 14 10 = 4
To find Z
F. down = F. upward
A(8-z) *20 = 4.0 *10 *A
2-
. p =
z= 6 m
t t hk
t hk
2 =
(8 ) 20
4 10
78
= 4
t*5*10*25 = 60*5*10
qR
Exercise 2: For the setup shown, compute the vertical force exerted by the soil on
screen A and that on screen B. Neglect friction between the soil and tube. G= 2.75.
79
Exercise 3: For the set up shown: Steady vertical seepage is occurring. Make scaled
plot of elevation versus pressure head, pore pressure, seepage velocity, and vertical
effective stress. Determine the seepage force on a 1 ft cube whose center is at
elevation -15 ft. G for all soils = 2.75.
commences. (b) the factor of safety against heaving: i) at the end of excavation ii)
after construction of the foundation?
81
Impervious layer
Impervious layer
Impervious layer
Impervious layer
82
Seepage Theory:
The general case of seepage in two dimensions will now be considered.
In same principle used in one dimensional problem applied (Darcy's law
& Continuity flow state).
Consider the two dimensional steady state flows in the fig.
v +
Concrete Dam
v +
Element A
Impervious
{
. {
{
{
. {
{
t
t
{){}{ + (v +
t
t
{}){{
t
t
{){}{ + (v +
t
t
{}){{
By simplification
{v {v
+
= (1)
{
{}
Darcy's law = v = Z
t
t
{P
{v
= Z P
{
{
83
v = Z
{
{}
{v
{P
= Z P
{}
{}
Sub. In equation (1)
Z
t
t
+(Z
)=0
{P
{P
+ P = 0 zwyi ixdu
{ P
{}
v =
v =
v =
t
t
= Z
v =
= Z
{
{
{
{}
(, }) = Z(, }) + y
Where c is a constant
Thus if the function (, }) is given a constant value equal to S & it
will represent a curve a long which the value of total head (S ) is
constant. If the function (, }) is given a series of constant value S
, P , \ etc a family of curves, such curves are called equipotentials
and this will corresponding to total head S , P , \ --------- from
the total differ nation.
84
{ =
t
t
. { +
{}
0 = v dx + v {}
v dx = v {}
{
{}
v =
{
{
{v
{P
=
{{}
{
{v
{P
=
{}
{}{
{v {v
+
=0
{
}
{P
{P
= 0
{{} {}{
A, }@ Satisfy the Laplace equation
A gain a series of using S , P , \
Is selected and this function
=
d
d
{ +
{}
{}
{
0 = v { + Av @{}
v {= v {}
85
v
{}
=
{
v
Flow net:
The graphical representation of the Laplace equation is represented by the
two families of curve:
1- Equipotential lines: A series of lines of equal total head e.g.
S , P , \
2- Flow lines: A family of the rate of flow between any two adjacent
flow lines is constant.
For isotropic soil:
The flow net is formed by a mesh of the intersection of two lines with
the following limitation
1- Each element is a curvilinear square S
90
Flow channel
86
b- Flow lines
3- The intersection of the two lines is represented by a flow net of
square elements
Q: rate of flow/m
Where k: Coefficient of permeability
H: Total head difference between the first and last equipotential
lines
b: bd. d wd~ yuuiw
b{: bd. d {edz (ixzdiuw {edz)
Steps in drawing a flow net:The first step is to draw in one flow line, upon the accuracy of which the
final correctness of the flow net depends. There are various boundary
conditions that help to position the first flow line, including:
1- Buried surface (e.g. the base of the dam, sheet pile) which are flow
lines as water cannot penetrate into such surface.
2- The junction between a permeable and impermeable material
which is also a flow line : for flow net purpose a soil that has a
permeability of one-tenth or less the permeability of the other may
regard as impermeable.
3- The horizontal ground surface on each side of the dam which are
equipotential lines.
