Lecture 24.

Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Lecture 24.
Rigid body dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body

Matthew T. Mason

The angular inertia

tensor
Eulers equations

Mechanics of Manipulation
Spring 2010

Poinsots
construction

Todays outline
Newtonian mechanics of a particle
Newtonian mechanics of a system of particles
Newtonian mechanics of a rigid body
The angular inertia tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Preview

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

We will apply Newtons second law to derive four

closely related forms:
Force
Moment

2D F = mv
N = I
3D F = mv N = I + I
( in lower right should be bold. Font problem!)
Bottom right corner is different!
1. Inertia term is a 3 3 matrix, not a scalar.
2. Unexpected (?) term: I.
3. Zero torque does not imply zero angular acceleration!

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Newtons laws

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

1. Every body continues at rest, or in uniform motion in

a straight line, unless forces act upon it.

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

2. The rate of change of momentum is proportional to

the applied force.

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body

3. The forces acting between two bodies are equal and

opposite.

The angular inertia

tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Definition
Define momentum to be mass times velocity.

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Consider a particle

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Consider a particle of mass m,

with position represented by a vector x,

total applied force F,

momentum

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body

dx
dt
so Newtons second law can be written
p = mv = m

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

F=m

d 2x
dt 2

The angular inertia

tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Impulse, kinetic energy

Definition

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Integrating Newtons second law:

Z

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

t2

p2 p1 =

F dt
t1

stating that the change in momentum is equal to the

impulse.

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Definition
We can also define kinetic energy T
T =

m 2
|v|
2

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Power

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Definition
Differentiating kinetic energy yields
md
dT
=
(v v)
dt
2 dt


m dv
dv
=
v+v
2 dt
dt
dv
=m
v
dt
=Fv
stating that the time rate of change of kinetic energy is
power.

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Work

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Definition
Integrating the power over a time interval,
t2

Z
T2 T1 =

F v dt
t1

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

or

x2

T2 T1 =

F dx
x1

stating that the change in kinetic energy is work.

Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Moment of force

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

Definition
Recall definition of moment of force about a point x:
n=xf
and about a line l through origin with direction l
nl = l n

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Moment of momentum

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Definition
Similarly, suppose a particle at x has momentum p.
I

Define moment of momentum about the origin

L=xp

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

and about the line l

Poinsots
construction

Ll = l L

Rate of change of moment of momentum

I

Differentiating the moment of momentum:

dL
d
= (x p)
dt
dt
d
= (x mv)
dt 

dx
dv
=m
v+x
dt
dt
dv
=xm
dt
=xF
=N
which is essentially a restatement of Newtons
second law, but using moments of force and
momentum.

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

So, for a particle . . .

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

Using either F = dp/dt or N = dL/dt, we have three

second order differential equations.

If F or N is uniquely determined by the state (x, v),

then there is a unique solution giving x(t) and v(t) for
any given initial conditions x(0) = x0 , v(0) = v0 .

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

For a bunch of particles

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

For the k th particle

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

Let mk be the mass,

let xk be the position vector,

and let pk be the momentum.

The angular inertia

tensor

Let the force be composed of internal force (from

interactions with other particles in the system) and
external forces Fk = Fik + Fek

Eulers equations

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body

Poinsots
construction

Momentum and force

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

We define the momentum of the system to be

X
P=
pk
and the total force on the system to be
X
F=
Fek
(The sum of all internal forces is zero, by Newtons third
law.)

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Newtons 2nd law for system of particles

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Newtons 2nd law for k th particle:

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

dpk
= Fek + Fik
dt

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body

Summing:
X dpk
dt
Hence

X

Fek + Fik

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

dP
=F
dt
Newtons second law extends to the system of particles.

