Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
G.M.L. GLADWELL
Foundations of
Solid Mechanics
by
P. KARASUDHI
Asian Institute o/Technology, Bangkok, Thailand
1. Strength of materials.
Series.
TA405.P54 1990
620. 1 '05--dc20
n.
2. Mechanics. Applied.
I.
Title.
90-48510
ISBN 978-94-010-5695-3
my father.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
LIST OF SYMBOLS
I
1
1
5
7
9
12
17
19
23
25
28
32
34
36
41
44
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
xiii
MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
xi
Introduction
Force distribution and stresses
Stress vector and equations of mation
Euler's laws of motion
Stress tensor
Stationary shear stresses
Octahedral shear stress and stress deviator
Strain tensor
Compatibility conditions
Cylindrical and spherical coordinates
Problems
2.11.1 Stress or strain computation from three different
normal components
2.11.2 Cylindrical and spherical rotation components
2.11.3 Rigid-body rotation and translation components
Exercise problems
47
47
49
52
54
57
59
61
64
67
73
73
74
74
76
LINEAR ELASTICITY
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
86
91
95
98
viii
3.5
3.6
IV
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
102
102
103
104
106
107
107
108
111
113
114
116
121
129
132
147
VI
100
Basic assumptions
Equilibrium, boundary conditions and stress resultants
Physical meaning of stress resultants
Governing conditions for isotropic plates
Solutions for rectangular plates
Closed fonn solutions for circular plates
Series solutions for circular plates
Polygonal plates supported at comers
Plates on elastic foundation
Exercise problems
Complementary and particular solutions for
Table 5.1
elastostatic bending of thin isotropic plates
154
156
159
162
164
168
175
178
180
183
190
6.8
6.9
196
197
203
207
211
217
225
229
231
Tables of Contents
vn
LINEAR VISCOELASTICITY
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
VIII
235
237
240
245
253
260
265
268
269
270
273
274
274
275
277
277
278
280
282
283
284
286
WAVE PROPAGATION
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
IX
ix
288
296
305
309
318
320
326
329
335
343
346
347
348
352
PLASTICITY
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
355
358
361
364
369
374
FINITE DEFORMATION
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
378
380
386
391
394
396
401
402
406
410
412
416
416
416
REFERENCES
419
AUTHOR INDEX
429
SUBJECT INDEX
433
PREFACE
This book has been written with two purposes, as a textbook for engineering
courses and as a reference book for engineers and scientists. The book is an outcome
of several lecture courses. These include lectures given to graduate students at the
Asian Institute of Technology for several years, a course on elasticity for University of
Tokyo graduate students in the spring of 1979, and courses on elasticity, viscoelasticity
and ftnite deformation at the National University of Singapore from May to November
1985.
In preparing this book, I kept three objectives in mind: ftrst, to provide sound
fundamental knowledge of solid mechanics in the simplest language possible; second,
to introduce effective analytical and numerical solution methods; and third, to impress
on readers that the subject is beautiful, and is accessible to those with only a standard
mathematical background.
In order to meet those objectives, the ftrst chapter of the book is a review of
mathematical foundations intended for anyone whose background is an elementary
knowledge of differential calculus, scalars and vectors, and Newton's laws of motion.
Cartesian tensors are introduced carefully. From then on, only Cartesian tensors in the
indicial notation, with subscript as indices, are used to derive and represent all theories.
Any combination of indicial and Gibbs notations is avoided except in the sections on
curvilinear coordinates in the :ftnite deformation chapter. Conditions under small
deformation for cylindrical and spherical coordinates are put in explicit symbols. Most
of the pertinent theorems and formulas are compiled, proved and/or verifted. The only
theorems and formulas which are quoted without proofs are those which can be seen
in standard mathematical books. Whenever possible, presentations are made by
induction processes, i.e. emerging from the simplest special cases to the most general.
New analytical tools and methods such as the Dirac-delta distribution, integral transforms
and integral equations are introduced along with their limitations. It is emphasized that
an effective solution must have a rational basis. Where deemed appropriate, tables are
provided to save mundane though straightforward operations. Approximate formulas
and proven numerical algorithms are brought to the attention of the reader. All exercise
problems are accompanied by hints and/or answers.
Readers will learn that the major conditions governing the mechanics of a solid
domain are the equilibrium equations, strain-displacement relationships, constitutive
relationships, and boundary conditions. Chapters II to VIII of this book are concerned
with linear solid continua, Chapters IX and X with nonlinear. Both static and dynamic
linear problems, and static and quasi-static nonlinear problems are treated.
I have used the book as a textbook in three graduate courses:
1) Introduction to Solid Mechanics - mostly concerned with linear elastostatics.
This uses Sections 1.1 to 1.10 and 1.16 and Chapters II to VI.
2) Advanced Solid Mechanics - time dependent constitutive relationships,
xi
xii
PK.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Common symbols are defined when they first appear, and when used at other
places stand for the following (unless specified differently):
C.P.V.
cp
Cs
eij
H(
H2>(
H:;>( )
$(
imaginary part of ( );
J
J m(
Mr
bulk modulus;
Laplace transform of bulk modulus;
a plate bending moment in cylindrical coordinates;
Mre
M;x,My
M",
Me
nj
Qr
Q;x,Qy
Eqs.5.20;
xiii
xiv
Qa
coordinates;
radial spherical coordinate, Fig. 2.12;
real part of ( );
~(
surface;
stress deviator, Eq. 2.34;
Sij
temperature; or
transpose of a matrix when appears as a superscript;
time;
displacement component in X -direction;
t
U
displacement vector;
displacement vector;
Ui
V
volume;
Vi
V,
VX,V)/
Va
Eqs.5.26;
another supplemented shear force in plate bending in cylindrical
Vi
Xi
Xi
Xl;
Xi
Ym(
y
);
List of Symbols
Yi
<X/11)
a (11)
<X.(11)
<Xs(rt)
B(
Jl
V
Z(~);
IT
mass density;
xv
xvi
~ij
(Jij
<I>
'I'
ro
VZ
[]
CHAPTER I
MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS
Continuum mechanics is that part of physical science dealing with the defonnation
and motion of continuous material media under the influence of external agencies. The
foundations of the theory involve laws of motion and constitutive laws that are conveniently stated in tenns of tensors. As a mathematical entity, a tensor has an existence
independent of any coordinate system, yet it may be specified in a particular coordinate
system by a certain set of quantities known as its components. Components of a tensor
in different coordinate systems are related by the law of transformations, to be elaborated
later.
When attention is restricted to transfonnations from one rectangular coordinate
system to another, the tensors involved are referred to as Cartesian tensors. Since much
of the theory of continuum mechanics may be developed in tenns of Cartesian tensors,
the word 'tensor' in this text means 'Cartesian tensor' unless specifically stated otherwise. Physical laws of continuum mechanics are expressed by tensor equations. If
such an equation is valid in one (Cartesian) coordinate system, it is valid in any other
(Cartesian) coordinate system.
Tensors are classified by rank or order according to the number of components
they possess. In three-dimensional Euclidean space such as the ordinary physical space,
a tensor of order N has 3N components. Accordingly, a tensor of order zero is
specified in any coordinate system by one component. Such quantities are also known
as scalars. A tensor of order one has three coordinate components in three dimensional
Euclidean space and known as a vector. A second order tensor is called a dyadic. Third
order tensors, triadics, and fourth order tensors, tetradics, also appear in the mathematics
of continuum mechanics.
1.2 SCALARS AND VECTORS
Certain physical quantities, such as mass, length, time, temperature, energy, etc.
possess magnitude only and are scalars, tensors of order zero. Quantities such as force,
displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc. which possess both magnitude and direction
are vectors, ftrst order tensors. In three-dimensional space, a vector may be represented
as an arrow pointing in the appropriate direction and having a length proportional to
the magnitude of the vector. Two vectors, regardless of their position, are equal if they
are in the same direction and have the same magnitude. The negative of a vector is
that vector having the same magnitude but opposite direction. A unit vector is a vector
of unit magnitude. In the symbolic or Gibbs notation, scalars are denoted by italic
letters such as a, b, c etc., vectors by bold-faced letters such as a, b, etc. Unit
vectors are often distinguished by a caret placed over the bold-faced letter, e.g. at. In
Fig. 1.1, arbitrary vectors a and b are shown along with a unit vector
and a pair
of equal vectors c and d . The magnitude of any vector a is written as a.
Vector addition obeys the parallelogram law, which deftnes a vector sum of two
vectors as the diagonal of a parallelogram having the summed vectors as adjacent sides.
This law is the same as the triangle rule which defmes the sum of two vectors as the
vector extending from the tail of the ftrst to the head of the second when the summed
vectors are adjoined head to tail. The graphical construction for the addition of a and
b by the parallelogram law is shown in Fig. 1.2(a). Algebraically, the addition process
is expressed by the vector equation
(1.1)
a+b=b+a=c
-b
a+b+q=h
(a)
(b)
(c)
Mathematical Foundations
v=axb
a
(b) Cross product.
The cross product is not commutative. In general, three vectors a, b and c which have
coincident initial points are said to fann a right-handed system or dextral system if a
right threaded screw rotated through the angle less than 1t from a to b will advance
in the direction c as shown in Fig. 1.4.
a
Fig. 1.4 A right-handed or dextral system fanned by a, b and c.
The pre/e"ed coordinate systems for a Euclidean space of any dimension (to be
described more in Section 1.13) are'rectangular Cartesian coordinate systems, or simply
rectangular coordinate systems for brevity. For a three dimensional Euclidean space,
the well-known rectangular Cartesian coordinate system is often represented by mutually
perpendicular axes x, y, z shown in Fig. 1.5. It should be noted that, in this text, only
right-handed coordinate systems are used unless stated otherwise. Any vector v in
such a system may be expressed as a linear combination of three arbitrary, nonzero,
noncoplanar vectors of the system, which are called base vectors. The most frequent
choice of base vectors for the rectangular Cartesian system is the set of unit vectors f,
], k along the coordinate axes as shown in Fig. 1.5. These base vectors constitute a
right-handed unit vector triad, for which
f f=].] =k k= 1,
f.]=].k=k.f=o
(1.7)
and
A=-":
kXI=J,
co
Ixi=jxj=kxk=O
(1.8)
In terms of unit triads f, j, k, the vector v shown in Fig. 1.5 may be expressed
by
v=v%l+v,.i+v,k
(1.9)
(1.10a)
Mathematical Foundations
v)/ =v.j=vcosP
(1.10b)
v. = V k = V cosy
(1.1Oc)
are the projections of v on to the coordinate axes. The unit vector in the direction of
v is given according to Eq. 1.4 by
(1.11)
V =v/v
(1.12)
It follows that the unit vector corresponding to a given vector has the direction cosines
of that vector as its Cartesian components.
z
v
~_""...L..-
__.. y
x
Fig. 1.S Cartesian unit base vectors and direction cosines of a vector v.
1.3 INDICIAL NOTATION
The components of a tensor of any order, and indeed the tensor itself, can be
represented clearly and concisely by the use of indicial notation. In this notation, letter
indices (either subscripts or superscripts) are appended to the generic or kernel letter
representing the tensor quantity of interest. Typical examples illustrating the use of
indices are the tensor symbols
repeated indices are often referred to as dummy or umbral indices, since their
replacement by any other letter not appearing as a free index does not change the
meaning of the term in which they occur. No index occurs more than twice in a properly
written term. First order tensors (Le. vectors) are denoted by kernel letters bearing one
free index. Thus a vector a is represented by a symbol having a single subscript or
superscript, Le. in one or the other of the two forms,
j
aj' a.
The following terms, having only one free index, are also recognized as first order
tensors,
By a logical continuation of the above scheme, third order tensors are expressed by
symbols with three free indices, while symbols such as A and ea which have no free
indices represent scalars or zero order tensors.
When only rectangular Cartesian coordinates are considered, the distinction
between covariance and contravariance (to be discussed later in Section 1.14) is
immaterial, and we can choose to write all indices of a tensor as subscripts. In curvilinear coordinate systems, however, such distinction must be recognized by using
subscripts for covariance and superscripts for contravariance.
In ordinary physical space, a basis is composed of three non-coplanar vectors, so
any vector in this space is completely specified by its three components in the directions
of those base vectors, and the range of an index is 3. Accordingly, the symbol aj
(where i = 1,2,3) is understood to represent a vector a completely, and also the i th
component of the vector, Le. the component of a in the direction of the i th base vector.
For such a range of three on both indices, the symbol Aij represents the second order
tensor (dyadic) A, which has nine components. The tensor Aij is often presented
explicitly by the nine components in a square array, i.e.
All A12
[Aiji = [A2l An
A31
A32
Al~
(1.13)
A23
A3
In the same way, the component of a first order tensor (vector) in three-dimensional
spaces may be displayed explicitly by a row or column arrangement of the form
(<>;) =(a,
a, aJ
or
{<>;}
{j
(1.14)
Mathematical Foundations
(1.16)
=BipCi/Jpq
(1.17)
(1.18)
x;
Let Xl X2 ~ and ~ x~ represent two right-handed rectangular Cartesian coordinate systems with a common origin at 0 as shown in Fig. 1.6. If the symbol au
denotes the cosine of the angle between i th unprimed and j th primed coordinate axes,
i.e. aij =COS(Xi, x;) , the relative orientation of individual axes of each system with respect
to the other is conveniently given by the table inset into Fig. 1.6. An arbitrary vector
v in the same figure has vector components Vi; i =1,2,3 in Xl' X2 and ~ directions
respectively. Alternatively, the same vector can be considered as composed of vector
components v;; i =1,2,3 in x;, ~ and x~ directions respectively. From the definition of au and in view of Eqs. 1.10, each component in the primed system can be
obtained from those in the unprimed system as
v2=
V3=a
VI =aUv l +tlzlV2+~lV3'
a 12v l +tlzzV2+~2V3'
13v l
+ tZz3v2+ ~3V3
(1.19)
x'
X'
I
x'
2
x'
3
xI
a"
0 12
0 13
x2
0 21
0 22
0 23
x3
0 31
0 32
0 33
x2
I
-I
cos
~=--+--~X2
x'I
Fig. 1.6 Transfonnation for ftrst order tensor.
ment, the inverse of Eq. 1.20 is found to be
(1.21)
It is important to note that in Eq. 1.20 the free index on aij appears as the second
index; in Eq. 1.21 the free index appears as the ftrst.
Substitution of Eq. 1.20 into Eq. 1.21 with an appropriate choice of dummy indices
yields
=aijal;jvk
1.22 must give the identity Vj =Vj, the coefficient
(1.22)
Vj
Since Eq.
the Kronecker delta
Bib
defined by
I
fori =k
fori .k
(1.23)
=Bit
(1.24)
In expanded form, Eq. 1.24 consists of nine equations which are known as the ortho
gonality or orthonormality conditions on the direction cosines aij.
On the other hand, if Eq. 1.21 is substituted into Eq. 1.20 to produce =afiajkV;,
then orthogonality conditions appear in an alternative fonn afiajk =Bjk , thus
aijal;j = afiajk = Bit
(1.25)
v;
Equations 1.20 and 1.21 are called the transformation laws for first order tensors.
According to Eq. 1.20, a dyad UjVj has components in the primed coordinate
system given by
u;v; = (apju p) (aqjvq) = apjaqjupvq
(1.26)
In an obvious generalization of Eq. 1.26, any second order Cartesian tensor Tij obeys
the transformation law
Mathematical Foundations
T~ =apjaqjT pq
(1.27)
With the help of the orthogonality conditions (Eq. 1.25) it is a simple calculation to
invert Eq. 1.27, thereby obtaining the transfonnation rule from primed components to
unprimed components as
(1.28)
Tij =aipajqT~
The transfonnation can be generalized for Nth order tensor as
(1.29)
Cartesian tensors of the same order may be added (or subtracted) component by
component in accordance with the rule
Aij"... Bij"... =Tij"".
(1.30)
The sum is a tensor of the same order as those added.
Multiplication of every component of a tensor by a given scalar produces a new
tensor of the same order. For the scalar multiplier A., typical examples written in both
indicial and symbolic notations are
b=Aa;
or
B = A.A.
The outer product of two tensors of arbitrary order is the tensor fonned by simply
setting down the factor tensors in juxtaposition, for examples:
(a) ajb j =Tij'
(c) DijTbn =(f)ijkm'
Bij = }.Aij'
or
Eu"ajb" =8 X b
where
(1.32)
Eu,,= { -1;
(1.33)
10
(1.35)
{V;l=
Thus every tensor of order two or less can be represented by a matrix; a tensor of
second order by a square matrix, a vector by a row or a column matrix, and a scalar
by a single term. A matrix having only zeros as elements is called the zero matrix. A
square matrix with zeros everywhere except on the main diagonal (Au, An> A 33 , .... , AMM )
is called a diagonal matrix. If the nonzero elements of a diagonal matrix are all unity,
the matrix is called the unity or identity matrix. The N xM matrix [AiiJT, formed by
interchanging rows and columns of the M xN matrix [Au"!, is called the transpose
matrix of [AiiJ. A square matrix [AiiJ is called symmetric if [Au"!T =[Au"!.
Matrices having the same number of rows and columns may be added (or subtracted) element by element. Multiplication of the matrix [Avl by a scalar A. results in
the matrix [AAvl. The product of two matrices is defmed only if the matrices are
conformable, i.e. if the pre/actor matrix has the same number of columns as the post/actor matrix has rows. The product of an M x P matrix multiplied into a P x N
matrix is an M xN matrix.
Matrix multiplication is usually denoted by simply setting down the matrix symbols
in juxtaposition as follows:
(1.36)
[AiiJ [B.;J =[C;J
in which the element Clk =AvBik and the summation convention applies from 1 to P
Mathematical Foundations
11
for the repeating index j. It follows from the deflnition of matrix multiplication, but
is left to the reader to prove, that the transpose of a product of matrices equals the
product of the transposed matrices taken in the reverse order, e.g.
[[AuJ [BjJ [CtJ]T = [CtJT[BjJT[AuJT
(1.37)
=[ajJ
{V)
(1.38)
{vJ
= [auJ {v;J
(1.39)
(1.40)
,T
[T~
[TuJ
(1.41)
The determinant of a square matrix [AuJ is normally denoted by the symbol IAijl
or det[AijI , and can be determined by a standard method, which involves the concept
of cofactors and minors. The cofactor of an element Aij of a square matrix [AijI,
denoted by
is deflned by
A: = (-li+jMij
(1.42)
A;,
in which Mij is the minor of Aij, i.e. the determinant of the square array remaining
after the row and column of Aij are deleted. The value of a determinant is then defmed
as sum of the products of the elements in any row (or column) by their corresponding
cofactors, i.e. Laplace expansion of the form
N
det[AuJ
(1.43a)
=i=l
LAvA:, Uis optional and not summed)
(1.43b)
where N is the number of rows (and columns as well) of the matrix [AuJ.
Here are some important theorems on determinants.
Theorem 1.1. The value of a determinant remains the same if rows and columns
are interchanged. In symbols,
det [AuJ
=det[AuJ T
(1.44)
Theorem 1.2. An interchange of any two rows (or columns) changes the sign of
the determinant.
Theorem 1.3. If any two rows (or columns) are the same or proportional, the
determinant is zero.
Theorem 1.4. If [AijI and [BijI are square matrices of the same order, then
det [[AuJ [BjJ] = det [AuJ det [BuJ
(1.45)
12
(1.49)
(1.50)
=(,Ejjl,E/mIITi/TjmTkn
(1.51)
where Vk is the permutation tensor in three dimensional space as defined in Eq. 1.33.
The adjoint matrix of [Ag] is obtained by replacing each element by its cofactor
and then interchanging rows and columns. If a square matrix [Ag] is non-singular, it
possesses a unique inverse matrix [Ag]-l which is defined as the adjoint matrix of [Ag]
divided by the determinant of [Ag]. Thus
[A)-l = [A;J
I Alii
From the inverse matrix definition (Eq. 1.52), it may be shown that
[Ag]-l [Ag] = [A~ [A~-l =!
(1.52)
(1.53)
(1.55)
Mathematical Foundations
13
More explicitly, such a solution can be put according to the Cramer's rule as follows
{}
Xi
{L\}
(1.56a)
L\
(1.56b)
det[O'iJ
where L\, i =1,2 ...... ,n is the determinant obtained from [O'iJ by removing the i th
column and replacing it by the column matrix {b;}. The following four cases can
arise.
Case 1, det [O'iJ 0, {b;} {O}. In this case there will be a unique solution where
not all Xi will be zero.
Case 2, det[O'iJ O, {b;} ={O}. In this case the only solution is the trivial
solution, i.e. {x;} ={OJ .
Case 3, det [O'iJ =0, {bi} ={O}. In this case there will be infmitely many solution
other than the trivial solution. This means that at least one of the equations can be
obtained from the others, i.e. the equations are linearly dependent. To be discussed
more later is this case which is normally called an eigenvalue problem.
Case 4, det[O'iJ =0, {b;} {OJ. In this case infmitely many solutions will exists
if and only if all L\ in Eqs. 1.56 vanish. Otherwise there will be no solution.
Next, consider a homogeneous system of n equations of the form
[O'vl {x) -A.{x;} =0
(1.57a)
or, in indicial notation,
(1.57b)
where A. is a number, and Bii denotes the Kronecker symbol as defmed in Eq. 1.23,
or in matrix form [BiJ is an identity matrix, i.e.
100
0
010
o
(1.58)
[Bvl = .
As discussed previously, the system of linear equations, Eq. 1.57a or b will have
non-trivial solutions if and only if
det[O'ii - Mvl =0
(1.59)
which is a polynomial equation of degree n in A.. The problem characterized by Eqs.
1.57 is normally called an eigenvalue problem. The polynomial equation in A., Eq.
1.59, is the characteristic equation, and its roots are eigenvalues or characteristic values
of the matrix [O'iJ . Corresponding to each eigenvalue there will be a solution
{Xi} {O}, i.e. a non-trivial solution, which is called an eigenvector or characteristic
14
vector. Writing Eq. 1.57a for the case where the eigenvalue is equal to
~,
we have
(k not summed)
(1.60a)
aifXjl)=A.~r),
(k not summed)
(1.60b)
xjl>X}')=0,
(k
I)
(1.61)
xJ")
(k not summed)
(1.62a)
(k not summed)
(1.62b)
{w
Since
Xa:Xa:=I,
(k not summed)
(1.63)
we fmd, on combining the last equation with Eq. 1.61, that we can write the ortho-
(1.64a)
=0,
(k l)
In terms of these unit eigenvectors, Eq. 1.60b can be put in the form
ai/Xjl = A.I:Xa:,
(k not summed)
Multiplying the last equation by 'Xu, and using Eq. 1.64a, we fmd
aijXu'ljl = A.I:81A: ,
(k not summed )
(1.64b)
(1.64c)
(1.65)
(1.66)
=0,
(k=/)
(1.67a)
(k /)
(1.67b)
15
Mathematical Foundations
o Az
o
o
(1.68)
=[xiJ {YJ
or
(1.69a)
='ljkYt
(1.69b)
into Eq. 1.54a, premultiplying the result by [Lf, and using Eq. 1.66 or 1.68, we fmd
Xi
y,=
t(u}T {bJ
A,
(I not summed)
(1.70a)
(I not summed)
(1.70b)
b{Xu
=-A, .
This enables us to say that the system of linear equations of Eqs. 1.54 may be uncoupled
by the transformation defmed in Eq. 1.69. For this reason, {yJ are frequently referred
to as the normal coordinates, to distinguish them from the generalized coordinates Xi'
Next, consider the quadratic form of generalized coordinates
V
(1.71 a)
(1.71b)
The transformation defined in Eq. 1.69 will readily change this quadratic form into a
new form with no cross product tenns, i.e.
(1.72)
which is called the canonical form. A symmetric real matrix [oJ and its quadratic
form as defined in Eqs. 1.71 are said to be positive definite if V> 0 for all real
{xJ {OJ. If [oJ is positive defmite, then the tenns on the main diagonal of [oJ
must all be positive; for if one, say 22 were negative or zero, then V would be
negative or zero when Xz is the only non-zero coordinate. This condition is insufficient
16
to ensure the positive defmiteness. A necessary and sufficient condition is that (Frazer,
Duncan and Collar, 1938)
(1.73)
Alternatively, the canonical fonn defmed in Eq. 1.72 gives another necessary and
sufficient condition for this purpose, i.e. the positive defmiteness is ensured provided
that all eigenvalues are positive.
Before the advent of digital computers, the solution to the eigenvalue problem for
a square matrix with a large dimension (n) had to be done manually using an appropriate iterative scheme. The use of digital computers and appropriate softwares for this
purpose has greatly simplified the task.
For n 2, the characteristic equation, Eq. 1.59, becomes a quadratic equation of
the fonn
(1.74)
the roots of which are
A,1'
When n
(1.75a,b)
(1.76)
where
(1.77a)
(1.77b)
13 =det[crijl
(1.77c)
1
3
a =-(/1 -3/J
(1.78a)
1
3
b = 27 (211 - 9112 + 27/3 )
(1.78b)
and we may show that 27b2-4a3~0. If 27b 2-4a 3=0, Eq. 1.76 will have three real
roots, of which two at least are equal, i.e.
I
A,1 = (4b )1/3 +..!
(1.79a)
Ib)l/3
~=~=1.2
+iI
(1.79b,c)
Mathematical Foundations
17
On the other hand, if 27b z - 4a 3 < 0, there will be three real and unequal roots, i.e.
+i
I
A.I = 2( 3a )112cos(cp)
3
(1.80a)
(a J'2cosex+cp)
II
Az=23
- 3 - +3
(1.80b)
(a JI2 cos(4X+CP)
II
- 3 - +3
(1.80c)
~=2 3
where
3-{3b
coscp=-20312
(1.81)
steady.
With respect to a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, for which the position
Xi' tensor fields of various orders are represented in
indicial and symbolic notations as follows:
(a) scalar field; cP = CP(Xi' t) or cP = cp(x, t).
(b) vector field; Vi = Vi(Xj, t) or v = v(x, t).
(c) second order tensor field; Tij = Tij(xk' t) or T = T(x, t).
Note the following identity
a( ) a( )ax;
alXi alXj' alXi '
--=----
x;
where
is the position vector with reference to another rectangular coordinate system
(Fig. 1.6). Applying the transformation law, Eq. 1.20, to
we find that the equation
above becomes
x;,
(1.82)
Since XI' X2 and X3 are independent variables, a derivative of one of them with respect
to another must take the form
(1.83)
18
where Bjk is the Kronecker symbol defined by Eq. 1.23. Thus Eq. 1.82 becomes
a() a()
-a-=aij-a'
!Xj
(1.84)
!Xj
Comparing this equation with Eq. 1.21, which is the transformation law for a first-order
tensor, we see that the operator a/aXj is transformed in the same way a first-order
tensor. For this reason we represent such differentiation by a comma-subscript as
illustrated by the following examples:
=<I>.j.
(a)
:.
(b)
-a
=Vj j'
!Xj
(c)
ax. =v
(d)
(Wj
(Wj
j j
We note that the operator a/aXj produces a tensor of one order higher if i remains a
free index, and a tensor of one order lower if i becomes a dummy index in the
derivative.
Differential operators which appear often in continuum mechanics are given here
for reference.
gradej>= Vej>
or q,'i'
divv=V v
or
curl v = Vxv
or EijkV".j'
Viii'
or ej>,"
(1.85)
Iv divvdV = Is n . vdS
(1.86)
where n is the outward unit normal to the bounding surface S , of the volume V in
which the vector field is defined. In the indicial notation, Eq. 1.86 is written as
(1.87)
rT.." ...n dS
JvrT..",,.PdV =Js"
p
(1.88)
Green's theorem in the plane. If R is a closed region of the X 1X2 plane bounded
by a simple closed curve (a curve which does not intersect itself anywhere) C and if
Mathematical Foundations
19
Xl
and
X2
This theorem also holds for a multiply-connected region, i.e. region bounded by a fInite
number of simple closed curves which do not intersect.
1.8 DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY
~=~~t
~=~~t
the terminal point of Xi describes a space curve as u changes. As shown in Fig. 1.7,
if
x.= x. (u+au)-x.{u)
II
Ax dx
Lim-'=-'
Au --+ 0Llu
du
exists, the limit will be a vector in the direction of the tangent to the space curve at
point (XI,X2,X3) and will have Cartesian components (dxl/du, dx:!du, dxidu). If u
is the time t, dx/dt represents the velocity Vi with which the terminal of vector Xi
describes the curve. Similarly, dv/dt =d2x/dt 2 represents its acceleration along the
curve.
If the scalar u is taken as the arc length s measured from some fIxed point on
the space curve, then dx/ds is a unit tangent vector to the curve and denoted by Ti
(see Fig. 1.8). If Ni and Bi are the unit principal normal and binormal vectors to the
20
/ - - - - - - - - - - - X2
(1.92)
where K and 't denote the curvature and torsion respectively, and the reciprocal of
these, p =K- I and 0" ='t-I are called the radius of curvature and radius of torsion
respectively.
The parametric equations which ensure that point (XI> x z, X3) is on the straight line
joining points (Yl> Yz, Y3) and (ZI> Zz, Z3) are
XI - YI XZ- Yz X3 - Y3
(1.93)
--=--=-See the illustration in Fig. 1.9 (a) in which numbers 1, 2, 3 denote the coordinate
axes. In Fig. 1.9 (b), another position vector Xj which is equal to the vector running
from (YI' Yz, Y3) to (ZI> zz, Z3) is illustrated, thus
(1.94)
Xj =Zj-yj
The equation of the plane passing through three points (ai, Uz, ~),
("(I' "(Z, "(3), which are not on the same straight line, has the fonn
21
Mathematical Foundations
(a) End of
Xi
Xi
=Zi -
Yi .
Zi'
-F---~.
=0
Pi
and "(;.
(1.95)
in which a, b and c are constants to be detennined from the condition that all three
prescribed points be on the plane. This condition gives the equation of the plane in
the fonn
22
Yi
xl-a l
~-~
X3-~
(31-~
~-~
(33-~ =0
Zi'
(1.96)
xini=d
(1.98)
where ni is the unit vector nonnal to the plane and d is the shortest distance from
the origin 0 to the plane.
On a surface ~(Xi) constant, its total differential at a position defmed by the
vector Xi is
d4l
~ =-dx
OXi
~.i
'
=~,"dx =O.
Mathematical Foundations
23
surface. In other words, the gradient of a surface is a normal vector to the surface.
Moreover, a unit vector nonnal to the surface <I>(xJ = constant can be obtained by the
usual nonnalization
+ <I>.i
ni=- -V<l>A.j
(1.99)
The sign in Eq. 1.99 is often chosen so that the vector ni is directed 'outward' from
the region on one particular side of the surface <I>(Xi) = constant. Often we can express
the position vector of a point on a surface in the fonn
Xi =Xi(a,~)
(1.100)
are two independent parameters of the sUrface. Noting that ax/aa
where a and ~
and ax/a~ are vectors lying in the tangent plane to the surface, we see that the direction
of the nonnal to the surface is the same as the following non-zero vector,
aXjaXk
Eijk
aa a~
':.
(1.101)
=0,
Ie B(t-a)dt= 1,
a)
(1.102b)
(b <a <c)
(1.102c)
(t
':.
--
8U-o)
I
/1-- 2
24
Ie
I>(t)S(t -a)dt
=I>(a),
(b < a < c)
(1.103)
The Dirac-delta function is not an ordinary function, but rather a limit of a special
sequence of ordinary functions (Stakgold, 1967). In Fig. 1.12 we show the Dirac-delta
function as the limit of a pulse. In characterizing a concentrated force by l)(t - a), t is
a spatial variable. On other occasions, when l)(t - a) characterizes an impulsive force,
t is the time variable.
Since all time functions involved are normally in the state of complete quietude
before the time t is reckoned as zero, it is appropriate to study the Heaviside step
function which has the properties
(1.104a)
(t >0)
H(t) 1,
(1.104b)
=0,
(t <0)
Graphically, we may put H(t-a) as shown in Fig. 1.13.
To study the derivatives of H(t) and l)(t), let us consider the following integral
Ie I>(t)dH~-a)
Ie I>(t)dH~-a)
dt
=a.
dt,
Performing integration by parts, we
=I>(c)(I)-I>(b)(O)=I>(c)-
Ie
Ie H(t-a)~t)
dt
d!>(t)
=I>(c)-I>(c) + I>(a)
=I>(a)
(1.105)
Comparing Eq. 1.105 with Eq. 1.103 leads to the 'in effect' identity as follows
dH(t-a) S(t-a)
dt
Another 'in effect' identity induced from Eqs. 1.102 and 1.103 is
(1.106)
(1.107)
Ie
I>(t)S(l)(t -a)dt
=[-t!l(l)(t)],=a'
(b<a<c)
(1.108)
25
Mathematical Foundations
H (t-o)
La c!>(t)8(")(t -a)dt
=[(-I)"c!>(")(t)],=a'
(b<a<c)
(1.109)
(m >n)
d
dt [c!>(t)H(t)] =c!>(0)8(t) + c!>(I)(t)H(t)
i=O
(1.11Oa)
(1.11Ob)
(1.11Oc)
(1.11Od)
26
Cm_1(Z)+Cm+1(z) =-Cm(z)
dCm(z)
Cm_l(Z)-Cm+l(Z)=2~
dCm(z)
m
=Cm_1(z)--;C m(z)
dCm(z)
~ =-Cm+1(z)+-;Cm(z)
(1.112a)
(1.112b)
(1.112c)
(1.112d)
+ iYm(z)
(1.113a)
H!:>(z) =Jm(z)-iYm(z)
(1.113b)
H2>(z) = Jm(z)
(i2 =-1).
+ 2isin(mmt)cot(m1t)Jm(z)
+ 1)m1t]H!:>(z) + elmfCsin(mn1t)H2>(z)
H2>(ze~
=-e -imtcH!:>(z)
H!:>(ze~ =-elmfCH2>(z)
(1.114a)
(1.114b)
(1.114c)
(1.114d)
(1.114e)
(1.1140
(m
negative integer)
(1.115a)
(1.115b)
Mathematical Foundations
27
[9t(m) > 0]
(1.115c)
In these equations, the symbol == means 'is approximately equal to'. On the other
hand, if m is fIxed and I Z I~ 00,
Jm(z)
(1.116a)
(1. 116b)
Ym(z) =
(1.116c)
(1.116d)
In Eqs. 1.115 and 1.116, f'(z) is a gamma function (discussed in the next section for
real and non-negative z), 9t(z) and 5(z) are real and imaginary parts of z respectively, argz =tan- 1[5(z)/9t(z)] , and O( ) denotes the order of the truncation error.
Closely related to Bessel functions are modified Bessel functions, Kelvinfunctions,
and spherical Bessel functions. For the modifIed Bessel functions, the pertinent relationship is
(-1t < argz
=e3il1rl2J
Km(z)
i;
(ze- 3itr12 ),
~ 1tI2)
(1.117a)
~ 1t)
(1.117b)
= eimtrl2H~)(zei1rl2),
~ 1tI2)
(1.118a)
(1. 118b)
The Kelvin functions, of a real and non-negative argument z and a real order m,
can be expressed in terms of Bessel functions as
berm(z) + ibeim(z) =J m(ze 3i1r14 )
(1.119a)
=~ H~)(ze3i1r14)
Spherical Bessel functions are defIned for m =0, 1, 2, ...
jm(z) =[1tI(2Z)]1/2J J(z)
m+i
ker m(z) + ikeim(z)
(1.119b)
by the equations
(1.120a)
(1.120b)
(1.120c,d)
28
(1. 120e,t)
Here j"., y". and h". are spherical Bessel functions of the first kind, second kind, and
third kind, respectively. In addition, h2) and h~) are also known as spherical Hankel
functions.
With the help of the recurrence fannulas (Eqs. 1.112) and the asymptotic fann
when m is fixed and Iz I~ 00 (Eqs. 1.116), we can derive the following
C".(z )lzl: == 0
(1.121 a)
(1.121b)
(1.121c)
where k ~ I, and C denotes J, Y, H(l) or H(J.), provided the value of argz falls
within the respective ranges stipulated in Eqs. 1.116. Due to Eqs. 1.120, the same
conditions also hold for j, y, h(l) or h(J.).
Computation of these special functions has been simplified since the establishment
of their polynomial approximations. Such approximations are presented in the handbook
by Abramowitz and Stegun (1964).
1.11 LAPLACE TRANSFORMS
If the function v(t) is defmed for the time interval 0 < t < 00, then its Laplace
transform L{v(t)} or v(P) is defined as
L{v(t)} =v(P)=
L-
v (t)e-P'dt
(1.122)
Note that the lower limit in the integral above is not a plane 0 but rather 0-, which
is a quantity infmitesimally less than O. This is used to accommodate the state of
complete quietude of v(t) before the time t is reckoned as zero, i.e.
v (0-) =v(I)(Ol =v(J.)(Ol =.... =0
(1.123)
in which a superscript n in parentheses denotes an n th derivative with respect to t.
Laplace transforms of some elementary functions are listed below:
1
L{H(t)} =-
(1.124a)
L{B(t)} = 1
(1. 124b)
L{B(II)(t)}
=p"
L{e"'} = (p -art,
(1.124c)
(p-a>O)
(1.124d)
29
Mathematical Foundations
L{sinat} =al(pz+a z)
(1.124e)
=pl(pz +a z)
(1.1241)
L{cosat}
=pl(pz_a z),
L{t}=r(a + l)lp a+l,
L{coshat}
(p>(lal)
(1.124g)
(p>(lal)
(1.124h)
(a> 0)
(1.124i)
(y > 0)
(1.125)
L{C1V1(t)+CZvz(t)} =C1V1(P)+CZvz(P)
(1.129)
(1.130)
(1.131)
L{-dllV}
=pv
dt"
11-
(1.132)
in which the state of complete quietude (Eqs. 1.123) has been incorporated.
Theorem 1.9. Laplace transform of integrals. If L{v(t)} = v(P), then
(1.133)
30
then
(1.135)
Since one often wants to detennine the derivative of a convolution integral, it is
appropriate to record here that
d
Ov2(t-s)
(1.136)
dtJO_ VI(S)V2(t-S)ds= JO_VI(S)
at
ds+VI(t)viO~
r t rt
where 0+ denotes a quantity infInitesimally greater than zero. A more general fonnula
known as Leibnitz's rule for differentiating an integral is the following
d
dt
a(t)
ot
(1.137)
Note that such convolution integrals obey the commutative law, i.e.
VI *v2
=v2*v1
(1.138a)
=VI*V2 +VI*V3
(1. 138c)
Limv(t) = Limpv(P)
t~O+
p-+-
(1.139)
p-+o+
(1.140)
Theorem 1.14. Fourier transform. For a function v(t) defined for the interval
0< t < 00, its Fourier transfonn F{v(t)} or v.(ro) is defined as
F{v(t)} =v.(ro)= i~v(t)e-ioltdt
(1.141)
A sufficient condition for the existence of v.(ro) is that the function v(t) must be
absolutely integrable, i.e.
00
(1.142)
31
Mathematical Foundations
(1.143)
It should be noted that Eq. 1.142 is a sufficient but not necessary condition for
the existence of v.(eo). Functions which do not satisfy Eq. 1.142 may have Fourier
transforms. Here are examples of such functions (Hsu, 1970);
~
1
F{H(t)} = l H(t)e-'OlIdt =:-+1tO(eo)
(1.144a)
0-
leo
(1.144b)
Note that the second term on the right-hand side of each of Eqs. 1.144 is an addition
to that readily given by Eq. 1.143. In fact, Eq. 1.144b can be obtained by differentiating
Eq. 1.144a with respect to eo.
Equating the real parts in Eq. 1.144a gives
o(eo) = -11~ coseotdt
1t 0
while doing the same for the imaginary parts gives
(1.145)
1 l~ sineotdt
-=
eo
(1.146)
(t > 0),
or
r~
1
)0 O(eo)coseotdeo=Z
(1.147)
On the other hand, the inverse sine transform of Eq. 1.146 gives
1 = ~ r~ sineot deo,
1t)0
(t > 0),
eo
or
1 ll~sineotd
H()
t =-+- - eo
2
1t 0
eo
(1.148)
or
1t
--deo=-sgnt
o eo
2
where sgn t (read as signum t) is defined as
sgn t = 1, (t > 0)
(1.150a)
< 0)
(1.150b)
~sineot
=-1,
(t
(1.149)
32
L-1{v(P)} =v(t)
(1.151)
may be found from standard mathematical textbooks, e.g. by Spiegel (1965). Otherwise,
one may use Bromwich's integral formula, i.e.
1.
v(t)=-2
Y+ 1-
1tJ y-Ioo
(1.152)
ePtv(p)dp
The integration in the equation above is to be performed in the complex plane where
p = q + ir along a line q = 'Y. The real number 'Y is chosen so that q 'Y lies to the
right of all singularities (poles, branch points, or essential singularities) but is otherwise
arbitrary. The formula provides direct means for calculating v(t) for a given v(P).
When the methods mentioned above are not possible or practical, approximate
methods may be adopted, but their accuracy and efficiency must be checked or tested
case by case. Cost (1964) started his investigation on some approximate methods with
the n th derivative with respect to p of the Laplace transform, Eq. 1.122, i.e.
d"v(P)
- = (-1)"
dp"
or
(-1)
"p,,+ld"v(p)
---=
nl dp"
1-
v (t)t"e-ptdt,
0-
10-
v(t)
[p"+lt"e-pt J
dt
nl
(1.153)
Considering the term in the brackets on the right-hand side of the equation above, i.e.
p,,+lt "e-pt
nl
we note that it has a single peak at t =nip, and due to the definitions of the gamma
functions and factorials, Eqs. 1.125 and 1.127, we may write
P "+l1t"e-ptdt
nl
0-
=1
(1.154)
(1.155)
0 , (t ~ nip)
(1.156b)
Comparing these results with the properties of the Dirac-delta function given in Eqs.
1.102, we can write
33
Mathematical Foundations
. pn+1 tne-PI
Lun
n!
n~~
n)
=8 t--
(1.157)
Substituting Eq. 1.157 into Eq. 1.153, in view of Eq. 1.103, leads to
. {(_1ypIl+1dny(p)]
v(t)=Lun
n.
dp" p="/I
which is known as the Widder's general inversion formula (Widder, 1946).
Alfrey's approximation (Alfrey, 1944). Putting n = 1 in Eq. 1.158 yields
n~
V(t)==[_p2d~(P)J
P P=II
Haar's approximation (ter Haar, 1951). Rewrite Eq. 1.122 in the fonn
r~V(t)[pm+1tme-PI]dt
Jo- t m
ml
pm+1v(p)
m!
m)
t--
ml
p
Substituting the equation above into Eq. 1.160 yields
pm+ly(p)
,
m.
(1.158)
(1.159)
(1.160)
(1.161)
[V(t)]
t m I=mlp '
or
(1.162)
For m = 1 , we get
(1.163)
(1.164)
(1.165)
where N is a positive integer and aj(i = 1 to N) are positive constants, gj are unknown
constants. The values of N and aj are specified basing on the nature of the problem
involved, while gj are to be detennined by the techniques of the minimum square error,
i.e. from the condition
34
:\
ugj
or
0-
L0-oo[vet) -
L
OO
0-
av*(t)
v*(t)]-:l-dt =0,
ugj
[v(t)-v*(t)]e~ dt =0,
or
(1.166)
Substituting Eq. 1.165 again into the right-hand side of the equation above, while noting
its left-hand side is V(<lj) , we can write
N
g.
v(<lj) :E _J_,
(i 1,2, ... , N)
(1.167)
j=l~+aj
specifies a transformation of coordinates, and may be thought as specifying the coordinates of a point in another three dimensional space. The points specified by Yj and
Xj may not belong to the same space, and if they do belong to the same space they
may not define the same point. The inverse transfannation
Xj
=Xj(Yl'Y2'Y3)
(1.168b)
proceeds in the reverse direction. By the standard chain rule of differentiation, we can
35
Mathematical Foundations
dB (Xi) dB dXk
--=-dYj
dXk dYj
(1.l68c,d)
dXi
dx.=-dy.
, dYj J
(1.l69b)
Each of the last two equations can be rewritten as a system of three linear equations
(Sections 1.6) as the following
Yi
dX']
= [' {dy}
{dyJ = [ d
dXj ] {dx), {dx}
,
dYj
J
(1.1 69c,d)
where
dYl
dXl
dYz
dXl
dY3
dXl
dXl
dYl
dXz
dYz
dXz
dY3
dXz
dXl
dYl
dXz
dYl
dX3
dYz dY3
dXz dXz
dYz dY3
dX3 dX3
dYz dY
dYl
dYl
dX3
dYz
dX3
dY3
dX
(1.l70a)
dXl
(1.170b)
(1.l70c)
Thus in order to insure that the transformation is reversible and in one-to-one
correspondence in a certain domain V of the variables Xi' i.e. in order that each Xi
defines a unique Yi for Xi in V and vice versa, it is sufficient that :
(a) The functions Yi are single-valued, continuous, and possess continuous first
36
Xl =xl(et, e2, e\
e e3),
x2=x2(e l , 2,
X3
=x 3(et, e2, e\
or
(1.171)
Curve
8 2 Curve
Mathematical Foundations
37
Oi =Oi(X 1,X2,X3)
(1.172)
The sets of equations above (Eqs. 1.171 and 1.172) defme a transformation of coordinates, when the functions involved make the transfoonation admissible and proper.