The procedure is as follows:
a- Draw the first flow line hence establish the first flow channel
b- Divide the first flow line into squares (| )
87
de dui wd~ yuuiw
88
=
u{
= *k *
= Z
( | )
b
b{
89
Example 2
90
Example 3
91
Example 4
92
Example 6
93
Example 7
94
95
96
Example 8:
A flow net for around a single row of sheet piles in a permeable soil layer is
shown in figure below. Given that k= 5* 10 -3 cm /sec.
a) How high (above the ground surface )will the water rise if pizometers
are placed at points a,b , c and d?
b) What is the rate of seepage under sheet pile?
1
5
2
3
Solution:
From flow net b = 3 , bt = 6
=
5 1.67
= 0.555
6
97
q =kH
\
q
= . > '(I
^V
kh
/
Example 9
A deposit of cohesion less soil with a permeability of 3*10-2 cm/sec has a
depth of 10 m with an impervious ledge below. A sheet pile wall is driven into
deposit to a depth of 7.5 m. The wall extends above the surface of the soil and 2.5
m depth of water acts on one side. Determine the seepage quantity per meter length
of the wall.
Example 10For the flow net shown below includes sheet-pile cutoff wall located at
the head water side of the dam in order to reduce the seepage loss. The
dam is half kilometer in width and the permeability of the silty sand
stratum is 3.5 *10-4 cm /sec. Find (a) the total seepage loss under the
dam in liters per year , and (b) would the dam be more stable if the cutoff
wall was placed under its tail-water side?
98
Solution:
a) Notice that = 6.0 , the number of flow channels b =
3 u{ bt = 10 by using = Z
q = (3.5*10-4
h^
kh
Iq 3
SRR h^
(6.0)
SR
= 6.3 10 m /sec/m
Since the dam is 500 meters wide, the total Q under the dam is
Q= Lq= 500m (6.3*10-4m3/sec)(
100
^ k
SRV k
S^V
) 31.5 10q
kh
k
k
b) - No: Placing the cutoff wall at the toe would allow higher uplift
hydrostatic pressure to develop beneath the dam.
Home work:
1.
Two lines of sheet piles were driven in a river bed as shown in figure. The depth of water
over the river bed is 8.20 ft. The trench level within the sheet piles is 6.6 ft. below the river
bed. The water level within the sheet piles is kept at trench level by resorting to pumping.
If a quantity of water flowing into the trench from outside is 3.23 ft3/hour per foot length of
sheet pile, what is the hydraulic conductivity of the sand? What is the hydraulic gradient
immediately below the trench bed? (Ans 1 x 10-4 ft/sec, 0.50).
99
100
101
= ZR ,
rest.
102
. k
=
_t
. k
=
_
u= h*_
= x=
_
= _k
= _ _
103
Then, =
Where factor,
=
3
2
e P
1+
T
P
Example 1:
In road pavement design, the standard vehicle axel is defined as an axel with two
single wheels as shown below. For a particular vehicle group, the standard axel load
(P) is given as 80 kN and the distance between two wheels (L) is 1.8 m. what is the
vertical stress increment in the sub-grade at 4 m depth directly under a wheel if this
axel is running (consider wheel load as a point load ):
104
Solution:
=
=
To find = +
( ) =
3
1
2 1 + (e)P
3
1
2 1 + (e)P
( ) =
z,
T/P
T/P
3
1
2 1 + (e)P
T/P
3
1
2 1 + (1.8)P
4
T/P
T/P
3
1
2 1 + (0)P
4
= 0.301
= 0.477
Therefore,
=
40
40
(
)
+
(
)
=
0.477
+
0.301 = 1.945 Z
P
P
4P
4P
b- Circular footing
= , ui
105
106
107
k
( + ) ( + )
Solution:
Within a soil layer, the unit weight is constant, and therefore the stresses vary
linearly. Therefore, it is adequate if we compute the values at the layer
interfaces and water table location, and join them by straight lines. At the
ground level,
v= 0 ; = 0; and u=0 At 4 m depth,
v= (4)(17.8) = 71.2 kPa; u = 0
= 71.2 kPa
At 6 m depth, v= (4)(17.8) + (2)(18.5) = 108.2 kPa
u = (2)(9.81) = 19.6 kPa
= 108.2 19.6 = 88.6 kPa
At 10 m depth,
v= (4)(17.8) + (2)(18.5) + (4)(19.5) = 186.2 kPa
u = (6)(9.81) = 58.9 kPa
= 186.2 58.9 = 127.3 kPa
At 15 m depth,
v= (4)(17.8) + (2)(18.5) + (4)(19.5) + (5)(19.0) = 281.2 kPa
u = (11)(9.81) = 107.9 kPa
108
109
Example :
For the soil profile shown find the total, effective and pore water pressure:?