The angular inertia

tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Center of mass
Define total mass:
M=

mk

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

and the center of mass,

X=

1 X
mk xk
M

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor

Then
P=M
and

dX
dt

d 2X
dt 2
which means that the center of mass behaves just like a
single particle.
F=M

Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Moments for systems of particles

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Define Lk to be the angular momentum of the k th

point,

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

Define the total angular momentum to be the sum,

X
L=
Lk

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

Define the total torque,

N=

Poinsots
construction

xk Fek

Rate of change of moment of momentum

I

Now for the k th particle

dLk
= xk Fek + xk Fik
dt
Summing over all the particles,
X
dL
=N+
xk Fik
dt

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

By Newtons third law the sum of the internal

moments is zero, so that the second term vanishes:
dL
=N
dt
which is grand, but six equations is not enough to
determine the motion of several particles.

Poinsots
construction

Rigid body dynamics

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

A rigid body is a bunch of particles, but with all

distances fixed. Six degrees of freedom. Wouldnt it
be keen if the six equations
F = dP/dt
N = dL/dt
were enough?

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Angular inertia, part one

I

For a rigid body, velocity of k th particle is

v = v0 + x

Substituting into moment of momentum

Lk = mk xk (v0 + xk )

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Summing to obtain the total angular momentum,

X
X
L=
mk xk v0 +
mk xk ( xk )
X
= MX v0 +
mk xk ( xk )
Place origin at center of mass to eliminate first term
on right
X
mk xk ( xk )
L=

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Angular inertia, part two

I

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

How can we get that pesky out of the sum?

X
L=
mk xk ( xk )

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Applying the identity a (b c) = (a c)b (a b)c,

X
L=
mk [(xk xk ) xk (xk )]

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

The angular inertia

tensor
Eulers equations

Represent each vector as a column matrix, and

substitute xtk for xk :
X


L=
mk |xk |2 I3 xk xtk
where I3 is the three-by-three identity matrix.

Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Angular inertia part three

Definition
I

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Define the angular inertia matrix I:



X
I=
mk |xk |2 I3 xk xtk

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor

Substituting above,

Eulers equations

L = I
where Newtons second law gives
N=

dL
dt

Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Differentiating L = I
I

I is constant in the body frame, not in an inertial

frame.
d(I)
N=
dt
d dI
=I
+
dt
dt
d
=I
+ (I)
dt

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

(1)
(2)

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor

(3)

Zero torque implies constant angular momentum.

Zero torque does not imply constant angular velocity.

What can you say about how angular velocity

changes? First we need to look closer at the angular
inertia tensor.

Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

The inertia tensor

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Let body be continuous with density .

Z 

I = |x|2 I3 xxt dV
In components:
2

Z
x2 + x32 x1 x2
x1 x3
I = x1 x2 x12 + x32 x2 x3 dV
x1 x3
x2 x3 x12 + x22

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

(4)

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

(5)

Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Moments of inertia; products of inertia

I

Diagonal elements: moments of inertia w.r.t. the

coordinate axes:
Z
I11 = (x22 + x32 ) dV
etc.

Off-Diagonal elements: the products of inertia:

Z
I12 = I21 = x1 x2 dV
etc.

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

(6)
(7)

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

(8)
(9)

We could try to understand them, or we could get rid

of them . . .

Poinsots
construction

Principal axes; principal moments of inertia

I

Inertia matrix is symmetricdiagonal in the right

frame. Define A:

A
I11
0
0
A
(10)
I = 0 A I22
0
A
0
0
I33
I in A-coordinates can be obtained by:
A

I = AIAT

(11)

where matrix A transforms to A-coordinates.

principal axes: coordinate axes of Aeigenvectors
of I.
principal moments: diagonal elements of
A Ieigenvalues of I.
Distinct eigenvalues implies uniquely determined
principal axes.

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Scalar angular inertia. Radius of gyration.

Consider moment of momentum L = I. When are L

and parallel?
Consider rotation about some fixed axis in direction
. Scalar angular inertia In is
n
t In

In = n

Mkn2

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

:
radius of gyration kn with respect to the axis n
In =

(12)

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Poinsots
construction

(13)

The radius of gyration represents the distance of a

point mass that would give the same angular inertia.