In practice, this assumption may not apply at certain points and special consideration
is required.
In Fig. 1.14, the surfaces 01 = Cl> ~ = C2 and 03 = C3 where Cl' C2 and C3 are
constants, are called coordinate surfaces. The intersections of these surfaces are known
as coordinate curves or lines. Ifa neighboring point QO is located by the position vector
x + dx , the vector dx drawn from po to QO must have a mathematical foon as follows
ax lax 2 ax 3
where
(1.173)
ax
g~=~
(1.174)
Thus, as described in Section 1.8, ~ is a vector tangent to the O~ curve at point pO.
Accordingly, an infmitesimal parallelepiped with pOQo as a diagonal is constructed and
38
x=xlf+X2j+X3k
(1.175)
where f, j and k are unit base vectors of axes Xl, x and x respectively, and
have the product properties given in Eqs. 1.7 and 1.8. Accordingly, Eq. 1.174 becomes
2
dX I " dX2~ dX 3
gA = d9~ 1+ d9~J + a9~ k
3,
(1.176)
In general, gl' g2 and g3 are not mutually orthogonal nor unit vectors. When they are
mutually orthogonal, they form an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system. The length
ds of the infmitesimalline element pOQo in Fig. 1.15 is given by
(1.177)
(1.178)
(1.179)
dXidX i
gAjl. = d9~a91l
(1.180)
39
Mathematical Foundations
e1
Curve
( A not summed)
(1.183a)
(1.183b)
(1.183c)
=det[X~
and
g = det[g~ = det[XkiX,J
(1.183d)
(dsi=gAj1da"daj1,
(1.184)
If there exists a transfonnation into a rectangular coordinate system (xi,x 2, .... x N ) such
that the metric fonn becomes
mannian.
In three dimensional Euclidean space like the ordinary physical space. the volume
40
Vi
(1.186)
where g is as defIned in Eqs. 1.183b to 1.183d. Further, passing a plane through corners
RO, SO and TO of the same parallelepiped, we obtain an inflnitesimal tetrahedron as
shown in Fig. 1.16, and the following relation can be noted
2n:,dS~ = (gzdez- glde1) x (g3de3 - glde1)
(1.187)
where dS~ is the area of the triangle ROSoro and n:, is the unit vector nonnal to dS~.
Perfonning a dot product of Eq. 1.187 with gl' in view of Eqs. 1.183a and b, yields
(1.188a)
2dS~gl . n:, =
dezd93
"i
(1.188b)
2dS~g3 . n:, =
(1.188c)
"ide1dez
=g).p.
(1.189)
where g~ is, as defmed in Eq. 1.42, the cofactor of an element g'-!L of the square
matrix [g~. Thus it can be shown that
g'-!L=g"'(1.190a)
g'AlCg1q1 = a~
(1.190b)
may
(1.191)
t=g'-!Lg"
(1. 192a)
g'A =g'-!Lg"
(1.192b)
(1. 192c)
is orthogonal to
The last equation means physically that a contravariant base vector
the coordinate surface eA = constant. Using this property for A. = 1 , we can obtain the
area of the side pOsoro of the infmitesimal tetrahedron in Fig. 1.16 as
41
Mathematical Foundations
where gl is the magnitude of gl. Due to Eqs. 1.183b and 1.192a, the equation above
can be written in the form
2
Likewise, the area of any side, where e)" = constant, of the same tetrahedron is
dS;=~-VggUdeJ.ldex.
(1.193)
{~}
is the Christoffel symbol of the second kind relating the component of gJ.l,v
thus
(1.196)
In addition, the Christoffel symbol can be expressed in terms of metric tensors as
(1.197)
and the derivative of the contravariant base vector gJ.l with respect to e v can be obtained
as
(1.198)
A vector u can be resolved into three vectors in the directions of g),. as followsy
),.
u = v g),.
(1.199)
u, v = v;v g),.
(1.200)
where v;~ is the covariant derivative of the contravariant component v),. and given by
42
V,A = VA
.v
.v
+{pV
(1.201)
I.}VP
On the other hand, the same vector u can be resolved into three vectors in the directions
of gA as follows
U=V~A
where
VA
(1.202)
and related to
VA
by the relation
=g"-fLv lL
1.202 with respect to e yields
(1.203)
VA
Differentiating Eq.
(1.204)
u,v = V).;vgA
where
v).;v
v).;v=VA.,V-{~Jvp
VA
and given by
(1.205)
T~"'Ar =T~"'Ar +
IL\.. ,IL,;V
IL\ .. ,IL,.V
T~"'~-\P~+\"'Ar {Ai}
pV
-i= T~ ......................
j
Ar{
1 IL\.. ,ILj-\PILj+\.. ,IL,
p}
Ilj V
(1.206)
Two applications of the last equation are illustrated in Eqs. 1.201 and 1.205. Another
is that the covariant derivatives of the covariant and contravariant metric tensors vanish,
i.e.,
gAjL;v =0,
gt: =0
(1.207)
The covariant derivative of Eq. 1.203, due to Eqs. 1.207 and 1.208 takes the form
v).;v
=g"-fLv;~
(1.209)
(I. Il)
(1.21Oa)
(1.21Ob)
(1.21Oc)
Mathematical Foundations
43
(1.21Od)
(1.210e)
{:J
=0,
(1.210)
(1.211a)
(1.211b)
Consequently, the contravariant and covariant metric tensors become identical and equal
to Kronecker symbol, g defmed in Eqs. 1.183b to d becomes unity, and the Christoffel
symbol of the second kind given in Eq. 1.197 vanishes, i.e.
g=g=~
=1
(1.212a)
(1.212b)
(1.212c)
Moreover, the contravariant and covariant components of a vector such as in Eqs. 1.199
and 1.202 become identical, and a covariant partial differentiation such as in Eqs. 1.201,
1.205 and 1.206 is reduced into a usual partial differentiation, i.e.
A
=VA
(1.213a)
AA
V;v= v,v
(1.213b)
v~v = v).,v
(1.213c)
r'>-t A,
1LJIl,:v
A,
=r'>-t
1l1Il"v
(1 213d)
Strictly speaking, equations such as Eqs. 1.211 a, 1.212a and 1.213a are inadmissible,
since the free index scripts are not of the same type.
A special type of curvilinear coordinate systems is a system of skew coordinates,
in which every coordinate (SA) has a unit of length and has a ftxed orientation with
respect to the global (Xi) coordinate system. Hence, in such a system: a covariant base
vector gIL is independent of any skew coordinate SA; a Christoffel symbol of the
44
second kind due to Eq. 1.194 vanishes as put in Eq. 1.212c; a covariant partial dif
ferentiation as in Eqs. 1.201, 1.205 and 1.206 is reduced into a usual partial differentiation as in Eqs. 1.213; and we can put each and every Cartesian coordinate as a linear
function of the skew coordinates as follows
Xi
=XijEY + ci
(1.214)
ci
where
is a constant Cartesian component of the position vector of the origin of the
skew coordinate system, and 'Xij is the cosine of the angle between axes Xi and EY
Thus
XqXij = 1,
(j not summed)
(1.215)
In fact, 'Xij is as defined in Eq. 1.182 for any curvilinear coordinate systems.
1.16 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
1.16.1
Prove the equivalence between Gibbs and indicial notations as in Eqs. 1.31,
1.32 and 1.85.
1.16.2
Prove the identities that involve the permutation tensor and Kronecker delta
as
ijk
(1.216a)
(1.216b)
(1.216c)
= 2Bi!
(a) If [CJ = [A.J [B~, where the ranges of indices i, j and k are 2, 3
and 4, respectively; find each and every element Cij in terms of elements
Ai,t and Big. (b) Write the set of simultaneous equations
in matrix form, and in indicial notation. Find the determinant and the
inverse of the square matrix involved, and solve the equations for a 1 , az
and ~.
Answer: Determinant 35 ,/a1 2, az -3, ~ -1 .
45
Mathematical Foundations
1.16.4
[a~ =[~~ ~
~O
1.16.5
where
Is xjnjdS =V8ij.
Xl
=Xz
and
X2
=xl
Fig. 1.17.
1.16.6
Find a unit nonnal and an equation for the tangent plane to the surface
2x1x:-3x1Xz-4xl=7 at the point 0,-1,2).
Answer: A unit nonnal (nl'nz,~) =(7,-3,8)/~122, and an equation for
the tangent plane is
7(x1 -l)-3(Xz+ 1)+8(x3 -2)=O.
1.16.7
46
Is nx(axx)dS =2aV,
where V is the volume enclosed by the surface S having the outward unit
normal n. The position vector to any point in V is x, and a is an
arbitrary constant vector.
Hint: Write the expression in indicial notation.
1.16.9
Find the tangent and normal vectors, and verify the Frenet-Serret formulas
of the following space curves: (a) a plane circle defined by Xl acose,
X2 =a sine, X] =b where a and b are constants while e varies. (b) a
cylindrical helix defmed by Xl acose, .xz a sine, X3 be.
CHAPTER II
STRESS AND STRAIN TENSORS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The present book is restricted to small deformation of solid continua until Chapter
X, where the fmite defonnation theory will start. Indicial notation rules, using subscripts
to denote Cartesian components of tensors, will be followed until Section 10.6. Unless
specified otherwise, subscripts 1, 2 and 3 denote Cartesian components in Xl' ~ and
x3-directions respectively. Many textbooks denote Xl> X2' X3 by x, y, z respectively.
Figure 2.1 shows the equivalence between the notations.
48
o~
__ .....
stresses.
A positive normal stress is directed outward from the material domain of interest,
i.e. a tensile stress. A shear stress is positive, if it is directed in a positive coordinate
direction when its associated normal stress (on the same rectangular boundary plane) is
also positive in another positive coordinate direction. A better understanding may be
obtained from Fig. 2.3, which is an illustration of the convention for a two-dimensional
case. Moreover it should be a good exercise for a reader to complete Fig. 2.2 with
49
positive stress components on the remaining three faces of the infmitesimal parallelepiped.
We may display the stress components in the matrix
[O"ijI=[::: :: ::1=[:: :: ~1
0"31
0"32
0"3J
O"u
O"zy
(2.1)
O"J
50
Xz =a1Zn1+ azznz
(2.3)
Consequently. the surface traction Xi. being a vector but having the same dimensions
as a stress component ali' is called a stress vector.
Each stress component can be a function of position so that the same stress
51
components on any two opposing boundary plane need not be equal. Next, consider the
equilibrium of forces acting on an infmitesimally small neighborhood of the point
P(xI'X~ subjected to a body force Xi and surface tractions CJji as shown in Fig. 2.5.
The equilibrium of forces in Xl and x2 -directions yields, respectively, the following
aCJn
aCJ21
aXI
aX2
aCJI2
aCJzz
aXI
aXl
-+-+XI =0
-+-+X2 =0
(2.4a)
(2.4b)
On the other hand, the equilibrium of moments yields the stress symmetry, i.e.
CJ12
=CJlI
(2.5)
After understanding the two-dimensional case, we can easily obtain the corresponding three dimensional conditions at any point P located by (XI' Xl' x3). For the
stress vector, the illustration is depicted in Fig. 2.6 and the formulas can be shown to
be
XI
Xi =CJjinj
(2.6)
where ni is the unit vector normal to the plane where Xi acts, thus
nini == n;+ni+n;= 1
(2.7)
Moreover, ni must be 'outward', i.e. pointing away from the material domain of interest.
For static equilibrium, the equation is
CJft,}
.. . +X., =0
(2.8)
and the symmetry of stresses is
~=~
~~
The last equation implies that the matrix [CJijI shown in Eq. 2.1 is a symmetric matrix,
i.e. [CJijI = [CJijlT, and that there are six (not nine) distinct stress components. For
dynamic equilibrium, Newton's second law of motion (1 Newton, 1687) gives, in place
of Eq. 2.8, the following equation
52
}--,
2
Vi
is the velocity, i.e. clx/dt. For small deformation, it can be shown that
aUi
at
v=I
(2.12)
and that the changes of p and dV with time are negligible. Thus Eq. 2.11 becomes
XidV +XidS
= puidV,
=0
Substituting the condition on the surface S, Eq. 2.6, into Eq. 2.13 yields
(2.13)
53
which is the equation of motion (Eq. 2.8) derived before. If the equation of motion is
used in Eq. 2.13, we shall obtain
--<JjiJdV +XidS =0,
or, due to Gauss's divergence theorem,
--<JjinjdS +XidS =0,
or
Xi =ajinj'
which is the formula of the stress vector (Eq. 2.6). Hence, we can see that for any
domain V enclosed completely by a surface S, the equation of motion for any point in
V can be derived from the condition of surface traction on S. and in the reverse the
condition of surface traction at any point on S can be derived from the equation of
motion in V.
Euler's second law of motion may be expressed as
-d
evtXj(XkdV +XkdS) =dt (evtXjPvkdV)
=evtXjpukdV
+ pevkvjvkdV.
However, the second term on the right-hand side of the equation above must vanish,
since evkVjVk denotes a cross product of two identical vectors. Thus, we have
evtXj(XkdV +XkdS)
=0
(2.15)
in which Xi includes both actual and D' Alembert's forces. In fact, Eq. 2.15 can be
obtained directly from Eq. 2.13 by taking the moment of the latter. Proceeding in the
same way as Eq. 2.14 has been obtained, one should arrive at the following
t;;k(XPIk),1 + evtX}Xk
=0,
or
t;;tXj(alk,l + Xk) + t;;tXj,lalk
=O.
The first term vanishes due to the equation of motion, Xj,l in the second term is Sjl, so
that
54
=(J21'
(J12
(J1i
(Jjinj =Xj
The right-hand side is a vector, so that, upon applying the transformation law, Eq. 1.21,
we can rewrite the equation above as
=au){~,
(Jjinj
where a prime (') denotes a Cartesian component in the rectangular coordinate system
(x;, x;, x~). Applying the stress vector formula to
in the last equation yields
X;
(Jjinj
=ajJ:(Ju.nl'
(Jjinj
But
nj
=ajJ:ajl(Ju.nj'
=aj1ajJ:(Ju.
(2. 16a)
The inverse to Eq. 2.16a can be obtained by the same procedure, i.e.
,
~=~~~
~1~)
Thus we have shown that (J1i is a tensor of second order, since it obeys the transformation law for such a tensor, Eqs. 1.27 and 1.28. Note that the transformed stress is
symmetric as well, i.e. <iii =c.ip.
Letting i =j in Eq. 2.16a or 2.16b and using the orthogonality conditions, Eq.
1.25, we fmd
,
(Jii
(JkA;'
which shows that the scalar quantity (Jii does not change with the reference coordinate
system. Any term which has such property is normally referred to as an invariant. The
following are also stress invariants;
(J1i(J ji.
(J1i(Jjk(Jkj.
(J1i(Jjk(J/d(J/i,
etc.
55
The three quantities, 11' 12, 13 given in Eqs. 1.17, and known as the first, second and
third stress invariants, are combinations of these invariants; in fact
(2. 17a)
(2. 17b)
(2. 17c)
}-,
2
=crjjnj'
or
(crjj - crajj)nj
=O.
Since the matrix [crvl is symmetric, the analysis of Section 1.6 shows that there are
three real values of cr, i.e. three principal stresses, denoted by cr1' cr2, cr3, for which this
equation has a non-trivial solution for nj. These values, the eigenvalues, are the roots
of the equation
56
det[crij - crBijI
or
=0,
cr -/ d'+/ cr-I = 0,
1
as given in Eq. 1.76. Stress invariants given by Eqs. 1.77 or Eqs. 2.17 can be expressed
in tenns of principal stresses as
(2.18a)
(2.18b)
13 =cr1cr2cr3
(2.18c)
If the eigenvalues are distinct, each eigenvalue defines a unique eigenvector nj'
and the three eigenvectors are mutually orthogonal. In other words, when all three
principal stresses are distinct, there is a unique triad of mutually orthogonal principal
planes, and a corresponding unique triad of mutually orthogonal principal axes.
On the other hand, if two principal stresses are equal, only the principal axis in
the direction of the distinct principal stress is unique. Using principal axes as reference
Cartesian coordinate axes we have
(2.19)
or, in matrix fonn,
0 OJ
cr1
[crijl =[ 0 cr2 0,
o 0 cr
where we suppose cr3=cr2 cr1. In the primed coordinate system, the stress components
are given by Eq. 2.16b, i.e.
Xl
x;
and
x;
(2.20)
~; = [~ ~ ~1.
o
~2
aJ
Then, in view of the orthogonal property of aij' Eq. 1.25, we can show that Eq. 2.20
gives
57
In the hydrostatic case, when all three principal stresses are equal, then, referred
to principal axes
(2.21)
raJ
=[~ ~ ~.
cr~ = crBij.
Thus any three mutually orthogonal axes form a set of principal axes.
2.6 STATIONARY SHEAR STRESSES
Using principal axes as the reference Cartesian coordinate axes, we can write the
stress tensor crij in the form
crij =cr1BilBj1 + cr2Bj2Bj2 + cr3Bj3Bj3
(2.22)
or, in matrix form,
[crijl
cr1
=[ 0
0 OJ
cr2 0
0 cr
(2.23)
The stress vector on a plane with the unit normal vector nj, as shown in Fig. 2.8, is
given by Eq. 2.6, and its components normal to and tangential to the plane are
respectively
(2.24)
Sj=Xj-Nj
(2.25)
Substituting Eqs. 2.6 and 2.24 into Eq. 2.25, and using Eq. 2.22, we fmd
(2.26)
n;= 1-(n~+n;)
(2.27)
(2.28)
S8
)-,
2
n:
Eliminating from Eq. 2.27, taking derivatives of the result SjSj with respect to nt and
liz, then equating these derivatives to zero; we obtain
[ (O't - 0'3)nt
(O't - 0'3)nz
(0'2- 0'3)nt]
(0'2 - 0'3)nz
(2.29)
2 nz(0'22 - 0'33)J
The direction nj are specified by nt and liz, which are governed by the equation above.
We seek nj for which SjSj is a maximum or minimum, or more generally, stationary.
One obvious solution to Eq. 2.29 is that nt = liz = 0, which is the case of a principal
stress 0'3' Another possible solution is that nt = 0, liz = 1I-../2 and ~ 1/-.J2. for which
Eq. 2.27 gives
(2.30)
and Eq. 2.24 gives
(2.31)
Investigating for all possible solutions, we obtain, as compiled in Table 2.1, the three
cases of principal stresses, and three cases of stationary shear stresses. Note that a
stationary shear stress occurs on a plane bisecting the angle between two principal
directions and has a value equal to half the difference between those two principal
stresses. In fact, each stationary shear stress may be obtained individually from a
59
Table 2.1
n1
1I...[2
1I...[2
rIz
1I...[2
1I...[2
n3
1I...[2
1I...[2
0'2- 0'3
-2
<J3- <J1
-2
<J1-<J2
-2
<J3
--
0'2+ 0'3
2
-3 2-1
<J +<J
--
Principal stresses
Normal
Stress
0'1
<J2
0'1 + 0'2
2
60
shown in Fig. 2.10. Each such plane is called an octahedral plane, and has direction
cosines, with respective to the principal axes, given by
2
2
2 1
n1 = nz = ~ =(2.32)
3
Equation 2.27 shows that the magnitude of the shear stress on each octahedral plane,
called the octahedral shear stress 'to, is given by
9io = (0'1 -
O'i + (0'2 -
0'3i + (0'3 -
O'l
(2.33)
(2.34)
(2.35)
shows the stress tensor O'ij decomposed into a deviatoric stress tensor sij and a
hydrostatic or spherical stress tensor O'kkB/3. We note that O'kk is identical to the ftrst
stress invariant Ii' Equation 2.34 may be rewritten in matrix form
O'kk
0'-22
(2.36)
sij =sji
(2.37)
Now the first, second and third deviatoric stress invariants are, respectively, deftned as
the following
(2.38)
(2.39)
(2,40)
61
(2.41b)
Thus we obtain the relationship between the octahedral shear stress and the second
deviatoric stress invariant in the fonn
(2.42)
In 1913, Richard von Mises proposed that yielding of some materials occurs at a constant
value of 1 l , then Nadai (1915) apparently because of Eq. 2.42 interpreted that the
yielding occurs at a constant value of the octahedral shear stress.
2.8 STRAIN TENSOR
As usual, let us begin with a two-dimensional case with Xl and Xl as reference
axes, and consider the situation that a point P located by (Xl> xz) at a reference time
moves to a point P' located by (Xl +U I , xl+uz) at any time t. In other words UI and
Uz are displacements of the point P in Xl and xl-directions respectively. Similarly,
other points Q and R infInitesimally close to P move to points Q' and R'
respectively as shown in Fig. 2.11.
From the figure, we may notice 'small defonnation' as follows; the change of the
line element PQ per unit original length is approximately aUl/aXI' the change of the
62
o---------;~ U I
+ ax
aUI
dX 2
(2.43c)
In their common names, Ell is the normal strain in Xl -direction, ~ the normal strain
in X2 -direction, and E12 the shear strain in X1X2 -plane. Note, however, the shear strain
defmed above is only half of the whole angle change. The latter (whole angle change)
is nonnally called an engineering shear strain.
For three-dimensional cases, strains can be put in terms of displacement components Ui as follows
1
F. .. =-(u. . +U .)
(2.44)
II 2 J,}
},I
63
=U ,2 + Uz,1
123 =Uz,3 + ~,2
131 =~,1 + U1,3
112
(2.4Sa)
(2.4Sb)
(2.4Sc)
eu =eji
(2.46a)
and
(2.46b)
which means that there are six (not nine) distinct strain components. It was shown in
Section 1.7 that differentiation of a tensor with respect to Xi yields tensor of one order
higher if the index i remains a free index. The quantity 9;, consisting of such a
derivative of the displacement vector, is therefore a tensor of second order. So all ideas
developed for CJij' e.g. stress invariants, principal stresses, etc., have counterparts for
eu ' i.e. strain invariants, principal strains, etc.
In particular, the fIrst strain invariant elk is called the dilatation since it represents
the proportional volume change of an infinitesimal element, and the strain deviator is
defmed by
(2.47)
The tensor defmed by
1
" 2
Cll =-(u..
',I
(2.48)
-u .. )
I,'
is the rotation tensor, since each component of it represents an average angle of rotation
about a coordinate axis. In Fig. 2.11, the line PQ rotates through an angle OUz/OX1
about the X3 -axis to become P'Q' and the line PR rotates through an angle -OuiChz
about the same axis to become P'R'. Hence the average rotation of the material body
framed by lines PQ and PR about the X3 -axis is (OUz/OX1 - ou/ihz)/2 =-IDt2' The
rotation tensor is antisymmetric, i.e.
Cllij = -C1)ji
(2.49)
In a matrix form,
[Cllul
(2.50)
Thus Cllij has only three distinct components corresponding to the angles of rotation
about Xl' Xz and X3 axes. The rotation vector Clli having these angles as its Cartesian
components can be written as
1
(2.S1a)
Clli =ZBu.tCllq
1
=-P".I;(u.t
4'"
.-u'.I;)
,I
J.
(2.S1b)
64
1
0>:32 ="2 (U:l,2 - Uz,3)
1
(2.52a)
(2.52b)
(2.52c)
When there is displacement, but there is zero strain and constant rotation, the
material body is displaced as a rigid body. The Cartesian components of the rigid-body
displacement vector will be given by
(2.53)
Uj =Cj + ijJ1r k
where B j and Cj are arbitrary constants. Thus
so that
+ EkI,ij -
Eik,jl - Ejl,ik
=0
(2.54)
which are known as compatibility conditions. The proof that these conditions are necessary can be made simply by differentiating Eq. 2.44 which is the definition of the
strain, but the proof of their sufficiency is more involved, as will be shown next,
following Cesaro (1906) and Sokolnikoff (1956).
Let pO(xf,x~,x~) be a point at which displacements Uj and ev are known. Then
the displacement of any other point pa in the domain can be obtained by a line integral
along a continuous curve C from pO to pa as follows
ut=u o+ J.pO
p.
du j
(2.55)
65
v.
CJ.)ij'
XI;
is
=-21 (u . .. - uh it)
I~
1
2
1
2
I....
~.v
hOI
"'"
=u:J - Ejl;.j
(2.56)
In the last integral in Eq. 2.55, we can replace dx j by d(xj - Xj4) , then integrate by
parts, to obtain
(2.57)
where
(2.58)
For singlevaluedness and continuity of Uj, the integral in Eq. 2.57 must be independent
of the integrating path C. This is possible only if Uitdx" is an exact differential, say
Uitdx,,=dVj
or, by expansion,
Then, since
Xl'
Xz and
X3
Uij=VjJ
XI;
yields
(2.60)
66
=Uik,j
(2.61)
+ (xj" - x) (ik,jl -
jk,iI)
or
(X~-X,)(,<
'1-'kil-iI
,<+,/,<)=0.
J
J
"'./
J
.1"
J .'"
Since Xj" - Xj is in general not zero, its factor in the equation above must vanish leading
to the sufficiency (and necessity as well) of the compatibility conditions as defined in
Eq.2.54.
Actually, only six of the total eighty-one compatibility conditions are independent,
while the rest are identities or repetitions due to the symmetry of the strain tensor. These
six distinct conditions can be easily identified by contracting Eq. 2.54 with respect to
two indices, say k and 1, upon which we get more compact form of compatibility
conditions as
which is symmetric with respect to the remaining two free indices i and j , Moreover,
writing the equation above explicitly as a set of six independent equations, we can say
that the six independent equations can be obtained from the equation above even with
k not summed. In conclusion, the most compact form for the compatibility conditions
is
ij,a
+ a,ij -
ik,jk - jk,ik
=0,
(k
i,
j, k not summed)
A more formal derivation of Eq. 2.62 from Eq. 2.54 can start by defming
absolute value of the left-hand side of Eq. 2.54, i.e.
RijkJ
The tensor
RijkJ
=Iij,kJ + kJ,ij -
RijkJ
Rijld
as the
ik,jl - jl,ikl.
Moreover,
(2.62)
=R ikjl =RIj/ci'
== O.
=0,
R 2311 =0,
RU22
=0,
R3122 =0,
R2233
=0,
R l233 =O.
R3311
which can be put collectively as Eq. 2.62. The tensor RijkJ is the
covariant curvature tensor to be described in Section 10.11.
Riemann-Christoffel
67
Fig. 2.12 Cartesian (x, y, z ), cylindrical (r, e, z) and spherical (R, cI>, e )
coordinates.
Cartesian and cylindrical coordinate systems are related by
x = r cos e,
which may be reverted to give
y = r sin e, z = z
(2.63a,b,c)
(2.64a,b,c)
The positive sign in front of the square root in Eq. 2.64a denotes that r always assumes
a non-negative value. The derivatives of cylindrical coordinates with respect to Cartesian
coordinates are
ar x
ax r
-=-=cose,
ae
y
r2
sine
ar =l= sine
ay r
x cose
ay r2 r
ae
-=--=---, - = - = - -
ax
(2.65a,b)
(2.65c,d)
(2.66a)
68
(2.66b)
Since r, 0 and z fonn a right-hand orthogonal system, the rules for transfonnation among
Cartesian tensor components and cylindrical tensor components described in Section 1.4
hold. As an example, the relationship among displacement components with reference
to these two different coordinate systems can be written as
{u;} =[aijl {u)
(2.67a)
or
(2.67b)
where
{xJ
{uJ
(2.68a,b)
={:}. ={j
(2.68c,d)
{uj
COSo
[aijl
= s~O
[
-sinO o~
cosO 0
(2.68e)
Figure 2.13 shows the decomposition of a vector u into alternative orthogonal components u, v and u" Us, thus reconflnning Eqs. 2.67. For tensors of second order, e.g.
the strain tensor, we have
y
~_---.J'---
______
~_
69
(2.69)
where
[E~
E"
=[
(2.70)
Symm.
Substituting Eq. 2.44, in view of Eqs. 2.66 to 2.68 and Eqs. 2.70, into Eq. 2.69 yields
the strain-displacement relationship in cylindrical coordinates as
dU r
1 (dUe)
dU,
E"=a;:' fge=;:-l"r+d9 ' E.. =azEre
Ea. = .& =
.
![!
(du
1+ dUe]
2rd9
dr
!(!rd9dU, + dUe)
dZ
=Eer =
r _
Us
=e,. =!(dU
+ dUO)
2 dZ dr
r
(2.71a,b,c)
(2.71d)
(2.71e)
(2.711)
1[
d
dUe] dU,
Ek.t=E"+fge+e..=;:- dr(rur )+ d9 +az-
(2.72)
Substituting the Cartesian rigid-body displacement components, Eq. 2.53, into Eq. 2.67b
leads to the cylindrical rigid-body displacement components
(2.73a)
Ur =C1 cos9+C2 sin9+ z(-B1 sin 9 +B2cos9)
Us=-C 1 sin9+C2cos9+B3r - z(B l cos 9 +B2 sin 9)
(2.73b)
(2.73c)
By similar procedures, the Cartesian equation of motion, Eq. 2.14, can be transformed to obtain those in r, 9 and z directions, respectively as
(2.74a)
(2.74b)
(2.74c)
in which Xr
X& and X, are cylindrical components of the body force, thus related to
70
Xe x.l
Figure 2.14 depicts positive cylindrical components of the stress tensor.
Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems are related by
{X;} =(Xr
(2.76)
(2.77a,b,c)
In reverse,
(2.78a)
cl>=tan-l~, 9=9
z
Note that R and cl> are non-negative, and the maximum value of cl> is
(2.78b,c)
1t.
. . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - ........ x
71
(2.79c)
(2.80a)
X, =X,cose!> -X. sine!>
(2.80b)
Xe=Xe
(2.8Oc)
Figure 2.15 shows the decomposition of a vector u into its cylindrical and spherical
components, thus reconftrming Eqs. 2.79 and 2.80. The strain-displacement relationship
can be written
(2.81a,b)
(2.81c)
(2.81d)
(a
1 Ue
au,)
e+& = ea. = 2R de!> - uecote!> + cosec e!> ae
(2.81e)
(2.81f)
The dilatation is
ekk = eRR + e.. + Eoo
1 a
=R2aR (R
cosece!>[ a
.
aUe]
uR)+-R- ae!> (u,sme!+ ae
o
R
o - direction
(2.82)
72
UR
(2. 83a)
(2.83b)
(2.83c)
where Bi and Ci are given in Eq. 2.53. The equations of equilibrium in R, ell and
e directions are, respectively
aaRR
(2.84a)
73
OO'R.
00'&+
OO'Re
oO'ee
~+R~cIl08+R~+
oR +Rsincll 08 +R ~ +
+~=O
+Xe=O
(2.84b)
(2.84c)
2.11.1 Stress or Strain Computation from Three Different In-Plane Normal Components
When the axes Xl and X2 are rotated about the X3 axis through an angle 8 to
become axes x~ and x~ as shown in Fig 2.17, the 'in-plane' strain components of the
primed coordinate system can be shown to be in terms of those of the nonprimed one
as
x'2
x'3
Fig. 2.17
28 12 + sm
. 28 f22
11 = cos28 Et1 + sm
(2.85a)
(2.85b)
.1
12 = '2 sin 28(f22 - 11) + cos 2812
(2.85c)
(2.85d)
(2.85e)
(2.850
74
The equations above hold also for stress components, i.e. if E is replaced by 0' in
those equations. In practice, it is not easy to measure a shear component directly. Instead,
normal strain components are measured in a plane in three different directions. Then
Eq. 2.85a is applied for each measured component to establish a set of three linear
equations for determining Eu, ~ and E12 , which are in-plane strain components
aligned with designated coordinate axes Xl and x2
2.11.2 Cylindrical and Spherical Rotation Components
(2.86)
roe
ro.)T,
{roJ = (ro.,
ro)'
rool
(2.87a,b)
e.g. roe is the rotation angle about the e -direction. Substituting Eqs. 2.52, 2.66 and
2.68e into Eq. 2.86 yields
(2.88a)
(2.88b)
(2.88c)
Spherical rotation components can be derived from the cylindrical components in
a similar way, thus
ro =
1l
1 [a(Uesin<l
2R sin <I>
a<
[aU
au,]
ae
a(R
1
Ue)]
R
ro'=2Rsin<l> ae-sm<l>~
roe = _1
2R
R]
a<
(2.89a)
(2. 89b)
(2.89c)
When a continuum rotates as a rigid body about the X -axis, following conditions
arise
75
=-:\=-:}",
aw av Eyz=O
(2.90a,b)
"uy
uz
in which a super-asterisk (.) denotes a rigid body component. For rigid-body rotation
about the y-axis,
CO
au aw
co=-=--,
Y
az
ax
(2.91a,b)
Ezx=O
av au
co =-a =-:)' Exy =0
(2.91c,d)
!X
uy
In cylindrical coordinates; for rigid-body rotation about the r-direction,
au.
co, = rae =
auo
--az-'
Eo. = 0
(2.92a,b)
aUe
Ue
au,
co = - = - - ar r rae'
(2.92e,f)
E,o=O
COR
au.)
aUe
1(
= Rae!> = R sine!> lCOS e!>uo- ae '
E4>9 = 0
(2.93a,b)
EaR =0
(2.93c,d)
(2.93e,f)
These formulas of rigid-body rotation components in terms of displacement components
are useful in the derivation of governing equations of bending of plate or shell structures
which have small thickness in one direction. In such problems, it is very common to
assume that a normal in the same direction as the small thickness remains normal after
deformation. This is equivalent to the assumption that the thin cross section rotates as
a rigid body. We adopt this assumption in the thin plate problems in Chapter V.
We showed in Section 2.8 that if the body is displaced as a rigid body, according
to Eq. 2.53, then the Cartesian rigid-body rotation components are
(2.94a,b,c)
76
If it is merely translated (Le. if Bj
u' = C1 ,
(2.95a,b,c)
(2.96a)
(2.96b)
(2.96c)
(2.97a)
00; =-B
(2.97b)
sin9+Bzcos9
(2.97c)
and in spherical coordinates
(2.98a)
(2.98b)
u; =-C 1sin9+Czcos9
(2.98c)
(2.99a)
(2.99b)
(2.99c)
2.12.1
=[a:
a;
~~l,
2.12.2
77
yn
=[ ~5
Determine the stress vector on the plane passing through P and parallel to
the plane ABC shown in Fig 2.18.
Answer: <Xl,XZ,X 3) =(-9,5, 10)17.
Fig. 2.18
2.12.3
[crijl = 5x;
[
5x; 0 ]
0 2xz ,
2x3 0
Determine the stress vector acting at the point P(2, 1, f3) of the plane that
is tangent to the cylindrical surface x;+x;=4 at P (Fig. 2.19).
Fig. 2.19
78
2.12.4
For the distribution of the state of stress given in Problem 2.12.3, what form
must the body force components have if the equilibrium equations are to
be satisfied everywhere.
Answer: Xl =-13x2' X2 =-2, X3 =0 .
2.12.5
The state of stress at a point is given with respect to the Cartesian axes by
the array
[aJ
[2 -2 OJ
O.
-2...J2
o 0
--./2.
Determine the stress tensor cij for the rotated axes related to the unprimed
axes by the transformation tensor
raJ
=[11~
11...J2
112
11...J2 -1/2
Answer:
-11~
112.
-112
2J
-1
1-...J2
-1
2.12.6
+-./2.
1
0
1 2
Determine the principal stress values and
Answer:
[aJ
2.12.7
=[ 31
IJ
2.
Q
the principal stress directions.
(n~l), nJI),njl)
=(0, 1,-I)/...Ji,
(n~2),nJ2),nj2)
=(l,-I,-I)/...j3,
(n~3),nJ3),nj3)
=(-2,-1,-1)/-.J6.
79
[a~=[~ ~~
-H
Detennine the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at the point.
Answer:
Fig. 2.20
2.12.8
[crvl
=[c:o
C;3
-CXl
-~Xl]'
0
[crvl =[
~4
-7
;1
0
~7].
35
Detennine the stress vector on the plane at P parallel to planes (a) BGE ,
(b) BGFC of the small parallelepiped shown in Fig. 2.21.
80
6"
B
~-----'=-----::>IC
I
A~-+I---"""""D
4"
I
I
G /~~-------~7,,=------~X2
F
Fig. 2.21
Answer: (a) (X 1
2.12.10
(21,14,21)1'''5.
Detennine the normal and shear stress components on the plane BGFC of
~blem 2.12.9.
Answer: ON 63/5, Os 7~15 .
2.12.11
2.12.12
(.)[a~ =[! ~ ~
and
~)[a~ =[! ~ ~
Show that the normal component of the stress vector on the octahedral plane
is equal to one third the frrst invariant of the stress tensor.
2.12.14
[aJ=~
+n
with Ozz unspecified. Detennine Ozz so that the stress vector on some plane
at the point will be zero. Give the unit normal for this traction-free plane.
Answer: Ozz = 1; (n 1,"z,fl]) = (1,-2, 1)1~.
81
2.12.15
X~X2
(l-x;)x1
[OJ= [ (l-x;)x1
(xi-3x:J/3
0]
O.
2x32
Determine (a) the body force distribution if the equilibrium equations are
to be satisfied throughout the field, (b) the principal stress values at the
point P (a,O,2-[ci), (c) the maximum shear stress at P.
Answer: (a) X3=-4X3' (b) a,-a,8a, (c) 4.5a.
2.12.16
Answer:
(a)
=(8,-1,4)/9.
[ 20 2 -2]1,
-2
(b) -2/27.
2.12.17
Use the results of Problem 2.12.16 to compute the change in the angle
between two unit line elements (nb~'~) = (8,-1,4)/9 and (mb"'-2, fn])
= (4,4,-7)/9 at the point P.
Answer: 106/27 radians.
2.12.18
2.12.19
X2
45
45
Fig 2.22
XI
82
2.12.20
x: x;
[
[Evl = x; X~
XI~
X3
XIX3]
x~.
XI
2.12.21
0.01
- 0.005
0]
0.02
0.01.
o
0.01
-0.03
What is the change in the 90 angle ADC depicted by the small tetrahedron
OABC in Fig. 2.23 if OA = OB = OC , and D is the midpoint of AB ?
[Evl = [ -0.005
Answer:
-o.OllV3.
Fig 2.23
XI
2.12.22
[e,]
=[!J
-1
[~=[~
-1
4
0
0
4
0
-1]o .
4
83
Calculate the strain invariants for each of these tensors and show their
equivalence.
Answer: 11 = 13, 12 =54, 13 =72.
2.12.23
2.12.24
Fig. 2.24
2.12.25
1
[
[evl = - 3
-3
1
...j2
-...j2
Determine: (a) the normal strain in the direction of a unit vector nj. of which
(nlo ~, ~) =(1, -1, ...j2)/2; (b) the shear strain between nj and another unit
vector mj, of which (m1'~'~) =(-1,1, ...j2)/2; (c) determine the
principal-axes form of E;j and note that nj and mj are principal directions;
(b) calculate the three strain invariants.
Answer: (a) 6, (b) 0, (c) (elo~' E:!) =(6, 2, -2). (d) (/1,12,13) =(6, -4, -24).
2.12.26
~ =xI - X1X2
84
3X 1X2+ X3
x/2
- X12]
x1/2.
~
Of course, the compatibility conditions are assured because the strains arise
from a displacement field which is given.
2.12.27
2.12.28
Show that
XX k(X2 + y2), e" ky2, "(19 2kxy, E..
="(u 0,
where k is a small constant, is a possible state of strain; while
XX kz(x2+y2), e,,=k y 2z, "(19=2kxyz, e..="(.,.="(u=O,
is not a possible one.
=, (.,.
2.12.29
85
CHAPTER III
LINEAR ELASTICITY
dW. =C1jjnidujdS
(3.2)
If the process is adiabatic, i.e. without loss or gain of heat, the whole work done will
be stored up inside the material body as potential energy, or strain energy as it is called
in the mechanics of defonnable bodies. Denoting such energy per unit volume of the
material by U, we have
87
Linear Elasticity
dUdV=dWb+dW.
(3.3)
(3.4)
It should be noted that Eq. 3.3 is valid for conservation of energy in dynamics if the
body force Xi in Eq. 3.1 is taken as including the D' Alembert's force -PUi' On the
other hand, if Xi is taken strictly as the actual body force only, Eq. 3.3 should be
written
(3.5)
dU dV + dTdV = dWb + dW.
where T is the kinetic energy per unit volume of the material, i.e.
I
.2
(3.6)
T='2 PUi
Thus
=PduiUi
Substituting the equation above together with Eqs. 3.1 and 3.2 into Eq. 3.5, in view of
Eq. 2.10, yields the same result as before, i.e. Eq. 3.4. Rewrite the latter as
dU
au
dU=-dE ..
af;j
!I
(3.9)
In Eqs. 3.7 and 3.9, each of the nine components of the strain tensor are considered as
an independent variable in the function U. Comparing these two equations, we have
au
aev
crij =
(3.10)
The existence of a strain energy function such that the stress components are unique
88
~Oading
Loading
o
(a) Linear.
(b) Nonlinear.
=Cij/d/d
(3.11)
We shall now show that the symmetry of the stress and strain tensors implies that there
are only 21 independent components among the 81 Cij/d'
Cij/d/d
au
=-a
'
U
(fu
=-,
aeuae",..
or
(fu
Cij"",
Interchanging
=aeuae",..
(3.12)
C .. = (fu
IIUIIf
ae",..aeu
(3.13)
Linear Elasticity
89
which shows that CijlrJ =C lrJij Inasmuch as the components (1ij are symmetric, an
interchange of the idices i and j in Eq. 3.11 does not alter the formula, thus CijlrJ =CjilrJ
and consequently,
(3.14)
CijlrJ =ClrJij =CjilrJ =Cij/k
Substituting Eq. 3.11 into Eq. 3.7 yields
dU =CijlrJlrJdeij
="2 CijlrJd(ijIrJ).
Integrating the equation above from the natural state, where all stresses and strains are
identically zero, leads to
="2(1ijij
(3.15b)
To verify Eq. 3.10, let us take the derivative of Eq. 3.15a with respect to e".", i.e.
au
ae"."
a;j)
( a1rJ
ae"." v + ae"." 1rJ
="2 CijlrJ
1
=(1 .... ,
90
On the other hand, we can take the advantage of the symmetry of the stress and
strain tensors and consider each of these tensors to be tensors of the fIrst order but with
a range 6 in the form of matrices as follows
crll
crzz
cr33
,
{cr.} =
cr12
cr23
cr3
ell
En
{e.} =
~3
(3. 16a,b)
"{12
"{23
"{3
By expansion, we can show that Eq. 3.7 can be rewritten in the form
dU = cri~' (i summed from 1 to 6)
(3.17)
Note that the engineering (not the tensorial) shear strain components must be used.
Assuming the existence of the strain energy function U as a function of the six
independent strain components as listed in Eq. 3.16b, we can write
(3.18a)
U =U(eJ, (i = 1 to 6)
and
dU=dU de.
dj
(3.18b)
(3.19)
cri =Cijej
(3.20)
where Cij is the stiffness tensor. Substituting Eq. 3.20 into Eq. 3.19 leads to
dU
Cijej = dj'
azu
CijBjm=-d
d '
je",
or
C.
un
= azu
djde",
(3.21)
Interchanging i and m in the equation above, we can show the symmetry of Cij' i.e.
Cij =Cft. Thus Hooke's law for the most general kind of anisotropy has the matrix
91
Linear Elasticity
fonn
Cu
au
a22
a33
a12
a23
a3
C13 C 14
C23 C24
C 33
C34
C44
=
Symm.
CIS
C 16
Czs
C26 En
C 3S
C 36
C 4S
C46
C ss
C S6
"{23
"{3
~3
(3.22)
"{12
The matrix [Cvl, being symmetric, has 21 independent elastic constants. Since the strain
energy function is
(3.23a)
(3.23b)
and is positive for any non-trivial set of strain components, the matrix [Cvl must be
positive definite as described in Section 1.6 and elaborated in Section 3.6.5 for various
types of linear elastic solids.
3.2 ORTHOTROPIC AND ISOTROPIC ELASTIC SOLIDS
Almost all of the materials used for engineering purposes exhibit certain degrees
of elastic symmetry, and require less than 21 independent elastic constants. First let
the 1,2, 3 reference frame in Fig. 3.2 be such that the 1- 2 plane is a plane of symmetry.
Let another frame l', i, 3' be generated by a 1800 rotation about the 3-axis. The
transfonnation tensor aij linking the two systems is
[a~ =[~1 ~1 ~
Transfonning stresses according to Eq. 1.27 yields
,
,
a 33
a23 =-Q'23
(3.24)
=a 33,
,
"{12
En =En,
,
~3=~3'
="{12
(3.25)
92
/ ________
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ('
0"11
Cll
C13 C14
CZ3 CZ4
C33 C34
C44
0"22
0"33
O"lZ
Symm.
0"Z3
,
-CIS
-Czs
-C3S
-C4S
Css
0"3
-C16 11
,
-Cu ~
,
-C36 ~3
,
-C46 11Z
CS6
1Z3
,
C66
13
(3.26)
Since the stress and strain relationships of 1 2 3 and l' 2' 3' systems must be
identical, the stiffness matrix [Cy] in Eq. 3.26 must be equal to the one in Eq. 3.22.
This implies that the negative elements Cij in Eq. 3.26 must be zero, i.e.
Cll
[Cy]
CIZ
C22
=
Symm.