20
40
60
80
0
Total Stress
1
2
Pore water
pressure
Effective stress
3
4
5
6
Given:
_t = 16
Zb
Zb
, _ = 20 \
\
Solution:
At depth
z=0, = 0, x = 0, k
=0
At depth
z= 2m = 2 16 = 32 ^ , x = 0, k
= 32 ^
At depth
Z= 5 m = 2 16 + 3 20 = 92 ^ , x = 3 10 = 30 ^ , k
= 32 ^
110
100
Example:
For the soil profile shown: Determine , total, effective and pore water pressure for the following
conditions:1- water table 3 m above the ground level, 2- water table at the ground level 3- 1.0 m
below the surface,4- 2 m below the surface?
Stresses (kPa)
0
10
20
30
40
Case
/effective1
effective2 case
0.5
_
depth (m)
_t
Zb
= 16 \ ,
Zb
= 20 \
50
case
/effective3
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
Depth
(m)
0
3
0
3
0
1
3
0
2
3
WT
Total stress(kPa)
u(kPa)
Case 1
30
30+3*20=90
0
3*20=60
0
1*16=16
16+20*2=56
0
2*16=32
32+1*20=52
30
6*10=60
0
3*10=30
0
0
20
0
0
1*10=10
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
111
k
AZ)
0
30
0
30
16
36
0
32
42
Example :
A building 20 m * 20m results in a uniform surface contact pressure of 150 kPa.
Determine the increase in vertical pressure at depth of 10 m below a) the center of
the building b) the corner of the building. Estimate the additional pressure at both
locations of a tower 5m *5m placed at the center of the building imposing 300 kPa
uniform additional pressures.
At the corner:
nz= 10
n*10=20 , n=2
20 m * 20m
mz=10
m*10=20, m=2
F(1,1)= 0.2325
i ydeuie {xi d xeyi wd{ =
0.2325 150 = 34.875Z
Top Veiew
Front Veiew
At the center :
N*10=10
n=m=1
From figure (rectangular ) f(1, 1)= 0.085
at the center =4*0.176*150= 105.6 kPa
{xi d d~ie =
at the center:
n*10=2.5
n=m= 0.25
5m
5m
f(0.25,0.25)= 0.0261
5m
n=m=0.75
f(0.75,0.75)=0.136
=(0.211-(0.165*2)-0.136)*300=5.1
kPa
112
Solution:
e1=e3, n*3=4.5 -------n=1.5, m*3= 1.5, m= 0.5
f(1.5,0.5)=0.131
e2=e4 , n*3= 1.5 , n=0.5,
m*3=1.5,m=0.5
f(0.5,0.5)=0.085
= 50 A0.131 2 + 2 0.085) = 21.6 Zb/P
Total stresses = Geostatic stress+
Total Stresses= 18*3+21.6=75.6
kPa
Example : For the same example .If the foundation at 0.5 m below ground surface:
113
when Z > 1 , the situation is reversed. The shear stresses on any orthogonal
planes (planes meeting at right angles) must be numerically equal ( = @.
Mohr circle: it is concerned only with the stresses existing in two dimensions, the
state of stress in plane that contains the major and minor principal stresses S ,\ .
The stresses will be considered positive when compressive.
direction of S .