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Inertia ellipsoid
I

Consider the surface described by the equation

t

r Ir = a
I

In principal coordinates, since moments are positive,

we get an ellipsoid:
Ixx rx2 + Iyy ry2 + Izz rz2 = a

(14)

(15)

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

. Then
Let r = r n
a
1
t In
= rt Ir =
In = n
2
r
r2

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Poinsots
construction

(16)

So distance to ellipsoid surface is inverse of radius of

gyration.
a
Mkn2 = 2
(17)
r

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Cylinder and its inertia ellipsoid

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations

Poinsots
construction

Principal axes by inspection

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

There are theorems:

I

Any plane of symmetry is perpendicular to a principal

axis.
Any line of symmetry is a principal axis.

If you start in the principal frame, you know the

products of inertia are zero, so you can get the
inertia tensor by just doing three integrals.

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Rigid body tumbling

I

Applying Newtons second law in principal

coordinates yields:

I 1 1
1
I1 1
N = I2 2 + 2 I2 2
I 3 3
3
I3 3

I1 1 + (I3 2 3 I2 2 3 )
= I2 2 + (I1 3 1 I3 3 1 )
I3 3 + (I2 1 2 I1 1 2 )

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

(18)

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body

(19)

I2 I3
2 3
I1
I3 I1
2 =
3 1
I2
I1 I2
3 =
1 2
I3

The angular inertia

tensor
Eulers equations

If N = 0 we get Eulers equations:

1 =

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

Poinsots
construction

(20)
(21)
(22)

Coordinate frame issue in differentiation

I

We differentiated in a fixed frame, instantaneously

coinciding with body principal frame.
Eulers equations will be true only fleetingly in a
global fixed frame! Cannot integrate them.

But, transform to the body fixed frame. They still hold.

Convert Eulers equations to moving body frame from

coincident fixed frame. N, I, unchanged. New
angular acceleration is
d
+
dt
I.e., Eulers equations work in the body frame.

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Exploring Eulers equations

I

I2 I3
1 =
2 3
I1
I3 I1
2 =
3 1
I2
I1 I2
3 =
1 2
I3
I
I

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Consider special cases for Eulers equations:

(23)
(24)

I1 = I2 = I3 ?
I1 = I2 6= I3 ?

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor

(25)

What if is along a principal axis?

What if the body has a symmetric mass distribution?
I

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Poinsots construction

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

polhode

herpolhode
L

Rigid body
tumbling: inertia
ellipsoid rolls
without slipping
on a plane.

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Proof of Poinsots construction

I

If N is zero, then kinetic energy T is constant:

1 t
I is constant
(26)
2
That is, is on the surface of the inertia ellipsoid.
What is the tangent plane normal at ?
T =

1
1
t I = (12 I1 + 22 I2 + 32 I3 )
2
2
= (I1 1 , I2 2 , I3 3 ) = L
I

Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles

(27)

Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body

(28)

The angular inertia

tensor
Eulers equations

The attitude of the tangent plane is constant!

How far from center of mass to tangent plane?
2T
L
=
|L|
|L|

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle

Poinsots
construction

(29)

which is also constant!

So the tangent plane is fixed: the invariable plane.
The ellipsoid rolls without slipping on the invariable
plane.

polhodes
I

Take an ellipsoid,
hold the center a
fixed distance
from an inkpad,
and roll it around.
Near the pointy
end you get little
loops.

Near the center

of mass you get
little loops.

Near the third

principal axis,
you get sent
away.

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction

Video of tumbling body

Lecture 24.
Rigid body
dynamics

Newtonian
mechanics of a
particle
Newtonian
mechanics of a
system of particles
Newtonian
mechanics of a
rigid body
The angular inertia
tensor
Eulers equations
Poinsots
construction