C13 C14
CZ3 CZ4
C33 C34
C44
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Css CS6
C
(3.27)
Note that there remain 13 essential elastic constants for the case of a single plane of
symmetry.
An additional plane of symmetry, say the plane 2-3, will further reduce the
stiffness matrix to
Linear Elasticity
93
Cn
[CJ
C 12
C 13
Cl l
C 23
0
0
0
C 33
0
0
0
0
C44
Symm.
C ss
0
0
0
0
0
(3.28)
C
If the plane 3 -1 is also the plane of symmetry, no further reduction in the number
of elastic constants can be made. Such an elastic solid, which has three mutually
orthogonal planes of symmetry, is said to be orthotropic; and it has nine elastic constants.
Wood and fiber reinforced plastics are examples of orthotropic elastic solids.
Materials, which behave mechanically in the same manner for all directions are
called isotropic materials. An isotropic elastic solid has more elastic symmetry than an
orthotropic one, and therefore has fewer elastic constants. We must have, for an isotropic elastic solid,
Cn = Cl l= C33 ,
C 12 =Cn
=C
31 ,
and
~=~=~
~~
Equations 3.29 show that there are three essential elastic constants, but they are not
independent, as we now show. Rotate the coordinates 1, 2, 3 about the 3 -axis through
an angle 45, to give 1', i, 3' as shown in Fig. 3.3. The transformation tensor is
11-5 -11-5 01
[aJ = 11-: 11: ~J
[
,,
I'
//
94
Repeating the analysis already used for orthotropy yields the relation
2C 44 C u - C 1Z
(3.30)
Equations 3.29 and 3.30 show that the stiffness matrix for isotropic elastic solids has
the form
A.
A.
0 0 0
A.+21l
0 0 0
A.
A.+21l
A.+21l 0 0 0
(3.31)
(CijI
Il 0 0
Symm.
Il 0
where only two constants A. and Il, commonly known as Lame's constants (0. Lame,
1852), remain. Since Il relates a shear stress with a shear strain, it is called the shear
modulus, and it is sometimes replaced by the symbol G. In indicial notation, Hooke's
law (Eq. 3.11) for an isotropic solid can be written as
(3.32)
C1ij = AEUBij + 2j.lij
In fact, Eq. 3.11 can be reduced to Eq. 3.32 upon setting
CijiJ =ABijBiJ + Il(BjkBj / + Bi/Bjk )
(3.33)
With the introduction of the stress deviator sij and the strain deviator eij as in Eqs.
2.34 and 2.47, Hooke's law for isotropic elastic solids separates into two parts, governing
shear and bulk behavior, i.e.
(3.34)
C1 u
=3Ke u
(3.35)
(3.37)
Table 3.1 shows a number of useful relations among the isotropic constants. In the state
of a uniaxial stress where the non-zero stress and strains are as defined in Eqs. 3.36,
real observations show that the signs of C1u and eu are the same but opposite to that
of Zz and 8:J3' Hence we may state that
E>O,
v>O.
Linear Elasticity
95
Table 3.1
A,Jl
E,v
Jl,K
Jl,v
Ev
(1 + v)(l- 2v)
3K -2Jl
3
2Jlv
1-2v
Jl
Jl
2(1 +v)
Jl
Jl
2Jl(1 +v)
3(1-2v)
K
E
2
A+-Jl
3
Jl(3A + 2Jl)
A+Jl
A
3(1-2v)
E
2Jl(1 +v)
Another special state of stress, known as hydrostatic pressure, is defmed by CJij =-POij'
By employing Eq. 3.35 we fmd p =-K kk , where K =E/[3(1- 2v)] . Since a hydrostatic
pressure p should give a negative dilatation, we should have K > 0, i.e.
1-2v>0.
Hence the ranges of values of the engineering elastic constants E and v are
E > 0,
0 ~v ~ 112
(3.38)
When v = 112, the material is called incompressible since the dilatation remains zero
irrespective of the stress components.
3.3
S11
CJ""
e",
CJ)'Y
CJ
CJxy
Sss
0
CJyz
E..
1xy
1yz
'Y,
S12 S13
(3.39)
where
(3.40a)
Sij=Sji
[S~
= [C~-I;
i,j=1,2,3
(3.40b)
96
and
(3.4Oc)
O'u = 0
(3.41)
.a} -_[S11
S21
{e"
'Y",
S12
S22
0
~ {O'''''}
O'yy
0
S
(3.42)
0'",
=1,2
(3.44b)
Suppose it is found in an experiment that 0'..,. is the only non-zero stress. Equation
3.43a gives
(3.45a)
(3.45b)
or
(3.400)
(3.46b)
From this experiment we may determine tile Young's modulus E" and the Poisson's
ratio v", by using the equations
0'..,.
E=
(3.47a)
v =_ e"
'"
e..,.
(3.47b)
" e..,.
97
Linear Elasticity
E12
Vxy =E22
(3.48b)
A repetition of this operation with 0' being the only non-zero stress leads to
E~2
E., =E22 -Ell
-
(3.49a)
(3.49b)
E" Vxy
E., =Vyx
(3.50)
In addition, it is customary to name C44 a shear modulus Gxy, and the 4 distinct elastic
constants for the case of plane stress of orthotropic elastic materials (see Eqs. 3.43) are
E"- E ll = I-vxyv.,,,
(3.51a)
(3.S1b)
E.,
E22 =----'-l-vxyvyx
(3.Slc)
C44 =Gxy
(3.5ld)
E"
(3.S2a)
(3.52b)
(3.S2c)
(3.52d)
98
(3.52e)
S33=-
v,.
v~
Ey
E.
S23=S32=--=--
(3.520
1
Sss=G,.
(3.52g)
(3.52h)
S66
=-G1
(3.52i)
(3.53b)
and
E
(3.54)
(3.56)
and W/ is the internal virtual work or virtual strain energy (Eq. 3.7), i.e.
W/
O'ijOe;jdV
(3.57)
In the equations above, V denotes the material domain, S the surface completely
enclosing V, and B the variational symbol signifying a virtual quantity (Spiegel, 1971).
Linear Elasticity
99
=Iv O'ij~(ui)dV,
=Is <1jinj~uidS -
Iv
O'jiJ~uidV
(3.58)
~Ui
only if
O'jiJ+Xi=O,
(3.59)
in V
and either
(3.6Oa)
~Ui=O, onS
or
(3.6Ob)
Note that Eq. 3.59 is the equilibrium equation, Eq. 2.8, and Eq. 3.6Ob is the stress vector
formula, Eq. 2.6. Equation 3.59 is afield equation. On the other hand, Eqs. 3.60 specify
boundary conditions in a proper way, i.e. at a certain point on the boundary Seither
ui
=ui
or <1jinj =Xi
(3.61)
in which a bar (-) denotes a prescribed quantity. These well-posed boundary conditions
state that, at a certain point on the material boundary, either 1 or X1 , either Uz or
X2 , and either U3 or X3 must be prescribed. IT, as an example, the boundary conditions
are the prescription of U1' Uz and X2 , the solution to the problem may not be possible
since the boundary conditions are not well posed. In other words, boundary conditions
are improper and the solution may not exist if a displacement and a traction in the same
direction are prescribed at a certain point on the boundary of the material domain.
The principle of virtual work and its consequences derived so far hold for nonlinear
as well as linear elastic materials. Each boundary value problem is governed by fifteen
field equations to be solved for flfteen unknown variables. The fifteen field equations
are three equations of motion (Eq. 3.59), six equations for the strain-displacement
relationship (Eq. 2.44), and six equations for the constitutive relationship (e.g. Eq. 3.11
for linear elastic solids). On the other hand, the fifteen unknown variables are three
displacements, six stresses and six strains. The boundary conditions (Eqs. 3.61) are
needed for determining uniquely the constants arising from integrating the equations of
motion and the strain-displacement relations, which are differential equations.
For linear elastic solids, solution methods may be classified into two main schemes,
one in which the basic unknowns are displacements, one in which they are stresses or
strains. In the first scheme, the fifteen field equations can be reduced, by simple
100
substitutions, to three field equations for the three displacements. For an isotropic elastic
solid the equations are
lUI. u,+ (A. + II)Eu, .+X =0.
~tM
~
M.I
I
as described in the next section. In the second scheme, since strains (or stresses) are
chosen to be the basic unknowns, the compatibility conditions (Eq. 2.62) must be
incorporated in the approach to guarantee the uniqueness and continuity of the solution.
In general, the first scheme is more straight-forward and should be more efficient than
the second scheme, since it involves fewer unknowns. The second scheme is effective
for elastostatics of isotropic plane problems, to be discussed in Chapter IV. In Chapter
V a 'mixed' scheme developed for elastic bending of thin plates is presented. In Chapter
VI and vm the first scheme is described for elastostatics and elastodynamics of isotropic
solids.
Sometimes it is convenient to replace one boundary value problem by using the
Maxwell-Betti reciprocal theorem (1. C. Maxwell, 1870 and E. Betti, 1872) which states
that:
'In a linear elastic solid, the work done by a set of forces acting through the
corresponding displacements produced lJy a second set of forces is equal to the work
done lJy the second set of forces acting through the corresponding displacements produced lJy the first set of forces:
Denoting the frrst and second sets by superscripts 1 and 2 respectively, we can
state the theorem as
II
II
(3.62)
II
The proof of this theorem starts with rewriting the left-hand side of the equation above
by using the procedure for obtaining Eq. 3.7. The result is
id:)~)dV,
or, due to Hooke's law (Eq. 3.11),
Jv(CijldEId(I)Gi(2bV
u
Similarly, the right-hand side of Eq. 3.62 can be rewritten as
Jv(CijldEId(2)Gi(I)u..V
The last two expressions are identical since
is proved.
Cijld
CIdij
101
Linear Elasticity
cylindrical and spherical coordinates. The presentation will be limited to linear isotropic
elastic solids, of which the constitutive laws are: for the Cartesian system (Eq. 3.32),
(3.63)
cr"
cree
cr..
crr9
cr9z
A+2f..l
A
A+2f..l
A
A
A+2f..l
Symm.
cr"
00
0
0
00
00
0
2f..l 0 0
2f..l 0
2
Err
fee
E..
Ere
(3.64)
E"
crRR
cr..
cree
crR,
A+2f..l
A
A+2f..l
A
A
A+2f..l
Symm.
cr~
cr8//
00
0
00
0
000
2f..l 0 0
2f..l 0
2
ERR
E..
fee
ER ,
(3.65)
E~
Substituting Eq. 3.63 into the equations of motion (Eq. 2.14), and using the straindisplacement relationship (Eq. 2.44), we obtain the Cartesian displacement field equations known as Navier equations (C. L. M. H. Navier, 1823 and 1827), i.e.
f..lUi,kk + (A + f..l)Ekk,i + Xi =0
(3.66)
in which it has been assumed that the material is homogeneous, i.e. A and f..l are
constants. The cylindrical Navier equations can be obtained, by using Eqs. 2.71, 2.74
and 3.64, as
(3.67a)
(3.67b)
(3.67c)
The spherical Navier equations can be obtained, by using Eqs. 2.81, 2.84 and 3.65, as
2UR
2 dU, 2u,cotc!>
(A+f..l)dR(Ekk)+~VUR-R2-R2d<!>
R2
2 dUe)
R 2 sinc!>da +XR=O,
102
In these equations,
VZ
VZ=OXkdxk
(3.69a)
(3.69b)
(3.69c)
and eu is the dilatation defined in Eq. 2.72 for cylindrical coordinates and in Eq. 2.82
for spherical coordinates.
3.6 PROBLEMS
(3.71a)
(3.71b)
(3.72a)
(3.72b)
=-Xi,i
(3.73)
(3.74)
Substituting Eqs. 3.71 and 3.74 into the compatibility conditions, Eq. 2.62, with k
summed, we obtain
(1 +v)av."'"
...... +0'Mi,V
...... -vSII..O'.Mi.1f'IItI
... + (1 +V)fV
.. +X},I.) 0
(3.75)
\LI..',J
103
Linear Elasticity
-v '
(3.76)
Substituting Eq. 3.76 into Eq. 3.75 yields the Beltrami-Michell Compatibility conditions
(E. Beltrami, 1892 and J. H. Michell, 19(0), i.e.
1
v !:
V2(j.. +--(j/dr;
.. +--u"Yu+x.
.+X =0
(3.77)
" 1 + v ," 1 - vir, ,
',J
J,'
If the body force Xi is zero or constant, Eqs. 3.76 and 3.77 show that (j/dr; is
harmonic, in the sense that it satisfies Laplace (harmonic) equation,
V2(j/dr; =0
(3.78)
1
V2(j .. +-(j/dr;
.. =0
" 1 +v ,'J
(3.79)
Applying the Laplace operator V2 on the equation above, and using Eq. 3.78, we obtain
the biharmonic equation
V'(jii =0
(3.80)
where C is an arbitrary constant tensor, 'P a harmonic scalar field, and 'Pi a harmonic
vector field, i.e.
(3.84a,b)
It is interesting to note that any function X, defined by
X=xix/P,ii
(3.85)
that
X.=-V.
"
(3.86)
104
x.1,/.=X
'I,'
(3.87)
(3.88)
The static equilibrium equation. Eq. 2.8. is satisfied exactly if the stress tensor is
expressed in terms of a stress potential cf> as the following
0''I..
=
a. (V2cf> + V) 'I
ell.'1..
(3.89)
Note if Xi vanishes, we can set V to zero without loss of generality. Substituting Eq.
3.89 into Eq. 3.88, we fmd
a. (V'cf> + 1-2v
VZV)+ 1-V(VZell+ 1-2v V) =0
1-v
1+v
1-v
..
'I
(3.90)
'1
=j
leads to
(3.91)
(3.92)
VZell.ii 0
(3.93)
(3.94)
ell ' + Cii"xiXjX" + CqX;Xj + C;XiX"x" + Cx"x"
where ' is any harmonic function, and C 's are constant tensors. Note that polynomials of Xi of lower degrees than two are disregarded since they give trivial stress
components. The same solution scheme is described in more detail in Chapter IV,
particularly for two-dimensional cases.
.'
Linear Elasticity
105
(3.96)
and the static equilibrium equations for homogeneous isotropic solids, Eq. 3.66, become
(A.+2J.1)(~(I),i+Xi =0
(3.97)
where Xi is the actual body force vector. The function (I) is called Lame's strain
potential.
Similarly, if
(3.98)
the dilatation becomes
;;
=Vk'l'k,1i
1
='2(Vk'l'k,1i +jik'l'kJi)
1
=-(Eh'l'k
.. )
2 v ,!I.. -I',,'I'k
.."
,I'
(3.99)
=0
and Eq. 3.66 is specialized into
J.1vk("k) J + Xi =0
(3.100)
A.+2J.1 2
A. + J.1 V Xi - Xk,ki
(3.101)
we can show that the dilatation and the equilibrium equations become, respectively,
kk
(3.lO2)
and
A.+2J.1r
- 'V.+X=O
{ A.+J.1
~
1
(3.lO3)
u=<I>
.+1'-v~
..'1'~,J.+--v
. ..,
1
,I
A. + J.1 'V.-'V
~
IIJ<,..
(3.104)
the equilibrium equations, Eq. 3.66, can be satisfied exactly, provided that <I> satisfies
the equation
(3.105)
106
"j=O
and that Xi is a bihannonic function, i.e.
(3.107)
V'X;=O
Thus Navier equations can be uncoupled by means of the potentials as defmed by Eqs.
3.104 to 3.107.
In Section 6.3, elastostatic displacement potentials appropriate for a homogeneous
isotropic domain infmitely extended radially (0::;; r < 00) are described. Other elastostatic displacement potentials such as those proposed by Papkovich (1932) and Neuber
(1934) appear in several books on solid mechanics, e.g. Sokolnikoff (1956).
(A.+2J.L)(VZCl,j=p(~~1j
(3.108)
Similarly, the potential 'P j introduced as in Eq. 3.98 gives the dilatation as in Eq.
3.99, and the equations of motion as
J.Iv"(V~")J=pEv{Z"l
(3.109)
Incorporating the results above, we can state that the displacement vector
uj = eIl,j + Ev,,'P",i
(3.110)
satisfies the equations of motion exactly, provided that ell and 'P j are solutions to the
wave equations
(3.111)
and
2..-.2>T.
c. V T
OZ'P
= at2
(3.112)
Here
(3.113a)
is the pressure wave speed, and
(3. 113b)
the shear wave speed. They are discussed further in Chapter VIll. So we can say that
107
Linear Elasticity
the equations of motion of a homogeneous isotropic elastic domain under zero actual
body force can be uncoupled into two wave equations by means of the potentials as
defmed by Eqs. 3.110 to 3.112.
In Section 8.8, we describe elastodynamic displacement potentials appropriate for
a homogeneous isotropic domain infmitely extended radially (0 :S r < 00 ). More general
forms of cylindrical and spherical displacement components in terms of appropriate
potentials have been listed by Achenbach (1973).
C24
C25
C33
C34
C3S C36
>0
C4S C46
Css CS6
C44
Symm.
Cu
(3.114)
C66
For orthotropic solids (Eq. 3.28), these conditions can be specialized into
Cll C 12
C 13
Cll > 0,
C44 > 0,
Css > 0,
C66 > 0
(3.115a,b,c)
(3. 115d,e,f)
Simplest among all, are the conditions for isotropic solids (Eq. 3.31), i.e.
1..1.>0, 3A.+21..1.>0
Equation 3.116b states that Poisson's ratio v is less than 112.
(3. 116a,b)
108
- - -..
_ x
Fig. 3.4
in the direction of a vector N j with (N 1,N2 ,N3 ) =(1,-1, 1). In addition, three strain
gages placed at point 0 give normal strains as shown in Fig. 3.4. Determine the stresses
and strains at point O.
Answer:
7.530 -0.444 5.774 ]
-5.774,
5.991
[cry] =[
Symm.
5.774
E[ey]
=[
-0.577
4
Symm.
7.506
-7.506.
1.718
crIJ,J.+oIJ,}
. p/.=O
(3.117)
where crij is the effective stress tensor, and PI the excess pore pressure (positive if in
(3.118)
where A. and f..l are Lame's constants of the bulk material. The strains and the dilatation
109
Linear Elasticity
"
kk
1
2
=-(u. . +u .),
I,'
'oJ
=Ut,t.
where Ui is a displacement component of the solid matrix. The fluid flow is governed
by Darcy's law in the fonn
Ow
at -
-'-kpJ,i
where k is the coefficient of permeability, and
Wi =f(Ui - ui )
(3.119)
(3.120)
in which Ui is a displacement component of the fluid, and f the porosity, i.e. the
volume of the voids per unit total volume. The condition of perfect saturation with an
incompressible fluid implies that
(3.121)
kk=-Wi,i
So that Darcy's law becomes
(3.122)
Substituting Eq. 3.118 into Eq. 3.117 yields the Navier equations for the saturated
porous solid as
(3.123)
cV2
it
=akk
at
(3.124)
c = (A.+2J.1)k
(3.125)
Note that the Navier equations for solids (Eq. 3.66) and for saturated solids (Eq. 3.123)
become identical if the body force Xi in the fonner is replaced by the excess pore
pressure gradient PI,i' Darcy's law can be put in another fonn after substituting Eq.
3.121 into Eq. 3.124 and then using Eq. 3.119, i.e.
(3.126)
The well-posed boundary conditions for the present case can be obtained by means
of a variational principle. They state that, at a certain point on the boundary, either
u i = 'iii or nj(CJij + SijPf) =)(
(3. 127a)
and, either
(3. 127b)
110
Here the bar ( - ) denotes a prescribed quantity, and Q the prescribed rate of the
outflow.
It can be seen that there are four basic unknown functions U 1 , Uz, ~ and PI'
and four governing field equations Eqs. 3.123 and 3.124. The problem becomes identical
to that of pure elastic solids if PI tends to zero, which happens if the system is subjected
to constant forces for a sufficiently large time. In Section 6.8, we discuss problems of
saturated porous elastic domains infinitely extended radially (0 S; r < 00 ).
CHAPTER IV
ELASTOSTATIC PLANE PROBLEMS
For orthotropic elastic case of plane stress in the xy-plane, the three stresses on
the plane nonnal to the z-axis vanish as in Eq. 3.41. The remaining stresses are related
to strains as in Eqs. 3.42, with the coefficients Sij derived in Eqs. 3.52a to d. Altogether
there are eight field equations: two equilibrium equations, three stress-strain relations,
and three strain-displacement relations. The equilibrium equations are Eqs. 2.4 rewritten
in explicit symbols as
(4.1a)
(4.1b)
where X and Y are the body forces in the x and y directions, respectively. The
stress-strain relations are Eqs. 3.42. The strain-displacement relations are Eqs. 2.43,
i.e.
(4.2a)
(4.2b)
(4.2c)
Equally, there are eight unknowns: 3 stresses (a"", a)l)l' a..,), 3 strains (.a, e"" 1..,), and
2 displacements (u, v). In addition, since we will encounter some constants of integration in solving the differential equations, Eqs. 4.1 and 4.2, we will have to prescribe
some boundary conditions.
The boundary conditions, Eqs. 3.61, may be written
(4.3a)
X a""n" + a..,n, or u u
Y= a..,n" + a)l)ln,
or
v= v
(4.3b)
112
where a bar C) denotes a prescribed quantity on the boundary, and n" and n, are
directions cosines of the outward drawn normal to the boundary, thus
n;+n;= 1
(4.3c)
Rigid-body displacements (Eq. 2.53 for 3-dimensional cases) for plane problems are
u =Ay +B
(4.3d)
v =-Ax+C
(4.3e)
e..
This leads to the following relationship among the pertinent stresses and strains.
(4.5)
S
where Sij's are given in Eqs. 3.52. It should be noted that 0'0 in a plane strain problem
does not vanish.
For an isotropic elastic material, the stress-strain relations for both plane stress
and plane strain problems can be written in a form known as the unified Hooke's law
for isotropic plane problems, i.e.
~=2~ O';a-T(O';a+O''')J
(4.6a)
1 [3-K
1
e,,=2~ O'''-T(O';a+O''')J
(4.6b)
1
"(, =-0'
(4.6c)
1 [3-K
or, in reverse,
'"
'"
0';a=~1
[(K+ 1)~+(3-K)e,,1
K-
(4.7a)
(4.7b)
K-
(4.7c)
113
where
-=-=-=0
dX2
dy2
dXdy
(4.10)
or
(4.11)
where A, B and C are constants of integration. Such a solution in Eq. 4.11 is rather
an exception than a general solution. Thus the solution to a plane stress problem satisfying Eq. 4.9 is not exact, but should be a good approximation to a thin plate problem.
Substituting Eqs. 4.6 into Eq. 4.9 yields
(1 +K)V2(0' +0' )-2 d20'xy _ ifO'Ja _ if0'" =0
(4.12)
4
Ja"
dXdY dX2 dy2
For the present two-dimensional case, the Laplace operator (harmonic operator) V2 is
V2=~+~
dX2 dy2
Determining ifO'xy/dXdY from Eqs. 4.1, we get
ifO'xy d20'Ja if0'" dX dY
-2 dXdY = dX2 + dy2 + dX + dy
(4.13)
(4.14)
Substituting Eq. 4.14 into Eq. 4.12 leads to the following compatibility condition for
the normal stresses
2
4 (dX dY)
dX +dY
V(O'Ja+0'")=-1+K
(4.15)
114
X=_dV
dX
(4. 16a)
y=_dV
dy
(4. 16b)
dX dY
dy =dX
(4.17)
(4.19a)
(4.19b)
(4. 19c)
These satisfy the equilibrium equations, Eqs. 4.1, automatically, and change the compatibility condition, Eq. 4.18, into
Vcl>=_2 K - 1 V 2V
K+l
where V4 is the plane biharmonic operator and defined by
(4.20)
(4.21)
V4 =V2V2
We note that cI> in terms of polynomials of x and y of lower degrees than two can
be neglected, since it gives zero stress components. If both body force components
vanish, then V can be set to zero without of loss of generality. Lastly, the tbreedimensional form of Eq. 4.20 is Eq. 3.91.
4.3
Various conditions in cylindrical coordinates are derived in Sections 2.10 and 3.5.
For plane problems in the re-plane, equations of equilibrium in the r and e directions
can be found from Eqs. 2.74a and 2.74b, respectively, as
dCJrr 1 dCJrS CJrr - CJee
-+--+
+X =0
(4.22a)
dr
r de
115
(4.22b)
The strain-displacement relations are Eqs. 2.71, while the unified Hooke's law is the
same as in Eqs. 4.6 or 4.7 with r and e replacing x and y, respectively, i.e.
1[
(4.23a)
(4.23b)
3-lC
e"=2J.L 0"--4-(0,,+000)J
[3-K
(4.23c)
(4.24a)
0 00 = ~1 [(lC+ 1)00 + (3 -lC)err]
lC-
(4.24b)
0,0 =2J.Le,0
(4.24c)
4 (ax,
axo)
v2(0,,+000)=--- - +x,- +1l+lC ar r rae
In polar (plane cylindrical) coordinates, the Laplace operator
2
(4.25)
VZ is
la(a)
ta
r ar + r2 ae2
2
=-;: ar
(4.26)
av
x=-, ar
~n~
lav
Xo=--;:ae
(4.27b)
ax, a(rXo)
ae=a;:-
(4.28)
4
lC+
V (0"+000)=-1 V V
(4.29)
116
a =--+--+V
2
2
" rar
ao
(4.30a)
(4.30b)
_i.(!
ar
=
Ocl
(4.3Oc)
re
rao
which satisfy the equilibrium equations, Eqs. 4.22, exactly and change the compatibility
condition, Eq. 4.29, into
K-1
(4.31)
~4>=-2-~V
K+1
Note that Eqs. 4.29 and 4.31 are identical to Eqs. 4.18 and 4.20, respectively.
Rigid-body displacements for plane problems in cylindrical coordinates can be
written
(4.32a)
Ur =CI cosO + C2 sin 0
a
(4.32b)
4.4 DISPLACEMENT FOR A GIVEN BIHARMONIC FUNCTION
In the absence of body forces, the Airy /unction 4> is governed by the plane
biharmonic equation
(4.33)
~4>=0
We seek a solution in the fonn of a Fourier series
4>=
.. =0
R.. cosmO+
.. =1
R:sinmO
(4.34)
in which R.. and R: are functions of the radial coordinate r only. Substituting Eq.
4.34 into Eq. 4.33, we obtain, for each m, an ordinary differential equation
where
~".R.. =O
2
~.. =!~(r~)rdr dr
r2
=0 ,
(4.35a)
for m=1,
(4.35b)
117
z =rei8
(4.40)
(4.41)
=aq _i ap
ay
ay
(4.43)
ar
ar
These functions p and q are also called conjugate harmonic junctions. Substituting
Eqs. 4.38 and 4.43 into Eq. 4.41 leads to
ap aq P
(4.46a)
ax =ay ="4
118
(4.46b)
The stress components for the case of
from Eqs. 4.19 with V =0, i.e.
<\>
(4.47b)
('J
zy
= -if<\>
--
(4.47c)
axay
Substituting strain-displacement relationship and Eqs. 4.47 into the stress-strain relationship (Eqs. 4.6), in view of Eqs. 4.36 and 4.46a, leads to
au
if<\>
ap
av =_if<\>+ (1 + lC) aq
ay
ay2
ay
Jau av) if<\>
21l
(4.48a)
(4.48b)
(4.48c)
~ay +ax =-axay
Integrating Eq. 4.48a with respect to x, and Eq. 4.48b with respect to y leads to,
respectively
2JlU
21lv
=-:
(4.49a)
(4.49b)
where gl(Y) and g2(X) result from the integration. Upon substituting the preceding
equations into Eq. 4.48c, we find
dg 1
dg 2
dy
dx
-=--=A
(4.50)
(4.51a)
g2(x)=-Ax+C
(4.51b)
where B and C are also arbitrary constants. Recalling Eqs. 4.3d and e, we notice that
Eqs. 4.51 are rigid-body displacement components. Ignoring such components for the
time being, Eqs. 4.49 become
119
2J.I.U
=- ~ + (1 + x:)p
(4.52a)
2j.1v
=- ~~ + (1 + x:)q
(4.52b)
With the relationship among cylindrical and Cartesian coordinates as listed in Eqs. 2.65
to 2.68, we may write displacement components in the cylindrical coordinate system as
2J.I.U,
Applying
(4.53a)
(4.53b)
(4.54)
~5~
+2(~ +~~].
V 2Pl =0
(4.56)
=2yq+P2
(4.58)
120
we would arrive at
(4.59)
where
P3
=9t[",(z)lz]
=9t[(PX +qy)+i(-py +qx)]/r2
where
P3
=(P cos9+q
q3
sin9)1r
(4.60a)
(4.60b)
or,
P =Pyc-q3Y
(4.61a)
q =P3y+q,x
(4.61b)
Since P3 and q3 are real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the same analytic function
[",(z)lz] , they are conjugate harmonic functions and related by the Cauchy-Riemann
conditions. Incorporating Eqs. 4.61 and 4.60 into Eqs. 4.52 and 4.53 respectively, we
have
2JlU
2J.1v
=-:
(4.62a)
(4.62b)
2JlUr=-~ +(1+lC)rP3
(4.63a)
2J.1Ue =- r~ + (1 + lC)rq3
(4.63b)
Thus when a harmonic function takes the form of Eq. 4.59, q3 can be detennined from
P3 by simple integration of the Cauchy-Riemann conditions (Eqs. 4.44 or 4.45), then
the displacement components can be simply obtained by Eqs. 4.62 or 4.63. For the case
of biharmonic functions in the form of Eq. 4.57, q should be detennined by the
Cauchy-Riemann conditions, and the displacement components by Eqs. 4.52 or 4.53.
The case of biharmonic functions in the form of Eq. 4.58 can be treated in the same
way as the case of Eq. 4.57 with the exception that P must be detennined from the
known function q using the Cauchy-Riemann conditions. Arbitrary constants arising
from the integration of the Cauchy-Riemann conditions correspond to rigid-body
121
displacement components, Eqs. 4.3d and e for Cartesian components, and Eqs. 4.32 for
cylindrical components.
Table 4.1 at the end of the present chapter, contains some common harmonic and
biharmonic functions and their corresponding stresses and displacements (but not
rigid-body components). When these functions are combined properly, we have new
harmonic functions. Here are some harmonic functions which can be used in some half
plane problems.
r(1ogr sin6+6cos6) =y logr +x6
(4.64a)
(4.64b)
=
rZ(logr cos 26 - 6 sin 26) =(x z - yZ)logr - 2xy6
(4.64c)
(4.64d)
One may notice that each term in the equation above is a product of two harmonic
functions, hence it may be found expedient to note that a Laplacian of a product of
harmonic functions il(x , y) and Iz(x, y) can be put as
(4.65)
The total solution to Eq. 4.20 or 4.31 can be a linear combination of complementary solutions and a particular solution. A complementary solution is a biharmonic
function; while a particular solution is one that satisfies the governing equations exactly
without involving any arbitrary constants. In addition to complementary solutions, Table
4.1 also contains particular solutions and their corresponding stresses and displacements
for various common potentials V. The arbitrary constants, some being attached to
complementary solutions while the rest associated with rigid-body displacement components, are to be determined from the condition that the total solution must satisfy all
pertinent boundary conditions.
4.5 EXAMPLES OF INFINITE PLANE PROBLEMS
The first problem to be considered is an infinite plane under uniform tension in
the x -direction as shown in Fig. 4.1. Since there is no body force (X Y 0), we can
set
= =
V=O.
The stress field everywhere is
<1""
~cI>
=<10 ,
(1)/)/
=0 ,
<1..,
=O.
~cI>
122
L...-_ _ _ _ _
+-_---O_ X
y2
where C1 to C3 are constants of integration, and can be set to zero since they yield
zero stresses. Thus
(4.66a)
In polar coordinates,
~= ~0(r2-r2coS26)
(4.66b)
(4.67b)
0'0
0'99 ="2 (1
(4.67c)
- cos 26)
The second example is an infmite plane with a circular hole and under unifonn
tension far away from the hole as shown in Fig. 4.2. The stresses at the far field
(r --+ 00) are identical to those in the previous example. Thus, the complementary
solution may be written
123
Fig 4.2 Infinite plane with a hole under unifonn tension at infinity.
where cj)1 is the function cj) of the previous example, i.e.
cj)1 = ~o (r2 - r2 cos 20),
and cj)2 should be such that it gives zero stresses as r tends to infinity, and leads to
the satisfaction of the stress free boundary conditions at r =a, i.e.
(4.68a)
O'"(a,O) =0
O',e(a,O)
=0
(4.68b)
Considering all these requirements and after consulting Table 4.1, we fmd
cj)=
(4.69)
where A, B and C are constants to be determined by substituting Eq. 4.69 into Eqs.
4.68, i.e.
2+2cos20+A -6B cos20-4C cos 20 =0,
-2 sin 20 + 0 - 6B sin 20 - 2C sin 20 =O.
Since the two equations hold for every value of 0, they imply the following three
independent conditions
2+A =0,
2-6B-4C=0,
-2-6B -2C =0.
124
Finally, we fmd
(4.70)
(1 =(1[I_ a2 +(1_4a2+3a4)cos2el
"2
r2
r2
r4
(4.71 a)
(1
r9
a2 +3 a4 )Sin28
=(1(_1_2
2
r2
r4
(1ee =
~o[ 1 + ;: - (I + 3 ;:)cOS28]
(4.71 b)
(4.71 c)
(4.72)
Its largest tensile and compressive values are shown in Fig. 4.2, i.e.
(4.73a,b)
(4.73c,d)
0"0
Fig. 4.3
125
~--~-----+--~x
Domain I
ax =-10, ay
=0
(4.74a,b)
-lor cos 9
(4.76c)
(4.77a)
126
laUe U,
K-l
--+-=-,h--rcOSa
raa r
4f.1
Integrating Eqs. 4.77 yields u, and Ue as
2f.1U, =-4(K-l)for2cosa
(4.77c)
(4.78a)
2J.lUe=-.!.(K-l)for 2 sina
(4.78b)
4
which are the same as listed in Table 4.1. While V(I) vanishes, V(2) does not but
VZV(2) = 0; hence the governing equation for both domains 1 and 2 is V41> = O. The
conditions at the interface (r = a) between these two domains are
d~)(a, a) = d;:(a, a)
(4.79a)
d.~(a,a)=d.~(a,a)
(4.79b)
u~I)(a,a)=u;Z)(a,a)
(4.79c)
u~I)(a,a)=~)(a,a)
(4.79d)
The pattern of stress and displacement fields in domain 2 due to fo is given in Eqs.
4.76 and Eqs. 4.78. In order to satisfy Eqs. 4.79 we need to investigate the following
biharmonic functions listed in Table 4.1
r3 cos a, ra sin a, r log r cos a, cos air.
Since the stresses must be bounded as r ---+ 00 in domain 1, and as r ---+ 0 in domain
2, we take
1>(1)= foa \2Arasina +Br logr cos a + ca 2Co;a)
(4.80a)
I>\l)=fJJr3cosa
(4.80b)
2C a 2cos 81r 3 )
(4.81a)
(4.81b)
(4.81c)
2J.1U?)
127
(4.81d)
(4.81e)
(4.82a)
d~=2foDr sin a
(4. 82b)
d~=fo(6D -1)rcosa
(4.82c)
(4.82d)
2J.1U~)=fo{[D(K+2)-~(K-1)}2sina-a2C~2)sina }
(4.82e)
Before applying the boundary conditions, a closer look at Eqs. 4.81d and e reveals
multivalued displacement terms, 0 sin a and acos a, which are not admissible in the
present problem. In order to delete such terms, we should set their coefficients to zero,
i.e.
A(K-1)+B(K+ 1) =0
(4.83)
Substituting the general expressions of stresses and displacements into the boundary
conditions Eqs. 4.79, and using Eq. 4.83, we find
2A+B-2C=2O-1
B -2C =20
(4. 84a)
(4.84b)
1 1 1
"2 [A(K+ 1)+B(K-1)] loga -"2 (A +B)+C + (C~I)_C~2~ =D(K-2)-"4(K-1) (4.84c)
1 1 1
-"2
[A(K+ 1)+B(K-1)] loga -"2 (A +B)+C _(C~I)_C~2~ =D(K+2)-"4(K-1)
(4.84d)
128
Equations 4.83 and 4.84 fonn a set of 5 linear simultaneous equations for detennining
5 constants, i.e. A, B, e, D and ef 1) - ef2). The solution is
1
lC-1
A =-2"'
B =2(lC+ 1)
(4.85a,b)
e=
1
4(lC+ 1) ,
D=
lC
4(lC+ 1)
(4.85c,d)
(4.85e)
The tenn ef 1) - ef) signifies the indefinite displacement. The displacement has a
'weak' singularity as logr as r tends to infmity. Such peculiar situation of the
indefiniteness and unboundedness of the displacement occurs only in statics of infmite
planes.
The solution for a concentrated force P applied to an infmite plane, as shown in
Fig. 4.5, can be obtained by taking the limit a --+ 0, and assuming that
Lim(1ta 2fo) =P.
a ..... 0
<l>
(4.86)
cr
"
(4. 87a)
(lC-1)P sine
cr - --'---"'--r9 - 21t(lC+ 1) r
(4.87b)
(lC-1)P cose
cr - --'---"'--ee-21t(lC+1) r
(4.87c)
y
}
p-~
o
Fig. 4.5 Force at a point inside infmite plane.
129
(4. 87d)
(4.87e)
Observe that the stress decays as r-1 when r increases and is singular at the origin.
The displacement has a weak singularity of logr both at the origin and at infinity.
4.6 PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS FOR CONCENTRA1ED FORCES
The function <I> given by Eq. 4.86 can be taken as a particular solution to any
problem of a concentrated force inside a plane, whether finite or infinite. The first term
gives the appropriate singularity at the point where the force is concentrated, while the
second term suppresses the multivaluedness of the displacement components due to the
first term.
In a problem where the concentrated force is applied at a point on a smooth
boundary of the material domain as shown in Fig. 4.6, a particular solution can assume
the form
(4.88)
<I>=Ar9sin9
The constant A must be determined from the conditions that the force resultant in the
x -direction is P and that in the y -direction is zero, i.e.
Limr (It-a X (r,9)d9+P =0
(4.89a)
(4. 89b)
r-+O
r-+O
J-<l
J-<l
Here X(r,9) and Y(r,9) are components of the stress vector on the boundary where
r is a constant, i.e.
p=-----'----+---+--x
,"
""
130
p----,~-,.--
(4.90a)
(4.90b)
In writing Eqs. 4.89, we have incorporated the fact that ell as given by Eq. 4.88 yields
CJre = CJee = 0 everywhere. The Cartesian stress components according to Table 4.1 are
(4.91a,b)
CJ 11
= 2A cose(1-cosZe)r-1
(4.91c)
Substituting Eqs. 4.91 into Eq. 4.89a yields A = -P lx, while Eq. 4.89b is satisfied
automatically. Thus a particular solution is
eIl=_P re sin e
(4.92)
ell =
pr:
l-cos2 -2
pz{[Sin2(P-a)+sin2a-2P.1 sine
+ [cos2(p-a)-cos2a] cose}
(4.93)
11Us satisfies the conditions near the point of application of the force, i.e.
Limrill-uX(r,e)de+p =0
r-+O
(4.94a)
131
p----"'C~---f-<-
(a)
(b)
~-a-
Y(r,e)de =0
-a
r-+O
(4.94b)
If ~ = 1t, the boundary becomes smooth, the problem is as shown in Fig. 4.6, and
Eq. 4.93 is specialized into Eq. 4.92.
If the force P has special alignments as shown in Figs. 4.8a and b, particular
solutions are
(4.95)
(4.96)
c!>
l-cos2~-2~2
Putting ~ = 1t in Eqs. 4.95, we can get a particular solution for the case of a
concentrated force normal to a smooth boundary, as shown in Fig. 4.9, namely
c!>
=-~resine
1t
(4.97)
On the other hand, Eq. 4.96 can be specialized to give a particular solution for
the case of a shear concentrated force on a smooth boundary, as shown in Fig. 4.10,
namely
P
(4.98)
c!> =-recose
1t
132
P---r-~--1-_
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
With permission o/the respective publishers, Problems 4.7.5,4.7.10 to 4.7.14 were taken
from the book by Boresi and Lynn (1974), and Problems 4.7.18, 4.7.19, and 4.7.21 to
4.7.28 from the book by Timoshenko and Goodier (1970).
4.7.1
!~{
r~[!.!(r ~]} =O.
rdr dr rdr dr
Solve the problem of a thick-walled cylinder whose outer surface is fixed while
the inner surface is subjected to a unifonn fluid pressure.
133
4.7.3
.=
r'
2(lC-l)kr
2
(lC+ 1) +Br +Clogr.
4.7.4
Solve the plane stress problem of a ring under a uniform shearing stress applied
at the outer surface of the ring while its inner surface is fixed. Hint: The Airy
stress function. is a function of 9 only.
4.7.5
For a ring loaded as shown in Fig. 4.11, the Airy stress function has the form
An infinite plate whose middle plane is xy has a circular rigid core of radius
a. If the plate is subjected to a uniform tension 0'0 at x =CO, what are the
slresses and displacements? Hint:
.= :0~2_r2cos29+Aa210gr+Ba4CO;;9
+ca 2cos29}
134
Fig. 4.11
4.7.7
Solve the previous problem, if the core is not rigid, but made of an isotropic
material with different properties from the plate. Hint:" For domain 1, a < r < 00,
~O(DrZ+FrZcos2a+H ::cos2aJ.
A heavy circular isotropic elastic disk of mass density p, radius b and thickness
a. The core supports the disk
in such a way that the disk is in the xy-plane and the gravitational force is in
the x-direCtion. Find stresses and displacements. Ifthe support becomes a point,
what is the solution? Hint:
v =-for cos a,
,
.
zcosa
r3
)
cjl=/oa lArasma+BrlogrCOsa+Ca -r-+ D azcosa .
h; has a rigid concentric circular core of radius
135
Fig. 4.12. The inner region is subjected to a body force in the x-direction equal
to fo per unit volume. The edge of the plane is fixed. Find the stresses and
displacements. Hint: For domain I, a < r < b,
()
2(
2COSe
r3
v =-for cos e,
=foF r3 cos e.
cI>(2)
'f---f-----+---x
y
Fig 4.12
4.7.10
may be used to study the problem of pure bending of curved bars (Fig. 4.13).
The constants A, B and C are determined from the boundary conditions
=(J"(b, e) =0,
b (Jea<ir =0,
b (JooTdr =-M,
(J"(a, e)
4M
=-Na b
22
log
a'b
136
Fig. 4.13
2M 2 2
B=-N(b -a),
M
4.7.11
may be used to study the problem of the circular cantilever beam subject to
end shear (Fig. 4.14), with
f(r)=Ar 3 +B +Cr+Drlogr.
r
"
=(2Ar- 2B + D)SinO
r3
'
137
Fig. 4.14
Fig 4.15
a" = are = 0 at r = a, b
and the end shear condition,
we get
aU
138
Fig. 4.16
Fig 4.17
Fig. 4.18
4.7.13
A thick rectangular plate is rolled into a cylindrical shape (Fig. 4.19). Residual
stresses due to the rolling process are removed by annealing. After annealing,
the end planes are a small angle ex. apart. The end planes are then brought
together by applying a moment M to each plane, and the faces are welded
together. Then uniform internal pressure Pi and external pressure Po are applied
to the lateral surface of the cylinder. Derive expressions for radial and tangential
stress components (J" and (Jae. Hint: Before applying pressure, show that the
139
Fig 4.19
Fig 4.20
solution is the same as Problem 4.7.10, with the moment
Jl.cxN
21t(b 2 - a 2)(1C + 1)
where N is as given in Problem 4.7.10
M=
4.7.14
For a circular ring with a radial slit, B, as shown in Fig. 4.20, the function
r log r sin e is one of the possible candidates for the Airy stress function <1>.
Find the stresses and displacements. Hint: Try
. e +Bre cos
<I>=Arlogrsm
sine D r 3 . e
e+ c a 2 --+-2
sm .
140
Show that
A
=2J..l0l[7t(1C+ 1)],
=0,
Nonnal point load on edge of half plane. The problem of the point load P on
the half plane boundary (Fig. 4.21), with zero stresses as r ~ co, may be
analyzed by means of the stress function
cI>(r,
4.7.16
a) = -~7t ra sin a.
Shear point load on edge of the half plane (Fig. 4.22). Show that
cI>=Q recose
7t
is the solution.
y-~~=----"..--...,
x
Fig. 4.21
4.7.17
Fig 4.22
O'yy
4.7.18
A circular isotropic elastic plate is subjected to two equal but opposite forces
as shown in Fig. 4.24. The solution can be written in the fonn
cI>=-i[r1e1sine1-rze2Siriez+A
~].
141
r-------2 a -+-------!.:::------'<;--t-- y
L_ _ _ _ ~
Fig. 4.23
""----+---y
x
Fig. 4.24
Detennine the constant A from the boundary conditions at r =a. Find also the
hoop stress cree(a, e). Answer:
P sin2a
A =_ cos a
cree(a,
e)
=
(.
e . )
2 '
1ta
sm +sma
142
4.7.19
~=-~{a
r sina-.!.(I-V)rlogrcosa-.!.rasina+~logr _ d (3-V).!.cosa}
1t
4
2
4
32
r
2
11
U,(9,9 1) }
{Sin9} [
{ ----- = 4(lC-l)91 - - - + -~(I-V)(lC+ 1)-~(lC-l)J
Ue(9, 91)
cos 9
sinal
---.
cos 9
Noting that v = (3 -lC)/(lC+ 1) for the present plane stress problem, we can
show that
Fig. 4.25
143
2-A -B =0.