114
S + \
S \
+
cos 2
2
2
( S \ @
=
sin 2
2
=
Where and
are the stresses acts on any planes, the direction and magnitude
property:
1- A line through Op and any points (A) of the Mohr circle will be parallel to
the plane on which the stresses given by point A act.
2- If the plane and Op are known then the line parallel to the plane passes
through Op and intersect Mohr circle , the intersect point represent the point
which acts on that plane.
To find the stresses , there are two method:
1- By drawing (prefer)
2- By using equations
1- By drawing
To determine the normal and shear stresses on any plane , we have to do
the following:
1-Draw the stress- state on Mohr circle (compression
(+) and (
).
2-Find the point denoted by Op origin of planes by either select S and draws a line
parallel to the plane on which S is acting until it intersects Mohr Circle & the
point of intersection is OP, or use \ (the same principal is apply to \ ) .
3-From OP draw a line parallel to the plane you want to find stress on it. The point
of intersection with Mohr Circle represents the stress & shear stress you need.
115
:
:
( 3 )
OP
stress -1
Plane -2
-3
. : OP
. OP
Principle Stress:
Stresses acting normal on mutually orthogonal planes with no shear stresses.
Principle Planes:
The planes on which there is zero shear stresses.
116
Answer:
S = 40 Zb/P
\ = 20 Zb/P
SH \
40 + 20
=
= 30 Zb/P
2
2
I V
RIPR
=
=
= 10 Zb/P
=
P
123456-
By drawing:
Locate points (40,0) and (20,0).
Draw circle, using these points to define diameter.
Draw line through point (20,0) and parallel to plane on which stress
(20,0)acts.
Intersection of with Mohr circle at point (40,0) is the origin
Of planes.
Draw Line through OP and parallel to B-B
Read coordinates of X where intersect Mohr circle.
= 25 z
So on B-B
= 8.7 z
=
RH PR
P
RIPR
P
=
S + \
S \
+
cos 2
2
2
117
=
=
( S \ )
sin 2
2
( 40 20)
sin(2 120) = 8.66 Zb/P
2
=
S + \
2
S \
S + \ P
= !(
) + P
2
2
We usually take the largest couple.
S =
S + \ S \
+
2
2
S + \ S \
2
2
2
u2 = =
S
\
S \
2
Example 2 : Find the stresses on Horizontal plane D-D?
\ =
118
2- From point (20,0) draw a line through point (20,0) ,parallel to the plane
that the force (20,0) acts .
3- The point of intersection with Mohr circle represent the OP.
4- From the op draw a horizontal line (line parallel to horizontal plane) the
point of intersection with Mohr circle represent the stresses on horizontal
plane. ( 35, 8.7).
Example 3 :
119
123456-
Solution by Equations :
1- Make use of that the sum of normal stresses is a constant:
S + \
40 + 20
=
=
= 30 z
2
2
2
2- Use the following equation:
IV
P
S \
S + \ P
)# + $ %P
= !" (
2
2
3- S =
HV
P
HV
\ =
IV
= 44.14 z
P
IV
= 15.86 z
2 = 45
= 22.5
5- Angle from horizontal to major principle stress direction = 52.5
Examples : to be added
121
122
Chapter Seven
Consolidation of soil
A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads
compresses the soil layers. The compression is caused by (a) deformation of soil
particles, (b) relocations of soil particles, and (c) expulsion of water or air from the
void spaces. In general, the soil settlement caused by load may be divided into
three broad categories:
1. Immediate settlement, which is caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and
of moist and saturated soils without any change in the moisture content. Immediate
settlement calculations are generally based on equations derived from the theory of
elasticity.
2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the result of a volume change in
saturated cohesive soils because of the expulsion of water that occupies the void
spaces.
3. Secondary consolidation settlement, which is observed in saturated cohesive
soils and is the result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It follows the primary
consolidation settlement under a constant effective stress.
This chapter presents the fundamental principles for estimating the consolidation
settlement:
123
124
Figure
125
Figure (7-2)
The Oedometer (consolidation)Test :
Dial gage
126
4-
56-
7-
And record the dial gage reading for 24 hrs at similar times to those of step
2.