=K/[8(K+ 1)].
Fig. 4.26
PIIIIIII~
; "8=.rc tan !
Fig. 4.27
4.7.21
144
Y ]
P[
cjl=-- (x 2 +y 2)arctan--xy
2n
x
is the solution to the problem of a half plane (-00 < X < 00, ~ y < 00) subjected
to a unifonn pressure p on the surface y =0, as shown in Fig. 4.27. The load
extends indefinitely to the left.
4.7.22
Fig. 4.28
4.7.23
By superposition, using the results of Problem 4.7.21, obtain stress and displacement components for pressure p on a segment -a < x < a on the surface
of the half plane. Note the indefiniteness of the displacement, and the 'weak'
singularity of the displacement as r tends to infmity. Answer:
p
~2
(J =
1t1
n [(x _a)2+ y~ [(x +a)2+ y~
4.7.24
x
y
Fig. 4.29
145
4.7.25
Show that if the pressure loading of Problem 4.7.25 is replaced by a shear load
't' 2xa
.
x
J
Hint: Note that the functions defmed by Eqs. 4.64b and d are harmonic.
4.7.27
Show how the distribution of load indicated in Fig. 4.30 may be obtained by
superposition of loadings of the type shown in Fig. 4.29.
p
I-a-----J
/1
I~
I-a+-b-/-a-l
I-a+a-l
Fig. 4.30
4.7.28
Show that the solution to the half plane subjected to the parabolic loading as
shown in Fig. 4.31 is given by the stress function
{xy3
2 2(
y2 ]
y2J}
2
2 1
p --log-r; [a-+-(x
2
1 ( 1--+x2
-+y) 1 -x- + - a+-axp+-ay
2
2
2
1t
3a
r?
42
6a 2a
32
3a 2 a 2
for pressure, and
Fig. 4.31
146
+~ayp+~(x2-3y2-3a2)a+
4xy2}
2
!{L(3a2_3x2+y2)lOgr;
1t 6a 2
rt 3
for shear, where
a= 91 -92 = arctan
2ay
2
X +y -a
2'
3a
3a
147
A..
TO
0 00
2JtuT
reos6
r sin 6
(lC-1)r
r2
logr
lIr2
-1/r2
-lIr
1/r2
-l/r
r210gr
210gr + 1
210gr+3
(lC-l)r 10gr-r
(lC+ 1)r6
rZO
26
-1
26
(lC-1)r6
cos61r2
sin61r2
cos61r
-2 sin 61r 3
2eos61r
-2sin61r 3
2eos6lr]
2sin61r 3
sin61r 2
-eos6lr 2
-2 cos 26
2 sin 26
2cos26
-2reos26
2r sin 26
-2 sin 26
-2 cos 26
2 sin 26
-2rsin26
-2rcos26
--<icos 261r 4
6 cos 261r 4
2eos261r
2 sin 261r 3
--<isin261r 4
6 cos 261r 4
6 sin 261r 4
2 sin 261r 3
-2 cos 261r 3
cos 26
-4 cos 261r 2
-2 sin 261r 2
-(lC-1)sin26Ir
sin 26
-4 sin 261r 2
2 cos 261r 2
(lC-1)eos26Ir
r 4 eos26
6r 2sin 26
12r 2eos26
(3 + lC)r 3 sin 26
r 4 sin 26
--<ir2cos26
12r 2sin26
sin61r
r 2eos26
r 2sin26
cos261r 2
sin 261r 2
-2cos61r
cosn9
r"
r"
r"
n(n -1)cosn9
(n + 2)(n -1)sinn9
r,,-2
sinn9
n(n -1)sinn9
(n +2)(n -1)cosn9
r"
r"+2
+ l)n cos n9
(n + l)n sinn9
r"+2
(n
(n + l)n sinn9
r"+2
r"
r"+2
(n+l)ncosn9
r,,-2
cosn9
r"
sinn9
-
--
rll+2sinn9
-(n + 1)nr"cosn9
(n + 1)nr"sinn9
r"sinn9
n(n -1)r,,-2sinn9
rll+2cosn9
-n(n -1)r,,-2cosn9
(JrO
-n(n -1)r,,-2cosn 8
(J"
r"cosn9
II>
r"+2
+ l)n sinn9
r"
(n-l)(n-2)sinn9
r"
(n -l)(n -2)cosn9
(n
(n + l)n cosn9
r"+2
(n +2)(n + 1)r"sinn9
(n +2)(n + 1)r"cosn9
n(n -1)r"-2sinn8
n(n -1)r,,-2cosn9
(Joo
+ 1 +lC)rIl+ 1sinn8
ncosn9
r,,-l
(n -1-lC)cosn9
(n -I +lC)sinn9
r,,-l
r,,-l
(n -1-lC)sinn9
-~
(n-l+lC)cosn9
r"-l
nsinn9
r"+l
----;:;+1
nsinn9
r"+l
(n
-nr,,-lcosn9
nr,,-lsinn9
2JUlo
ncosn9
-(n + l-lC)r,,+1sinn9
-(n + l-lC)rIl+1cosn8
-nr,,-lsinn8
-nr,,-lcos n9
2J1U,.
i:
~
~
i~.
00
2rsinO
-2rcosO
0
2r cos 0
2rsinO
2cosO/r
cosO/r
-2sinO/r
sinO/r
r3cosO
r3 sinO
rOsinO
rlogrcosO
rOcosO
rlogr sinO
-cosO/r
sinO/r
cr,e
cr"
c!>
sinO/r
cosO/r
6rsinO
6rcosO
cree
-sinO-(K+ l)OcosO]
~[(K-l)IOgr sinO
+sinO+(K-l)OcosO]
1
"2[(K-l)logrcosO
(K-l)logr sin 0
1
2[(K-l)logrcosO
-cosO-(K-l)OsinO]
1
"2[ -(K+ l)logrcosO
~[-
-sinO+(K-l)OcosO]
~[-(K+ l)logrsinO
1
"2 [(K+ l)logrcosO
-cosO+ (K-l)OsinO]
-(K+2)r 2 cosO
21lUe
(K-2)r 2 sinO
(K-2)r 2 cosO
2j.1U,
is"
1';"
'"tI
s...~
--
r4
r2
r4
---
r6
r4
- -
r6
r4
--+-
r6
2y _
8x 2y
r2
x 2x
-4
6x 8x 3
r6
r4
y 2x 2y
--+-
2y _ 8x 2y
8x 3
r4
6x
-4
sinO
-
cosO
-
r2
y 2x 2y
-+-
2x 3
x
r2
r4
r4
2x 2y
r2
r4
2x 2x 3
--+-
r4
2xy
r2
2x 3
r4
_ 2x 2y
r2
r4
1 2x 2
--+-
rlogrsinO
r4
1 2x 2
--+-
2xy
r4
crxY
crzx
--+-
logr cosO
rOsinO
rOcosO
logr
<1>
r4
r6
r4
r4
r6
6x
2y 8x 2y
--+-
8x 3
--+-
r2
--------
r4
r4
---
2xy
-
r2
1 2x
--+-
2x2
--r2
r4
r4
2xy
1
x2
-(K-1)logr +2
r2
1
xy
--(K+1)0-2
r2
L_ 2x 2y
r2
1
xy
-(K+1)0-2
r2
1
xy
-(K-1)0-2
r2
1
x2
--(K+ l)logr-2
r2
1
x2
-(K-1)logr-2
r2
1
x2
-(K+ 1)Iogr-2
r2
1
xy
-(K-1)0+2
r2
Y
r2
x
r2
x
r2
21lv
r2
2JlU
3x 2x
-4
3
2x 2x
- r-4
r2
r2
r4
2y 2x 2y
--+-
1 2x
--r2
r4
r4
2xy
-
crw
~.
~.
lC-1
lC-1
-T(logr sinO-OcosO) T(logr cos 0 + 0 sin 0)
logr
1
-(lC-1)(logr -l)r
2
1
-(lC-1)rO
2
2(lC-1)logr -1
r
(lC+ 1)
are
aee
2JlUr
2JlUe
~.
lC-1
lC-1
-2- (logr cos 0 + 0 sin 0) T(logr sinO-OcosO)
logr
a"
r-1 cos 0
r-1 cos 0
r-1 sinO
r-1 sinO
2(lC-1)logr }-2
[1
(lC+ 1)
lC+1
2(lC-1) <I>
(logr)2
2
r-1 sinO
logr
r-1 cosO
X
4x 3
(3+lC)--r2 r 4
Y 4x 2y
-(lC+1)-+r2
r4
2Jlv
r-2
Y 4x 2y
(lC-1)-+r2
r4
12xy 16x3 y
--+-r4
r6
2 16x 2 16x4
---+r2 r 4
r6
4xy _16x 3y
r4
r6
sin 20
X
4x 3
-(3-lC)-+r2 r 4
4 20x 2 16x4
---+r2 r 4
r6
8xy _16x 3y
r4
r6
12x2 16x
r
r6
-4 - -
cos 20
2JlU
a yy
a.a
<I>
a..,
VI
--
S
to
Ei
J"
2(lC-l)r"+1
(lC+ l)(n +2)
2j.1U,
2J.U1e
+ IOgr} sin29
{ (lC-l)
8(lC+ 1) [2 log r(2 log r +5) + 1]
+ IOgr} sin29
crre
+IOgr} cos29
{ (lC-l)
8(lC+ 1) [2 logr(2logr +5)+ 1]
+IOgr} cos29
[1 2(lC-l)(n + 1)}"
(lC+ l)(n + 2)
{ (lC-l)
8(lC+ 1) [1 + 2(2logr - 3)logr]
(21ogr -1) 21
. 29
16
r ogrsm
logrsin29
cree
(21ogr -1) 2
r logrcos29
16
logrcos29
[1
2(lC-l)
(lC+l)(n+2) r
(n+2i
r"+2
r"
(n :;>!:Oor -2)
crrr
lC+l
2(lC-l) c!>
t.
~.
(lC-I)r.. -1logr
lC+l
(lC-l)r.. +1
2(m+ 1)
2J.1Ue
(sinm9, -cosm9)
2(lC-I)m[4+(m2-4)logr]r
(lC+ l)(m2_4)2
-2(m 2 -4)logr]
2(lC-I)mr~+l
2(lC-I)(n +2)r~+1
(lC+ 1)[(n+2)2-m1
+2(ml-4)logr] +logr
+m(m -1)10gr+2m]}
2(lC-I)
r[-m 2-4
(lC+ l)(m2_4)2
2(lC-l)
[-4+ 3m 2
(lC+ l)(m2_4)2
r m- 2{ 1- lC-l [-I
m(lC+ 1)
(lC-l)(1 +m logr)rm - 1
m(lC+ I)
2(lC-l)m(n + l)r~)
(lC+ 1)[(n +2Y-m1
2(lC-l)m[m2+(m 2-4)logr]
(lC+ l)(m2_4)2
2(lC-l)(n+2-m2)} ~
(lC+l)[(n+2r-m1 r
{I
(n+2'f-m2
r~+2
r~
-(ml-4)(ml-2)logr] +logr
2(lC-l)
[4-3m 2
(lC+ l)(m2_4)2
[4+ (m2-4)logr]r2
(m2_4)2
(m::O or 2)
logr
-m(m-l)10gr]}
r"-2{1+ (l-lC) [l
m(lC+ 1)
(lC-I)r.. +1
2(m+ 1)
rm
r"
r"logr
2m
(m::O or 1)
(m::O or -1)
r m- 2
rm
2J.1Ur
(cosm9, sinm9)
(cosm9, sinm9)
Oea
ore
(sinm9, -cosm9)
(cosm9, sinm9)
0,.
-{lC+ 1)c1>
2(lC-l)(cosm9,sinm9)
V
(cosm9,sinm9)
t,,;I
Ul
1=;'
CHAPTER V
BENDING OF ELASTIC THIN PLATES
=uO(x,y)-z aw~:,y)
(0,0 )
(5.la)
155
(5.1b)
Here the origin of the Cartesian system is located on the plate middle plane, and the
superscript zero stands for the quantities there. Using Eqs. 5.1, we can show that shear
distortions 1:u and 1,. are neglected.
The only non-zero strains are
E:
rfw
=~-z
dX2
o
rfw
e" =e;, - Z dy2
AP
(5.2)
rfw
E:
=-z~
e" =-zKy,
(5.3)
1", =-2z1\.y
where
1C
(5.4b)
156
(5.4c)
5.2 EQUILmRIUM, BOUNDARY CONDmONS, AND STRESS
RESULTANTS
The equilibrium and well-posed boundary conditions of a rectangular plate as
shown in Fig. 5.1 can be derived from the following virtual work principle,
~=~
~~
where Wi and W. are the internal and external virtual works, respectively, and can be
expressed by
(5.6)
[iGi"/2(Oyy& +oyzSu
o
-lI/2
+o,.8w)dzdx]7=b
, .. 0
(5.7)
where 8 is the variational symbol signifying a virtual quantity, q (x, y) is the applied
transverse load, a bar C) denotes a boundary traction but with a stress sign convention,
and f/(x )];:~ == f(aJ - f(al). Performing integration with respect to z in Eqs. 5.6 and
5.7 yields
(5.8)
(5.9)
where +c denotes the integral along the simple closed curve C enclosing the plate
middle plane, and stress resultants are introduced for the first time, i.e.
157
(5.lOa,b,c)
(5.lOd,e)
(5.11)
and
dMzaw
ffM",]
dx dx + dM",aw
dx dy =[ddX (dMz
dX w)+dyd(dM",
dX ] [ffMz
dX2 W+ dxdy
W
(5.12)
In view of Eq. 5.11 and the Green's theorem (Eq. 1.89), we have
(5.13)
(5.14)
Due to Eq. 5.12, applying the Green's theorem one more time, we have
i[AdX--dMz{aw)
dX +dM",{aw]
dX- -dy
dA = -
f(dM",
dMdXz )
-Bwdx --Bwdy
cdX
(5.15)
i[Ady--dM,{aw)
dy +dM",{aw]
dy- -dX
dA =
f(dM",
dM,
-Bwdy --Bwdx
CdY
dy )
(5.16)
158
+M..,(a,0)5w(a,0)-M..,(0,0)5w(O,O)
(5.17)
Similarly,
M..,s(~}y =- a:..,
5wdy +M..,(a,b)5w(a,b)-M..,(a,O)5w(a,O)
+M..,(0,0)5w(0,0)-M..,(O,b)5w(0,b)
(5.18)
JA ax 2 axay ay2
-Mlts(~ + M.,s(~ }x
}y
( a:..,
Q" +
)5wdY _
( a:.., )5Wdx
Q., +
-2M..,(a,b)5w(a, b) + 2M..,(O,b)5w(0, b)
(5.19)
+2M..,(a,O)5w(a,O)-2M..,(O,O)5w(O,O)
where Q" and Q., are defined as
aM" aM..,
ax + ay
aM., aM..,
Q.,= ay + ax
(5.20a)
Q,,=
(5.20b)
It will be shown later that Q" and Q., are shear stress resultants in the same manner
as Eqs. 5.1Od and e. In view of Eqs. 5.17 and 5.18, Eq. 5.9 becomes
w. =
if
q5wdA -
}WdY
(5.21)
159
OZM"
OZMxy OZM,
--+2--+--+q =0;
dX 2
dXdY dy2
dw
M"=M,,
or -=
dX
M,=M,
or -=
dy
dw
inA
(5.22)
(5.23a)
(5.23b)
V"=V,,
or w = constant;
on boundaries x = 0 and a
(5.24a)
V,=V,
or w = constant;
on boundaries y = 0 and b
(5.24b)
dM,,,
V,=Q,+ dX
(5.26b)
R =-Mxy-M,,,=-2Mxy; forcorners(O,O)and(a,b)
(5.27a)
(5.27b)
It will be shown later that M" and M, are bending moments, Mxy twisting moment,
V" and V, Kirchhoff or supplemented shear forces (G. Kirchhoff, 1850), and R a
corner force.
5.3 PHYSICAL MEANING OF STRESS RESULTANTS
According to Eqs. 5.10, we can illustrate the stress resultants involved on a small
element of the plate middle plane as in Fig. 5.3. For the equilibrium of forces in
z -direction, it can be shown that
dQ" dQ,
(5.28)
-+-+q=O
dX
dy
while the equilibrium of moments about x and y axes gives Eqs. 5.20b and 5.20a,
respectively; which upon substituting into Eq. 5.28 give the same equilibrium equation
as Eq. 5.22. For the supplemented shear forces on plate boundaries, consider the
boundary x = a, as an example. The shear force Q" and the twisting moment Mxy are,
according to Eqs. 5.10, as shown on the Fig. 5.4(a), while Fig. 5.4(b) depicts an
equivalent system, i.e. a twisting moment is taken as a couple of equal and opposite
160
dx
/
-oQ
-----;;;,.------- /----'--~----=--Qx + _x dx
-ax
.,--- M +'aMXd
-- x
X
1}x
-aMxy
Mxy + a;-dx
(Mxy -
Point (a,y)
-aMxy dy
'Oy 2" )dy
Mxy -
'aMxy dy
'ay""2
Qx dy
( Mxy +
(a)
'aMxy dy
---ay 2"
Fig. 5.4 Supplemented or Kirchhoff shear force on a plate edge perpendicular to x -axis.
forces. Thus the equivalent force at point (a, y ) per unit length of the plate edge is
161
Mxy
=-M..", + M.."y"
(5.29)
where x',y',z and x",y",z belong to right-hand systems with x' and x" normal to
two different edges forming the comer.
162
<1""=--2 (E",,+VEYJI )
(I-v)
<1YJ1
(S.30b)
(S.30c)
"l
"'-2(1+v) ..,
<1 -
(S.30a)
(S.31a)
My = -D(lS, +vK.,.)
(S.31b)
(S.31c)
Eh 3
D =----,,12(1-v2)
and
le'S
(S.32)
= _D(ifw +vifw)
= _D(ifw
+vifw)
dy2
dX2
"
dX2
dy2
(S.33)
ifw
V'w=!L
D
d u2
=
-D-(v w)
"
dX
(S.34)
(S.3Sa)
(S.3Sb)
163
Or
'00
+ __
r
dr
Fig. S.7 Stress resultants in polar coordinates acting on small plate element.
a [azw
azw]
"= - Dax- -+(2-v)ax 2
ay2
(S.36a)
_D~[azw + (2_V)azw]
2
(S.36b)
v
v
=
y
ay ay2
ax
azw
(S.37)
R = 2D(I-V)aXay
In term of polar coordinates, the equilibrium equation is Eq. S.34, while the stress
resultants acting on the plate element as shown in Fig. S.7 are
Mr=
-D[(1-V)~;Z +VV2W]
(S.38)
a (ldw)
;:-ae
Qr = -D-(Vw)
ar
I
rae
Q = -D--(Vw)
9
(S.39a)
(S.39b)
164
(5.40a)
(5.40b)
In these equations the Laplace operator ~ and the biharmonic operator V4 are given,
respectively, by Eqs. 4.26 and 4.21.
5.5 SOLUTIONS FOR RECTANGULAR PLATES
Consider an infmitely long plate of width a, i.e. occupying -00 < Y < 00, 0 S; x
with a load q which depends only on x. The field equation, Eq. 5.34, is
d4w q(x)
-=D
dx 4
The solution of
particular solution
(5.41)
We
We
and a
W P'
(5.42)
W=We+Wp
Thus
S; a,
dw
_
_e=O
dx 4
4
(5.43)
--"/
165
q(x)
=D
(S.4S)
wP=24D
and the pertinent boundary conditions are
w(O)=O, : ; 1,.=0 =0,
M,,(a) =0, V,,(a) =0.
qo
qo
(S.46)
M,,(a,y) =0
(S.47a,b)
V,,(O,y) =0,
V,,(a,y) =0
(S.47c,d)
(S.47e,f)
V,(x,O)=O,
(S.47g,h)
V,(x,b)=O
(S.47iJ,k)
-2M",(a,b)=P
(S.48)
w=Axy
(S.49)
166
w=-~-
(5.50)
Note that all stress resultants vanish everywhere and Mzy is constant; the problem has
been named pure torsion bending or anticlastic bending.
Consider the problem of a rectangular plate simply supported along all four edges,
as shown in Fig. 5.10. The field equation is
~w =q(x,y)
D
(5.51)
w(a,y)=O
(5.52a,b)
167
Mz(O, y)
=0,
Mz(a, y)
=0
(5.52c,d)
w(x,O)=O,
w(x,b)=O
(5.52e,t)
My(x,O)=O,
My(x,b)=O
(5.52g,h)
(5.53)
(5.54)
where
(5.55)
Substituting Eqs. 5.53 and 5.54 into Eq. 5.51 yields, for each pair of harmonics m and
n,
W
q"",
(5.56)
and the solution is complete. The solution in the form of Eq. 5.53 is commonly known
as Na:vier solution (C. L. M. H. Navier, 1823 and 1827). It is noteworthy that comer
forces exist in this case.
The technique of Fourier series can be applied to any rectangular plate simply
supported on two opposite edges, as shown in Fig. 5.11. In order to satisfy the simply
r,--------~L-~-x
f-a
./
y
Fig. 5.11 Rectangular plate simply supported along two opposite edges.
168
supported conditions along the edges where x = 0 and x = a we take the single series
solution
m1tX
(5.57)
W(x,y)= L wm(y)sin-m=l
2i
where
qm(Y)=-
m1tX
L- qm(y)sin-
m=l
(5.58)
m1tX
q(x,y)sin-dx
(5.59)
Substituting Eqs. 5.57 and 5.58 into the field equation, Eq. 5.51, leads to, for each
hannonic m, an ordinary differential equation of the fonn
d4wm
m2~d2wm m 41t4
qm
- - 2 -2- + - w
=(5.60)
4
dy4
a dy2
a
m D
the solution of which can be taken as a sum of complementary and particular solutions
Wm(y) =Wme(y) + wmp(y)
(5.61)
or
W (y)=A e-n"cy'a+B m1ty e-n"Cyla+C emfCy1a+D m1tYemfCyla
me
m
m a
m
m a
(5.62b)
169
(5.63a)
and
VW z =0
(b < r < a)
(5.63b)
Here subscripts 1 and 2 are introduced to denote domain 1 where 0 < r < b, and domain
2 where b < r < a, respectively. The biharmonic operator V4 for the present case which
is axisymmetrical assumes the simple form
(5.64)
qo
w1 =64D(r +Al+Blr),
(O~r<b)
(5.66)
At this stage, we can say that a particular solution for any case that has a uniform load
intensity qo is
qor 4
wp= 64D
(5.67)
For domain 2 which is governed by Eq. 5.63b, there is only the complementary solution,
i.e.
Wz
qo
z
z
=64D
(Az+Bzr + C zlog r +D2r logr),
(b < r < a)
(5.68)
The remaining task is to determine the constants At> B1, A2, B2, C2 and D2 from the
boundary conditions at r =a and the continuity conditions at the interface r =b between
the two domains. These conditions are
W
dW11
II r=b -w
21 r=b' -dr
r=b
dW21
- dr
M rl Ir=b -M
r2Ir=b'
w2 1r=a
=0,
(5.69a,b)
r=b
(5.69c,d)
Mr21 r=a
=0
(5.6ge,t)
Note that Vr and Qr are identical in axisymmetrical cases. Table 5.1, at the end of
the present chapter, shows that Eqs. 5.69 may be written
170
(5.70a)
(5.70b)
(5.7Oc)
-32b = -4b-IDz
(5.7Od)
Az+azBz+logaCz+a2IogaDz=0
(5.70e)
(5.70f)
Equations 5.70 fann a set of six linear simultaneous equations for derennining the six
constants Al to Dz.
Now consider the axisymmetrical bending of a plate subjected to a concentrated
force P at the origin of the reference coordinates, as shown in Fig. 5.12. The pertinent
field equation is
Vw =0,
(r >0).
y
Fig. 5.12 Plate subjected to a concentrated force.
171
j
y
Fig. 5.13 Equilibrium near application point of the concentrated load.
P
+ Lim
-+0
2",
(r V r )
_
r-
de =0
(5.71)
-~) =0,
A4= 81t'
We can also verify that any other admissible displacement functions (axisymmetric as
well as non-axisymmetric) contribute nothing to the second term in Eq. 5.71. Thus
without loss of generality, we can conclude that the term
P
81tD r210gr
(5.72)
172
(5.75a)
aw
P (
rl )
a'i = 41tD rllog ~'2
(5.75b)
aw = ~(~2'i-';)
ar2 81tD
r2
(S.75c)
,;=,2+ ~2a2-2~rcos9
(5.76a)
2 2 a2 a
'2=r +~2-2~,cos9
(5.76b)
We note that
rcos9- ~
(5.76c,d)
(5.76e)
a
r2cos92=rcos9-~
(5.761)
a
rlcos91 -r2cos92=~-~
(5.76g)
173
r1 = pr2
(5.77)
Equations 5.75 and 5.77 show that w in Eq. 5.73 satisfies Eqs. 5.74
Next, consider the problem of a clamped plate subjected to a concentrated moment
Ml as shown in Fig. 5.15(a). We may consider the moment Ml to be produced by two
equal and opposite forces at two neighboring points as shown in Fig. 5.15(b), where
Lim(Pe) =Ml
(5.78)
-+0
The solution for the force P acting at the point 01 is given by Eq. 5.73, i.e.
w+(r,O; pa)= 8:V wO(r1,r2,p)
(5.79)
where
(5.80)
Clamped edge
of-- f3a
~I~------~~----~--x
I
(a) Original.
(b) Equivalent.
ar
ap
(5.81a)
=-acosO I
(5.81b)
The solution for the other force -P at the point very close to 0 1 in Fig. 5.15(b) is
w-(r,O;
a;+ ~
(5.82)
Adding the last equation to Eq. 5.79, and using Eq. 5.78, we fmd the required solution
174
Ml Owo(rl, r2' P)
w = 81tDa
ap
Ml (Owoari Owoar2 Owo)
arl ap + ar2 ap +arr
= - 81tDa
Ml .[
j rl )
2
w =81tD 2rl lo,"Pr2 cos 9 1 + (rl -
9 1]
2 (cos
P2r2)
p2r2 + Pa
2
(5.83)
(5.84a)
rcos9 r2
cos 92 1
---+--=-----+---,
p2r2 Pa
f32rf Parf
derived from Eqs. 5.76b and 5.76f,
Ml [
j rl )
2
w =81tD 2rl I0l(\pr2 cos 9 1 + (rl -
2 (r2
P2r2)
Parf -
r cos 9]
P2rf
(5.84b)
Being the only singular term in the solution above, the term
Ml
(5.85)
is a particular solution for any plate subjected to a concentrated moment Ml about the
y-axis and at the origin 0 1,
For a circular plate axisymmetrically supported along its edge and subjected to a
concentrated force P at its center, the solution takes the form
P
w(r) 81tD (r 2 10gr +Al +A2r 2)
(5.86)
in which axisymmetry and boundedness of the solution at r =0 have been taken into
account. The arbitrary constants Al and A2 can be determined from the boundary conditions Eqs. 5.74 for clamped plates, or
(S.87a)
(5.87b)
MI
=0
r r=a
Ml
3
w(r,9) = 41tD (rlogr+Alr+A2r )cos9
(5.88)
Here we have used Table 5.1 to select the complementary solution and have accounted
for the symmetry and the boundedness of the solution at r O. The boundary conditions,
175
-~[
21
- 81tD r og~+
(3+v)(a 2-r2)]
2(1 +v)
(5.89)
[1
(1
r
a+-'-----''--'----'-:,--+v)(a -r )rcosa]
=Ml
- - r og-cos
(5.90)
41tD
a
2(3+v)a 2
For a circular plate clamped along its edge and subjected, at its center, to a concentrated
force P,
W
(5.91)
while that subjected to a concentrated moment M1 about the y-axis,
W
M1 [ r
(a 2 _r2)
r log~cos + 2a 2 r cos
=41tD
aJ1
(5.92)
Equations 5.91 and 5.92 can be obtained by specializing Eqs. 5.73 and 5.84, respectively,
and using
p~o, r 1 ~r, a1 ~a,
92~1t,
r2~00,
pr2~a.
Note that the limiting case of Eq. 5.84a involves an indetenninate quantity (00-00), but
Eq. 5.84b is well behaved.
If the concentrated force P and concentrated moment M1 are applied at an eccentric
point and the plate edge is not clamped, closed fonn solutions (like Eqs. 5.73 and 5.84)
seem not possible. For such cases we use the particular solution given by Eq. 5.72 or
5.85 with a complementary solution in Fourier series fonn, as described in the following
section.
5.7 SERIES SOLUTION FOR CIRCULAR PLATES
The deflection and load functions are expanded in Fourier cosine series, i.e.
w(r,9) =
q(r,9)=
where
L
L
m=O
m=O
wm(r)cosma
(5.93a)
qm(r)cosm9
(5.93b)
Ii"
qo(r) =-
1t 0
q(r,a)d9
(5.94a)
176
q",(r) =-
1t
(5.94b)
(m >0)
Substituting Eqs. 5.93 and 5.94 into the field equation, Eq. 5.34, yields
q",(r)
v:.w",(r)=v
(5.95)
where
2
v2'" =!~(r~)m
rdr dr
r2
(5.96)
w",=wp",+w.",
where wpm is a particular solution satisfying Eq. 5.95, and W.'" is the complementary
solution satisfying
v:.w.",(r) =0
For each m,
(5.98)
(5.99a)
(5.99b)
(5.99c)
1ft
where the constants A"" B"" C", and D", are to be detennined so that the complete
solution satisfies the boundary conditions. We may obtain a similar sine series solution.
Table 5.1 (at the end of the present chapter) contains Chv/'iJr and the stress resultants
for all these complementary and particular solutions.
As an example, consider an annular plate with two concentric boundary circles of
radii a and b (a > b). The load on the plate is uniform with an intensity qo. The plate
is supported by k equally spaced columns along its outer edge. Each column is 2aa
wide, where 2<X is the angle subtended by each column at the center of the boundary
circles. It is assumed that the column reaction is only in the form of a force uniformly
distributed over each column width. Choose the reference coordinate system to have its
origin at the center of the boundary circles and the x-axis passing through the center
of a column. The total load on the plate is 1t(a 2 - b 2)qo, thus the reaction intensity on
each column is 1t(a 2 -b 2)qol(2kaa). This reaction can be written as a periodic but
discontinuous function of 0 as follows.
1(0)=
1t(a 2 -b 2)qo
=0,
2kaa
'
(21tj
21tj.
(elsewhere)
(5.IOOa)
(5.IOOb)
The period is equal to 21t1k. The function 1(0) is expanded in a Fourier cosine series
177
ao
/(9) ="2 + "~l an cos nk9,
~
where
Clank
ao =(a 2 - b 2)qr/a
(5.102b)
w(r, 9) =
~~ ~4 + m=o.flk.... wcmcosm9)
(5.103)
in which the particular solution given in Eq. 5.67 has been adopted and wcm(r) is as
defmed by Eqs. 5.99. Boundary conditions for the present case are
Vr (a,9) = -/(9), M r (a,9) = 0
(5.104a,b)
Vr (b,9) =0, M r (b,9) =0
(5.104c,d)
Substituting Eqs. 5.101 and 5.103 into Eqs. 5.104, using Eqs. 5.38 to 5.40 (or Table
5.1) and 5.102, and equating the coefficients for each m in the resulting series, we arrive
at the simultaneous equations; for m =0,
-32a - 4a-1D o =-32(a 2 - b 2)/a
(5.105a)
(5.105b)
(5.105c)
(5.105d)
178
and for m
~2,
(S.106b)
+ l)b-m-3B", + (m + l)m[(I-v)m
(S.I06a)
(S.106c)
+ l)b-m-2B",-(m + 1)[4v
(S.106d)
Noting that Eqs. S.1OSa and c are identical, and that Ao does not appear in any conditions above, we need to impose another condition to determine this constant, which
corresponds to a rigid-body deflection of the plate. We choose the condition of zero
deflection at the center of a column, e.g. w(a, 0) 0 which leads to
I.
III=k. 2k.
...
(A a'" + B a-m
IN
1ft
+ C a"'+2 +D a-m+2) =0
'"
(S.107)
Then Do can be determined from Eq. S.1OSa or c, Bo and Co from Eqs. S.10Sb and d,
A", to D", (m ~ 2) from Eqs. S.106a to d, and Ao from Eq. S.107. If there is a single
supporting column, the constants for m 1 vanish, i.e.
Al =Bl =C l =Dl =0.
179
its four corners, as shown in Fig. 5.16. For an approximate solution, incorporating the
relevant symmetry, we take a polynomial
w(x,y)=C1 +C~2+C3y2+C~4+C~2y2+C6Y4
Substituting Eq. 5.108 into the field equation, Eq. 5.34, for q(x,Y)
(5.108)
=qo,
qo
24C4+ 8Cs + 24C6 =D
yields
(5.109)
a 'j- a-j
+
b
(5.111a)
(2-v)Cs + 6C6 = 0
(5.111b)
Solving Eqs. 5.109 and 5.111 for C4 , Cs and C6 and substituting results in Eq. 5.108
yields
2
W(X,y)=Cl+C~ +C3y
qo
+ 48(I-v)D [(2-v)(x
2 2-!
+y )-6x Y J
(5.112)
The twisting moments Mzy and Myz given by Eq. 5.33c are
qoXY
Mzy=Myz=T
(5.113)
180
forces. The remaining unknowns Ch C z and C3 can be determined from the condition
of zero deflection at a comer, i.e.
w(a,b)=O
(5.115)
and two conditions stating that the mean moments on the edges are zero,
f'
f'
Mx(a,y)dy =0
(5. 116a)
My(x,b)dx =0
(5. 116b)
Equations 5.116 are approximations to the exact boundary conditions at the free edges,
i.e. Mia,y)=O and My(x,b) =0. Substitute Eq. 5.112 into Eqs. 5.115 and 5.116, and
use Eqs. 5.33a and 5.33b. We find
ZbZ
Z b Z) -2(7v-l)
C1 = qoa Z [ (lO+v-vz) ( az+-Z
48(I-v)D
ba
(5. 117a)
a]
(5. 117b)
bJ
(5. 117c)
b
b
Z)-b
Cz = qoa Z [ (1 +5v)--(6+v-v
24(I-v)D
a
a
Z
C3 = qoab Z [ (1+5v)-b-(6+v-v)24(I-v)D
a
Numerical results obtained from by this approximate solution agree closely with those
obtained numerically by Nadai (1922) and Marcus (1932), and by experiments on
prestressed concrete slabs by Scordelis, Pister and Lin (1956).
A similar approach was adopted by Vijakkhana, Karasudhi and Lee (1973) for
equilateral triangular plates subjected to uniform loads and supported at the plate comers.
Suriyamongkol (1985) studied the bending of regular polygonal plates of general
form, with 3, 4, 5, ... sides, subjected to uniformly distributed loads and central concentrated loads, and having simply supported edges, or free edges with comer supports.
The solution is a sum of a particular solution and a complementary solution. The
particular solution is given by Eq. 5.67 for a uniform load and by Eq. 5.72 for a
concentrated force. The complementary solution is taken as a series. The Gram-Schmidt
orthogonalization process (Wylie, 1975) is applied to solve the series equations. Exact
solutions are obtained for simply supported edges. Approximate moment conditions
(Eqs. 5.116) have to be adopted for free edges. For practical purposes, the series may
be truncated at the third term. Results agree closely with others found by different
reliable methods.
5.9 PLATES ON ELASTIC FOUNDATION
When a transversely loaded plate rests on a yielding foundation, the reaction of
181
the foundation opposes the plate deflection. If the foundation is elastic, the resistance
is proportional to the deflection, i.e. 'YW, where y is the modulus of the foundation and
expressed in force per unit of plate area per unit of deflection. The only change brought
about by the presence of the elastic foundation is that the equilibrium equation for forces
in the z-direction, Eq. 5.28, becomes
aQ% aQ,
ax + ay
-'YW+q=O
(5.118)
Consequently, the field equation in terms of the deflection for a unifonn isotropic plate,
Eq. 5.34, becomes
(5.119)
where
~
=+(ylD )1/4
(5.120)
For cylindrical bending of very long rectangular plates, Eq. 5.41 becomes
(5.121)
yPxy
=2D(l-v)
(5.123)
Thus the anticlastic or pure torsion bending for plates on elastic foundation is possible
if the distributed load is related to the applied corner force by the equation above.
When a rectangular plate is simply supported along all four edges as in Fig. 5.10,
the Navier solution scheme given by Eqs. 5.52 to 5.55 may be applied. Substituting
these equations into Eqs. 5.119 yields
q"".
=-------------"". DK'(m2/a 2+n2/b 2)2+y
(5.124)
When a rectangular plate is simply supported along two opposite edges as in Fig.
5.11, the Levy-Nadai solution scheme as given by Eqs. 5.57 to 5.59 is also applicable.
Substituting those equations into Eq. 5.119 yields, in place of Eq. 5.60, the following
ordinary differential equation
(5.125)
182
+Bmsinamy)e~"'Y
(5. 126b)
where
(5. 127a)
(5.127b)
(v:.+~4)wm(r)= q~r)
(5.128)
The complete solution to the equation is given by Eq. 5.97, where wpm and Wem are
particular and complementary solutions for Eq. 5.128. For each m, Wem can be expressed
in terms of Kelvin functions (Section 1.10); thus
(5.129)
-2:O~ keio~r
(5.130)
(5.131)
The term' within the last pair of parentheses in the equation above has the correct
characteristic singularity (Eq. 5.85) as r tends to zero. Thus a particular solution for
183
the deflection function of the problem of a moment Ml about the y-axis and concentrated
at the origin of the reference axes is
-..J2Ml
41tD~ (kerl;r -
ke'lg)
(5.132)
Computing Kelvin functions is complicated and time consuming, especially for high
order functions. Karasudhi, Jou and Tansirikongkol (1976) avoided this type of analytical
functions by employing, for each harmonic m, central finite differences with respect to
r directly in the field equations and all pertinent boundary conditions.
5.10 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
5.10.1
The infinitely long plate shown in Fig. 5.8 has properties in domain 1 where
o ~ y < 00 different from those in domain 2 where - 0 0 < y SO. Find the solution
if the plate is simply supported along both long edges x =0 and a, and the
load is a point force P concentrated at x d and y 0, and 0 < d < a. Hint:
Adopt the Levy-Nadai solution (Eq. 5.57) for both domains. The (complementary) solutions are modifications of Eq. 5.62b taking into consideration
the boundedness of the solutions as y ~ 00 and y ~ - 0 0 for domains 1 and
2, respectively. The four pertinent boundary conditions at y 0, where the
two domains join, are
WI (x , 0) =WZ(x, 0),
Owl(X,y)
:\
uy
)1=0
Owz(x,y)
:\'
cjy
)1=0
V)lz(x,O)- V)ll(x,O)=f(x),
where f(x) is the Dirac-delta distribution (Section 1.9) of the force P along
the x -axis, i.e.
OW1(X,y)
:\
uy
5.10.2
)1=0
=0
V ( O)=_f(x)
x,
2 .
')11
184
5.10.3
dw1(X,y)
ay
M)ll(X,O)-M)lZ(x,O) =m(x),
)1=0
dwz(X,y)
=:.
uy
'
)1=0
=Ml,(x - d).
5.10.4
If the y-spans of the plate in Problem 5.10.1 are fmite as in Fig. 5.11, we
can use solutions given by Eq. 5.62a or b. In addition to the four boundary
conditions at y =0, two more boundary conditions must be prescribed along
the edge y =b and two more on y =-c. If both domains are identical, take
advantage of symmetry and find the solution of domain 1 only.
5.10.5
5.10.6
A rectangular plate simply supported along all edges as shown in Fig. 5.10,
is subjected to a concentrated force P at x =c, y =d. Find the solution and
note the existence of corner forces. Hint: Adopt the Navier solution (Eq. 5.53)
and take the loading function as
q(x,y) =Po(x -c)o(y -d).
5.10.7
=M1o(1)(X -c)o(y
-d).
5.10.8
For the plate as shown in Fig. 5.14, find Michell's solution for a concentrated
moment Ml about the x-axis. Hint:
Ml dw o
w(r, a) = 81tD f3a aa'
where Wo is as defined in Eq. 5.80.
5.10.9
Find a series solution for the circular plate shown in Fig. 5.14. Hint: Consider
two domains; domain 1 where 0:::; r :::; f3a and domain 2 where f3a :::; r :::; a.
Adopt the cosine series solution (Eqs. 5.93) for both domains, but the
boundedness of the solution at r =0 must be incorporated in domain 1. The
four pertinent conditions at the interface r = f3a, between the domains, are
185
=~ a(8).
OwI(r,8)
ar
Ow2(r, 8)
=
ar
r .. J!a
r=J!a
'
where
5.10.12 A circular plate is simply supported along its edge and subjected to a linearly
varying load
q(r,8)
=prcos8la,
where p is a constant and a is the plate radius. Find the solution. Hint: Table
5.1 gives a particular solution as
w,(r,8)
186
where w1(r) is as defmed in Eq. 5.99b, but with C1 and Dl zero to make the
solution bounded at r = O. The remaining two arbitrary constants can be
determined from the boundary conditions at r = a, i.e.
w(a; a) =0, Mr(a, a) =O.
Answer:
pr(a 2- r2) [a 2(7 + v) - (3 + v)r~
a
w(r, a)
192(3+v)Da
cos.
5.10.13
Solve the preceding problem, if the plate outer edge is free, and the plate
region 0 :s; r :s; b (b < a) is a rigid core and fixed in space.
5.10.14
Suppose that the plate in Problem 5.10.13 has its outer edge simply supported
and the rigid core is rotated by a moment Ml about the y-axis through a small
angle 4. Find the relationship between Ml and 4. Hint: The (complementary)
solution takes the same form as in Problem 5.10.12, but wl(r) is given by Eq.
5.99b. Boundary conditions along the circumference of the core, r = b, are
w(b,a)=-b4cosa, awr,a)
=-cIcosa.
r=b
L
2Ic
5.10.15
Solve the preceding problem when the outer edge is flXed. Then specialize
both problems for the cases of a concentrated moment Ml at the center of the
plate, to prove Eqs. 5.90 and 5.92.
5.10.16
An annular plate is segmented along two radii in such a way that the straight
edges of the plate subtend an angle a at the plate center. Formulate the solution
when the plate is subjected to the load q(r,a) and the straight edges of the
plate are simply supported. Hint: Set the coordinate system so that one straight
edge is at a = 0 and the other at a = a, and one circular edge is at r = a and
the other at r =b. Adopt a 'polar' Levy-Nadai solution, i.e.
m1ta
w(r,a)= l: w",(r)sin-,
",=1
which satisfies the boundary conditions along the straight edges exactly.
Expand q(r,a) in a similar sine series. Determine arbitrary constants by means
of two boundary conditions along each circular edge.
5.10.17
Find the solution for the same annular plate of Section 5.7 when the inner
187
edge is fixed instead. Hint: The column reaction distribution in Eq. 5.100a
should be modified to read
/(e)
111t(a 2 - b 2)qo
2kaa
'
where 11 is the fraction of the total load to be carried by the columns. Arbitrary
constants involved are to be determined from the boundary conditions;
w(b,e)=O,
dw~~,e) Ir=b
=0,
=0.
Reference:
5.10.18
Solve the same annular plate of Section 5.7 when the supports are two concentric rings of equally spaced columns, situated in between and concentrically
with the boundary circles. The number of columns in each ring is k. Each
pair of opposite columns in different rings subtends the same angle 2a at the
center of the boundary circles.
5.10.19
Find the solution to the problem of an annular plate on elastic foundation and
supporting a circular ring of k equally spaced columns. The ring and the
boundary circles are concentric. The radius of the ring is c. Hint: Set the
reference coordinate system as in the example of Section 5.7. The column
force P on the plate can be put as a distribution in the form
/(e)=PI(2kac),
=0,
(elsewhere).
=m=O,,t,2k,
L ,,' wcm(r) cosme,
where wcm(r) is as given in Eq. 5.129. Boundary conditions are free conditions
along both circular edges, and four more conditions along the column ring.
The latter are
dw 1(r,e)
r=c
=aW2(r,e)
a'
r
r=c
188
5.10.20
2d
c
b
Longitudinal
column lines
xl
T~IT
line of
symmetry
~a
//
"
J",q(XTY)
,
,,
"
I.
WI---f--J-- Ribs
by
189
5.10.22
Since Reissner (1948, 1949) fonnulated a small deflection theory for bending
of isotropic sandwich plates, there has been a rapid development in the theory
and its application to the design of structural elements. A detailed literature
survey up to 1956 was made by Habip. Kao (1965, 1969, 1970, 1973) treated
problems of circular sandwich plates. Folie (1970) solved the bending of
orthotropic sandwich plates by means of a numerical integration scheme.
Discussions on bending and buckling of sandwich systems were made by
Plantema (1966). Karasudhi, Ng and Lee (1977) studied axisymmetric bending
of isotropic sandwich plates on elastic foundations as illustrated in Fig. 5.19.
The main assumptions in the analysis of bending of an elastic sandwich plate
are that in the core there are only transverse shear stress components unifonnly
distributed across the core thickness, and in the facings there are only in-plane
stress components unifonnly distributed across respective thicknesses. Solve
Problem 5.10.19 for isotropic sandwich plates.
Top Facing
t, t::~====~~~::::::~
h
Core
Bottom Facing
t2
z
Fig. 5.19 Sandwich plate on elastic foundation.
5.10.23
5.10.24
190
Foundations
Table S.l
of Solid Mechanics
Complementary solutions, ~w
=0 .
dwldr
MrlD
MelD
MrelD
QrlD
Qe lD
r2
2r
-2(l+v)
-2(1+v)
logr
r-1
(1-v)r-2
-(l-v)r-2
r 2logr
r(l +2Iogr)
-2(1 +v)logr
-3-v
-2(1 +v)logr
-1-3v
-r 4
-1
11r
r3
rlogr
CJwlCJr
(cos e, sin e)
1
-r2
3r 2
logr + 1
MrlD
(cose,sine)
-2(3+v)r
_ (1 +v)
r
MelD
(cos e, sin e)
2(I-v)
r3
-2(1 +3v)r
_ (1 +v)
r
MrelD
(sin e, -cos e)
2(1-v)
r3
2(I-v)r
(l-v)
r
QrlD
(cos e, sin e)
-8
2
r2
Qe lD
(sine,-cose)
-r2
VrlD
(cos e, sin e)
2(I-v)
r4
-2(3+v)
(3-v)
r2
VelD
(sine,-cose)
2(S-v)
(l+v)
r2
(cose,sine)
2(I-v)
r3
6(1-v)
r4
",-1
r lJl +3
r 3- 1J1
VelD
(m + l)m[(I-v)m -4]
r 1-",
4(m + l)mr",-1
-4(m + l)mr"'-1
(l-v)m(m + l)r'"
+(I-v) (m + 2)]r'"
(m + 1)[-4
+(I-v)(m +2)]r'"
(l-m)m[4+(I-v)m]
r",+1
4(I-m)mr ...... - 1
(l-v)m(I-m)r ......
(m-l)[4
-(1-v)(2-m)]r ......
+(I-v)(2-m)V ....
(m-l)[4v
(-m+2)r-+1
r-+z
r",+3
r 1- 1J1
r",+1
(l-v)mz(m + 1)
(sinme,-cosme)
VrlD
-(I-v)m(m + l)r...... - z
(l-v)m(m + l)r--z
(l-v)m(m -1)r"'-z
(l-v)m(m -1)r"'-z
(m +2)r"'+1
-mr-- 1
-(m+ 1)[4v
r"'+z
r-
-(l-v)m(m+ l)r--z
-1,0, 1).
mr
r'"
Qe lD
(cosme, sinme)
QrID
(sinme,-cosme)
MrelD
MelD
MrlD
(cosme, sinme)
owlor
\0
--
;;
"tJ
~.
s~
192
dwldr
r4
-64
r3
rS
225
MrID
MaID
MralD
QrID
QalD
16
(3+v)r2
16
(1 +3v)r 2
16
--r2
r4
45
(4+v)r3
45
(1 +4v)r3
45
--3
r2
qlD
(cosme, sinme)
1
(m ;/: 0, 2, 4)
r
(m ;/: 0, 3, 5)
(cosme, sinme)
r4
64-20m 2+m 4
rS
225-34m 2+m 4
awldr
(cosme, sinme)
4r 3
64-20m2+m4
5r 4
225-34m2+m4
MJD
(cosme, sinme)
(vm 2 - 4v - 12)r2
64-20m2+m4
(vm 2 - 5v - 20)r3
225 -34m 2+m 4
MaiD
(cosme, sinme)
(m 2-12v-4)r 2
64-20m2+m4
(m 2- 20v - 5)r3
225-34m2+m4
MralD
(sinme, -cosme)
3m(l-v)r 2
64-20m2+m4
4m(1-v)r 3
225-34m2+m4
QrID
(cosme, sinme)
-2r
2
m -4
-3r
2
Qa lD
(sin me, -cosme)
-mr
m 2-4
-mr2
m 2-9
VrID
(cosme, sinme)
ValD
(sinme, -cosme)
m(22-6v-m 2)r
64-20m2+m4
m -9
193
y!:
O.
qlD
(cos49,sin49)
r410gr
48
(cos49,sin49)
dwli:)r
(cos 29, sin 29)
(410gr + 1)r3
48
dwlor
(cos 49, sin 49)
1
_r 410gr
96
(410gr + 1)r3
96
MrlD
(cos 29, sin 29)
(7 +v+ 1210gr)r2
48
96Mr1D
(cos 49,sin49)
[12(1-v)logr
+7+vJr2
MelD
(cos 29, sin 29)
(1 +7v+ 12vlogr)r2
48
96Me/D
(cos 49, sin 49)
[12(v-1)logr
+1 +7vJr2
Mre lD
(sin 29,-cos 29)
(1-v)(310gr + 1)r2
24
Mre lD
(sin 49,-cos 49)
QrlD
(cos 29, sin 29)
(7 + 610gr)r
12
QrlD
(cos 49, sin 49)
-6r
Qe/D
(sin 49,-cos 49)
--r3
VrlD
(cos49,sin49)
[v-3(1-v)logrJr
6
24Ve/D
(sin 49,-cos 49)
[6(v-1)logr
+Sv-l3]r
Qe/D
(sin 29,-cos 29)
12VrlD
(cos 29, sin 29)
24Ve/D
(sin 29, -cos 29)
(2 + 310gr)r
6
-[3(1 +v)logr
+6+vJr
[6(3-v)logr
+13-SvJr
(1-v)(310gr + l)r2
24
194
'#
o.
qlD
(cos 59, sin 59)
rSlogr
96
160
Ow/ar
(51ogr + 1)r4
96
Ow/ar
(cos 59, sin 59)
(51ogr + 1)r4
160
96M,ID
(cos 39, sin 39)
96MeiD
(cos 39, sin 39)
M,e lD
(sin 39,-cos 39)
Q,ID
(cos 39, sin 39)
QelD
(sin 39, - cos 39)
96V,ID
(cos 39, sin 39)
32VeiD
(sin 39, -cos 39)
-[4(5 -v)logr
+9+v]r3
[4(1-5v)logr
-1-9v]r 3
(1-v)(41ogr + 1)r3
32
(23 + 24 log r )r2
48
(5 + 81ogr)r 2
16
-[12(1 +3v)logr
+9v+37]r 2
[4(7 - 3v)logr
+17 -7v]r 2
160M,ID
(cos 59, sin 59)
160MeiD
(cos 59, sin 59)
M,e lD
(sin 59, - cos 59)
Q,ID
(cos 59, sin 59)
_rSlogr
[20(1-v)logr
+9+v]r3
[20(v-1)logr
+1 +9v]r 3
(1-v)(41ogr + 1)r3
32
-3r
16
QelD
5r2
16
32V,ID
(cos 59, sin 59)
32VeiD
(sin 59,-cos 59)
[20(v -l)logr
+1 +5v]r 2
[12(v-1)logr
+7v-17Jr2
195
!L
D
r26}
r~{~i
smO
rQogr1{~~i
S
!L
. 20
sm
576
~-2
{=46}
r"
(n
(n
t'26}
. 0
sm
t'46}
logr ---sin 40
logr ---sin 20
or -4)
-r2
r4
r"+4
r2(logri
(n + 2)2 (n +4)2
qlD
(cosmO, sinmO)
(cosmO, sinmO)
r"
r"+4
~m
-2 or -1)
r m- 2
(m
~O
or -1)
r m- 4
(mO or 1)
logr
(m 2 or 4)
(logr)2
S
[12(m2-S)+(m2-4)(m2-16)logr]r4
(m2_4)2(m2_16)2
CHAPTER VI
ELASTOSTATICS WITH DISPLACEMENTS AS
UNKNOWNS
J1(~U;+1~2Vekk';)+X;=O'
(i,k=1,2)
(6.1)
where
(6.2a)
(6.2b)
Substituting Eq. 6.3 into Eq. 6.1 yields field equations for plane problems as
~~ +
J1(
K:
1 ekk,;) +X; =0
(6.4)
The equation above holds for plane stress as well as plane strain problems depending
on which definition of K in Eqs. 4.8 is used.
Similarly, we can obtain freld equations in tenos of cylindrical displacement
components by specializing from Eqs. 3.67; thus
u,.
aUe]
2
2
J1 [ K_1ar(ekk)+~U'-r2- r2aa +X,=O
au,. Ue]
2 1
2
J1 [ K_1rd9(ekk)+~Ue+ r2d9 - r2 +Xe=O
(6.5a)
(6.5b)
197
where
(6.6a)
1[
For axisymmetric
dependence on O. Thus Eqs. 6.5 reduce to
(6.6b)
must vanish, and there is no
(6.7)
the general solution of which can be obtained readily by successive integration with
respect to r. In fact, its complementary solution is a linear combination of r and r-l
Problems 6.9.1 and 6.9.2 should serve as good examples of this approach.
For torsion about the z-axis, U, must vanish, and all functions are independent of
O. The non-trivial field equation is
d[1 d
Il dr ;: dr (rUe>J + Xe =0
(6.8)
which is similar to Eq. 6.7. Problem 6.9.3 should serve as a good example of this
approach.
A solid medium is said to be in an antiplane state (of shear) with respect to the
xy-plane if U =v =0, W =w(x,y). There is just one field equation
J1~w +Z =0
which has any plane harmonic function as a complementary solution, i.e. ~w
(6.9)
=O.
Xl =Xz =0
(6.10)
(6. 11a)
(6.11b)
198
.
.
u(~,y)e"'~d~
(6. 12a)
11~
v(x,y) =v(~,y)e"'~d~
(6. 12b)
u(x,y) =-
1t_
1t_
in which a tilde (-) denotes a Fourier transform. Note that the Riemann-Lebesgue lemma
(Whittaker and Watson, 1965) ensures the boundedness of the solution as Ix I~ 00.
Substituting Eqs. 6.12 into Eqs. 6.11, we find
J2 ~ du
(_1:2 - . dV) =0
(6. 13a)
d 2 ( -i~-+dU dZV) =0
~v+~+-
(6.13b)
2
I:
~u+-+-- ~U-l~-
dy2
K-l
dy
dy2
K-l
dy
dy2
a=-;, -;,
~, ~.
Because of the double roots above, the functions u(~,y) and v(~,y) must be linear
combinations of the functions
e~, ye~, e~ and ye~.
Equations 6.13 show that if
u(~,y)
(6. 14a)
then
(6.14b)
The constants A, B, C and D must be detennined from four boundary conditions at the
two boundaries, say at y =YI and y =YI + h, if h is the thickness of the layer.
When the loading is symmetrical with respect to the y-axis, we seek the solution
in the fonn
=~ r~ u(~,y)sin~d~
(6. 15a)
2i~ v(~,y)cos~d~
v(x,y) =-
(6.15b)
u(x,y)
1tJo
1t
where
199
l-
u(~,y) = u(x,y)sin~dx
(6. 16a)
l- v(x,y)cos~dx
(6.16b)
(6. 17a)
[G +D(-K~-l +y)]e't.Y
(6. 17b)
The unified Hooke's law, Eqs. 4.6, gives the stress components
2l2l--
cr... (x,y)=-
1t 0
crxy(x,y)=-
1t 0
cr.. (~,y)cos~d~
(6.18a)
't(~,y)sin~d~
(6.18b)
(6.18c)
where
(6. 19a)
(6. 19b)
(6. 19c)
Consider a plane being composed of N parallel homogeneous layers, with differing
elastic moduli. The solution for layer n will involve four arbitrary constants; A", B", G"
and D". Altogether, there will be 4N arbitrary constants to be determined from boundary
conditions at the two surfaces of the whole plane and at the N - 1 interfaces between
layers. Considering the interface between layer n -1(Y,,_2 ~ Y ~ Y,,-l) and layer
n(Y"-l ~ y ~ y,,). If there are no applied tractions at the interface, u, v, crY)' and crxy must
be continuous, i.e.
=U"_l(~'Y)
v,,(~,y) =V"_l(~'Y)
(6.20b)
cr,,(~,y) =cr"_l(~'Y)
(6.2Oc)
t,,(~,y) =t"_l(~'Y)
(6.2Od)
u,,(~,y)
(6.20a)
Here the subscripts n -1 and n refer to the respective layers, and y is identical to Y,,-l.
If tractions are applied to the interface between layers n - 1 and n, which mayor may
200
not have different elastic moduli, then the requisite conditions are
=all_l(~'Y)
(6.21a)
VII(~'Y) =V"_l(~'Y)
(6.21b)
a,,(~,y)
(6.21c)
(6.21d)
Here
is the Fourier sine transform of the applied traction in the x-direction, i.e.
(6.22a)
and, similarly,
(6.22b)
At the top surface of the first layer (n 1, Yo :s; Y :s; Yl) which is also the top surface of
the whole plane, the boundary conditions will involve
al(~'Yo) or il(~'Yo)
(6.23a)
(6.23b)
However, if this particular layer is an overlying half plane, the arbitrary constants
associated with exponentials of negative Y must be set to zero to assure the boundedness
of the solution as Y -+ Yo -00, i.e. Eqs. 6.23 must be replaced by
Al =BI =0
(6.24a,b)
At the lower surface of the last layer (n = N, YN -I :s; Y :s; YN) which is also the bottom
of the whole plane, the boundary conditions will involve
aN(~'YN) or iN(~'YN)
(6.25a)
(6.25b)
However, if this particular layer is an underlying half plane, the arbitrary constants
associated with exponentials of positive Y must be set to zero to assure the boundedness
of the solutions as Y -+ YN =00, i.e. Eqs. 6.25 must be replaced by
CN=DN=O
(6.26a,b)
If the loading is antisymmetrical with respect to the y-axis, the displacement and
the stress functions should take the form
2i-
u(x,y) =-
1t 0
(6.27a)
201
V(X,y)=~
r- v(~,y)sinl;xd~
1tJo
21-2121--
(J.,,(X,y)=-
(J%(~,y)sinl;xd~
(6.27c)
(J",(x,Y) =-
t(~,y)cosl;xd~
(6.27d)
(Jyy(X,y)=-
(J(~,y)sinl;xd~
(6.27e)
1t 0
1t 0
1t 0
where
(6.27b)
(6.28a)
(6.28b)
(6.28c)
(J%(~,y)
-'t(~,y)=~ (dU)
dy +~v
(6.28d)
(6.28e)
X(~,y) =L-X(X,y)cosl;xdx
(6.29a)
y(~,y) =L-Y(X,Y)Sinl;xdx
(6.29b)
The relevant boundary conditions for this case are the same as in the previous case, i.e.
Eqs. 6.20 or 6.21, 6.23 or 6.24, and 6.25 or 6.26.
For antiplane problems where loading is symmetrical with respect to the y-axis,
the solution to the field equation (Eq. 6.9) for Z = 0 takes the fOnD
21-
W(X,y) =-
1t 0
w(~,y)cosl;xd~
2L2L--
=-1t
(J.. (X,y)=-
1t 0
(6.30a)
(6.30b)
't%(~,y)sinl;xd~
(6.3Oc)
202
where
w(~,y)=Ae-9 +Bef,y
-
dw
t(/;,y) =J.L dy
i%(~, y)
(6.31a)
(6.31b)
=-J.L~w
(6.31c)
At the interface between the layers n - 1 and n, boundary conditions in the absence of
any applied traction are
(6.32a)
WII(~'Y) WII_I(~'Y)
=
ill(~'Y) =ill_l(~'Y)
(6.32b)
If a traction in the z-direction is applied at this interface, Eqs. 6.32 have to be replaced
by
(6.33a)
WII(~'Y) =WII_I(~'Y)
(6.33b)
where
(6.34)
in which 2(x,y) is the applied traction. At the top surface of the ftrst layer (n
boundary conditions are in
=1),
(6.35)
However, if this particular layer is an overlying half plane, the equation above must be
replaced by
Al =0
(6.36)
At the lower surface of the last layer (n
=N),
WN(~'YN) or iN(~'YN)
(6.37)
However, if this particular layer is an underlying half plane, the equation above must
be replaced by
(6.38)
For antiplane problems in which the loading is antisymmetrical with respect to the
y -axis, the displacement and stress functions take the form
2l~ w(~,y)singd~
w(x,y) =1t 0
cryz(x,y)=-2l~-t(~,y)singd~
1t 0
(6.39a)
(6.39b)
203
(6.39c)
where
w(~,y) =Ae-9 +Be~
dw
(6.40a)
't(~,y) = J.1 dy
(6.40b)
iz(~'Y)=~w
(6.4Oc)
i (~,y) =LooZ(x,Y)Sinl;xdx
(6.41)
The relevant boundary conditions for this case are the same as before, i.e. Eqs. 6.32 or
6.33, 6.35 or 6.36, and 6.37 or 6.38.
Technically, the solution scheme described so far is complete for any multilayered
planes. However, the exact closed form solution is only possible for a homogeneous
half plane subjected to simple loading types. For more complicated cases, approximate
solutions may be approached in similar manners as in the three dimensional cases which
are discussed in Sections 6.5, 6.6 and 6.7.
6.3 SOLUTION SCHEME FOR LARGE SPACES
This section follows the work of Muki (1960) to develop a method applicable to
the elastostatics of an isotropic solid domain which is infinitely extended radially
(0 s:; r < 00). The domain may be an infinite space (-00 < Z < 00), a half space (0 s:; z < 00),
or an infmitely large plate with a finite constant thickness (zo s:; z S ZN)' In cylindrical
coordinates (r, z), the equations of equilibrium, in the absence of the body force, are
given by Eqs. 3.67 with
X,=Xe=X.=O
(6.42)
e,
It may be verified by direct substitution that these statical field equations are satisfied
by the displacements
ifCl 2d'
=---+-,
drdz r de
if4>
Ug=- rdedz
d'
-2 dr
dz 2
provided that the displacement potentials CI and ' satisfy
(6.43a)
(6.43b)
(6.43c)
204
(6.44a,b)
In these equations, v is the Poisson's ratio, VZ the Laplace operator (Eq. 3.69b), and ~
the biharmonic operator, i.e. ~ VZVZ. For the solution to be singlevalued with respect
to a, <I(r,a,z) and '(r,a,z) can be written in Fourier series of a with 21t as the period,
i.e.
<I(r,a,z)=
'(r,a,z)=
:-
: [wm(r,z)cosma-<Im(r,z)sinmEJ]
(6.4Sa)
['m(r,z)sinma+'m(r,z)cosmEJ]
(6.45b)
m=O
m=O
We will assume that wm ='I'm =0, and develop solutions corresponding to <lm and 'I'm.
If needed, the solution corresponding to Wm and 'I'm may be obtained by making the
replacements
'I'm by 'I'm'
Wm by <lm'
cosma by - sinma,
Substituting Eqs. 6.45 into Eqs. 6.44, we see that <lm and 'I'm satisfy
v:,<Im(r,z)
=0
(6.46a)
V!.'m(r,z)
=0
(6.46b)
where
(6.47)
Consider the case that a homogeneous material layer is unbounded in the radial
dimension but bounded by two infmite planes normal to the z-axis, say Z,,_l S; z S; z". If
the solution to Eqs. 6.46 is to be nonsingular for the whole range of r (0 S; r < 00), then
it must take the form
wm(r,z)
'm(r,z)
1=1- ~'m(~,z)Jm(~r)d~
= ~cim(~,z)Jm(g)d~
(6.48a)
(6.48b)
where J m( ) is a Bessel function of the ftrst kind (see Section 1.10), and the upper
tilde C) denotes a Hankel transform (Sneddon, 1951), i.e.
1-
<im(~'z) =
'm(~'z)=
L-
r<lm(r,z)Jm(g)dr
(6.49a)
r'm(r,z)Jm(g)dr
(6.49b)
Substituting Eqs. 6.48 into Eq. 6.46, and using the Bessel equation (Eq. 1.111), we fmd
205
that
(:2-~2Jd>",=O
(6.S0a)
(:2-~2!",=O
(6.S0b)
'",(~,z)-E",e +F",e
(6.51a)
(6.S1b)
Here A", to F", are arbitrary constants to be determined from the Hankel transform of
the given boundary conditions on the two bounding infmite planes z =Zll_l and z = ZII'
The displacement and stress components can be put in terms of &", and qt'" as follows:
1 ..
u, ="2",;o[U"'+l(r,z)-V"'_l(r,z)] cosm9
(6.52a)
1 ..
(6.52b)
(6.S2c)
(6.53a)
(6.53b)
(6.53c)
(6.S3d)
206
(6.53e)
(6.531)
where
L-(d!m +2'1'm)~2Jm+l(~r)d~,
Vm_1(r,z) =L-( d!m -2'1'm)~2Jm_l(g)d~.
Um+1(r,z) =
(6.54a)
(6.54b)
At a point on each of the boundary planes (where z =Z,,_l or z,,), there are three boundary
conditions, i.e. involving the prescription of either
and u, or 0,.
Before applying these boundary conditions, we fmd it convenient to rewrite Eqs. 6.52a,
6.52b, 6.53d and 6.53e so that the mth equation involves only Jm(g); thus
Urm
--=
cosma
l-[
0
~=
sinma
r-[m dci>mJm(g)
-2'1' dJm(g)]~2d~
dz
g
m d(g)
[d ci>m
= r-{
zrm
-l-{-[
Jo m V dz2 + (1
-V
cosm a
0
):2- ]
v)':I cl>m
(6.55a)
(6.55b)
Jo
09zm
sinma
dci>mdJm(g)
- Jm(g)]):2d):
+2m' - - ':I ':I
dz d(g)
m g
Jm(g) _ d'l'mdJm(~r)}):2d):
g
dz d(~r) ':I ':I
d2ci>m
):2- ]dJm(g)
d'l'mJm(~r)}):2d):
2 +(1-V)':IcI>m
d():) +m dz
):
':I ':I
dz
':Ir
':Ir
(6.56a)
(6.56b)
Vi is defined by Eq.
=0
with m = 1. Thus Ua(r, z)
V~Ua(r , z)
6.47
(6.57)
assumes the solution in
207
the fonn
(6.58)
where A and C are arbitrary constants to be detennined from boundary conditions. The
non-vanishing stress components are
crez = J.L
L- ~z(Aeg Ce....g)Jl(~r)d~
L- ~z(Aeg +Ce....g)Jz(g)d~
-
crr9 =-J.L
(6.59a)
(6.59b)
=vo,
cryy(x, 0) =0,
crxy(x, 0) =0,
~a)
(6.61a)
Ix I > a)
(6.61b)
<00)
(6.61c)
(Ixl
(O~lxl
where Vo is the prescribed unifonn indentation. The last equation above gives t(~, 0) = 0
or, because of Eqs. 6.60 and 6.19b,
2!;A + (lC-1)B = O.
On the other hand, Eq. 6.19c gives
2!;A + (lC+ 1)B =
cr(~,O).
J.L
Solving the last two equations above yields
A = (lC-1)cr(~,0)
4~J.L
B = cr(~,O)
(6.62a)
(6.62b)
2J.L
Using these results in the remaining boundary conditions, Eqs. 6.61a and b, we get
208
respectively
.. 21tj.l.vo
So G(;, 0);-1 cos l;xd; =--1'
K+
(O~x ~a)
(6.63a)
(a <x <00)
(6.63b)
Equations 6.63 are called dual integral equations; they may be solved by schemes
described by Sneddon (1951 and 1966). Note thatEq. 6.63a states that v(x, 0) =constant,
for Ixl ~ a. However, since any static half plane problem has a rigid body displacement
solution, the actual value of the constant cannot be found. So we replace this equation
by
dv(x, 0) 0
dx
in the same region, i.e.
(O~x ~a)
(6.64)
(6.65)
where 10 is the Bessel function of the flrSt kind and of zero order, and Co is a constant
to be determined in tenns of the total applied force Po. Substituting Eq. 6.65 into Eq.
6.18c for y =0 yields the contact normal stress
Gyy(x, 0) = (2
1t
a -x
(OSx<a)
2)112'
=0,
(6.66a)
(a <x <00)
(6.66b)
Note that the contact normal stress is singular at the edges of the rigid plate. The total
applied force Po is
or
(6.67)
The results are identical to those obtained by Sadowsky (1928).
The second example to be discussed is an antiplane problem of a homogeneous
isotropic elastic half plane. The solid region is denoted by -<XI < X < 00, 0 ~ y < 00. A
traction is applied on the half plane surface such that
dw(x,O) =k,
(Ixl
~a)
(6.68a)
G,.(x, 0) =0,
(Ixl >a)
(6.68b)
dx
209
Since the loading is antisymmetric with respect to the y-axis, the solution is given by
Eqs. 6.39 to 6.41. Since the solution must be bounded as y tends to infmity, B in those
equations must be set to zero, thus
w(!;,y) =Ae-9>,
~(!;, 0) = -J.t!;A .
Jo
1tkll
~(!;,0)cos1;xd!;=-2'
<a)
(6.69a)
(a <x <00)
(6.69b)
(0
~x
(6.70)
which when substituted into Eq. 6.39b for y = 0 yields the contact shear stress
O',.(X,o)=(
-J.1kx
(O~x<a)
2112'
a -x)
(6.71 a)
=0,
(a <x <00)
(6.71b)
Note that the contact shear stress is singular at x = a.
The third and last example to be discussed in this section is a three dimensional
problem of a homogeneous isotropic elastic half space. The solid domain is denoted
by 0 ~ r < 00, 0 ~ z < 00. A normal indentation is made on the surface of the half space
by means of a smooth rigid circular plate of radius a. Thus boundary conditions are
u.(r,e,O)=w o'
e, 0) = 0,
O'.,(r, e, 0) =0,
O'.. (r,
(O~r ~a)
(6.72a)
(a<r<oo)
(6.72b)
(O~r<oo)
(6.72c)
(6.73)
(6.74a)
210
~3C+(1-2v)~2D = o-u(~,O)
(6.74b)
2J,1
where o-u(~, 0) is the Hankel transfonn of O'u(r, a, 0). Solving the last two equations
above yields
vo-u(~,O)
(6.75a)
~3
o-.. (~,O)
(6.75b)
2~2
Using these results in the remaining boundary conditions, Eqs. 6.72a and b, we get
respectively
J,1wo
(OSr Sa)
(6.76a)
Jo 0'.. (~,0)Jo(g)d~=-1_V'
r--
1-
(r >a)
(6.76b)
O'u(~' 0) =
2J,1wosin I;a
(6.77)
1t(1- v)~
which when substituted into Eqs. 6.53c for z = 0 yields the nonnal contact stress
2J,1wo
)( 2 2)112'
1t -v a -r
O'u(r,a,O)=- (1
= 0,
(OSr <a)
(6.78a)
(r > a)
(6.78b)
Again note that the nonnal contact stress is singular at the edge of the rigid plate. The
total applied force Po to produce the indentation Wo is
P o=-
fJ
21t7O'u(r, a, O)dr
or
(6.79)
The results are identical to those obtained by Sneddon (1951). Note that for the half
space it is possible to obtain the 'stiffness equation', Eq. 6.79, linking Po and woo It
was impossible to fmd such a result for the half plane because it had an arbitrary
rigid-body displacement.
211
(6.80)
1tr
where o(r) is the Dirac-delta function described in Section 1.9, and can now be represented by a Hankel transform
(6.81a)
x
Z'
Domain I
IIp V,
Domain 2
1l2= Il,
v2 = v,
Domain 3
1l3' V3
Upper
layer
Lower
layer
212
r~
=Jo
r q (r )J o(sr)dr
=21t
(6.82)
Imagine a horizontal plane passing through the point of application of the force, and
dividing the material system into three domains; 0 < z < z' for domain 1, z' < z < h for
domain 2, and h < z < 00 for domain 3. Domains 1 and 2 have the same elastic properties.
For the boundedness of the solution as z tends to infmity, coefficients associated with
e9 in Eqs. 6.51 must be set to zero for the domain 3, i.e. Am3 = Bm3 = Em3 = O. The free
boundary conditions at the plane z =0 are
(6.83a,b,c)
0' 1(r, e, 0) = 0, 0',,1 (r, e, 0) = 0, 0'.91 (r, e, 0) = 0
The continuity conditions at the plane z =z' are
u r1 (r,e,z)
=urz(r,e,z)
(6.83d)
(6.83e)
(6.83f)
(6.83g)
0'.91(r,
(6.83h)
(6.83i)
=ur3 (r,e,h)
(6.83j)
(6.83k)
u.z(r, e,h)
(6.831)
(6.83m)
(6.83n)
(6.830)
The only nonhomogeneous conditions, Eqs. 6.83h and 6.83i, indicate that the solution
involves only the harmonic term m = 1. For simplicity, the subscript m will be omitted.
Substituting Eqs. 6.52 to 6.56 into Eqs. 6.83 yields a set of fifteen equations for the
213
D3
terms
(6.84a,b,c,d)
(6.85a)
(6.85b)
J.11h
p cos U.,,(p,
r1"
a,.,)r =Jo
w,,(a,~)]J1(pa)da
w,,(a.,~)+ D(a)
(6.85c)
(6.86a)
(6.86b)
Jo
D(a)
H(a)
(6.87a)
1- J.1o
H(a) =l---e-2a.
1 + J.1o
(6. 87b)
a
b
=__(I_-_J.1o_)_
1 + J.1o(3 - 4v 1)
(6.88a)
(6.88b)
(6.88c)
Forn=1 and 2,
"
...
=~e-l~-~Ia
41t
(6.89a)
(6. 89b)
(6.89c)
214
+ b'Yl(2 - /3 -
V (a.
",
e-<2-~+Qa
w,,(a.,~) =
4n
1 + Ilo
+ 2b'Yl(1- /3 +ab(/3-
e-<2-I3+Qa
+ 2b'Yl(1- /3 -
e-<2+J3-Qa
(6.90a)
(6.90b)
215
(6.9Oc)
(6.91a,b,c)
1(
V (a ~) =
",
Ilil
(6.92a)
[e-{~+P)a+e-{~-P>j
(6.92b)
21t( 1 + Ilil)
(6.92c)
(6.93a,b,c,d)
(6.93e,f)
Note that the solution functions take the same form for n = 1 and 2. Thus the
solution is given in the form of a two-domain problem. The integrals given by U:(a,~),
216
V:(a,~) and w:(a,~) correspond to the singularity of Mindlin's solution (1936), while
the integrals given by U,.(a,~), V,.(a,~) and w,.(a,~) are non singular. For a homogeneous half space, D(a) and H(a) (Eqs. 6.85c, 8.86 and 8.87) are equal to unity, and
the solution is Mindlin's solution (Problem 6.9.5 of the present chapter). To avoid
laborious numerical integration in Eqs. 6.85c and 6.86, the reciprocals of D(a) and H(a)
for the layered half space will be approximated in such a way that the integrals assume
the standard forms.
Since D (a) is positive for all values of a from zero to infInity and asymptotic to
unity as a approaches infmity, it is reasonable to approximate lID (a) by a series of
exponential functions of the form
1
(6.94)
D(a) == 1 +R(a)
where
R(a) =
k
I
: k.e
j=1 J
a+b-ab
l-a-b+ab
-p.a
J
tk.
j=2 J
(6.95)
(6.96)
s is a positive integer, kj are constants, and Pj are real numbers greater than zero. The
approximate function proposed in Eq. 6.94 is smooth and continuous and asymptotically
approaches exact values as a -+ 00 and at a = O. For a given set of s and Pj we may
fInd the constants kj for j = 2 to s by defIning
(a) = I-D(a)[1 +R(a)]
(6.97)
LOO[(a)]2da = minimum
(6.98)
(6.99)
where
(6.100)
, I-JlG 6' ,
k=--:k.
I
2JlG j=2 J
(6.101)
Since the approximations of lID(a) and lIH(a) yield exact values at a=O, the integration of shear traction in the x-direction on a horizontal plane is equal to zero when
the plane is above the point of application of the force P, and equal to P when the
217
plane is below. The approximate solutions for each layer given by Eqs. 6.85 can be
expressed in the general fonn
1=1 +1"
(6.102)
where
(6.103a)
(6.103b)
where the indices I and n are either zero or positive integers, the coefficients e" and
e", are point functions and Ii is a positive point function. Thus the solution involves
inftnite integrals of a standard fonn
G(m,n,p)=
L-
(p
~O)
(6.104)
which can be evaluated in closed fonns. The integral I has a singularity at the point
of application of the concentrated force, corresponding to Mindlin's solution; the integral
r is non-singular. Thus the proposed solution is in a closed fonn. In the limiting case
of a homogeneous half space, J,lQ = 1, VI =V3 and kj =k; =0 for every j, and the integral
r simpliftes into the non-singular part of the Mindlin's solution.
Chan et al (1974) solved other plane strain and plane stress problems in which
the applied force is a line force unifonnly distributed on the line parallel to the y-axis
and through the point x =0, y =0, Z =e. The solution can be obtained from that for
a concentrated force P, by performing an appropriate integration with respect to y from
y =-00 to y =00.
6.6 LOAD TRANSFER PROBLEMS
Apirathvorakij and Karasudhi (1980), Niumpradit and Karasudhi (1981), Karasudhi, Rajapakse and Hwang (1984) and Karasudhi, Rajapakse and Liyanage (1984)
have solved several problems of long cylindrical elastic bars partially embedded in
elastic half spaces. The problem of torsion of a long bar embedded in a layered half
space, which has been solved by Karasudhi, Rajapakse and Hwang (1984), will be
presented here to illustrate a solution technique. Following the scheme proposed by
Muki and Sternberg (1970) for the treatment of an axial load transfer problem, the
system of the present study depicted in Fig. 6.2 is decomposed into an extended half
space and a ftctitious bar as shown in Figs. 6.3(a) and (b). Based on an appropriate
compatibility condition between the two latter systems the solution is derived from a
Fredholm integral equation of the second kind (Sneddon, 1966). The torque transfer
and the torque-twist relationship can be obtained numerically for various slenderness
ratios of the bar and ratios of shear moduli.
218
20
-.--~----------~~----,-----~--~x
O'Qz(r,h)-r(1-r)
r ()21k-0.5
J
O're(r,h)1 1 -
(6.105a)
(6.105b)
where k is a stress singularity factor in the range O:OS; k < 0.5 and h is the nondimensionalized length of the bar. For the current problem of an elastic bar, the factor k can
be taken as a function of Pl and ~ where
Pl =1,\ ~ =III
IJ.2
J.l3
(6.106)
in which III is the shear modulus of the upper layer, IJ.2 of the bar, and J.l3 of the
underlying half space. The method developed by Williams (1952) can be applied to
estimate k(Pl' PJ by considering an analogous antiplane system, as shown in Fig. 6.4,
consisting of two quarter planes with shear moduli III and IJ.2 and a half plane with a
219
t-~ (0)
r---~--~--~~r-----------r----X
II
Reglon
.0
II .I ,
:~
--~I"'I Uppert (z)
Layer;
I:
: L-I
II
ro----l'-
I
r'----~
r"'-- *
Lower ....
Layer;
fL3
fL
T (h)
Fig. 6.4 Geometry of analogous system for estimating stress singularity factor.
shear modulus J.13. The equilibrium equation is given by Eq. 6.9 with zero body force,
i.e. VZw O. The solution for each constituent plane for small r can be put in the form
(6.107)
'Y=k +0.5
(6.108)
where
220
i denotes a domain 1, 2 or 3 in the material system (Fig. 6.4), and Ai and Bi are arbitrary
constants. It should be noted that while displacements wi(r, 8) are bounded as r tends
to zero, stresses G8ri (r, 8) and Glri(r, 8) are singular. Continuity conditions appropriate
for the present antiplane case are
wl(r,O) = w2(r,0),
G8rI (r,O) = G8r2(r,0)
(6.109a,b)
(6.109c,d)
(6.10ge,f)
Substituting Eq. 6.107 into Eqs. 6.109 leads to a set of six homogeneous equations, i.e.
an eigenvalue problem in which k(PI, Pz) is the smallest positive real eigenvalue and
less than 0.5. In general, a trial-and-error process has to be adopted. For some values
of PI and Pz, the stress singularity does not even exist For the case of an infmitely
rigid bar (PI =0), it can be found that
k(O, Pz)
=6'
(0 S; Pz < 1)
(6. 110a)
(Pz~ 1)
(6. 110b)
For a homogeneous half space (Pz 1) and an elastic bar, the stress singularity factor
is found to be the same as that of an infmitely rigid bar embedded in a layered half
space with Pz ~ 1, i.e.
(6.111)
..---i--..------ ...----------t--- r
}----__4i_
Linearly Varying
Shear Traction
221
a 9zl (r, 0) =0
(6.1l2a)
(6.112b)
u.u(r,h) = Um(r,h)
(6.1l2c)
(6.1l2d)
,2r
or
=--,
1t
(r < 1)
(6.1l2e)
=0,
(r>l)
(6.1l2f)
,21-
1t 0
JI(~r)J2(~)d~,
(6.1l2g)
Equations 6.1l2a to d and g can be used to determine the five constants of integration
AI' Cl, A 2, C2 and C 3 However, to incorporate the notion of the stress singularity of
the stress field in the form of Eqs. 6.105 in the main problem, the applied shear traction
in the fundamental solution for z' = h should be, in place of the linear Eqs. 6.1l2e and
f, in the form
2
2.\:-0.5
a 9zl (r ,h) - a 9z3(r ,h) = --(lI(k)r(l- r ) , ( r < 1)
(6.1l3a)
1t
=0,
(r> 1)
(6.1l3b)
or
where
1
(ll(k) ='2(k +O.5)(k + 1.5)
(6.1l4a)
(6.1l4b)
222
in which r is a gamma function. In addition, other boundary conditions for the fundamental solution in case z' h are
O'a.l(r ,0) =0
Uel(r,h)
=Um(r,h)
(6. 115a)
(6.115b)
Equations 6.113c and 6.115a and b can be used to determine the three constants of
integration AI' C1 and C3
The problem of axially symmetric torsion of an elastic cylindrical bar partially
embedded in a layered elastic half space is depicted in Fig. 6.2. In addition to those
previously defined, the following symbols are introduced; To the torque applied at the
top end of the bar which is flush with the surface of the half space; and x, y and z
Cartesian components of position vector x; thus X3 is identical to z. The top layer (r > 1,
0< z < h) and the underlying half space (z > h) are perfectly bonded on the contact
surface (r> 1, z h). The cylinder is bonded to the half space in the area (r < 1, z h)
and along the surface of the cylinder (r 1, 0 S; z S; h). Following the approximate
scheme similarly used by Muki and Sternberg (1970) in the elastostatic axial load
transfer, the system in Fig. 6.2 is decomposed into two systems; an extended half space
B as shown in Fig. 6.3(a) and a fictitious bar B. as shown in Fig. 6.3(b) with a shear
moduli J.1. equal to the difference between the shear moduli of the real bar J.12 and the
half space J.Ll' i.e.
(6.116)
The extended half space is subjected to a distributed torque t(z) which is exerted
by B. on B at X3 =z in a region D in place of the bar. In addition, B is also subjected
to end torques To - T.(O) and T.(h) applied at the terminal cross sections as shown in
Fig. 6.3(a). The bond torque t(z) and the torque To - T.(O) are assumed to be distributed
linearly in the form of Eqs. 6.112e over their respective cross sections A,(O < z < h) and
A o, while the torque T.(h) in the singular form of Eq. 6.113a over the cross section All'
Conversely, the bond torque and end torques are exerted by the extended half space B
on the fictitious bar B., which may be treated as a one-dimensional elastic continuum,
for which the equation of equilibrium is
dT.(z)
t(z)=-~
(6.117)
(z)
=1tJ.1. ~.(z )
(6.118)
dz
where T.(z) and cIl.(z) are fictitious torque and angle of twist of the bar respectively.
The governing integral equation can be derived using the following compatibility
condition between B. and the edge of the region D:
dt1>.(z)
~=
223
dua(1-,z)
dz
(6.119)
(OS;z S;h)
Here u.a(r, z) is the displacement in the 9 -direction at a point x(r, 9, z) in domain B, and
1- denotes a value infmitesimally less than unity. Muki and Sternberg (1970) originally
demanded compatibility between B. and the corresponding average over a cross section
of region D. Karasudhi, Rajapakse and Hwang (1984) found that this was not sufficiently accurate. The function u.a(r, z) can be expressed in the form
(6.120)
where ~(r,z;z) is the auxiliary solution, i.e. the displacement in the 9-direction at a
point x(r, 9, z) due to a unit torque applied at a depth z' (Fig. 6.5). Substitution of Eqs.
6.117, 6.118 and 6.120 in Eq. 6.119 results in,
2T.(z)
- - = [To-T.(O)]t1>T.(Z,O) + T.(h)t1>T.(z,h)-
i"
0
,dT(z) ,
t1>T.(Z,Z ) - - , dz
dz
(6.121)
(6.122)
It should be noted that this influence function is smooth and continuous everywhere
except at z = z', where the magnitude of the discontinuity according to Eq. 6.112e is
equal to 211tlll for 0 < z < h. Incorporation of the stress singularity at the end of the
bar, t1>~.(z,z) when z = z' = h requires appropriate handling in the numerical solution
scheme.
Integrating the integrals in Eq. 6.121 by parts, while taking proper account of the
discontinuity, we find
2T.(Z)(1
1)
- -+-
i"
,dt1>~.(Z,z),
(6.123)
T.(z)
:.'
dz =Tot1>T.(Z,O)
1t
j.1. III
0
uZ
Equation 6.123 is a Fredholm integral equation of the second kind governing the distribution of T.(z) along the fictitious bar.
The real bar torque T(z) can be obtained by combining the fictitious torque T.(z)
with the corresponding area integral of the shear stress cre. in the region D of B, i.e.
T(z)=T.(z)+f A, rcre.(r,z)dA,
(OS;z S;h)
(6.124)
The angle of twist of the real bar taken as equal to that of the fictitious bar, thus
t1>.(z)= ue(1,z), (OS;zS;h)
(6.125)
Using Eq. 6.120 and performing appropriate integrations in Eqs. 6.124 and 6.125, we
obtain
T(z)
o
=To'te.(z,
0) +
i'"
o
T.(z)
'
<fte.(z,z)
dZ
dz
(6.126)
224
~.(z)
o
=TO~T(Z
, 0) +
i"'~T(Z,Z)
o
T.(z)
'
dZ'
dz
(6.127)
'r
'
(6.128)
~~(z,z) =Uer(1,z;z)
(6.129)
Here (JQrT(r, z;z ') is a shear stress in the auxiliary solution depicted in Fig. 6.5.
The Fredholm integral equation for T.(z) has an integrable logarithmic singularity
at z z', and is solved numerically. We use a scheme which is similar to that employed
by Hopkins and Hamming (1957) and Lee and Rogers (1963) in the solution of Volterra
integral equations. Divide the interval of integration into n equal partitions and denote
the mesh points by Zj; j 1,2, ... , n + 1, with Zl 0 and Zn+l h. Equation 6.123
becomes
2T.(zj) ( 1
1)
J.1.
III
II
J =1
(6.130)
which is a set of n + 1 simultaneous equations, the solution of which gives the fictitious
torque T.(z) at all mesh points.
In order to find the stress singularity at the base perimeter of the bar, we note that
~~(h,h) contains a singular term of the form
So" ~o.s-"Jl(g)Jk+l,S(~)d~-r(1-r'J.)"-o.s,
(r
=n
(6.131)
=[ 1-(~JTS+",
(~-+ 1-)
(6.132)
In the numerical solution to Eq. 6.130, the numerical value of 1- in Eq. 6.131 is
increased towards unity gradually until T.(h) is sufficiently close to zero and the results
become stable. Moreover, the physical interpretation that the shear stress along the
mantle of the cylindrical bar is proportional to the bond torque, i.e.
(Jre(l,z)-t(z),
together with Eqs. 6.117 and 6.132 can help us to confirm the singular form of (Jrs(l,z)
as Eq. 6.105b.
Numerical results by the present approach were compared with those by Luco
(1976), who had been more rigorous but restrictive to the case of rigid bars (PI 0).
The agreement between the two approaches was good and became better as the bar
length increased. The significance of the singular stress field condition at the base
225
perimeter of the bar was found to be small, especially when the main concern was on
the relationship between the applied torque To and the angle of twist <1>.(0). This type
of situation is more pronounced in the problem of a flexible bar.
6.7 INFINITE ELEMENTS FOR MULTILAYERED HALF SPACES
Analytical methods such as that described in the preceding section become
impractical if not impossible when extended to problems of multilayered half spaces.
In order to bypass such difficulties, some research workers employ finite element
methods, i.e. truncating the semi-infmite domain into a large but finite field which is
then discretized into finite elements. However, such methods are computationally
inefficient As an example, Muki and Dong (1980) found that a finite element field of
at least 750 degrees of freedom is necessary to obtain accurate results for a layered half
space subjected to a uniform normal pressure on the surface of the half space.
The present section follows Rajapakse and Karasudhi (1985) who have shown that
the computational efficiency can be achieved by properly using infinite elements in
conjunction with finite elements. The whole material domain is separated into a near
field and a far field as shown in Fig. 6.6. The near field, consisting of the partially
embedded bar and a finite region of the half space around it, is discretized into conventional finite elements. The far field covering the rest of the half space is discretized
Embedded
Embedding
Multilayered
Half - Space
226
into infmite elements. Near the surface of the half space are horizontal infmite elements
(HE), while the rest of the far field are occupied by radiating infmite elements (RE).