Repeat step 3 by doubling the applied stress and recording the dial gage
reading. This process is repeated till we reach a stress of 1600 kPa (some
times we reach 3200 kPa). This process last 7 days and it called loading
stage.
Unload (3/4) the applied stress (i.e. remove 1200 kPa and leave 400 kPa) and
record the dial gage reading for (24 hrs).
After 24 hrs , unload (3/4) the remaining stress (remove 300 kPa and keep
100 kPa)and record dial reading for 24 hrs. then remove all the applied stress
and record dial readings.
Determine the final water content of the soil sample.
25
kPa
0
95
101
104
110
115
115
121
124
125.5
126
127.5
50
kPa
127.5
164
168
172
179
185
189
195
198
204
205
218
100
kPa
218
250
255
262
268
278
284
291
300
303
306
320
127
400
kPa
1038
1038
1038
1036
1035
1033
1031
1030
1029
1028
1028
1028
100
kPa
1028
937
924
904
880
835
800
765
680
655
622
597
0
597
420
Voids
Solids
iR = v
i
1 + iR
Since the consolidation in one dimension, and there is no lateral strain so the axial
strain ( =
SHk
128
Applied
Pressure
(kPa)
Final
Dial change
Dial gage *0.0001*25.4
reading
mm
()
Thickness Change in
of sample void ratio
at the end
i
of (24 hrs)
=
(1
mm
+ iR )
19
0
0
0.0317
0.32385
18.676
127.5
25
0.0225
0.22987
18.446
218
50
0.0254
0.25908
18.187
320
100
0.0306
0.31242
17.875
443
200
0.0385
0.3937
17.481
598
400
0.0604
0.61722
16.864
841
800
0.0489
0.5
16.364
1038
1600
-0.0025
0.0254
16.389
1028
400
-0.10714
-1.09474
17.484
597
100
-0.044
-0.4496
17.934
420
0
From consolidation test the following result we can get :
129
Void
ratio at
the end of
24 hrs
e=iR
k
0.8595
0.8278
0.8053
0.7799
0.7493
0.07108
0.6504
0.6015
0.604
0.7111
0.755
Compression
Recompression or
Reloading
Unloading
Figure e- (results from oedometer test)
1 + iR
: Coeff. Of volume change
: Coeff. Of Compressibility
iR : Initial void ratio
=
Plot the
d[ viex vd{ ed (i)
* the slop of first portion of the
loading curve is defined
i
=
wd[
Which is equal to the slope of
the unloading curve, and the
first portion of the reloading
curve
i
= k =
wd[
: Reloading index
Log
130
k : Expansion index
The slope of the last portion of the loading curves is defined as :
h : Compression index
h =
wd[
Note : h can be obtained using empirical correlation from Liquid Limit (L.L)
h = 0.009 (. 10)
Pre-Consolidation
Pressure (h )
: The max. Effective stress
that has been experienced
by the soil in the past or at
the present.
How to find h
1- Produce back the
straight line (BC) of
the curve
2- Draw the tangent to
the curve at D and
bisect the angle
between the tangent
and the horizontal
through D
3- The vertical through
the point of the
bisector and CB
gives
the
approximate value
of
the
pre
consolidation
Log
Figure e- log z (find h )
131
pressure.
Normally and Over consolidation Clays:
A cording to the stress history, the clay can be:
1- Normally Consolidated clay(N.C.C.)
Which represent the clay at which the existing effective overburden pressure
(R = ) is the largest stress experienced by the soil at the present time
and in the past thus :
For N.C.C. h = R
2- Over Consolidated Clay(O.C.C.)
Represent the clay which has experienced a stress in the past larger than the
existing effective overburden pressure (R ) acting at the present time.
For O.C.C. h > R
h = R b. . .
O.C.R. =1
h > R ,. . .