Every infmite element has point nodes only on the interface between the near field and
the far field. An obvious major advantage of this approach is that nonlinearity effects
can be easily incorporated in the near field finite elements while all infmite elements
always remain linearly elastic. We now describe the development of each type of
infmite element.
227
Table 6.1
Types of
Top layer
Displacements
loading
or half space
ur
Us
Torsion
(Fig.6.8a)
Vertical
(Fig. 6.8b)
Horizontal
(Fig.6.8c)
Moment
(Fig.6.8d)
Layer
Half space
Layer
Half space
Layer
Half space
Layer
Half space
r-2 +0(r-3)
Uz
R- 2 +O(R-3)
R- 1 +0(R-2)
cos
+
cos 9[r-2 + O(r -3)]
sin
+
sin9[r-2 +O(r-3)]
sin 9[R-2 + 0(R- 3)]
r-I +0(r-2)
9[R- 1
0(R- 2)]
9[R- 1
r-I +0(r-2)
R- 1 +0(R-2)
0(R- 2)]
_l
4/71"
1/71"
I
I
Y'
(b) Vertical loading.
Fig. 6.8 Types of loading.
+).--.---
228
Any infInite element in the rz-plane can be contracted into a fInite element in a
new ~11 plane by employing a transfonnation which is singular at ~ =+1. The coordinate
mapping for a horizontal infInite element is
r
=~2(1- ~rlLj(11)rj
(6. 133a)
z =LL(11)Z.
j
J
J
(6. 133b)
=~2(1- ~rlLj(11)rj
(6. 134a)
z =~2(1- ~rlLj(11)Zj
(6. 134b)
where Lj (11) is the Lagrange polynomial for node j. In short, a fInite element is obtained
by a singular contraction of infmite elements as depicted in Fig. 6.9.
-1
-1
0
+1
+1
(6. 135a)
(6. 135b)
229
(6. 135c)
in which a superscript or a subscript j denotes the node j, and NJ, Nj9 and Nj are
displacement interpolation functions. Being consistent with the analytical far field
displacements, these displacement interpolation functions can be expanded, for horizontal loading as,
(6.136)
(6.137)
For vertical loading, N:(~, T\) does not exist and NJ(~, T\) and Nj(~, T\) take the form
given by Eq. 6.136. For torsional loading, only Nj9(~, T\) exists and is given by Eq.
6.137. All elements developed are compatible in the sense that there is continuity
between the relevant ftrst derivatives of Nj within the elements. The stiffnesses of
these elements involve double integrals (with respect to ~ and T\), which can be
accurately evaluated by standard Gauss quadrature formula. Another major advantage
of this algorithm is that we do not need any special integration scheme and can use any
standard finite element subroutines, since eventually we are dealing with finite elements
(not infinite elements).
6.8 SATURATED LARGE SPACES
The Navier equations and Darcy's law for quasi-statics of porous isotropic elastic
solids completely saturated with fluids have been derived in Section 3.6.7 for Cartesian
system; see Eqs 3.123 and 3.124. For cylindrical coordinates, the Navier equations are
given by Eqs. 3.67 with the body force components there being replaced by the excess
pore pressure gradients. Replace
OPI
Xr by or
(6. 138a)
X b !OPI
9 Y r oa
(6. 138b)
oPI
oz
X. by -
(6. 138c)
Darcy's law, Eq. 3.124 remains invariant. To uncouple these four field equations.
Schiffman and Fungaroli (1965) introduced three displacement potentials, so that
(J2c1l 20'
Ox
ur =-oroz +; 09 +z or
(6. 139a)
230
+:.ax
u =_ (f<l> _2 d\}l
9
rdedZ
dr r de
ax
(f<l>
u =--+z--x
dZ 2
dZ
PI= ('A.+2)J.);z
(V2<1-2)J.~
(6. 139b)
(6. 139c)
(6. 139d)
It can be verified that the four field equations can be transfonned into the following
three uncoupled equations
C~<I>=V\~)
(6. 140a)
V2\}1=0
(6. 140b)
V2X=0
(6. 140c)
If the material domain is infinitely extended radially (0;5; r < 00), the solution
scheme for solids described in Section 6.3 can be adapted for the present purpose to
solve Eqs. 6.140. However, it is now necessary to use Laplace transfonns with respect
to the time t. The solution scheme starts by expanding <1>, \}I and X in Fourier series,
thus
<I>(r,e,z,t) = L <l>m(r,z,t)cosme
m=O
(6.141a)
'(r,e,z,t) = L \}Im(r,z,t)sinme
m=O
(6.141b)
x(r,e,z,t)= L Xm(r,z,t)cosme
m=O
(6.141c)
(6. 142a)
(6. 142b)
(6. 142c)
where a super tilde (-) denotes a Hankel-Laplace transfonn, ~ is the Hankel transfonn
parameter versus r, p the Laplace transfonn parameter versus t, Am to Hm are functions
of ~ and p, and
(6.143)
Functions Am to Hm can be detennined from well-posed boundary conditions similar
231
to Eqs. 3.127 already derived for the Cartesian coordinate system. The boundary
conditions are prescribed on each boundary where z is constant and involve the prescription of either
(6. 144a)
U, or 0z,
(6. 144b)
U, or 0 ..
and p! or
apt
kaz
(6.144c)
(6.144d)
Apirathvorakij and Karasudhi (1980), and Niumpradit and Karasudhi (1981) applied this
theory to load transfer problems in a homogeneous soil domain, and found that the
inverse Laplace transform formula given by Schapery, Eq. 1.164, is accurate enough.
Later, Karasudhi, Karunasena and Puswewala (1987) proposed an infinite element
algorithm similar to that described in Section 6.7 for ideal solids. Most recently,
Karasudhi and Prechaverakul (1987) presented an analytical prediction of land subsidence due to water pumping from deep wells. A development of an infmite element
algorithm for such subsidence in multilayered soil media was carried out by Karasudhi
and Alvappillai (1988).
6.9 EXERCISE PROBLEMS
6.9.1
6.9.2
A long mine tunnel of radius a is cut in deep rock. Before the tunnel is cut
the rock is subjected to a uniform pressure p. Considering the rock to be an
infmite, homogeneous, isotropic elastic medium, determine the inward radial
displacement at the tunnel surface due to the excavation.
6.9.3
6.9.4
to
232
6.9.5
Using the fonnulation of Section 6.3, fmd Mindlin's solution which is the
solution to the problem of a force at a point in the interior of a homogeneous
isotropic elastic half space.
Answer: With reference to the coordinate system as shown in Fig. 6.10, the
pertinent displacement components are; for the case of the force P in the
z -direction,
r---------.--.---------r--~x
z
Fig. 6.10 Mindlin's solution.
Pr
u, =161t~(l-v) --3-+
Rl
u
161tJl(1-v)
u=
2cZ(1 -3X-
[3-4V 1 x 2 (3-4v)x2
----+-+-+
+161t~(l-v)
Rl
R2 Rl
Ri
Ri
P
'
2)
Ri
4(1-V)(1-2V)(1
x2
]
+ R 2+z +c
R2(R2+z +c) ,
233
Pxy
[1 3-4v 6cz 4(1-V)(1-2V)]
v=161tJl(1-V) Rl+ Ri - Ri, - Rz(Rz+z+c)z ,
w
where
6.9.6
6.9.7
Px
=161tJl(1-v)
A homogeneous isotropic elastic half plane -00 <x < 00, 0 ~ y < 00, is subjected
to the following tractions on its surface y =0 in the region -a < x < a: (a) a
uniformly distributed normal force, (b) a uniformly distributed shear force, and
(c) a normal force distributed as a linear homogeneous function of x. Find the
stresses.
With the same geometry as in the preceding problem, the displacement in the
x -direction is prescribed uniformly in the region -a < x < a, while the normal
traction is assumed to vanish everywhere on the half plane surface. Find the
distribution of the contract shear stress in terms of the applied shear force Po.
Answer:
eJ..,(X, 0) =
1t(a -x)
=0,
6.9.8
(Ixl <a)
(Ixl >a).
With the same geometry as in the preceding problem, a uniform rocking (rotation about the z axis) is prescribed in the region -a <x < a, while shear
traction is assumed to vanish everywhere on the half plane surface. Find the
distribution of the contact norinal stress in terms of the prescribed angle of
rocking a.
Answer:
=0,
6.9.9
Po
z z 112'
(ixi >a).
A homogeneous isotropic elastic half space 0 ~ r < 00, 0 ~ z < 00, is subjected
to the following tractions on its surface where z =0 in the region 0 ~ r < a: (a)
a uniformly distributed normal force, (b) a uniformly distributed shear force in
the x-direction, and (c) a normal force distributed as a linear homogeneous
function of x. Find the displacements.
234
6.9.10
With the same geometry as in the preceding problem, the displacement in the
x-direction is prescribed unifonnly in the region 0 S; r < a, while the nonna!
traction and the shear traction in the y-direction are assumed to vanish
everywhere on the half space surface. Moreover, the shear traction in the
x -direction vanishes outside the loaded area. For zero Poisson's ratio, fmd the
distribution of the contact shear stress in tenns of the applied shear force Po,
and the relationship between Po and the prescribed displacement Uo.
Answer:
Po
<Ju(r, 8, 0)
2 112'
27ta(r -a)
=0,
6.9.11
(OS;r<a)
(r> a),
With the same geometry as in the preceding problem, a unifonn angle of twist
(rotation about the z axis) is prescribed in the region 0 S; r < a. Find the
distribution of the contract shear stress in tenns of the prescribed angle of twist
ex, and the relationship between the applied torque T and a.
Answer: This is a pure torsion problem.
<J.e(r ,0)
-4~
=1t(2
2)112'
a -r
=0,
(0 S; r < a)
(r>a),
CHAPTER VII
LINEAR VISCOELASTICITY
=AlEl(t) +Az~(t)
(7.1)
236
1'
1
(t) =-
11
(7.4)
a(s)ds
0-
in which the integral lower limit 0- denotes quiescent initial conditions, Eq. 1.123.
(a) Maxwell.
(b) Kelvin.
Linear Viscoelasticity
237
Q-----<r"-----Q----- --------
6-----6------6-----Q----------
238
kept constant, the stress cr tends to decrease with time, i.e. there is relaxation. The
creep compliance J(t) is defmed to be the strain e(t) when the stress cr(t) is equal to
the Heaviside step function H(t). The relaxation modulus J.1(t) is defined to be the
stress cr(t) when the strain e(t) is equal to the Heaviside step function H(t). For a given
material, J(t) and J.1(t) are related to each other.
<r
Aa;,..----
L~(S) +
,I
O~--~--~~------~
t2 13
ds
I
,,
,I
0"01-----1---+-1---- - -
t,
ds
..,----------
,-------i-----I I
AOj
ao-(s)
s+ds
e(t)=cr(O)1(t)+ ('J(t-s)dcr(s)
o+
(7.6)
where dcr(s) [dcr(s )Ids] ds, and cr(O+) is the value of cr(t) at t slightly greater than zero,
i.e. the initial value of cr(t). Note that all functions involved are zero for t < 0 (Eq.
1.123). Due to the relationship between the Heaviside step function H(t) and the
Dirac-delta function aCt), Eq. 1.106, Eq. 7.6 can be rewritten as a single integral with
the lower limit infmitesimally less than zero, i.e. 0-, so that
e(t)
=l>(t-s)dcr(s)
(7.7)
=crc(s)H(s),
where crc(s) is a continuous function of time. In other words crc(t) is not only equal to
cr(t) for t > 0 but also continuous at t O. Figure 7.7 should help to clarify this concept
239
Linear Viscoelasticity
further. The same equation (Eq. 7.7) also holds for other discontinuities of O'(t).
Suppose there is a discontinuity AO'o at time to. The stress function in Eq. 7.7 should
be considered as
(7.8)
O'(s) =O'c(s)H (s) + AO'J/ (s - to>
--I7(t)
----a:(t)
_ _ _1...-_ _ _ _- - ' -_ _ _ _ _
(7.9)
d.J(t-to)
d(
),
t-to
(7.10)
v 1*dv2 =
v 1(t -s)dv2(s)
(7.12)
240
Equation 7.11 is also known as the creep law. Its Laplace transfonn is
e(p)=pi(p)a(p)
(7.13)
When 8(t) =H(t), o(t) is (by definition) equal to the relaxation modulus J.1(t). Equation
7.13 gives the relationship between the creep compliance and the relaxation modulus
in the fonn
p 2i(p)fj,(p) 1
or, due to Eqs. 1.124a, 1.132 and 1.135,
J*dJ.1= J.1*dJ =H(t)
or, due to Eqs. 1.124i and 1.135,
(7. 14a)
(7.14b)
(7.14c)
Following similar arguments we can express the relaxation law in the fonn
o(t) =J.1*dE =8*dJ.1
(7. 15a,b)
the Laplace transfonn of which is
(7. 15c)
a(p) =p fj,(p )e(p )
This yields the same relationship between relaxation modulus and creep compliance
given by Eqs. 7.14.
7.3 COMPLIANCE AND MODULUS OF MECHANICAL MODELS
For the linear spring model shown in Fig. 7.1(a), the stress-strain relationship is
given by Eq. 7.2, the Laplace transfonn of which is
a(p) =Ge(p)
(7.16a)
Comparing this equation with Eqs. 7.13 and 7.15c we fmd
-1
i(p)=L
(7.16b)
(7.16c)
Thus the creep compliance and the relaxation modulus for this type of element are
J(t) H(t)lG
(7.16d)
=
J.1(t) =GH(t)
(7.16e)
For the viscous dashpot model shown in Fig. 7.1(b), the stress-strain rate equation
is Eq. 7.3 and we fmd
(7. 17a)
a(p) 1'Ip(P)
-2
P
J(p)=1'1
fj,(P)
=1'1
(7.17b)
(7. 17c)
241
Linear Viscoelasticity
J(t) =-H(t)
11
(7. 17d)
=11l>(t)
(7. 17e)
For the Maxwell model shown in Fig. 7.2(a), the Laplace transform of the
stress-strain relationship in the spring takes the same form as Eq. 7.16a, i.e.
crG(p)= Gea(P)
(7.18a)
Jl(t)
while that in the dashpot takes the same form as Eq. 7.17a, i.e.
crll (p) =11P~(P)
(7.18b)
The stress O'(t) must be the same in the spring as in the dashpot, i.e.
cr(p) = crG(p) = crll (p)
(7. 18c)
The strain e(t) must be the sum of those in the spring and the dashpot, i.e.
e(p)=ea(P)+~(P)
(7. 18d)
Substituting Eqs. 7.18a and b into Eq. 7.18d, and using Eq. 7.18c, we fmd the Laplace
transform of the stress-strain relationship for a Maxwell model to be
e(p)
= G1 [1 + (P'tf1,J O'(p )
(7. 18e)
where
't =11/G
(7.180
(7.18g)
=G(p +'t-1t
(7. 18h)
Thus the creep compliance and the relaxation modulus of a Maxwell model are
ii(P)
J(t)
=~(1+t't-l)H(t)
(7.18i)
=Ge-tl"'H(t)
(7.18j)
For the Kelvin or Voigt model shown in Fig. 7.2(b), the Laplace transforms of the
stress-strain relationship in the spring and the dashpot are the same as Eqs. 7.18a and
b, respectively. The strain e(t) must be the same in the spring as in the dashpot, i.e.
e(p) = eG(P) = ~(P)
(7.19a)
Jl(t)
The stress O'(t) must be the sum of those in the spring and the dashpot, i.e.
cr(p) = crG(p) + crll (p)
(7.19b)
Substituting Eqs. 7.18a and b into Eq. 7.19b, and using Eq. 7.19a, we find the Laplace
transform of the stress-strain relationship for a Kelvin model to be
cr(p) = G(1 + p't)e(p)
(7. 19c)
242
+ "C-1fl
(7.19d)
=G(p-l+"C)
(7.1ge)
J(t) = ~(1-e-t/~)H(t)
(7.190
(7. 199)
Ji(p)
For the standard linear solid model shown in Fig. 7.3, we fmd
(7.20a)
(7.20b)
e(p) =f.o(P)
=e1(P)
(7.2Oc)
(7.2Od)
Substituting Eqs. 7.20a and b into Eq. 7.2Od, and using Eq. 7.20c, we fmd
(7.20e)
Thus we have
Go+(GO+G1)"CIP
Jl(P) =
p(1 + "CIP)
(7.200
(7.20g)
J(p)= p 2Ji(p)
(7.20h)
(7.20i)
For a generalized Kelvin model, the governing equations are
1
1,Eo(P) = Go [1 + (P"Cof J (Jo(P)
(7.21a)
(i
=1 to N)
(7.21b)
(i = 1 to N)
(7.21c)
Linear Viscoelasticity
243
(7.21d)
)+ f
J(P)=[~(I+_1)+ f
E(P)=[~(l+_l
Go
Go
'CoP
;=1
'CoP
(1+P'C J-1
;=1
G;
]p_
-1
Jl(P) =p 2J(p)
J(t)
(7.21e)
(7.21f)
(7.21g)
=[~+..!..+ f (l-e-t/~i)]H(t)
(7.21h)
Go 110 ;=1
G;
To obtain an analytical expression for Jl(t), j!(p) must ftrst be written as the quotient
of two polynomial functions of p. Then the inverse Laplace transform can be obtained
by means of the Heaviside expansion formula (Spiegel, 1965). Otherwise, one may
solve Eq. 7.14b or c numerically, or adopt one of the approximate methods for inverse
Laplace transforms described in Section 1.12.
For a generalized Maxwell model, the governing equations are
ao(P) =Go(1 + P'Co)'Eo(P)
(7.22a)
(i = 1 to N)
(7.22b)
(i = 1 to N)
(7.22c)
(7.22d)
(7.22e)
(7.22f)
(7.22g)
(7.22h)
In this case J (t) is not simple, but may still be obtained using the methods described
above.
244
Note that the presence of a dashpot in parallel with other units in a mechanical
model introduces a singular (but integrable) function, i.e. a(t) into the relaxation
modulus. For this reason, many researchers have used a generalized Maxwell model
without such a 'free' dashpot. The presence of a dashpot in series with other units in
a mechanical model introduces a term which tends to infinity with t into the creep
compliance. Note also that the attachment of H(t) to every nonsingular term makes
such expression valid even for t < 0, and underlines the axiom of nonretroactivity, i.e.
the effect at the present time is due to causes in the past and not in the future.
If the generalized Kelvin model is considered as typical for the behavior in creep,
then a general form of the creep compliance is
J(t)=[J, +
~o +'I'(t)JH(t)
(7.23a)
in which J, is known as the glassy creep compliance, and 'I'(t) the creep junction. J,
is a constant equal to the initial value of J(t), i.e.
J, =J(O~
(7.23b)
and 'I'(t) is a monotonically increasing function with a zero initial value and a constant
asymptote as t -+ 00, as shown in Fig. 7.8. The stress-strain relationship for this case
is given more simply by the creep law (Eq. 7.11) than by the relaxation law (Eqs. 7.15).
----~-----------------t
--~--------------~~t
On the other hand, if the generalized Maxwell model is considered as typical for
the behavior in relaxation, then a general form of the relaxation modulus is
J.1(t) =[GR +cl>(t)]H(t) +T\oa(t)
(7.24a)
where GR is termed the rubbery modulus, and cl>(t) the relaxation function. As depicted
in Fig. 7.9, cl>(t) monotonically decreases from an initial value and tends to zero as
t -+ 00. The initial value of cl>(t) is
Unear Viscoelasticity
245
(7.24b)
where G, is the glassy modulus.
(7.24c)
(7.24d)
The stress-strain relationship for this case is given more simply by the relaxation law
(Eqs. 7.15) than by the creep law (Eq. 7.11). Substituting Eq. 7.24a into Eq. 7.15a we
fmd
<J(t) =110 l~ 8(t -s)d(s) +
Recalling properties of the Dirac-delta function and the argument used to put Eq. 7.6
as identical to Eq. 7.7, we can rewrite the equation above showing more explicitly the
discontinuity of e(t) at t =0 as
<J(t)
s )de(s),
(t
> 0)
(7.24e)
=e- Jl(t)
1
(7.26)
where P(D) and Q(D) are differential operators, i.e. they are polynomial functions of
D which denotes differentiation with respect to time t,
D
=!
(7.27b)
(7.28a)
246
Comparing Eq. 7.28a with the creep law (Eq. 7.11) and the relaxation law (Eqs. 7.15),
we find
P(P)=pQ(P}J(P)
(7.28b)
and
Q(P) =pP(p )fi(p)
(7.28c)
Naturally, the two equations above are consistent with the relationship between J(p)
and fi(p) as given in Eq. 7.14a.
The first four theorems to follow are related to the generalized Maxwell model.
Theorem 7.1. The relaxation function of the generalized Maxwell model satisfies
the following differential equation
P(D)Il(t) =aOG R
(7.29a)
where
N
P(D)=.L ap'
(7.29b)
.=0
Here ai(i =0 to N) are constants and N is the number of the Maxwell units in the model.
Proof of Theorem 7.1. Using Eqs. 7.22h and 7.29b we can put P(D)G(t) for t > 0
in the form
P(D)Il(t) =aoG o+
Jl Gie-I/'{~/-1laka~J
(7.29c)
rti
(7.29d)
=0 to N)
L (-1laka~ =0
k=O
(7.2ge)
II(a-a.)=O
(7.29f)
(7.29g)
i=l
where
N
i=1
Linear Viscoelasticity
247
P(D)J,t(t) = aOG R =
,,=0
(7.29i)
a"J,t(")(oj
where a superscript in parentheses denotes a time derivative, e.g. ( i") = d"( )/dt".
Theorem 7.2. If cr(t) and e(t) are continuous and N times continuously differentiable for t > 0, then the differential equation for the relationship between cr(t) and
e(t) is
(7.30a)
P(D)cr(t) = Q(D)e(t), (t>O)
where P(D) is as defined in Eq. 7.29b, and Q(D) is another differential operator one
order higher than P (D),
N+l
Q(D)= ,L bp'
(7.30b)
.=0
b o = L a"J,t(")(O+)
,,=0
b r 1'\ oa r- 1 +
(7.30c)
L a"J,t(,,-r)(Oj,
(r
Il=r
=1 to N)
(7.30d)
bN + 1 =1'\ oaN
(7 .30e)
where 1'\0 is the constant of the 'free' dashpot (Fig. 7.5). Moreover, it should be proved
that the initial conditions are
N
N+1
r=k
r=k
(k
=1
to N)
(7.30f)
r-k
L B r- k ,,=,
L A"C,,_r =r=k
L Ar ,,=0
L B"Cr _k_",
r=k
(k
=1 to N)
(7.30g)
Jo+
(t > 0).
Using mathematical induction we can show that a time derivative of higher order can
be written
+ (I J,t(k)(t-S)de(s),
Jo
(t > 0,
k = 1 to N)
(7.30h)
248
=11oP(D)e(I)(t) +e(O)1:
a,,~(")(O)
,,=0
which is the same as Eq. 7.30a provided that Eqs. 7.3Oc, d and e hold. To prove initial
conditions, Eq. 7.3Of, we may start by writing Eq. 7.30h for t =0+, i.e.
I;
dl;)(O+) =11o(k+l)(O) + 1:
~(I;-")(O)e(")(O), (k = 1 to N).
,,=0
Replacing k by r - k, multiplying the result by art then taking a summation from r =k
to N, we have
,-1;
=1 to N).
Making use of the lemma, Eq. 7.30g, we can put this equation in the form
r=k
r=k
r=k
A=r
a,,~("-')(O),
(k
=1 to N)
(k
=1
to N),
which is the same as Eq. 7.3Of due to Eqs. 7.3Od and e. Thus Theorem 7.2 is completely
proved.
Linear Viscoelasticity
249
Theorem 7.3. If the relationship between cr(t) and e(t) as given by Eq. 7.30a holds
( for t > 0), and the initial conditions are as in Eq. 7.30f, then the following relationship
holds for t ~ 0
(7.31a)
P(D)cr(t) =Q(D)e(t)
where
cr(t) =cr(t)H(t) +11oe(O~o(t)
e(t)
(7.31b)
=e(t)H(t)
(7.31c)
and
(7.31d)
Proof of Theorem 7.3. Due to Eq. 1.11Od, we can write
dk
k-l
-k [cr(t)H(t)] =d.k>(t)H(t) + I, cr<k-1-II)(0+)O(II)(t),
dt
11=0
Consequently,
P(D)[cr(t)H(t)]
=aocr(t)H(t) + Jl a k [ cr(k)(t)H(t) +
(k ~ 1)
(7.31e)
:t: cr(k-l-r)(o~o(r)(t)J.
= [P(D)cr(t)]H(t) +
I, O(k-l)(t) I, ardr-k)(o+)
k=l
r=k
(7.310
=Q(D) [e(t)H(t)]
=[Q(D)e(t)]H(t) +
N+l N+l
I, O(k-l)(t) I, bre(r-k)(O~
k=l
r=k
(7.31g)
Due to Eqs. 7.31b, we have
N+l
P(D)cr(t) =P(D) [cr(t)H(t)] +11oe(O~ I, ak_1o(k-l)(t)
k=l
(7.31h)
Due to Eqs. 7.30a, 7.30, 7.31d, 7.31, 7.31g and 7.31h, Eq. 7.31a is proved. The
Laplace transform of Eq. 7.31a is given by Eq. 7.28a, i.e.
P (p )cr(p ) =Q (p )e(p )
(7.3li)
where
N
P(P)= I,arpr
r=O
(7.31j)
250
Q(P)=
N+l
l: brpr
(7.31k)
r=O
Theorem 7.4. If the relationship between O'(t) and (t) as given by Eq. 7.31a
holds, then the same relationship can be put in a convolution integral fonn as Eqs. 7.15,
the relaxation modulus of which is the same as that of the generalized Maxwell model,
i.e.
(7.32a)
J.I.(t) J.I.(t)H(t) + 11 oS(t)
where
bN +1
110=aN
The function J.I.(t) can be detennined from the differential equation
P(D)J.I.(t)
=bo'
(t > 0)
(7.32b)
(7.32c)
=-aN1 [bN-11oaN - J
(7.32d)
J.I.(II)(O~ =J.-[b
N_II - "i:,l aN-lI+kJ.l.(II)(0~-11oaN-II-1]'
aN
k=O
=1 to N -1)
(n
(7.32e)
Proof of Theorem 7.4. Just as in Eq. 7.3lf, P(D)J.I.(t) for any time t can be put
in the fonn
P(D)[J.I.(t)H(t)] =[P(D)J.I.(t)]H(t) +
k=l
r=k
l: S(k-l)(t) l: arJ.l.(r-k)(O~
N-l
=[P(D)J.I.(t)]H(t) + l: ffk)(t)
k=O
l:
arJ.l.(r-k-l)(O~,
r=k+l
(7.32t)
(7.32g)
To establish Eq. 7.15a or b is the same as to establish its Laplace transfonn, i.e. Eq.
7.15c. Comparing Eq. 7.3li with Eq. 7.15c, we can see that the equation to be proved
is
(7.32h)
pp(p)ii(P) Q(P)
bk+l = rJ+l[arJ.l.(r-k-l)(O~+11oaJ,
(k =0 to N -1),
Linear Viscoelasticity
251
or
(7.32i)
which is identical to Eq. 7.3Od in Theorem 7.2 as should be expected. For k =N, Eq.
7.32i becomes identical to Eq. 7.32d; thus the remaining task is to show that Eq. 7.32i
for k = 1 to N - 1 is the same as Eq. 7.32e. With the introduction of a new symbol
n =N -k, Eq. 7.32i becomes
N-l
or
1[
II(")(O~=bN
- -~I a lI(rU-N)(o~_'I"1 a
r-)
or, putting k
aN
N-"
r=N-"
rr-
10 N-,,-l ,
(n
=1
to N -1),
=r + n - N,
J.!(")(O) =~[bN_" aN
k=O
(n
=1
to N - 1),
L bD'
(7.33c)
;=0 '
The b; (i =0 to N) are constants and N is the number of the Kelvin units in the model.
In addition 110 is the constant of the 'free' dashpot (Fig. 7.4).
Proof of Theorem 7.5. In view of Eqs. 7.21h and 7.33c, we can write for t > 0,
N
-1/~i[
(7.33d)
where
(X.
I,
Consequently,
= 't-:-l = G./'I"1.
I'll
(7.33e)
252
(7.33f)
Equations 7.33a and 7.33f are identical provided bl: (k =0 to N) satisfy the equation
I: I:
1: (-1) bl:CLi =0
N
(7.33g)
1:=0
Such values of bl: are possible and can be obtained by the technique used in the proof
of Theorem 7.1. Thus Theorem 7.5 is proved. It is interesting to note that
Q(D)J(t)
1 b bo
=bo 1: -+-+-t,
N
(t > 0)
(7.33h)
and
(7.33i)
(7.33j)
Theorem 7.6. If cr(t) and e(t) are continuous and N times continuously differentiable for t > 0, then the differential equation for the relationship between cr(t) and
(t) is
P (D )cr(t) =Q (1)(D )e(t), (t > 0)
(7.34a)
where Q(D) is as defined in Eq. 7.33c and P(D) is another differential operator one
order higher than Q (D),
N+l
. N+1
di
(7.34b)
P(D) = 1: aD' = 1: a-.
;=0 I
;=0 'dt'
The relations among the coefficients of these operators are
bo
ao=Tlo
a'+1
= 1: b~(I1-')(O),
11='
(r
=0
(7.34c)
(7.34d)
to N)
1: b (r-I:)(O) = 1: a
r=k '
r=k ,+1
a<r-I:)(O),
(k
=0
to N)
(7.34e)
In this case, the creep law Eq. 7.11 holds, the creep compliance is given by Eq. 7.21h
or Eq. 7.23a, coefficients b, are given by Theorem 7.5, and the proof follows the lines
adopted for Theorem 7.2.
Theorem 7.7. If the relationship between cr(t) and (t) given in Eq. 7.34a holds
(for t > 0), and the initial conditions are as in Eq. 7.34e, then the same relationship
Linear Viscoelasticity
holds for t
~ 0,
253
i.e.
P(D)o(t)
where
=Q(l)(D)(t)
(7.35a)
o(t) =o(t)H(t)
(7.35b)
=(t)H(t)
(7.35c)
(t)
The proof follows that for Theorem 7.3. The Laplace transform of Eq. 7.35a is
P (p )cr(p ) =p Q (p )e(p )
(7.35d)
where
N+l
P(P) = l: a,p'
,=0
(7.35e)
(7.35f)
Q(P)= l:b,p'
,=0
Theorem 7.8. If the relationship between o(t) and (t) given in Eq. 7.35a holds,
then the same relationship can be put in a convolution integral form Eq. 7.11. The
creep compliance is the same as that of the generalized Kelvin model, i.e. Eq. 7.21h or
Eq. 7.23a for which
bo
(7.36a)
Tlo=-
ao
(t > 0)
(7.36b)
f bN_1&+J(k)(o)l,~
1&
k=O
(7.36c)
(n
=1 to N)
(7.36d)
form
(7.37a)
then the starting transient strain 'dies out' with time and only a steady state harmonic
strain is left, i.e.
(t)
=eoel(O>t-3>
(7.37b)
254
Without loss of generality, 0 0 , 0, m and a can be taken as positive real constants. More
specifically, 0 0 and 0 are the amplitudes of stress and strain respectively, m the angular
frequency, and a the phase angle. The stress-strain relationship may be put in the fann
o(t) = J.L(m)(t)
(7.38a)
or
e(t)=JO(m)o(t)
(7.38b)
The quantities J.L(m) and JO(m) are known as the complex modulus and the complex
compliance, respectively; they are complex functions of the frequency m. From these
equations we deduce
0 i5
J.L(m)=-e
(7.39a)
1
J (m)= J.L0(m)
(7.39b)
tana=~(m)
(7.39c)
J.Ll(m) .
(7.39d)
+"'~(m) + ~(m) = IJ.L(m) I
0
where J.Ll(m) and ~(m) are the real and imaginary parts of J.L(m), respectively, i.e.
00=
J.L(m) = J.Ll(m)+ill2(m)
(7.40)
Moreover, substituting Eqs. 7.37 into the relaxation law, Eq. 7.1Sb, yields for large t,
oi
mt
or
(7.41)
~ 00),
or, due to the commutative law for convolution integrals (Eq. 1.138a),
oi
mt
255
Linear Viscoelasticity
Alternatively
Jl*(ro) =iroJl.(ro)
(7.42)
(7.43)
If the relationship between the Fourier and Laplace transfonns as given by Eq. 1.143
holds, i.e.
(7.44)
Jl.(ro) = ,l(iro)
we can obtain the complex modulus Jl*(ro) from the Laplace transfonn of the relaxation
modulus as follows
Jl*(ro)
=iro,l(iro)
(7.45)
2i~ ~(ro)cosrotdro
Jl(t) =-
(7.46a)
2i~ ~(ro)sinrotdO)
Jl(t)=-
(7.46b)
1t
0-
or
1t 0-
where ~(ro) and ).I!(ro) are the Fourier cosine transfonn and Fourier sine transfonn,
respectively, of Jl(t), i.e.
~(ro) = i~ Jl(s)cosrosds
= 9HJl.(ro)]
(7.47a)
~(ro) = i~ Jl(s)sinrosds
= -S[Jl.(ro)]
(7.47b)
and 9t and S denote real part and imaginary part, respectively. Later, Eqs. 7.46 will
be rewritten for the generalized Maxwell model in a more convenient fonn to obtain
Jl(t) from Jl*(ro).
Similarly, we can obtain the following equations by means of the creep law:
(7.48a)
J*(ro) =iroJ*(ro)
where
(7.48b)
256
(7.48c)
If
J*(ro) =i(iro)
(7.48d)
J*(ro) = imi(iro)
(7.48e)
then
The inverse of Eq. 7.48c is
2121-
J(t) = -
J:(ro)cosrotdro
(7.49a)
J(t)=-
J!(ro)sinrotdro
(7.49b)
1t 0-
or
1t 0-
where
J:(ro) = 1~ J(s )cosrosds = 9t[J.(ro)]
J:(ro)
(7.49c)
(7.49d)
Later, Eqs. 7.49a and b will be rewritten for the generalized Kelvin model in a more
convenient form to obtain J(t) from J*(ro).
For the generalized Maxwell model with relaxation function given by Eq. 7.24a,
Eq. 7.41 becomes
j.1*(ro) = 1~ e-IcIlr[GR +~(s)]S(s)ds +
1:e-icBr~+1'1o 1~
e-IcIlrS(l)(s)ds,
or
e-icBr~(s)ds +1'1oiro
Jro+
(7.50)
Substituting Eqs. 7.24 into Eq. 7.43 yields j.1.(ro) in the form
j.1.(ro) = GR[1tS( ro) + ~J +
lro
or
Jro+-e-io>.r~(s)ds + 1'10
(7.51)
257
Linear Viscoelasticity
r- e-i.,.,<!>(s)ds +1'\oioo
Jo+
(7.52)
Comparing the equation above with Eq. 7.50, we can see that Eq. 7.42 is verified.
However, the relationship between f,.l..(OO) and ~(ioo) (Eq. 7.44) must be modified, due
to the term GRH(t) in the function fl(t), into the following (see Eq. 1.144a)
f,.l..(OO) = ~(ioo) + GR 1to(oo)
(7.53)
Multiplying the equation above by ioo and observing the fact that 000(00) = 0 we find
iOOIl.(OO) = ioo~(ioo)
(7.54)
Hence Eq. 7.45 still holds, though Eq. 7.44 does not The real and imaginary parts of
Eq. 7.50 are, respectively,
(7.55a)
<!>(s)cosrosds
Jro
+
(7.55b)
Since
fll(O) = GR
(7.56)
(7.57a)
(7.57b)
fl(t) = {fll(O)
fl(t)
The infmite integrals involve only absolutely integrable functions. While Eq. 7.50 gives
a way of finding fl(OO) from fl(t), Eqs. 7.57a and b give a way of finding fl(t) from
fl(OO). Explicitly, the complex modulus of the generalized Maxwell model can be
expressed as
(7.58)
For the generalized Kelvin model, the creep compliance are given in Eq. 7.23a,
or
(7.59)
where
258
(7.60a)
J; =J,+'I'(oo)
cjlC(t) ='I'(t)-'I'(oo)
(7.60b)
Note cjlC(t) monotonically approaches zero as t tends to infmity. Substituting Eq. 7.59
into Eq. 7.48a yields
J'(ro)=
i0-
e-lmr[J;+cjlC(s)]acs)ds+
i0+
1
e-lmrdcjlc+-
i-
110 0-
sacs)ds+-1
i-
110 0-
e-ilDrH(s)ds,
or, due to the properties of aCt) and the Fourier transform of H(t) (Eq. 1.l44a),
J'(ro) =J; +cjlC(O) +
r-e-lmrdcjlc +.![1ta(ro)
+~J,
110
1ro
Jo+
r- e-ilDrdcjlC(s)ds +.![1ta(ro)
+~J
110
1ro
Jo+
(7.61)
=i~ e-iGvJ(s)ds
i~J +
i:
e-ilDrcjlC(s)ds +
~J1tia<l)(ro)- ~].
or
imT.(ro) =J;[1tima(ro) + 1] +iro
r- e-lrD.rcjlC(s)ds +.![-1tma(l)(ro)+~J,
110
1ro
J~
or, due to the fact (Eqs. 1.110) that ma(ro) = 0 and ma(l)(ro) = -aero),
imT.(ro) =J; +irol-e-ilDrcjlC(s)ds +.![1ta(ro)+~]
(7.62)
~
110
1ro
Comparing the equation above with Eq. 7.61, we can see that Eq. 7.48b is verified.
However, Eq. 7.48d must be modified, due to the term (JR+t/11o)H(t) in the function
J(t), so that it reads
J.(ro) =i(iro) +J;1ta(ro) + 1tia(l)(ro)
(7.63)
110
Multiplying the equation above by iro and observing that ro3(ro) = 0 and roa(l)(ro) = -aero),
wefmd
',_,r (ro) = 1W1
',_,'i('1ro)+1ta(ro)
--
1W1.
110
(7.64)
259
Linear Viscoelasticity
(7.65)
1'\0
It should be noted that Eq. 7.39b can be used to obtain correct ~(ro) from a known
J"(ro), but in reverse the same equation cannot yield the term B(ro) in obtaining J"(ro)
from a known ~(ro). This complication does not arise if there is no dashpot in series
with other units in the model, i.e. when 1'\0 ~ 00. The real and imaginary parts of Eq.
7.61 are, respectively,
(7.66a)
(7.66b)
Because
the inverse Fourier transforms of Eqs. 7.66a and b give, respectively,
J(t) = {J1(0+)
J(t)
(7.68a)
(7.68b)
Again the infmite integrals involve only absolutely integrable functions. While Eq. 7.61
provides a way of finding J"(ro) from J(t), Eqs. 7.68a and b give a way of finding J(t)
from J"(ro). Explicitly, the complex compliance of the generalized Kelvin model can
be expressed as
J(ro) = (Go 1+
Next, let us consider the dissipation of energy in steady state harmonic oscillation.
For a one-dimensional mechanical model, the work done in the time interval from to to
any t is
IlU =
9t[o(s)]9t(de)
(7.70)
Substituting Eqs. 7.37 into Eq. 7.70, in view of Eq. 7.39a, we find
IlU =~ro,~"(ro)
el(CDS-a)sin(ros -B)ds]
For the time interval equivalent to one cycle, the equation above becomes
(7.71)
260
~U =
1tfQJlz
(co) =1t~Jlz(co)
11l*(co)1 2
(7.72)
which is the amount of energy dissipation per cycle. Due to Eqs. 7.39c and d, this
equation can be rewritten
(7.73)
DefIning Umax as
(7.74a)
1 Il*(co)1 ,..2
=-1
Co
2
(7.74b)
Umax
(7.75)
If S is small, the energy dissipation per cycle and the specifIc loss assume the
approximate forms
~U = ~I 1l*(co)1 tanS
(7.76a)
~U =2manS
(7.76b)
Umax
Appropriately, Jlz(co) is called the loss modulus, and S the loss angle. For elastic models,
these two quantities are zero, and there is no energy dissipation.
7.6 THERMORHEOLOGICALLY SIMPLE SOLIDS
For a wide variety of materials known as thermorheologically simple solids, the
mechanical properties depend on the temperature in a simple analytical fashion. This
temperature dependence was fIrst proposed by Leadermann (1943) and Ferry (1970),
and applied by Schwarz! and Staverman (1952). The present derivation follows the
work of Morland and Lee (1960). For this type of materials, the temperature dependence
of the relaxation modulus is as shown in Fig. 7.10, in which
F (log t) =Il(t)
(7.77)
Linear Viscoelasticity
261
F(log t)
'-T-++--
log A (T)
O~------+-r---~~-------Iogt
f'~;[f+df
log
tA(T
10g(t+dt)A(T
=Fo[logt + logA(t)]
=Fo[logtA(t)] ,
or
~(t)=~@
(7.78)
1; =tA(T)
(7.79)
which is known as the pseudo or reduced time. Naturally A(To) is equal to unity. It
will be shown later that the creep compliance at an elevated temperature can be obtained
from that at the reference temperature in the same manner as Eq. 7.78, i.e.
~(t)
= ~(t)I,=tA(T)
(7.80a)
(7.80b)
In the process of getting ~(t) and l(t) by Eqs. 7.80, one should note the following
Heaviside step function, the Dirac-delta function and its derivatives
H[tA(T)] =H(t)
(7.81a)
o[tA(T)]
= o(t)
A(T)
(7.81b)
262
(7.81c)
In an isothennal process, T is kept independent of t, so the stress-strain relationship
assumes the usual fonn, i.e. the creep law or the relaxation law, Eq. 7.7 or 7.15a
respectively, while temperature enters the equations only as a parameter.
For isothermal harmonic vibration, Eqs. 7.37a and b become respectively
CJ(t) =CJilJ)~
(7.82a)
(t) =foeia:~
(7.82b)
where I; is given in Eq. 7.79, and 00 is the pseudo or reduced frequency, i.e.
00
00
(7.83)
=A(T)
(7.84a)
or
(7.84b)
where J.11(OO) and Il2(OO) are real and imaginary parts of the complex modulus J.1*(oo) at
the reference temperature To, and J 1(oo) and J 2(oo) are those of the complex compliance
J(OO). The dissipation of energy per cycle, Eq. 7.72, is
CJOI2J 2(oo)
(7.85a,b)
Figure 7.10 also shows that if the time taken for J.1 to decrease from some value
J.1 to J.1- is dt, then the time taken for Jlo to decrease the same amount is dl; =A(T)dt.
If I; corresponds to varying temperature T(t), then
J.1(t)
dA:)~t) dtJdt
(7.86a)
(7.86b)
(7.87a)
dl;=A(T)
dt
(7.87b)
or
Equations 7.87 hold for both isothennal and non-isothennal cases. Integrating Eq. 7.87b
and using the initial condition 1;(0) =0 we find
I;(t)
fA
[T(P)]dp
(7.88)
263
Linear Viscoelasticity
Applying Leibnitz's rule for differentiating an integral, Eq. 1.137, to this equation we
recover Eq. 7.87b. Putting t=t-s in Eq. 7.88 we find
~(t-s)= r-sA(T)dP.
This integral is the shaded area in Fig. 7.11, in which the identity
q=p+s
should be noted. Using q instead of p as the integrating variable we fmd
~(t -
s)
it
A (T)dq
=fA(T)dq- LSA(T)dq,
or
~(t -s)
=~(t) -~(s)
(7.89)
=J(~ - ~)
(7.90)
(7.91)
The relationship between the relaxation modulus and the creep compliance, Eq. 7.14a,
is
j (P) =[p2~(p)r
(7.92a)
(7.92b)
A (T)
264
where
j (P)
and j o(p) are Laplace transfonns of J(E;) and lo(t). respectively. Note that
we can. without loss of generality. use the same Laplace transfonn parameter p against
both ~ and t. Due to Eq. 7.86a.
Thus Eqs. 7.92 give
(7.93)
Equations 7.86a and 7.93 are identical to Eqs. 7.80a arid b. respectively. Taking the
initial temperature. i.e. T(O) =To. we have A [T(O)] =A (To) =1. So the Heaviside step
function and the Dirac-delta function assume identical fonns with the argument t or ~.
i.e.
5(t)=5@
(7.94a.b)
H(t)=H@.
but the derivatives of the Dirac-delta function follow the following recurrence formula
=1.2.3......)
(7 .94c)
(7.94d)
a<m)(t)
(m
or. reversely.
As an example. both Eqs. 7.94c and d give 5(1)(t) =A(T)5<1)@. Incorporating the
temperature effects. the stress-strain relationship. Eq. 7.7 or 7.15a. can be written
(t) =a(t) + f/(t-S)dO'(S)
a(t)
(7.95a)
(7.95b)
where a(t) is the strain due to the temperature change in a stress-free state. As
functions of the pseudo time ~. A(~) and J (E;) are given by Eqs. 7.86a and 7.93
respectively. while the others can be introduced as the following
a(~) =a(t)I,.,@
(7.96a)
(~) =e(t)I,=,@
(7.96b)
a(E;) = a(t)I,=,@
(7.96c)
Substituting Eqs. 7.96 into Eqs. 7.95. and using Eq. 7.90. we obtain
(7.96d)
Linear Viscoelasticity
265
(7.97a)
(7.97b)
The fmal results are then obtained as functions of t by simply noting that
/(t) =J(~I ~=~,)
(7.98)
(7.99b)
The convolution integral symbol are as defined in Eq. 7.12. The latter fann (Eq. 7.99b)
is more convenient for describing various aspects of the theory, and we will use it
exclusively. As in linear elasticity, Cjj/d has the symmetric property given in Eq. 3.14
and is positive defmite at any value of t. Unless specified otherwise the discussion
which follows is restricted to isothennal conditions and thennorheologically simple
solids; the temperature enters only as a parameter, as in Eq. 7.79.
In the material domain V, the equation of motion and the strain-displacement
relationship are the same as those for any solids under small defannation, i.e. respectively
(7.100)
P. ..
"
1
2 ',J
=-(u.. +u .. )
10'
(7.101)
For isotropic materials, the stress-strain relationship, Eq. 7.99b, can be reduced to
CJjj(t)
(7.102)
which is analogous to Eq. 3.32 in linear elasticity. The introduction of the stress deviator
Sjj (Eq. 2.34) and the strain deviator ejj (Eq. 2.47) makes it possible to state separate
relationships for shear and bulk:
(7.103a)
266
(7.103b)
Here Jl(t) and K(t) are relaxation moduli for shear and bulk respectively, J(t) and B(t)
are their respective creep compliances. The relationship between A.(t), Jl(t) and K(t) is
the same as in elasticity, i.e. K (t) =')...(t) + 2Jl(t)/3. The relationship between a relaxation
modulus and its corresponding compliance is given in Eqs. 7.14. Equations 7.103 are
analogous to Eqs. 3.34 and 3.35 in isotropic elasticity.
For uniaxial stress in the xl-direction (only the stress G u is non-zero), Young's
modulus E(t) and Poisson's ratio v(t) can be introduced through the relationship
Gu(t) =E*du
(7.I04a)
and
(7.104b)
~(3x'+2~) 9jit
x,+~
~+3K
(7.105a,b)
X,
3K-2~
v=2p(X,+~) 2p(~+3K)
(7.105c,d)
Table 7.1
x,,~
X.
X.
E,v
~,K
Epv
3K-2~
2~pv
1-2pv
Jl
Jl
Jl
Jl
E
2(1 +pv)
X, +-Jl
23
E
3(1-2pv)
9K~
3K+~
~(3x'+2~)
x,+~
X,
2p{X,+u)
--
Jl,v
v-
3K-2~
2p(3K +u)
2~(1+pv)
3(1-2pv)
2~(1+pv)
267
Linear Viscoelasticity
A number of useful relations between the Laplace transforms of these isotropic relaxation
moduli are shown in Table 7.1, which is the analogue of Table 3.1 in elasticity theory.
Combining Eqs. 7.100, 7.101 and 7.102 we obtain Navier equations for viscoelasticity, namely
ifu
(7.106)
,...
where
L1(t)
=2[31(t) +B(t)]/9
(7.109a)
(7.I09b)
X,(p)=i(3i -2B)/(Y +4B)
Equation 7.108 can be called the Beltrami-Michell compatibility conditions for viscoelasticity. The energy identity is defined as
I(t) = Iv Xj*dujdV +
Is Xj*dujdS
(7.11Oa)
where S is the surface completely enclosing the domain V, and ll; is the surface force
(Eq. 2.6). This can be written
I(t) =
JvrO'IJ.. *de;.dV
v
(7.11Ob)
(7.11Oc)
(7.111a)
(7.111b)
The Maxwell-Betti reciprocal theorem linking two states 1 and 2 can be written
"
"
'J
268
=Jvrd~)*de~~)dV
IJ
IJ
(7.112)
Equation 7.112 holds for anisotropy as well as isotropy. The volume change, i.e. Iv EkkdV,
can be evaluated by using Eq. 7.103b:
rEkkdV =.!.3JvrO'kk*dBdV
Jv
EkkdV
Using the stress vector formula (Eq. 2.6) and the equation of equilibrium (Eq. 7.107),
we obtain
(7.113)
This equation expresses the volume change of a homogeneous domain in terms of
integrals of the prescribed body and surface forces.
7.8 QUASI-STATIC SOLUTION BY SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
Following Alfrey (1944) for incompressible solids (v = 112) and Tsien (1950) for
a constant Poisson's ratio, i.e.
v(t) =vH(t)
(7. 114a)
we obtain separable solutions for the case in which the body force, boundary tractions
and prescribed boundary displacements have the form
Xj(Xj,t)=Xjo(Xj)X(t),
(in V)
(7. 114b)
Xj(xj,t)=~(Xj)X(t),
(on Sa)
(7.114c)
Uj(Xj,t)
=~(xJu(t),
(on S..)
(7. 114d)
where Sri and S.. are parts of the surface S. We assume a separable solution
uj(xj, t)
=ujo(xj)u(t)
(7. 115a)
Linear Viscoelasticity
269
(7. 115b)
Note that the displacement time function is the same as that prescribed on the surface
Su, and the stress time function is the same as that of the surface force on the surface
Sa and the same as that of the body force in the domain V.
In addition, the spatial functions in the equations correspond to the elastostatic
problem with unit shear modulus, i.e. they satisfy the equilibrium equations
crJiJ(Xi) + Xio(x;) =0
(7. 116a)
="21 [ui,ix;)
+ Uj,i(X;)]
Eij(X;)
(7.116b)
2v
00
(7. 116c)
If the stresses are the basic unknowns in the solution scheme, then we must incorporate
the Beltrami-Michell compatibility conditions (Eq. 3.77)
1 o ,,(x,)+-u.Y
vs:ok k(X,)+X,.(x.)+X
cr kk(X.)+-cr
.. (x.)
I.},
l+v kk ,'J'
I-v i.f~",
',J'
!o"
=0
(7. 116d)
( on Su)
(7.1160
= Il*du
(7. 117a)
u(t) =J*dX
(7. 117b)
The displacements and stresses given in Eqs. 7.115 can be shown to satisfy all the
quasi-static viscoelastic conditions if the time functions for displacements and forces
are related by one of Eqs. 7.117. Note that the boundary surfaces must not move, i.e.
Sa and Su must not change with time.
(7.l1Sa)
(7. l1Sb)
(7. 11Sc)
270
This solution is a special separable solution. The steady state harmonic stress-strain
relations for three-dimensional isotropic continua may be written
-'>
1::'1*
i) + 2J,L*(ro)ij(X
i)
uij(xJ
=uij'"
(ro)a(X
(7.119)
=2J,L*(ro)e;(xi)
(J~(xJ =3K*(ro)e~(xi)
s;(x i)
(7. 120a)
(7. 120b)
The stress-strain relationship has exactly the same form as in elasticity, except that it
involves complex quantities. This means that we may solve the elasticity equations to
fmd the spatial parts Ui(xi)' ~(xi) and ~(Xi)' and then replace J,L and K in the elasticity
solution by J,L*(ro) and K"(ro) respectively.
Gottenberg and Christensen (1964) studied the torsional oscillation of a hollow
circular cylinder. They included inertial effects, and found analytical relationship
between the applied torque and the angle of twist. They used this relationship, together
with experimental measurements of the applied torque and the angular response, to
determine the complex shear modulus.
Note that the general treatment by separation of variables given in the previous
section can be applied only when inertial terms are neglected. By contrast, the solution
scheme for steady state harmonic oscillation discussed in the present section can include
inertial terms with no difficulty.
7.10 INTEGRAL TRANSFORM METHODS AND THEIR LIMITATIONS
The Laplace transforms of the equations of quasi-static viscoelasticity are identical
to those of linear elasto-quasi-statics. In particular, for the isotropic case (Table 7.2),
the Laplace transformed viscoelastic solution is obtained directly from the corresponding
elastic solution by replacing A., J.L, K, E and v with p'f...(p), p~(p), pK(P), pE(P) and
pv(P), respectively. The actual solution is then realized by inverting the transformed
solution. An entirely similar procedure also applies in the anisotropic case. If
appropriate, we may use Fourier transforms instead of Laplace transforms. The association of the viscoelastic solution with the elastic solution is called the elastic
viscoelastic correspondence principle, or the elastic-viscoelastic analogy.
We can include inertial terms in any integral transform method, but then (Table
7.3) the correspondence is between the transformed elastic solution and the transformed
viscoelastic solution. This correspondence is much less useful than that for the
quasi-static case, and there is in general no advantage in constructing the dynamicviscoelastic solution by this means. The dynamic-viscoelastic solution can be
approached directly by using an appropriate integral transform. The inversion of a
transformed dynamic solution is naturally much more difficult than that in the quasi-
Linear Viscoelasticity
271
Table 7.2
Elasto-quasi-statics
Equilibrium:
CJjjj+Xj=O
Strain-displacement relationship:
1
.. =-(u .. +u .. )
u 2 ',Il,'
Laplace transfonned
viscoelasto-quasi-statics
1(~
~)
uI,J+u
J,I
IJ.. =2
Stress-strain relationship:
sij=2J..1.eij
sij=2p!liij
o-a = 3pK'ea
Boundary conditions:
CJijnj =X j on So
Uj=Uj
o-ijnj =Xj on So
onS,.
static case. Again note that, in any integral transfonn method, the boundary surfaces
So and S,. must not change with time.
Gottenberg and Christensen (1964) applied the elastic-viscoelastic correspondence
principle to the quasi-static torsional oscillation of a hollow circular cylinder. Naturally,
the solution was found to consist of transient and steady-state parts. The transient part
is an exponentially decaying function of time.
In the book of Christensen (1971), there is a problem of a long cylinder being
subjected to an internal pressure, but restrained by an elastic outer case. Inertial effects
are included and the problem was solved by means of the Laplace transfonn.
Axisymmetry of the problem and the incompressibility of the material make the
mathematics tractable. Christensen and Schreiner (1965) studied the quasi-static
problem for compressible materials. The Laplace transfonn was applied to all conditions
involved. They also investigated a way of including the effect of a boundary which is
changing due to burning or erosion of the material.
Lockett (1961) studied the pressurization of a spherical cavity in an infmite space
using the Fourier transfonn. Inertial effects were included. They approximated the step
function pressure history by the difference between two sine integrals of difference
frequencies. This enabled them to use an inversion integral over a finite frequency.
range, rather than the usual infmite frequency range.
272
Table 7.3
Laplace transfonned
elastodynamics
Laplace transfonned
viscoelastodynamics
Equation of motion:
2
Ofij +Xj = pp u j
~
Strain-displacement relationship:
~)
e- IJ.. =-21(~u'.1+u
I.'
1(~
~)
e=IJ
2 u'.1+u
I.'
Stress-strain relationship:
iij =2j.liij
Sij=2pjieij
au = 3Keu
au =3pKeu
Boundary conditions:
aijnj =)( on Sa
iij
aijnj =)( on Sa
=u- on S,.
j
There are practical problems which involve variable boundary. One example is
the defonnation of a viscoelastic beam or a viscoelastic half space by a curved rigid
indentor. As the indentor is pressed into the viscoelastic domain, there are some parts
of the boundary of the domain which at flrst are traction free, but later they must
confonn to the geometry of the indentor in the contact region. For problems of this
class, the use of integral methods fails, and there is no generally available alternative.
Such problems are to be expected to be more difflcult than those with non-moving
boundaries. Some problems of this class have been solved by particular methods.
In his book, Christensen (1971) studied the simplest problem of this type, i.e. the
defonnation of a unifonn viscoelastic beam by a curve rigid indentor. It should be
possible to extend his procedure to dropping indentors, elastic beams with viscoelastic
coatings, culp indentors, viscoelastic plates, and viscoelastic beams and plates including
shear defonnation effects. This would comprise a generalization of the elastic contact
analysis given by Essenburg (1962).
The problem of the indentation of a viscoelastic half space by a rigid spherical
indentor was studied by Lee and Radok (1960) and Hunter (1960) and later by Graham
(1965). Christensen (1971) took the outline of the solution approach from Graham
(1965). More recently Graham (1967) extended his procedure to include the case where
273
Linear Viscoelasticity
the contact area has several relative maxima rather than just a single one. Ting (1968)
has also treated this more general case. Graham (1968) and Ting (1969) have outlined
restricted classes of viscoelastic contact problems which do admit a direct application
of the elastic viscoelastic correspondence principle.
A similar moving boundary problem, but even more complicated, is that posed by
a cylinder rolling over a viscoelastic half space. Here, again the elastic viscoelastic
correspondence principle does not apply, and other techniques of solution must be
developed. Such studies have been given by Hunter (1961) and Morland (1962, 1967).
See also Kalker (1990).
7.11 THREE-DIMENSIONAL THERMOVISCOELASTICITY
For thermorheologically simple solids, the stress-strain relationship for tbreedimensional domains with time varying temperature can be obtained by generalizing
that for one-dimensional models described in Section 7.6:
(7.121)
Here ~ and ~ are as defined in Eqs. 7.88 and 7.91, and av(t) is the strain tensor in the
stress-free state due to the temperature change from the initial temperature To to the
current temperature T(t). The isotropic form of Eq. 7.121 is
q(~)
Okk@
r~A
=2 Jo- Jl(~ -
~)de' q(~)
(7. 122a)
(7. 122b)
Specializing Eqs. 7.122 for the uniaxial stress case (Eqs. 7.104 with varying temperature)
we find
(7. 123a)
(7. 123b)
011@ =
where aCt) is the stress-free normal strain component in any direction due to the temperature change. The convolution integrals with respect to the pseudo time ~ in the
equations above seem to suggest that the Laplace transform might conveniently be used
to solve quasi-static boundary value problems. However, in terms of ~, the equilibrium
equations become
(7.124)
274
(7.125)
The presence of the tenns ~.j means that we cannot apply the Laplace transfonn with
respect to ~, nor construct a correspondence between elastic solutions and viscoelastic
solutions. When the temperature is spatially unifonn but time dependent, such tenns
~.j vanish, and then we can apply integral transfonn methods with respect to ~.
Another situation which is amenable to the use of integral transfonn methods
occurs when the temperature distribution T(xj,t) is known, whether from experimental
observations or by some analytical means. In such a case, the pseudo time ~ and the
stress free dilatation a are known functions of the coordinate Xj as well as the time
variable t. Muki and Sternberg (1961) solved a problem of this type using the Laplace
transfonn. The problem is that of an infinite isotropic viscoelastic slab subjected to
heating conditions which produce a known temperature variation through the thickness.
Lee and Rogers (1963) pointed out that this problem may be solved without using the
Laplace transfonn, and the problem was further discussed by Sternberg (1964). A
related but more difficult problem, involving thennal stresses in a cylinder, was studied
by Lockett and Morland (1967).
In a more general situation of coupled thermoviscoelasticity, the temperature upon
which the mechanical properties depend is an unknown function of Xj and t. These
problems are necessarily nonlinear, and must be expected to be very difficult to solve
analytically.
7.12 PROBLEMS
With permission of the publisher, Academic Press, Problems 7.12.4 to 7.12.6 and
7.12.10 are materials adapted/rom the book by Christensen (1971).
7.12.1 Reciprocal Theorem for Harmonic Oscillation
For steady-state harmonic oscillation, the Maxwell-Betti reciprocal theorem can be
written
Iv Xg)uJ~)dV + Is X<O~)uJ~)dS
=Iv X~)uJ:)dV + Is X!)uJ:)dS
= r[-pro2uJ:)~)+(J~P~~]dV
Jv
""
(7.126)
275
Linear Viscoelasticity
where a subscript (0) denotes the amplitude of a steady-state harmonic function, and a
superscript in parentheses denotes a loading system as adopted in Section 3.4.
I
L
_
_
_
~
I
'
~
_ x----.
.r-,._____
.......;-=--_~ -
1-
--I
po cos wt
Fig. 7.12
GO(oo) =G(1 +irot)
(7.127)
where t=11/G. With the same symbols as in Fig. 7.3, the complex Young's modulus
of the bar is obtained as
2(1 +v)[Go+(Go+Gt)irottl
E (00) =
(1 . )
(7.128)
+lrot t
where v is the constant Poisson's ratio of the bar. In the bar, the pertinent stress-strain
relationship is
(7.129)
d~(x)
2 0
--=-prou (x)
(7.130)
dx
where a superscript (0) denotes the amplitude of a steady-state harmonic function.
Substituting Eq. 7.129 into Eq. 7.130 yields
<fuo(x) + duo(x) =0
dx 2
where
(7.131)
276
n---- W-'JrP
E*(ro)
(7. 132a)
=~IE{ro)1 rZ(COS~+iSin~)
(7. 132b)
Ez(ro)
tany=- E1(ro)
(7. 132c)
=9t[E*(ro)]
Ez(ro) =5 [E*(ro)]
(7. 132d)
E1(ro)
(7. 132e)
(7.133)
where C1(ro) and Cz(ro) are to be determined from the boundary conditions
A(J~(O) = G*(ro)uo(O),
A~(L) = pO
(7. 134a,b)
(7. 135a)
(7. 135b)
(7.136)
(7.138)
1J.1(ro)
(7. 139a)
11J.*(ro)lz
where
(7. 139b)
277
Linear Viscoelasticity
(7. 140a,b)
7.12.3 Indentation on a Viscoelastic Half Space
The contact normal stress can be obtained by separation of variables (Section 7.8) as
2woX(t)
0'.. (r,9,0;t) =
112'
(OS;r<a)
(7.142)
n(1-v) (az-rz)
where X(t) is as given by Eq. 7.117a.
Alternatively, we can obtain the result by the elastic-viscoelastic correspondence
principle as
(7.143)
which is the same as Eq. 7.142.
7.12.4 Torsional Oscillation of a Hollow Cylinder
J(fUe
~drz -
Ue 1 dUe (fUe)
(fUe
rZ+;:-a,:-+ dZz =P dtZ
(7.144)
where Ue is the displacement in 9-direction, p the mass density, and r, 9 and Z the
cylindrical coordinates. The nonvanishing stresses are O'ez and O'r9 which are related to
Ue through the equations
dUe
0: =Jlez
dZ
(7. 145a)
(7.145b)
278
(7.146)
where 4l(z) is the amplitude of the angle of twist. Substituting Eq. 7.146 into Eq. 7.144,
wefmd
4>(z)=A
Sin~ +BCOS~
(7.147)
where
(7.148)
h is the length of the cylinder, and A and B are arbitrary constants. Note that O"r9 is
identically zero. The remaining nonzero stress O"er may be integrated over the crosssection of the cylinder to obtain the total twisting moment
M(
_1t(b4-a4)poi'h(A
z,t ) -
20
Oz -B . Oz
cos h
sm h
rLimt
(7.149)
where a and b are the inner and outer radii, respectively. If the end z =h is fixed
while the end z =0 has the applied torque M elmt, we can find the values of A and B
and further fmd that the ratio of the applied torque and the angle of twist at the end
z =0 is given by
M
1t(b 4 -a 4)pro2hcotO
(7.150)
4>(0) =
20
Replacing Il in the equation above by Il(ro) yields the required steady state harmonic
viscoelastic solution as
M
1t(b 4 -a4)poi'hcotO
(7.151)
4>(0) =
20
where
O =
roh~ Il(ro)
p
(7.152)
If we know Il*(ro), then Eq. 7.151 allows us to determine the angle of twist at z =0 for
a specified value of the applied torque. Alternatively, we may measure the applied
torque and the angular response and determine the complex shear modulus from Eq.
7.151, as did Gottenberg and Christensen (1964).
279
Linear Viscoelasticity
(t <0)
q,(O,t)=o,
q,(O,t)=ksinrot,
(O<t<oo)
(7.153a)
(7.153b)
Here k is the given amplitude of oscillation, and 00 is the angular frequency taken to
be sufficiently small that inertial terms may be neglected. The corresponding elastostatic
relationship between the twisting moment M (0, t) and the angle of twist q,(0, t) is given
by
(7.154)
or, due to Eq. 7.153b,
M(O,t)
=1t(b
-a;::"
sin rot
(7.155)
(7.156)
Gie-t/~iJH(t)
(7.157)
GiP] p-l
1l(P)= GO+I.--_1
i=lp +'ti
(7.158)
(7.160)
280
The ftrSt two tenns in this equation represent the steady state response, while the last
tenn describes the transient response. Gottenberg and Christensen (1964) used this
equation to predict the starting transient of the specimen, for which the complex shear
modulus was detennined in the preceding section.
au,.(r, t) u,(r, t)
ar
+-r-=O
(7.161)
where u,(r,t) is the radial displacement in the cylindrical coordinate (r,a,z) system.
The solution of this equation is
u (r t)= e(t)
(7.162)
"r
au, II
(7. 163a)
a =2"-+"
t"'ar 3
u, II
ee =211-+t'" r
3
0:
(7. 163b)
II
a ... ="3
(7. 163c)
where II(r) is the ftrSt stress invariant, i.e. II = a" + aee+ a..,. Applying the correspondence principle to ~e elastic solution in Eqs. 7.163, we fmd the Laplace transfonns
of the viscoelastic stresses as
-(
)_
a" r,p -
2p~(P)C(P)
r2
il(r,p)
(7. 164a)
-(
)_2p~)C(P) il(r,p)
aeer,p r2
+ 3
(7. 164b)
_
il(r,p)
a..,(r,p) = - 3 -
(7.164c)
The single non-trivial equation of motion (in the r-direction) has the fonn
-+
or
ifu,.
-pat2
(7.165)
Linear Viscoelasticity
281
-+
dr
r'
2_
=pp U
(7.166)
(7.167)
(7.168)
(7. 169a)
2pj!c
2 CJoo (r,p)=-2-+ PP Clogr+D
(7. 169b)
(7. 169c)
(7. 170a)
CJ"(b,t) =-ku,(b,t)
(7. 170b)
where q(t) is the pressure prescribed inside the cylinder, and k is the stiffness of the
outer case restraining the cylinder. For a restraining case with a small thickness h,
Ech
k =b2(I-v~)
(7.171)
where Ec and Vc are the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the case. We express
the relaxation function in shear as
A(P)
(7.172)
p~(P)= B(P)
where A (P) and B (P) are polynomials in p. The satisfaction of the Laplace transfonn
of the boundary conditions (Eqs. 7.170) detennines C(P) and 15 (P) as
C(P)
15(P)
pq(p)B(p)
F(P)
(7.173a)
pq(P)E(P)
F(P)
(7. 173b)
where
3
a pkB (P )
1 1)
F(P)=-2pA(P) ( a2- b2 +pp B(P)log"b
b
(7. 174a)
282
bZ
(7. 174b)
(7.175)
qo
q~(P) =-
(7.176)
(7.177)
-az> ...(p -am)
Here c is a real constant and aj are roots of F (P) =0; they can be determined by standard
F(P)= c(p -a 1)(p
computer programs. Substituting Eqs. 7.173 into Eqs. 7.169 and inverting the results,
by using the Heaviside expansion fonnula (Spiegel, 1965), we fmd
CJ"(r,t) =-qo
1=1
(7.178a)
(7. 178b)
(7. 178c)
where
(7.179a)
Bj(r) =paJlogrB(a)+E(a)
(7. 179b)
Some materials have real and imaginary parts of the complex compliance of the
fonn
(7. 180a)
(7. 180b)
where kl and kz are constants, and n is approximately 0.21. Moreover, the following
'shift factor' A(T) has been observed in a vicinity of a certain reference temperature
"oCT-TO>
A (T) = 10
= exp[2.303bo(T - TO>]
(7.181)
Unear Viscoelasticity
283
where bo is a constant and T is the temperature being kept constant all the time.
According to Eq. 7.83, the pseudo or reduced frequency becomes
00
=ooexp[-2.303bo(T - To)]
(7.182)
The real and imaginary parts of the complex compliance at the constant temperature T
are
11(00) =k1(00"f"
(7. 183a)
1 2(00) = ~(oo"f"
(7. 183b)
(7.184)
=eb,p-Tol
(7.185)
Ko(P) =Kp-l
(7. 186a)
(7. 186b)
Here K is the elastic spring constant in bulk, and t is given by Eq. 7.18f in which G
and 11 are, respectively, the elastic spring constant and the dashpot coeffIcient in the
Maxwell model as depicted in Fig. 7.2(a). With the help of Table 7.1, we can write
the Laplace transfonns of the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio, respectively, at the
reference temperature as
Eo(P)=C(P +r-1fl
(7. 187a)
(7.187b)
where
9KG
3G
D=
3K+G'
2(3K +G)
3K+G
r= 3K t
(7.188a,b)
(7. 188c)
284
(7.189a)
(7. 189b)
The Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio at the temperature T, due to Eqs. 7.80 and
7.81, are
(7. 190a)
v(t) =v@ =
G+De-{/r}(~)
(7. 190b)
(50
e=--
E(O+)
(7.192)
(7. 193a,b)
The initial value of a function can be obtained from its Laplace transform by means of
Eq. 1.139. Substituting Eqs. 7.190a and 7.191a into Eq. 7.104a we find the longitudinal
normal stress
(7.194)
For the lateral nonnal strains, Eqs. 7.104b and 7.190b should be employed to obtain
&n(t) =
(7.195)
Consider the same viscoelastic string as in the preceding section, but allow the
temperature T to vary linearly with time t, i.e.
T(t) =To + aot
(7.196)
where a o is a known positive constant, and To is the initial as well as the reference
285
Linear Viscoelasticity
temperature. The thermal coefficient (normal strain per unit temperature change) is
known as c.
The Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio at any temperature T are given by Eqs.
7.190a and b respectively, but the pseudo or reduced time as given by Eq. 7.88, due to
Eqs. 7.185 and 7.196, is
~
=exp(aolv) -1
(7.197)
acPo
Hence
log(aobo~ + 1)
t=---
(7.198)
(7. 199a)
aobo
1
vo(Oj = v(Oj ="2 + D
(7. 199b)
=c(T - To)
(7.200a)
a(t)
=aoctH(t)
(7.200b)
a(t) =a(':I)
A
C log(aobo~
bo
+ 1)
J:
H(':I)
(7.200c)
Substituting Eqs. 7.190a, 7.191b and 7.200c into Eq. 7.123a we fmd the longitudinal normal stress
r~
a(t)
=eOE@-Ccaoe-f"r Jo
e~/r
aobo~ + 1 d~
(7.201)
where
(7.202a,b)
Ql Q2
Q3
f(Q)=logQ +T!+ 2. 2! + 3. 3! + ...
(7.202c)
Substituting Eqs. 7.190b, 7.191b and 7.200c into Eq. 7.123b we fmd the lateral
normal strains
{c logQ Dce-{a+~/f)
}
En(t)=~3(t)=a(t)-eov(~)+ ----u;;;-+
bo
If(aQ)-f(a)] H@
A
(7.203)
286
e-
oJJo
Q
oJJrl'
}
(7.204b)
Q H(t)
oJJrl'
]
(7.204c)
e-
(t)
Q=e"rN
7.12.10 Heating
0/ an Infinite
(7.205)
Slab
(7.207)
(7.208a,b)
Thus the only possible solution for O'.. (z,t) is trivial, i.e.
O'.. (z,t) =0
(7.209)
O'.. (a,t)=O,
in which P is the transform parameter, and a(z,t) is the only nonzero strain due to the
temperature change in a stress-free state. Eliminating ~ from the pair of equations
above we obtain
(7.211)
Linear Viscoelasticity
287
where
(7.212)
4~+3K
The inverse Laplace transform of Eq. 7.211 is
~
o;a(z,~)
r~,q
(7.213)
The integration above can be carried out fIrst with respect to the pseudo time ~, then
the fInal result as a function of the physical time t can be obtained by means of Eq.
7.98. Alternatively, Eq. 7.213 can be expressed in terms of t, so that
o;a(z,t) = Oyy(z,t) =-
S(t-s)da(z,s)
(7.214)
When the temperature T is a known function of z and t, a(z,t) can be derived, ~ can
be found from Eq. 7.88, @ from Eq. 7.212, S(t) from Eq. 7.98, and thence the stresses
from Eq. 7.214. A more general treatment of this problem was given by Muki and
Sternberg (1961) with detailed numerical results.
CHAPTER VIII
WAVE PROPAGATION
rays.
In one-dimensional problem a wave may be deflned by a function t(x - ct), where
a function of the spatial coordinate x and the time t, represents a physical quantity
such as a displacement, a velocity or a stress component. Figure 8.1 shows two identical
fonns of the function t at two instants, t and t + Ilt for a sufflciently small M , thus
t(x -ct) =t(x +llx -ct -CM),
hence
x -ct =x +llx -ct-cM,
or
c =llxIM.
t,
289
Wave Propagation
!(x-ct)
o~----------------------------
where a is a positive real constant. The plots of the function f at two separate instants,
t and t + t!J, show that the function is unchanged in shape but decreases in magnitude
as time increases.
Ax = cAt
Envelope
-ax
o~--------------------------~
290
l(a la)
- - -aax
- + -aat
- - - ---ay -axay atay -2 ax
cat
(S.2e)
and
(S.2f)
Thus
(S.2g)
O"u
(S.4)
=VE/p
(S.5)
291
Wave Propagation
Figure 8.3(a) shows a plot of the wave at a particular time, while Fig. 8.3(b) shows
that at a particular position. Ifx increases by 21C1k or t by 21C1ro, the argument kx - rot
changes by 21t so that the exponential function returns to its original value. This shows
that the wave has a wavelength A and a period T given by
~(U ),S'(u)
~(U),S'(U)
t"\ ~----h ~
~\JV'x
I-A-l
(a) t =constant
"
~T---j
~ /\. C'.t
~rszr=p
(b) x
=constant.
1
i
= 2A eXP2[(k +k')x - (ro+ro')t] cos 2 [(k -k')x - (ro- ro')t]
(8.9)
which has the characteristics of 'beats'. The exponential factor represents a carrier
wave whose wavenumber and frequency are equal to the means of the superposed waves.
The cosine factor, which varies slowly when the difference in characteristics of the two
- - Cg
MOdula_ti~n)
Carrier
wave
---c
292
waves is small, represents the modulation and may be regarded as a varying amplitude.
The situation is depicted in Fig. 8.4. The 'wave group' ends wherever the cosine
becomes zero. The velocity of the advance of these points is called the group velocity
with the value
ro-uJ
c,= k-k"
For long groups (or slow beats), the expression above may be rewritten with sufficient
accuracy as
dro
(8. lOa)
c
, =dk
de
=c+k
(8. lOb)
de
=c-A
dA
(8.1Oc)
dk
1 ro de
=;;- cZdro
(8.1Od)
In general c, < c, and thus dcldk < O. The group velocity is the same as the velocity of
energy transport. This is defmed as the ratio of the time average of the power per
cross section and the time average of the total energy per unit length of the wave. Some
verification of this point may be seen in the book by Achenbach (1973). If the system
is nondispersive, ro is not a function of k (hence A as well), and c, becomes identical
to c.
If the only non-zero displacement component is Ul and it is a function of Xl only,
then the governing equation for an isotropic elastic domain can be obtained by specializing Eq. 3.66 into
azUl
azUl
(8.11)
which is a special case of the three-dimensional pressure wave equation, Eq. 3.111. The
equation above implies that the motion is in the same direction as the propagation,
therefore the wave is called a longitudinal wave, compressive wave, pressure wave or
a P-wave (P standing for pressure or primary), and the wave speed is
=~)'+2jJ.
P
(8.12)
Ul
293
Wave Propagation
(S.13)
which is a special case of the three-dimensional shear wave equation, Eq. 3.112. The
equation above implies that the motion is normal to the direction of the propagation,
therefore the wave is called a transverse wave, rotational wave, shear wave, or an
S-wave (S standing for shear or secondary), and the wave speed is
Cs
=-.J~p
(S.14a)
=-V A.:2~CP
(S.14b)
-2V
c
~
2(1-v)
(S.l4c)
(S.lSa)
=0
(S.lSb)
or
eU,i
C.
at
_ (fUi
2
ui -
(S.16)
Comparing this equation with Eq. 3.112, we can say that it is an S-wave equation
governing each displacement component individually. Recall that the radial spherical
coordinate R is related to the Cartesian Xi as
R 2 =XiX i
(S.17)
aR
2R aXk = 2Xik'
or
or, by squaring,
294
(8.19)
(8.20)
or, due to Eqs. 8.18 and 8.19,
(fUi
Ui,kk =OR2
Substituting Eq. 8.21 into Eq. 8.16 we obtain the simple wave equation
(fUi
_2(fui
OR2 =c. ot2
(8.21)
(8.22)
The wave is called an equivoluminal wave, and has a spherical wavefront and a wave
speed equal to Ca. Note a consequence that any wave equation is transfonnable into a
simple wave equation if the spherical radial coordinate R is the only spatial variable
involved.
If the defonnation in such domain is irrotational, i.e.
(8.23)
ClliA; =0
or, by defmition of the rotation tensor (Eq. 2.48),
1
"2 (Ui,k - Uk,i) =0,
then the tensor Ui,k is symmetric, i.e.
(8.24)
Accordingly,
or
kk,i = Ui,kk
Substituting this equation into Eq. 3.66 we find
2 2
(fUi
cp V Ui = ot2
(8.25)
(8.26)
295
Wave Propagation
Comparing this equation with Eq. 3.111, we can say that it is a P-wave equation
governing each displacement component individually. In the same way as obtaining
Eq. 8.22, we can change this equation into the simple wave equation
a"Ui
-2 a"Ui
(8.27)
Therefore the wave is called an i"otational wave or a dilatational wave, has a spherical
wavefront, and the wave speed is Cpo
When each displacement component assumes the form
ui =dJVclnl - ct)
(8.28)
where di and ~ are unit vectors deftning the directions of motion and propagation,
respectively, the wave is a plane wave since the quantity Xini = constant describes a
plane with ni as its unit normal vector. The wave is propagating outward with the phase
velocity c. Introduce a new scalar
(8.29)
Y =xlnl-ct
Accordingly,
(8.30a)
(S.30b)
(8.3Oc)
or
(8.3Od)
(S.30e)
If
ni=di
(S.31)
296
(8.32)
COli =0
meaning that when the directions of motion and propagation are the same, the wave is
'irrotational'. On the other hand, if
nA, 0
(8.33)
=0
(8.34a)
=0
(8.34b)
meaning that the wave becomes 'equivoluminal' when the directions of motion and
propagation are orthogonal.
In the following three sections (Sections 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4) we shall derive a theory
for the propagation of waves in continua. The general conditions for wavefronts,
dynamic and kinematic jumps, and rays in any type of solids will be considered ftrst.
The derivation of a wavefront from a preceding wavefront will be made. Nonstationary
and stationary surfaces of discontinuity will be deftned. Then inhomogeneous isotropic
elastic media will be considered. Pressure and shear waves will be distinguished. The
relationship between a velocity jump at a wavefront and that at a preceding wavefront
will be derived, and subsequently specialized for homogeneous isotropic elastic solids.
Then the problem of reflection and transmission of waves from an arbitrary smooth
interface of two media will be considered. Finally, we shall treat the reflection of waves
from the bounding surface of a body for various types of boundary conditions. The
derivation (in Sections 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4) is based upon the work by Keller (1964).
8.2 WAVEFRONT AND JUMPS
Let V be an arbitrary domain with a piecewise boundary S in the four-dimensional
x,,-space in which the position vector components are
{~={;}
(8.35.)
{'tn.}
(Ji3
'ti4
-PVi
(8.35b)
Note that the subscript v runs from 1 to 4, i from 1 to 3, and Vi == au/dt. The equations
of motion (Eq. 2.10) can be written
297
Wave Propagation
tIV,V =-x.I
(8.36)
in which the comma-subscript for a derivative and Einstein summation conventions are
employed. Integrating the equation above over the hyperdomain V and applying Gauss's
divergence theorem (Eq. 1.88), we get
Is tjy~dS =- LXidV
(8.37)
where ~ is the outward unit normal to the hypersurface boundary S. This equation is
one of the most general forms of the equations of motion.
Consider two portions of V, i.e. VI and V2 which are so chosen that SI_2 is their
common boundary (see Fig. 8.5). The disturbance is taken as being in VI only. If ~
is the unit vector normal to SI-2 and outwards from VI' then -{. is the unit vector
normal to SI_2 and outwards from V2 For domains VI and V2, Eq. 8.37 gives
rtjy~dS + ~~
r tjy~dS =- J~rXidV
(8.38a)
rtjy~dS - ~~
r tjy~dS =- J~rXidV
(8.38b)
Noting that tjy is discontinuous on the hyperwavefront SI-2 and that the integrals in Eq.
8.37 are just summation of those for VI and V2 , the sum of Eqs. 8.38 gives
Jsr [tjy]~dS =0
1_ Z
SI_2'
(8.39a)
i.e.
[tjy] =t: - t~
(8.39b)
The supenninus C) and superplus (+) signs denote the quantity in the disturbed domain
Fig. 8.5
Hypersurface
SI-2
298
behind the wavefront, and that in the undisturbed domain in front of the wavefront,
respectively. Since Eq. 8.39a must hold for an arbitrary section of Sl-Z, we can conclude
that
[tivl~ =0
at all points of the surface of discontinuity. Equation 8.35b shows that this equation
is equivalent to
[crii]~j = [PVi]~
(8.40)
where i ,j = 1 to 3. If the hypersurface of the discontinuity is represented by
<1>(xi , t) =0
(8.41)
(8.42)
where
<1>.,=
a<1>
at'
Sl-Z
and the
[~:i] =0
(8.43)
as
Sl-Z'
ax"
-=u -
Now,
(8.44)
,.vas
ax"
as
(8.45)
-=N
Sl-2'
which implies that the vector [Ui.v] in the four-dimensional space is normal to any N v
Thus it must be normal to ~, i.e.
[U.I,V ]
=N.r
-,:~,
where <X; is a scalar (in the four-dimensional space). The equation above can be rewritten
more explicitly as
299
Wave Propagation
cI>.i
(S,47a)
2 -112
(S,47b)
[Vi] = (li(cI>.kcl>.k + cI
cI>.t
where i, j, k = 1 to 3. Detennining <l; from Eq. S,47b and substituting the result in
Eq. S,47a we fmd that, if cI>.t ::F- 0, then
[u . .] = [vi]cI>.i
'.J
cI>.t
(S,4S)
Suppose that we have solved Eq. S,41 for t as a function of Xi' Then we may
write
(S,49a)
cI>(Xi, t) == 'I'(x;) - t
So that the surface of discontinuity is given by
(S,49b)
'I'(xi) =t
The surface 'I'(Xi) = constant (in the physical xi-space) is a wavefront across which the
stress may be discontinuous at an appropriate instant of time. The function 'I'(Xi) is
known as the wavefront function. Accordingly, we can write
cI>.i ='I'.i
(S.50a)
'"
'Y.t
(S.50b)
=-1
d'l' = 1
(S.SOc)
dt
Figure S.6 shows wavefronts at times t and t + I1t spaced apart by a distance &, i.e.
Wavefront at t + M
3
Fig. S.6 Wavefronts at times t and t + 11t.
300
& =ellt
= elltni
dxi
-=en
dt
1
(8.51a)
(8.51b)
(8.51c)
(8.51d)
where e is the wave speed, and ni the unit vector nonnal to the wavefront, i.e.
'JI,i
-v'JI,j'JI,j
n.=_~
1
(8.52)
-1
-=e ds
dt
(8.53)
L\'JI =llt.
If we divide this equation by .!\xi' we get
'JI,i =L\t/.!\xi
(8.54a)
'JI,i 1
L\t =.!\xi
(8.54b)
or,
.dA=A.
,I
"',I dt
(8.55a)
or
dA A ,_"'.llf.
___
1'_,"
dt -
llf
.'Iftl.
't',J
(8.55b)
301
Wave Propagation
Since the equation above holds for any A (Xi), we can cancel A.i from both sides of it,
and obtain
'I'.i
'I'.i'l'.i
cni =--,
or, due to Eq. 8.52,
-2
'I'.i'l'.j =c
(8.56)
This equation, known as the Eiconal equation in geometrical optics, is a nonlinear frrst
order partial differential equation, the solutions of which yield possible wavefronts.
Using this equation in Eqs. 8.52, 8.54a and 8.55b, we fmd
(8.57a)
ni =C'l'.i
l1t
-1
-=c
n
Axi
I
dA
-=c2...A
.
dt
'1',1.'
(8.57b)
(8.57c)
or
dA
-=cnA.
dt
1.1
(8.57d)
or
dA
dxi
-=A.dt
.Idt
Incorporating the results above in Eqs. 8.40 and 8.48, we get, respectively
[<Jij]nj =-c[pvi ]
(8.57e)
(8.58a)
(8.58b)
Equation 8.58a is known as the dynamic jump condition, and characterizes the
momentum conservation across the wavefront, i.e. the jump in surface traction is
proportional to the jump in momentum. Equation 8.58b is known as the kinematic jump
condition.
Differentiating Eq. 8.57a with respect to t, we get
dn i
dt
de
d'l'.i
= dt'l'i+Cd/
302
_Ide
dt'
-=e -n-e
(8.59a)
"
KN.
e=e -Ide
-n-e
dt
fl
(8.59b)
where K and Ni are curvature and unit nonnal, respectively, of the ray. When e is
constant, Eqs. 8.59 give a constant ni and zero curvature meaning that the ray is straight.
Differentiating Eq. 8.57a with respect to Xi we find
or, due to Eq. 8.59b,
-2 de
e"'
.. = n','. - e -dt
T,"
(8.60)
ni,i
as
n . . =Lim! nB.dS
',' v-+ovJs"
(8.61)
in which V is the volume of the space containing a 'bundle' of rays, S the surface
Fig. 8.7 Same bundle of rays nonnal to wavefronts at times t and t +.1t.
303
Wave Propagation
completely enclosing V, and Bi the unit vector normal to S and outward from V. The
situation is depicted more clearly in Fig. 8.7. Note that the scalar product niBj on the
two ends and curved surface of S is
njB j =-1, on S(t)
(8.62a)
= 1, on
= 0,
S(t+.1t)
elsewhere
(8.62b)
(8.62c)
in which S(t) denotes the area of the wavefront at the time t. Incorporating Eqs. 8.62,
we can rewrite Eq. 8.61 as
n. .
','
S(t)c.1t
c-l dS (t)
(8.63)
=S(t)dt
The relationship between small areas of wavefronts at times to and t can be put as
(8.64)
where J(to,t) is the Jacobian of the mapping of areas of wavefronts normal to the same
group of rays, i.e.
;jknj(aX/aa) (axJap)
J (to, t) =
0
0
0
(8.65)
;jknj (aXj laa) (axklap)
where the superscript (0) denotes a quantity at the time to, and a and p are the parameters
of any wavefront. A point on the wavefront at the time t is located by the position
vector xj(a, P). In fact, we have already described this topic by Eqs. 1.100 and 1.101.
Substituting Eq. 8.64 into Eq. 8.63 yields
(8.66)
de)
=c-1(J-ldJ
dt - c -1 dt
(8.67a)
d 10g(Jlc)
dt
(8.67b)
=c
-1
c 2 (A
A
.) =dlog(AJlc)
,j
dt
"',J
(8.67c)
304
If all conditions are known at a wavefront for the time t, a subsequent wavefront
for t+M can be located easily by Eq. 8.51c, and rays normal to the subsequent
wavefront can be detennined by solving Eq. 8.59a. Such a solution exists wherever
the wavefronts are smooth. Besides its location, we may be interested also in magnitudes
of various jumps at the subsequent wavefront. Now we shall fonnulate equations
governing such magnitudes. We know that the displacement jump is always zero, i.e.
[ui ] =0
(8.68)
'Xi
'Xi
=[a~i f(xi,
=if +/
,/
'If
f(x i,
,IT,}
= [f)+ [f.,]'I',i
(8.69)
(8.70)
Differentiating Eq. 8.68 with respect to xi' and using Eq. 8.69, we find
[ui)
(8.71)
where Vi denotes the velocity jump as a continuously differentiable function of Xi' i.e.
Vi(Xi ) =[Vi (Xi' '1')]
(8.72)
The kinematic jump obtained earlier as Eq. 8.58b is identical to Eq. 8.71. The derivative
of the latter equation with respect to Xk gives
and in particular this implies
(8.73a)
(8.73b)
(8.73c)
or
[Vi,,]'I',i
=Vi,i -
[Vi)
(8.74a)
(8.74b)
Multiplying the equation above by 'I',i and incorporating the Eiconal equation, we obtain
[Vi,,] =C2(Vi,i'l',i - [vi)'I')
(8.75)
305
Wave Propagation
=Vi,j'l',i'l',j - Vk,k'l',i'l',i
8.74a yields for i =j,
[v .. ]\1(
=V . . - [v . . ]
,J
[Vk,k1'l',i'l',i
c 2(V-ltl.llf
.llf . 't' ,I 'Y
.llf .)
1,1
','
(8.76)
(8.77)
With the new definition of the velocity jump, we can write the dynamic and
kinematic jumps (Eqs. 8.58), respectively, as
(8.78a)
[CJij]nj =-cpVi
lUi) =-c-1Vinj
(8.78b)
[CJij]nj =0
(8.80a)
lUi) =CJ.inj
(8.80b)
and
(8.80c)
for some
CJ.i :: O.
(8.81b)
306
where cp and c. are as defined in Eqs. 8.12 and 8.14, respectively. The equation above
is an eigenequation with c 2 and Vj being eigenvalues and eigenvectors, respectively.
There are three eigensolutions. The first solution can be easily identified by observation,
i.e.
(8.82a)
an
V.=_J
J
c
p
=a 'I' .