O.C.R. >1
Consolidation Settlement:
SHk
2- py =
3- py =
SHk
log
H
SHk
log
H
132
Where
h
h
R +
py =
log +
log
1 + iR
1 + iR
R
h
Scf : Final consolidation settlement
iR : Initial void ratio
: reloading index
133
Example:
For the soil Profile shown find the final consolidation settlement?
1- py =
SHk
k I k
SH k
S.l\IS.
SHS.l\
SHk
log
H
R = = x at the middle of the clay layer before fill application
11.6 7.3
Zb
= ( 7.3 2) 18.22
16.34 = 131.7 P
2
SS.qI.\
U= .(7.3 2.9) + (
)/ 9.807 = 64.236
P
py =
S.RQTT
SHS.l\
134
q.qHQQ
q.q
= 0.653
135
=
0
0
(Consolidation equation)
_
1 =
136
P
t
t : the time
t = H (for clay layer between one permeable and one impermeable layer).
t = H
tt
=H
2 : Degree of Consolidation
137
The variation of total consolidation with time is most conveniently plotted in the
form of the average degree of consolidation ( U ) for the entire stratum versus
dimensionless time 1 , and the this is illustrated below:
For
138
b)-Take the tangent to the curves at the end of the curve so you can find the
dial reading at 100% consolidation.
c)-Now dial reading at t= 09 and dial reading at the end of consolidation so
you can find the dial reading for 50% consolidation.
e)-So the coefficient of consolidation y can be find by the following
equation.
0.196 P
y =
TR
139
=
R.ll -
4
).
140
ph = 2 ph
1- py =
SHk
k I k
SH k
S.l\IS.
SHS.l\
SHk
log
H
141
U= .(7.3 2.9) + (
)/ 9.807 = 64.236
P
py =
S.RQTT
SHS.l\
q.qHQQ
q.q
= 0.653
Example :
Astrata of consolidated clay of thickness 10 ft drained on one side only.
The hydraluic conductivity of k = 1.863*10Il in /sec. and cofficient of volume
value of the
= 3.763 in.
2%
3.14 20P
1=
de 1 =
= 0.0314
4 100
4
100
Example
142
Example : The loading period for a new building extended from may 1995
to may 1997. In May 2000, the average measured settlement was found to be 11.43
cm. it is known that the ultimate settlement will be about 35.56 cm. Estimate the
settlement in may 2005. Assume double drainage to occur.
Solution:
For the majority of practical cases in which loading is applied over a
period, acceptable accuracy is obtained when calculating time-settlement
relationships by assuming the time datum to be midway through the loading or
construction period.
= 11.43 y ~iu = 4 }ie u{ p = 35.56y
The settlement is requried for t=9 years, that is up to may 2005. Assuming as
a starting point that at t = 9 years, the degree of consolidation will be = 0.60. under
these conditions. 2 = 1.13 1.
Is pS = piwiiu i S , pP = Settlement at time P
Where
-
pS
2S
1S
S
= = ! = ! puyi 1 = P
pP
2P
1P
P
t
is a constant. Therefore
ST
\T.Tq
SS.\
= 7 de P = 17.15 y
143
Example :
An oedometer test is performed on a 2 cm thick clay sample. After 5 minutes
50% consolidation is reached. Aftrer how long a time would the same degree of
consolidation be achieved in the field where the clay layer is 3.70 m thick? Assume
the sample and the clay layer have the same drainage boundary conditions (double
drainage).
Solution :
-
P = (
- P
) S
-
\RP
P
S
P
=
P
P
tS
tP
qR
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
Example
Example :
151
Example :
152
Example:
153
154
Chapter Eight
Shear Strength
The strength of a material is the greatest stress it can sustain;
So that the unit of strength is the same as stress (Pa in SI unit system).
Shear Failure in Soils:
155
156
157
158
159
Internal Friction angle (), is the measure of the shear strength of soils due to
friction
= y + tan 9
160
= y + tan 9
S \
2
pu 9 =
+ S + \
yd9
2
161
' = >
' + #)%:
#)%:
+ #
' %1 :
' %1 :
:
:
' = > 461 ; + + # 461 (; + )
:
:
' = > 461 ; + + #461 (; + )
162
163
sample.
10-
11-
Do the calculation :
%G6* )6;
5*G6(>< #, )
result will be as in figure, take 3 peak stresses. Then plot the relation
between shear strength and normal stresses. Find the slop of this curve,
find , the intersection of the line with y-axis gives the value of C.
164
165
Disadvantages
1)
The
main
one:
drainage
conditions
cannot
be
controlled.
2) As pore water pressure cannot be measured, only the total normal stress
can be determined, although this is equal to the effective normal stress if
the pore water pressure is zero.
3) Only an approximation to the state of pure shear is produced in the
specimen
and shear stress on the failure plane is not uniform, failure occurring
progressively from the edges towards the center of the specimen.
4) The area under the shear and vertical loads does not remain constant
throughout the test.
Triaxial shear test :
This experiment over come all the disadvantages of direct shear test:
1- Can be used for all types of soils
2- Pore water pressure can be measured
3- The area corrected be used
4- The failure plane
Triaxial shear test is the most widely used and is suitable for all types of soils. A cylindrical
specimen, generally having a length to diameter ratio of 2, is used in the test and is stressed under
166
167
Valve A
Figure (
1- Triaxial test is more reliable because we can measure both drained and
undrained shear strength.
2- Generally 1.4 diameter (3 tall) or 2.8 diameter (6 tall) specimen is used.
168
strain controlled test and by adding loads directly in stress controlled test,
but strain controlled test is more common) until shear failure occurs. Total
vertical stress, which is 1 is equal to the sum of 3 and deviator stress
(d). Measurement of d, axial deformation, pore pressure, and sample
volume change are recorded.
x = \ + t
169
200 kPa in the second case and 300 kPa in the third case).
5- Continue the test until the proving ring stop reading or use 10%
After completion of test measure of the soil specimen again and put it into the
oven then find the moisture content of the sample.
Take the sample out the cell and Sketch the mode of failure.
Repeat the test for the second specimen too (200 kPa of cell pressure and third
specimen 300 kPa of cell pressure).
calculation :
1- = =
t
SI>
yx =
170
t
2
SI>
SI>
In this case: y = y
Undrained condition
171
Occurs when the pore water is unable to drain out of the soil.
In an undrained condition, the rate of loading is much quicker than the rate
at which the pore water is able to drain out of the soil.
As a result, most of the external loading is taken by the pore water, resulting
in an increase in the pore water pressure.
Rate of loading
172
h = R (
1
)
1 =
173
pressures (water within the soil) undergo changes that do not have enough
time to dissipate Hence the test is representative of soils in construction sites
where the rate of construction is very fast and the pore waters do not have
enough time to dissipate.
174
175
Chapter Nine
Lateral Earth Pressure
Lateral earth pressure
Is the pressure that soil exerts in the horizontal direction. The lateral earth
pressure is important because it affect the consolidation behavior and strength of
the soil and because it is considered in the design of engineering structures such as
retaining walls, basements, tunnel, deep foundations.
Coefficient of lateral earth pressure, k is defined as the ratio of the horizontal stress
to the vertical stress.
There are three coefficients:
1- Coefficient
of
earth
pressure at rest
(R ) = 1 u9
2- Coefficient of active earth
SI?
pressure ( ) =
3- Coefficient of
earth pressure
SH0@A ?
SI?
SH0@A ?
passive
( ) =
Active
pressure
R : When the wall is at rest and the material is in its natural stable then the
pressure applied by material is known as earth pressure at rest
: when the wall moves away from the backfill , there is a decrease in the
pressure on the wall this decrement continues until a minimum value is reach after
which there is no reduction in the pressure and the value become constant this kind
of pressure is known as active earth pressure.
: when the wall moves toward the backfill, there is an increase in the pressure
on the wall and this increase continues until maximum value is reach after which
there is no increase in the pressure and the value will become constant ,this kind of
pressure is known as passive earth pressure.
176
177