(8.82b)
.J
where a is an arbitrary scalar. The second solution should have the eigenvector orthogonal to the first one (Eq. 8.82b), i.e.
(8.83a)
Vj'l',j =0
which makes Eq. 8.81b yield the eigenvalue as
(8.83b)
The third eigenvalue can be shown to be a duplicate of the second one. In case of Eqs.
8.82, the velocity jump is normal to the wavefronts, thus it is called a longitudinal or
compressive discontinuity and the speed cp is just that of P-waves, Eq. 8.12. In case
of Eqs. 8.83, the velocity jump is tangential to the surface of discontinuity, thus it is
called a transverse or shear discontinuity and the speed c. is just that of the S-waves
(Eq. 8.14). Moreover, the latter case also has a zero jump in dilatation (Eq. 8.78c)
which is another common feature in the classical theory of elastic S-wave propagation.
The equations of motion, Eq. 2.14, may be written in terms of displacements for
inhomogeneous isotropic elastic solids in the form
Vi,l =( CP- c. Uk,lei + c. Ui,kk +
2
2)
A,i
!l,k (
)
P
Uk,k + P Ui,k + Uk,i
(8.84)
Substituting Eqs. 8.71, 8.73 and 8.75 into the equation above yields
C2(Vi,j'l',j - [vi)'I')+ (c: - c;) [[Vk,k)'I',i + (Vk'l',k)
+c;[[Vi kl'l' k + (Vi'l' k)
"
(8.85)
(8.86)
c =c; in Eq. 8.85 and multiplying the result by 'I',i' then incorporating Eq. 8.77
2
Substituting Eq. 8.76 into the equation above, then incorporating Eq. 8.86, we get after
an extensive manipulation
Wave Propagation
307
a
'I',k a,k + 2p (P'l',k),k =0
(8.87)
Substituting Eqs. 8.57c and 8.67c into the equation above we fmd
da adlog(pJlc p ) 0
dt +
2dt
The solution to the equation above is
(pc~0 )"2
a =a o pCp r 1
(8.88)
(8.89)
where the superscript (0) denotes a quantity at an initial time to, and the terms without
any superscripts belong to a subsequent time t. Substituting Eq. 8.89 into Eq. 8.82b,
we can get the velocity jump at a subsequent wavefront as
0)112
(8.90)
Vk,i'l',k =-Vk'l',~
Multiplying the equation above by 'I',i we find
1
Vk,i'l',k'l',i =-"2 Vk('I',i'l'),k'
or, due to the Eiconal equation, Eq. 8.56,
(8.91)
2
Il,k
C.Vi
,''1',' + (2
cp - C.2) [VU]'!'i + C.2
(Vi'!')
k +-(Vi'l'
P "k + Vk'l' ,.) =0
(8.92)
,,
"
,,,
C;2~kVkJ
C;2~kVk)
(8.93)
(8.94)
Substituting Eqs. 8.57a, 8.57c and 8.67c into the equation above we fmd
dVi Vid 10g(J.Ll Ic.)
dt + 2dt
C.,kVkni =0
(8.95)
,,,,
308
=aNi + bBi
(8.96)
where Ni and Bi are unit normal and unit binonnal to the ray, respectively, and a and
b are scalars. Substituting Eq. 8.96 into Eq. 8.95, then incorporating Eq. 8.59b and the
Frenet-Serret fonnulas, Eqs 1.91 and 1.92, we get
-+
dt
2dt
where 't is the torsion of the ray, and
"(=a +ib
(8.97)
(8.98)
1"(I
0 _1)112
"(=111 ( c.~J
c~~
where
a=ao-
ei/j
and
(8.100)
c,'tdt'
Substituting Eq. 8.99 into Eq. 8.98 we find the velocity jump at a subsequent wavefront
for propagating shear waves, Eq. 8.96, to be
o oc.~0 -I)112
Vi =(V k Vk -o-J
or, smce
~=
pc"
(Ni cos a+ Bi sm a)
(8.101a)
(Nicosa+Bisina)
(8.101b)
c,~
00 )112
tanaO VioB io
V~N~
(8.102)
JJ
For a homogeneous domain, the rays are straight, thus a wavefront at a time t can
be constructed by advancing from the wavefront at a time to a distance c (t - to) along
a ray. Such construction of wavefronts, known as the Huyghen's principle, is illustrated
in Fig. 8.8, in which r l and rz are measured along rays, and ro along radii perpendicular
to the 'axis of revolution'. Essential geometric relations involved are
rg =r: sincjl'
(8.103a)
ro
(8.103b)
r l - r~ = rz - r: = c(t - to)
(8.103c)
The terms r l and rz are also known as the principal radii of curvatures of wavefronts.
309
Wave Propagation
8"-,
\ ::0 Wavefront
Wavefront at
at t
to
=7172sincll'dcII'de
(8.104b)
(8.105)
Moreover, it can be stated for the homogeneous case that pO = p, c~ = cp ' c~ = c., njo = nj,
Njo=Nj, Bjo=Bj, t=O and BO=B, thus Eqs 8.90 and 8.101 give
V.
7172
V.V=-V
II
7172 I I
(8.106)
This shows that the magnitude of a fteld variable at the wavefront decays as R-1 for
spherical waves (with radius R) and as 7- 112 for cylindrical waves (with radius 7).
8.4
In Sections 8.2 and 8.3, we have considered the propagation of waves in continuous
310
media. We shall now study the situation at an interface between two media with different properties. Let an interface S separating media A and B be represented by
Xi =Xi(a,~) where a and ~ are the parameters of the surface S. We assume that the
surface S is smooth, thus ax/iJa and ax/af3 are continuous in a and ~, and
Euk(aX/aa) (axkla~) O. At each point on S, the unique unit normal to S is given by
*"
Euk(aX/aa)
r. =
(axkla~)
In fact,
(S.107)
ax/aa and ax/a~ are two unique tangents to S. The positive direction of Ti is
(S.lOS)
The unit normal to a wavefront, in the direction of propagation, of the signal is (Eq.
S.57a)
ni(O) =co~~)
(S.109)
The magnitude of the signal is specified by VlO)(Xi), the jump in particle velocity across
a wavefront. For an incident S-wave we must have
(OlT ,(0) - 0
(S.110a)
ni'v
CO=c
i -,
sA
while for an incident P-wave we have
ijkn;U>V!O) = 0,
Co
= CpA
(S.110b)
Here CsA and CpA are, respectively, the speeds of shear and compressive waves in medium
A.
When the incident wavefront or rays meet the surface S, we can no longer be
assured that only the original shear or compressive wave is present in medium A, so
must allow both types of waves to be present in both media. If we denote the wavefronts
of these waves by
'j!V)(xJ
'jIv) and
.. ..{V>.. ..{V) _
=t,
(v
=1,2,3,4)
(S.111)
(v) _
.. ..{V)
(-
1 2 3 4)
'f',i'f',i-cv,n;-cv'l',i'v-",
(S.112)
~jl;nj 'VI;
=0
(S.113a)
(S.113b)
(S.113c)
Wave Propagation
311
nr>vr) = 0
c4 = CaB,
(8. 113d)
Thus V(l) and V(3) are the magnitudes of compressive signals in media A and B,
respectively, while 02) and V(4) are the magnitudes of shear signals in those respective
media. The waves for v = 1 to 2 in medium A are called reflected, and the waves for
v = 3 and 4 in medium B called transmitted.
At each instant of time the reflected and transmitted wavefronts emanate from the
intersection of the incident wavefront and S. We must then have, on such intersection
which is assumed sufficiently small,
'!I") =",,),
(v
=1,2,3,4)
(8. 114a)
.. .<~)aXi =, ..<?)aXi
'1'.' aa. '1'.' aa.
(8. 114b)
=...<?) axi
(8.114c)
.. .<~) aXi
ap
'1'"
'1'"
ap
ax
("A
(0)
("A aXi
(c"ni - Coni) ap =O.
Thus the vector in parentheses in the equations above must be in the direction Ti and
so there exist scalars a" such that
c"n~O)+a T.
n~,,)= co'
" .,
(v -1 2 3 4)
-",
(8.115)
The last equation implies that the five wave normals ni("), v = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and the
interface normal Ti are in the same plane, known as the plane of incidence. Introduce
a unit vector Ni , tangent to S in the plane of incidence, in such a way that the angle
eo between nlO) and Ti can be put in the form
ni(OTi = cos eo
(8. 116a)
(8. 116b)
with
1t
o:::;e o :::;'2
Similarly the angle ell between
(8.116c)
(8. 117a)
n~")N = sine
(8. 117b)
..
"
312
Taking the scalar product of each equation in Eq. 8.115 with Nj and Tj , we find that
(8.118a)
sin(60 -6V>
a =---y
sin 60
Since all Cy are greater than zero, Eq. 8.118a implies 0::;; 6y
the media in which each wave belongs, we can deduce
(8.118b)
::;;
(8. 119a)
1t
0::;; 63,6 4 ::;;'2
(8. 119b)
These angles and the relevant normal vectors are illustrated in Fig. 8.9. Equations 8.115
and 8.118 determine the normals nly ), in terms of the given incident wave normal nj(O),
and the surface normal Tj
N.
I
Medium A
Medium 8
Wave Propagation
313
Medium A
Medium B
\jIv)
and
sinE>=-,
(8.122)
cpA
It is clear that a reflected shear wave is possible for all angles of incidence of a
compressive signal. The various possibilities for transmitted waves can be deduced
easily by the reader.
Let P be a point at (XiO,tO) where S and the wavefronts meet. A neighborhood of
P is divided into seven 'angular' sectors S" by the five wavefronts, and interface S
which may be considered as two parts, S+ and S_, corresponding to t > to and t < to,
respectively (see Fig. 8.10). In the interior of each such sector the deformation and
stress fields are continuous. Denote by vi") and dij) the limits of Vi and C5ij as (Xi' t) ~ P
while remaining interior to the sector S". Then in obvious notations;
(8.123)
V~+)=V~6)_V~O)
(8.124)
314
But a velocity jump at a stationary surface must vanish (Eq. 8.79), i.e.
V~+)
, V~-)
, 0
= =
(8.125)
Vj(Y)
y=o
= L Vj(Y)
4
(8.126)
y=3
y=o
[cr~~1T. = L [cr~~1T.
"
y=3
"
(8.127)
Note that [dijl] in the equation above can be put in terms of v;v> due to the constitutive
relationship at the wavefronts, Eq. 8.81a.
In addition to the orthonormals T j and N j , we may recall the binormal (Eq. 1.90),
Bj =Eij"T/V"
(8.128)
which is tangent to S but normal to the plane of incidence. Now all wave normals can
be represented in terms of these unit base vectors as
nj(Y) =cos eyTj + sin eflj + (O)Bj
(8.129)
Using this representation in Eqs. 8.113, we find that the most general form for the
velocity jumps at various wavefronts is
(8.130a)
(8. 130b)
VP)
(8.130c)
(8.13Od)
and for the incident signal (Eqs. 8.110), which is assumed known, is
Vj(O) =a.ocoseOTj
+ a.osin epj'
(co =cpA)
(8.130e)
or
(8.1300
At this stage one may note that the task is to determine six unknowns (Xl> {lz, ~,
(X4' Pz and P4 from six linear equations, Eqs. 8.126 and 8.127. The task can be organized
by rewriting Eqs. 8.129 and 8.130 as
(8.131)
VjM =bylTj + by.JVj
+ bv/J j
(8.132)
in which aYj and bYj are as defmed in Table 8.1. Accordingly and due to Eq.8.81a, we
can write the following
(8.133)
where
Wave Propagation
315
Table S.l
O-vj
j = 1
j=2
j=3
cos eo
sin eo
1
2
3
4
cose l
cose2
cose3
cose4
sinel
sine2
sine3
sine4
0
0
0
0
byj
j = 1
j=2
j=3
Cy
~coseo
~sineo
CpA
~sineo
Po
CsA
CpA
~sine2
-<Xocoseo
(Xl sinel
--<l:z cos e 2
~COSe3
~sine3
CpB
~sine4
~COSe4
P4
C.B
v=
o (P-wave)
o (S-wave)
v=
1
2
3
4
(Xl cose l
P2
CsA
(S.134a)
(S.134b)
(S.134c)
in which it should be understood that A= AA and Il = IlA for v = 0, 1,2; and A=AB and
Il =IlB for v = 3,4. Equations S.126 and S.127 become, respectively
b lj + b2j - b3j - b4j =-boj
(S.135a)
(S.135b)
=3 assume simple
(S.136a)
(S.136b)
blj+b2j-b3j-b4j=-boj,
U=1,2)
(S.136c)
U = 1,2)
(S.136d)
316
Equations 8.136a and 8.136b yield the values of ~ and f34' which exist only for an
incident S-wave, as
A. _ A. [(~A/co)cos60-(~B/C4)cos6.J
....2- ....0
L\
A.
....4 = f30
L\
(8.137a)
(8. 137b)
where
~B
~A
L\E-cos6 --cos6
C4
4 C2
2
(8.138)
In the meantime, Eqs. 8.136c and 8.136d form a set of four linear equations for
determining <Xl to <X4 as
sin 62
-cos 63
cos 6 1
sin 6 1
-cos62
-sin63
- PACI cos 262 -PAc2sin262 PB C3 cos 264
~A 26
--sm
Cl
1
~B 263
-sm
C3
(8. 139a,b)
(8. 139c,d)
(8. 140a,b)
(8. 14Oc,d)
K3 =-PAc2sin262 , K4=-PAC2cos262
These results agree formally with the appropriate special cases in the book by
Ewing, Jardetzky and Press (1957) where the case of plane stress waves incident on
plane interfaces is treated.
We shall now consider reflection at boundaries. The bounding surface of a medium
can be considered as a special case of an interface. Now, however, there are no
transmitted signals and specific conditions are to be imposed on the displacements and/or
stresses at the surface. These conditions serve to replace the jumps specified on an
interface.
If all three displacement components are specified at the boundary,
vj(O)
317
Wave Propagation
= Cl and 90 = 1t - 9 1,
sin 290
Co
Co
(8. 142a)
~2 = 0
cos(9 l - 9 0)
<Xz = <Xo cos(9 l + 90)'
~2 = -~o
(8. 142b)
ci
<Xz=<Xo Cl2cos2292-C22'
. 290 '
sm 292sm
(8. 143a)
~=O
_ (-c;
<Xz - <Xo
ci
If the normal stress component and two tangential displacement components are
specified on the boundary,
then
318
=-<Xo,
~=o,
Pz=O
(8. 144a)
Pz = -/30
(8. 144b)
<<It = 0,
~ = 0,
Finally, if the nonnal displacement component and the two tangential stress
components are specified,
(Ok.
(3k.
bed
.
Vi "1 i
Vi "1 i prescn
quantity,
= =
cf:>r/Vi =cfJ>r/Vi =prescribed quantity,
ct:>rIJi =cfJ>rIJi =prescribed quantity,
then
<<It =0,
~=O,
Pz=O
(8.14Sa)
Pz = -/30
(8. 14Sb)
<<It = 0,
~ = -<Xo,
II
=8..AekA;0 + 2~0 + 8 ..
II
II 0+
A(t - S )dkA;(s ) + 2
0+
Il(t - s )dev(s )
(8.146)
in which the subscript (0) denotes t O. Implicitly, it has been assumed in Eq. 8.146
that the functions A(t) and Il(t) are not singular at t O. Thus this equation does not
hold if the constitutive relationship is characterized by a mechanical model which
contains a 'free' dashpot in parallel with other mechanical elements. In other words,
the case which is characterized by a generalized Maxwell model (Fig. 7.5) with '110 0
is not applicable to Eq. 8.146 nor the derivation to follow. For a point at a wavefront,
t in Eq. 8.146 is zero since the material there has been disturbed for a zero duration.
Then the same equation gives a relation among jumps as follows
[O'ji] 8jiA,,[kA;] + 21lo[ev]
(8.147)
319
Wave Propagation
(8.148)
which is the same as Eq. 8.81a if initial values of Lame's functions are used there.
Thus like isotropic elastic solids, there can be two types of waves propagating in isotropic viscoelastic solids, i.e. the P-waves characterized by Eqs. 8.82 and S-waves by
Eqs. 8.83, while the wave speeds are
C __ ~~+21lo
C.
(8.149)
=...JJ.1oIp
(8.150)
Recalling the Leibnitz's rule, Eq. 1.137, the time derivative ofEq. 8.146 is obtained
as
(8.151)
where the prime () denotes a derivative with respect to t. At a wavefront, t in Eq.
8.151 is zero, so the same equation gives a relation among jumps as
[<Jij"l =~ij~[Ekk] + 2~[~) + ~ijAu[Ekk"l + 21lo[Eij,l]
Xm ,
(8.152)
(8.153)
(8.154)
='''''0
'} [E.....] + 21ruL(P ...] + '''0"
'} .[E....] + 211 .. [E.. ]
Mo,'
~J.J
Mo
M,}
'J
(8.155)
Due to the equation of motion, <Jij,j =PVi", and the strain definition, Ev =(Ui,j + uj,i)/2,
the equation above can be rewritten as
[Vi ,]
,
=(C 2 p
"M>
,A
A,
(8.156)
320
Substituting Eqs. 8.71, 8.73 and 8.75 into this equation we find
CZ(ViJ"'.i - [Vi)"') + (C: - C;) [[Vk,k1"',i + (Vk"',k)
(8.158)
in which vt is the velocity jump for elastic solids (Eq. 8.90 or Eq. 8.101b depending
on the wave type), and
n
=~+2~
Ao+2~'
=-,
~
for P-waves
(8. 159a)
for S-waves
(8. 159b)
Normally, n is negative, hence the decay of the velocity jump as the propagation
proceeds is more than that in elastic solids by an exponential factor. For a homogeneous
domain, it can be shown that
TITz
.. 0
VV.
=-exp[n(t
- to)] v,I IV.
II
TITz
(8.160)
in which the superscript (0) denotes a quantity at the time to. and T .. Tz are principal
radii of wavefronts as depicted in Fig. 8.8 and defmed in Eqs. 8.103.
For the reflection and transmission at interfaces and boundaries, the derivation in
Section 8.4 is also applicable to isotropic viscoelastic solids if initial (t =0) values of
A. and J.1 are used instead in all equations involved.
8.6 IN-PLANE HARMONIC SURFACE WAVES
In this section, we shall consider the harmonic vibration of isotropic elastic planes
of the same geometry as Section 6.2 where statics of planes with ~ < x < 00 was
considered. Knowing that the solution of a plane stress problem with a Poisson's ratio
equal to v/(1- v) can be obtained from its corresponding plane strain problem with a
Poisson's ratio v, we shall derive in this section only for plane strain cases. The
equations of motion, in terms of displacements and in the absence of the real body
Wave Propagation
321
force, can be specialized from Eq. 6.1 by taking Xj there as the D' Alembert's force.
The resulting equations in explicit symbols are
ifu
ifu
ifv
ifu
(A. + 21l) ox 2 + Il oy2 + (A. + Il) oxoy =p ot 2
(8.161a)
ifv
ifv
ifu
ifv
(8.161b)
where p is the mass density. For a 'discrete' harmonic wave which is outgoing in the
x -direction parallel to the surfaces and the stratification of the plane, the displacement
functions can be put in the form
u(x,y,t) =u(y)el(OlI-kz)
(8. 162a)
v(x,y, t) = v(y )ei(OlI-kz)
(8. 162b)
where ro and k are angular frequency and wavenumber, respectively. The derivation
to follow is mainly concerned with the determination of the wavenumber while there
is no applied traction in the plane. In other words, we are looking for what is commonly
known as a harmonic surface wave of Rayleigh type (J. W. Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, 1887).
Substituting Eqs. 8.162 into Eqs. 8.161 we find
_ 112 u
11;
+~ d 2u _i11(~-~)dV =-u
11~ dy2
11; 11~ dy
(8.163a)
(8. 163b)
We call 11p and 11. dimensionless wavenumbers of body waves. The solution to Eqs.
8.163 takes the form
u(y)=AeUY ,
v(y)=Beay
(8. 165a,b)
322
(8.167a,b)
Thus
(8.168)
For each a, the eigenvector involved can be detennined from Eq. 8.166, and Eqs. 8.165
become
u(y)=Ae
"""-y
P
"'-y
+Ce
-a y a y
iap ("",,-y
",-y) i1'\ ( -a JI
a JI)
v(Y)=--lAe P -Ce P --lBe ' -De'
1'\
a.
(8. 169a)
(8. 169b)
where A, B, C and D are arbitrary constants. If 1'\p < 1'\ < 1'\., it is more convenient to
write the equations above as
-pJl
a JI
u(y) =Ae
+Ce P +B cosa.y +D sina.y
(8. 170a)
ia(
)i1'\
v(y) =--\Ae-PJl _CeI1>JI -=-(D cosa.y -B sina.y)
1'\
a.
(8. 170b)
where
(8.171)
If 1'\ < 1'\p < 1'\., the solution fonn should be modified further for the sake of convenience
as
(8. 172a)
u (y) =A cos (lpy + C sin (lpy + B cos (laY + D sin (l.y
iap
i1'\
v(y) =-(C cosapy -A sinapy)-=-(D cosa.y -B sina.y)
1'\
a.
(8. 172b)
where
(8.173)
The arbitrary constants A, B, C and D in the various solutions are to be detennined
from boundary conditions in the same manner as described for statics in Section 6.2.
However, the present case is an eigenvalue problem, since we are investigating the
possible existence of harmonic vibration without any applied traction. For a plane of
N layers each having a finite dimension in the y-direction, the fonnulation leads to a
set of 4N linear homogeneous equations in 4N unknown arbitrary constants; Al to AN'
BI to BN, C1 to CN, and DI to D N. The eigenvalue 1'\ of this problem is obtained in the
usual way, i.e. by setting the detenninant of the set of equations to zero, leading to the
following equation
(8.174)
Roots of the equation above are commonly known as dimensionless Rayleigh wavenumbers and will be denoted by 1'\R.
323
M'avePropaganon
The simplest Rayleigh wave problem is probably the case of a homogeneous half
plane with -00 < x < 00, 0 S Y < 00. The most convenient solution fann is given by Eqs.
S.169, in which C and D must vanish for boundedness of the solution of the wave as
y tends to infinity. The boundary conditions for this case are
(S.175)
G,,(x,O) =0, G..,(x,O) =0
which leads to the following set of homogeneous equations
(S.176)
Consequently, the famous Rayleigh wave equation for a homogeneous isotropic elastic
half plane is obtained as
FR(Tl) == (2Tl2_Tl~)2 -4Tl2a p (Tl)a.(Tl) =0
(S.177)
The equation above can be further nondimensionalized by introducing
(S.17Sa)
Tlp c. _ fl=2V
y= Tl. = cp = -" 2<1=V)
(S.17Sb)
1.15
1.14 r-....
1.13
1.12
I. I I
11
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
113
0.4
0.45
0.5
(1.10
~1.09
"-
1.08
1.07
1.06
1.05
1.04
0.1
0.2
Poisson
0.3
S
Ratio
'?RI,?s
1.144123
1.131613
1.119688
1.108378
1.0977
1.087664
1.078269
1.072357
1.061351
1.053786
1.046778
0.4
tJ
'"'"
0.5
324
where 1lR is the root of Eq. 8.177, i.e. the dimensionless Rayleigh wavenumber for a
homogeneous isotropic elastic half plane. Substituting Eqs. 8.178 into Eq. 8.177 we
find
(8.179)
Due to the absence of the frequency ro in Eq. 8.179, we can say that the Rayleigh wave
in this case is nondispersive. Rationalizing Eq. 8.179 by squaring we find
the Oliginal equation, Eq. 8.179, while the other two values are spurious, arising from
the squaring. Moreover, since the wave must not be incoming as y tends to infinity,
the correct value of S2 must be a positive real quantity and greater than unity, so that
(8.181a)
cR < C. < cp
(8.181b)
where CR is the Rayleigh wave velocity =aro/1lR' Results for various values of the
Poisson's ratio v are presented in Fig. 8.11.
Next to be considered is the occurrence of another special type of Rayleigh waves.
The material domain in this case consists of two different half planes, perfectly bonded
together as shown in Fig. 8.12. The displacement functions given for a general case
should be modified to suit the present case as
(8.182a)
(8. 182b)
I----rx
o
y
325
Wave Propagation
(8.182c)
(8. 182d)
in which the subscript 1 denotes the material domain where --00 < Y S 0, and the subscript
2 for 0 S Y < co. The boundary conditions are
u1(0)
O'YJll(X,O)
=Uz(O),
=O'YJl2(X, 0),
v1(0) =vZ<O)
O'..,l(X,O)
(8.183a,b)
=0'..,2(X, 0)
(8. 183c,d)
2 2 R 2
R 2 2
2
2 R, 2 2
(11 - 1-'111.1- I-'211.J +11 (lpl(lp2(l.1(l.2 - (lpl(lal(11 - pz11.J
(8. 184a)
Or
S2(S2 -
/31/33 -
(8.184b)
in which the dimensionless quantities defined by Eqs. 8.164 and 8.178b have been used
in the process, and
(8. 185a,b)
(8.185c,d,e)
Observing the absence of the frequency in Eq. 8.184b, we can say that this particular
surface wave is nondispersive. Stoneley (1924) made a thorough investigation on the
subject, thus gained the recognition in having it named as the Stoneley wave. Koppe
(1948) solved Eq. 8.184b numerically and concluded that
11.1,11.2 < 11R
< 11Ri
(8.186)
where 11Ri is the greater Rayleigh wavenumber among those obtained separately (by
solving Eq. 8.177) for each of the constituent homogeneous half planes. Other analyses
were given by Love (1911, 1926), Sezawa and Kanai (1939), Scholte (1947) and
Cagniard (1962). There can be at most one Stoneley wave. While Love showed that
this wave could exist under the stringent condition that the S-wave velocities of the two
constituent half planes were nearly equal, Cagniard found a more general condition for
such existence. Without loss of generality, that condition (by Cagniard) can be restricted
326
to the case where i3:J < 1, then put in the following fonn
-(/33 + /34 - 2i + (/34 - 2)2[(1-/33i)(I-/33)] lIZ + /33/3i(1-Yz)(I-/33)]11Z < 0
(8.187)
Equation 8.187 should serve as a quick check for the existence, while Eq. 8.186 as a
good guide for quick computation of the Stoneley wavenumber from Eq. 8.184b.
8.7 ANTIPLANE HARMONIC SURFACE WAVES
Now consider the possible existence of harmonic surface waves in antiplane
problems; these are commonly known as Love waves. We suppose the plane is infInitely
extended in the x-direction; displacement components are independent of z; u and v
vanish; waves propagate in x-direction; and the equation of motion is
C;V2W =~~
(8.188)
This equation has Eq. 6.9 as its statical counterpart, and has a solution of the fonn
w(x,y ,t)
=w(y
)ei(0lI-1JX)
(8.189)
where 11 is the dimensionless wavenumber as defmed in Eq. 8.164a, and x and y have
been nondimensionalized by a constant a of length dimension. Proceeding in the same
manner as the in-plane problem in the preceding section, we fInd
w(y)=Be-a,)/ +Dea.,)/
(8.190)
where a.(11) is as defIned in Eq. 8.167b. If 11 < 11.. it is more convenient to rewrite Eq.
8.190 as
w(y)
(8.191)
where a.(11) is as defmed in Eq. 8.171. In either fonn, the constants B and D are to
be detennined from boundary conditions, as in Section 8.6. For a plane of N layers
each having a fInite dimension in the y-direction, the fonnulation leads to a set of 2N
homogeneous equations in 2N unknown arbitrary constants; Bl to BN , and Dl to DN
Setting the detenninant of that set of equations to zero, we fInd the Love wave equation
FL (11) =0
(8.192)
Roots of the equation above are commonly known as dimensionless Love wave numbers
and will be denoted by 11L'
It can be shown that there is no Love wave in a homogeneous half plane, nor in
a full plane consisting of two different half planes as shown in Fig. 8.12. The simplest
Love wave problem is probably the case of a layered half plane as shown in Fig. 8.13.
Employing a subscript 1 for the upper layer where -h/a S y SO, and subscript 2 for the
underlying half plane where 0 S Y < 00; we fmd that the solution assumes the following
fonn
(8. 193a)
327
Wave Propagation
=w2(0),
O'yrl(X, 0)
O'yrl(x,-hla)
=O'yr2(X,0)
=0
(S.194a,b)
(S.194c)
B2=Bl
1lz<l.2
fll<l.l
J{Bl} {O}
Dl
=0
(S.195b)
1lz<l.2
fll<l.l
FL (11) == tan(<lsih1a)--=-=0
(S.196)
(S.197a,b)
where CL is the Love wave velocity =aco/11L' This shows that there is no Love wave
in a layered half plane if the shear wave velocity in the upper layer is greater than that
328
60
55
50
45
40
35
'7L 30
h/a = I
25
20
15
~2/CSI = 1.297
u.
'2
'1
=2.159
3 rd. mode
10
2nd. mOdi
1st. mode
/1-1-
'7S2
(a) First six modes of vibration.
9~~----------~----~1
h/a = I
= 1.297
'I'-
CS2 /C SI
II
-3
-6
-9+-~.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-~.-.-.-~
10
10.4
10.8
11.2
11.6
12
12.4 12.8
'7
(b) Example plotting of FL (1\) v.S 1\.
Fig. 8.14 Love wavenumbers for a layered half plane.
329
Wave Propagation
in the underlying half plane. In fact. the Love wave function FL(TI) in this case is
discontinuous and singular, if
ao1h1a = n1tl2, (n = 1,3,5, ... ),
or
TI=[TI!1-(n2':JJI2,
(8.198)
Conditions stipulated by Eqs. 8.197a and 8.198 should serve as good guides for quick
computation of values of TIL from Eq. 8.196. An example problem has been solved,
and its Love wavenumbers of the fIrst six modes of vibration are presented in Fig. 8.14.
The higher the mode, the closer the derivative of FL(TI) with respect to TI tends to
infInity. Extensive quantitative information on the phase and group velocities of this
type of Love wave can be seen in the book by Ewing, Jardetzky and Press (1957).
8.8 VIBRATION OF MULTILAYERED SPACES
In this section, we shall consider three-dimensional problems of harmonic vibration
of isotropic elastic spaces of the same geometry as Section 6.3 where statics of spaces
with 0 ~ r < 00 is considered. The displacement functions of the present case take the
form
u,(r, a,z ,t)
Us(r,a,z,t)
=u,(r ,a,z)eitol
=Us(r,a,z)e lliJl
u,(r,a,z,t) = u.(r,a,z)e
(8.199a)
(8. 199b)
(8. 199c)
lliJl
The equations of motion, in terms of the displacements and in the absence of real body
force, are given by Eqs. 3.67, namely
1a
+ ~V U, -
oeUe) =-ro2pu,
u, 2 0
r2 - r2
..r
VZ 2 au, Us)
2
+ ~ Us + r2 oe - r2 =-ro PUs
+ Ilv2u, =-ro2PUr
(8.200a)
(8.200b)
(8.200c)
where kk(r,a,Z) is the shape function of the dilatation, i.e. Eq. 2.72. Harkrider (1964)
introduced potentials ~, 'I' and X so that
-1
a u,(r,a,z)
-1
a Us(r, a,z)
OZ'P lOx
= or +oroz +;:-oa
1 ~ 1 OZ'P
Ox
(8.201a)
(8.201b)
330
~ V2
(fqI
'1'+ az 2
-I
a u.(r,e,z) =az-
(8.201c)
(8.202a)
V2'P=-1'\~
(8.202b)
V 2X=-1'\!X
(8.202c)
here a constant a of length dimension has been used to nondimensionalize the spatial
variables r and z, and 1'\p and 1'\. are dimensionless frequencies or body wavenumbers
as defined in Eqs. 8.164b and c. Using Hooke's law, we can express the stress components in terms of these potentials as
()2<I> a3'P 2a'P 21'\! -1'\~ )
(8.203a)
cr (r,e,z) = 21. az2 + az3 +1'\. az+
2
<I>
(8.203b)
()2<I>
a3'P
2a'P 1 ()2X )
crrz(r,e,z)=~2azar +2az2ar +1'\. ar +;:-azae
(8.203c)
a (r
9z
e z) ={
,
.I
The other three stress components can also be expressed in terms of these potentials.
As in the elastostatics of layered spaces in Chapter VI, the potentials can be expressed
in the form of Fourier series with respect to e and Hankel transforms with respect to
r as
(8.204a)
'P(r,e,z)=Lcosme
m
x(r,e,z) = Lsinme
m
Jor-'(z,1'\)Jm(T\f)d1'\
(8.204b)
(8.204c)
Jor- uAr,Z,1'\)d1'\
(8.205a)
r- u (r,z, 1'\)d1'\
(8.205b)
r- u.(r,Z,1'\)d1'\
(8.205c)
(8.205d)
a-1ur(r,e,z)=Lcosme
m
a-1ue(r,e,z) = Lsinme
Jo
a-1u.(r,e,z) = Lcosme
Jo
Wave Propagation
331
O'o.(r, e, z) = Lsinme
m
r- o-o.(r, z, 1'\)d1'\
Jo
(S.205e)
(S.205f)
where
~
[ d lm(1'\r)
Jm(1'\r)]
u,(r,z,1'\)=1'\ UR(Z,1'\) d(1'\r) +mvL(z,1'\)--;V:-
(S.206a)
~
[
Jm(1'\r)
dlm(1'\r)]
u a(r,z,1'\) =1'\ -mu R(z,1'\)--;V:--V L(Z,1'\) d(1'\r)
(S.206b)
(S.206c)
(S.206d)
[
Jm(1'\r)
dlm(nr)]
O'o.(r, z, 1'\) = 1'\ -m'tiz, 1'\)--;V:-- 'tL(Z, 1'\) d(1'\r)
(S.206e)
[ d lm(1'\r)
Jm(nr)]
O',..(r,z,1'\) =1'\ 'tR(Z,1'\) d(nr) +m'tL(z,1'\)--;V:-
(S.206f)
- d'P
uR(z,1'\)=cI>+&
(S.207a)
deb d2qt
2WR(Z,1'\) = dz + dz2 + 1'\.'
(S.207b)
in which
d 2eb d 3'P
2d'P
2 2 eb]
O'R(Z, 1'\) = 2~ dz2 + dz3 +1'\. &+ (21'\p -1'\')2
2-)
(S.207c)
deb
d2qt
'tR(z,1'\)=~2&+2 dz2 +1'\.'
(S.207d)
vL(z,1'\)=X
(S.20Sa)
dX
'tL(Z, 1'\) = Il dz
(S.20Sb)
The equations governing eb(z, 1'\), 'P(z, 1'\) and X(z, 1'\) can be obtained by substituting
Eqs. S.204 into Eqs. S.202, i.e.
(S.209a)
(S.209b)
332
~~ = <X~(11)X
(8.209c)
where <Xp(11) and <X.(11) are as defmed in Eqs. 8.167. The solution to Eqs. 8.209, which
are ordinary differential equations, is simple, i.e.
cb = A~e-0,.- + B~e~-
(8.210a)
'it=A.pe-iX,z +B.pea,z
(8.210b)
X=-\e-iX, + Bxea,z
(8.21Oc)
where A~, B~, Av , Bv , -\ and Bx are arbitrary constants. If 11p < 11 < 11., it is more
convenient to write Eqs. 8.210b and c as
(8.211a)
(8.211b)
where a.(11) is as defmed in Eq. 8.171. If 11 < 11p < 11., Eq. 8.21Oa should be modified
also for the sake of convenience as
cb=A~cosapz +B~sinapz
(8.212)
where ai11) is as defmed in Eq. 8.173. The arbitrary constants are to be determined
from boundary conditions. For a space of N layers each having a finite dimension in
the z-direction, the formulation leads to a set of 6N linear equations in 6N unknown
arbitrary constants; A~l to A~N' B~l to B~N' AV1 to AVN , BV1 to BvN , -\1 to AxN, and BX1
to B xN As an example, consider the interface at z = Z,,_l between the layers n -1 and
n. If there are no any applied tractions at this interface, the relevant conditions are the
continuity of
Noting, in Eqs. 8.206, that
dJm(nr)
Jm(nr)
and - d(nr)
11 r
are independent of each other we see that these conditions can be expressed (for z = Zn-1)
as
(8.213)
(8.214)
in which the subscripts n -1 and n denote the respective layers. Deliberately, the last
333
Wave Propagation
two equations are put separately to show that ~ and ' appear together in a set of four
equations, while X appears separately in another set of two equations. Deserving notice
is that these equations are independent of Fourier series hannonic m. Only the R-set
of equations, which is for ~ and ', exists in the axisymmetric (torsion free) case where
Ue =0 and all functions are independent of e.
For torsion about the z-axis, Ur and U. must vanish, all functions are independent
of e, and the only non-trivial equation of motion is
~Ug(r,z)=--11!Ug(r,z)
=1.
(S.21S)
(S.216)
L-
(S.217)
where
(S.21S)
Now, if we change symbols as follows: ue into X( == VL), and aa. into 'tL' we can write
boundary conditions in the identical fonn as the L-set of equations of the general case.
In other words, only the L-set of equations exists in this 'pure torsion' case. Substituting
Eq. S.216 into Eq. S.21S we obtain an ordinary differential equation of the second order
with respect to z, with the solution
(S.219)
(S.220)
u e(z,l1)
or
Ue(z, TJ)
(r -+00)
(S.221b)
aa.(r,z,TJ)=-TJ't L(z,l1)Jm_l(W),
(r -+00)
(S.221c)
a .. (r,z,TJ)=TJ't R (z,l1)Jm_l(TJr),
(r -+00)
(S.221d)
These equations show the separability of boundary conditions into R and L sets of
equations. Moreover, we can treat the problem as two separate problems; one being
associated with potentials ~ and ', and another with X only.
334
or Ym(11T)
or H2)(l1r)
or H~)(l1r).
and H~)(l1Lr),
respectively. It should be noted that the effects of the Love waves on 'axisymmetric'
functions (associated with potentials <I> and 'P), e.g.
and
O'er
The complete solution to problems of forced vibration consists of the surface wave
functions already discussed and also the Cauchy's principal values (Spiegel, 1963) of
the infmite integrals, Eqs. 8.204. The integrands of these infmite integrals are naturally
singular at the values of the surface wavenumbers. Unfortunately, none of the existing
solutions for multilayered spaces are in such a form that a detailed investigation of the
associated infmite integrals is possible. Jardetzky (1953) made an attempt to answer
some of the important questions associated with these integrals without obtaining a
complete solution to the problem. But the problems considered by Jardetzky were
axisymmetric, so only Rayleigh waves were discussed. Later, Press, Harkrider and
Seafeldt (1961) developed, for multilayered half spaces, a computer algorithm to
determine the roots of Rayleigh and Love wave equations, Eqs. 8.174 and 8.192,
respectively. The number and values of these roots play an important role in the solution
approach, since they are poles of the integrands when evaluating the infmite integrals
by means of appropriate contours in a complex plane. Furthermore, such a process
involves branch line integrals. Jardetzky ventured to make a general conclusion that,
in all cases of wave propagation from a point source in a half space formed by parallel
layers displaying different elastic properties, all expected branch line integrals vanished
335
Wave Propagation
except the one corresponding to the branch points (11, and 11.) of the underlying half
space. Thus each potential was obtained in the fonn of a sum of two parts, of which
the frrst part represented a discrete spectrum of surface waves and the second a continuous spectrum given in the fonn of a branch line integral. This important point (by
Jardetzky) will be scrutinized further.
Fonnally, the C.P.V. (Cauchy's principal value) of each infinite integral in Eqs.
8.204 can be obtained by means of appropriate contours in the plane of the complex
variable ~ (Churchill, 1960), i.e.
~=l1+i~.
These contours bypass branch points and poles on the real axis 11. Branch points are
at ~ = n. and n" while poles are at ~ = nR or nL' The C.P.V. obtained in such a
way contains continuous spectra of body waves and discrete surface waves. Each surface
wave is directly associated with the residues at a particular surface wavenumber (or two
opposite poles). However, these surface waves do not assume the outgoing nature for
large r. Thus a superposition upon such a surface wave by another surface wave of
the same wavenumber is needed to make that particular wave to be in the fonn of
H~)(l1Rr)
or H~)(l1Lr),
e,
J.l, (OSr<1)
(8.223a)
(8.223b)
(J... (r,e,O)=
=J.l
l-
J 1(11)Jo(l1r )d11
(8.224)
336
e, 0) =J.1
i0
(8.225)
(8.226)
e, 0) =CJ1/S(r, e, 0) cos e
(8.227)
In view of Eqs. 8.205 to 8.208,8.222,8.223 and 8.225 to 8.227, we can set m 1, and
CJR (O,l1) 0
(8.228a)
(8.228b)
=J.111- 1Jl(11)
(8.229)
'tL(O, 11)
Substituting Eqs. 8.207c and d into Eqs. 8.228, and using Eqs. 8.210a and b (with
-2a p
AJ = 11- J (11)J
1
(8.230)
(8.231)
(8.232a)
A _ (2112-11~)Jl(11)
'" l1FR(l1)
(8.232b)
ib-
J 1(11)
(8.233)
~ =- 11a. (11)
where FR(l1) is the Rayleigh wave function identical to that of the in-plane problem,
i.e. Eq. 8.177. We can, consequently, say again that there exists a Rayleigh wave but
not a Love wave for the vibration of a homogeneous half space. Subsequently, we can
write Eqs. 8.204 in the fonn
. . . ( e)=
..,r,
'(
,z
cos
(2
2)1 (
)I ( )
-,(II)'
l1R11
11
(8.234a)
d11
(8.234b)
Wave Propagation
337
. i-
J 1(Tl)11 (Tlr)e-a,(11).
(8.235)
(. )
dTl
o
Tl<X,\Tl
Now, our immediate task is to determine the Cauchy's principal value (C.P.V.) of each
infmite integral in the equations above. For that in Eq. 8.234a and r> 1, consider the
complex integrand
x(r,e,z) =-sme
2~(l6(~)11 (~)H~I)(~)e-a,(I;).
FR(~)
d~
(8.236)
and use the dual integral contours recommended by Lamb (1904) as depicted in Fig.
8.15, where ~ is the complex variable, i.e.
~ = Tl + i~
(8.237)
Consistent values of radical quantities (lp(~) and (l.(~) are also indicated on various parts
of the contours. The integrand in question vanishes on the integral paths where I~I -+ 00.
Thus, according to the residue theorem of complex variables, the contour C1 gives
r-2Tla.(Tl)11(Tl)H~I)(Tlr)e
-a,(Il)' dTl
Jo
= 1ti2TlR(l.(TlR)11(TlR)H~I)(TlRr)e-a,(IlR)'
F~(TlR)
FR(Tl)
. r-2i~(l.(i~)11 (i~)H~I)(ig)e-a,~'
+1 Jo
FR(i~
d~
- -- -
CI)
tI
...
c..
tI
CI)
tI
...
c..
tI
Fig. 8.15 Integral contours for 4>(r,e,z) and 'Y(r,e,z), Eqs. 8.234.
(8.238)
338
where
(8.239)
On the other hand, the contour C2 gives
1-
--------dl1-
l-l'lp211as(11)Jl (l1)H[l)(l1r )e
~~
-,(11)'
~~
dl1
-'(-I'IR)'
. r-2i~a6(i~)Jl(i~)H[1)(ig)ea.,.r~. ~
+1 Jo
F R(i~)
d..,
(8.240)
where
(8.241)
Due to the analytic continuation, Eq. 1.114e, we can have identities involving Hankel
functions of negative arguments as follows
H~)(-l1)
=-H~)(l1),
(m
=0,2,4, 6, ... )
(8.242a)
= H~)(l1),
(m
=1,3,5,7, ... )
(8.242b)
Subsequently, rewriting Eq. 8.240 to involve only positive limits of integration and
positive arguments of functions we fmd
r-211a..(11)Jl(11)H?)(l1r)e -,(11)< dl1 = _1ti211 Ra s (l1R)Jl(l1R)H?)(l1Rr)e
Jo
F R(l1)
-,(IIR)
F'R(l1R)
lip 211a
Jllp
F R(l1)F R(l1)
. r-2i~a..(iWl(i~[1)(ig)ea.,.(~
+1 Jo
FR(i~)
d~
Adding Eqs. 8.238 and 8.243 together, and using Eqs. 1.113a and b, we get
L-
211a.(11)Jl(11)Jl(l1r )e-,(11)'
--------dl1 =
o
~~
1t211Ra,(l1R)Jl(l1R)Yl
~~
(l1Rr)e -,(IIR)'
(8.243)
Wave Propagation
339
(TIp 211<X.(11)Jl('l"\)Hf)(l1r)COs[(11;
+ )0
-11 2 12z]
dl1
FR (l1)
(TIl 2(211 2
)Tlp
FR(l1)F R(l1)
(8.244)
It should be noted that every tenn on the right-hand side of the equation above, except
the fIrst one, characterizes a wave which is outgoing and/or attenuating as r increases.
Due to the presence of H~l)(ig), the last tenn of that equation decays exponentially.
To make the fIrst tenn on the right-hand side of Eq. 8.244 to represent an outgoing
wave for large r as well, we should superimpose upon it a surface wave function equal
to
1ti211 R<X.(l1R)Jl(l1R)Jl (l1Rr)e -P(TlR)z
(8.245)
F~(l1R)
e,Z )-_cos e{
) -P(TlR)z
i2
()J ( ) (2)(
1t l1R<X. TlR 1 l1R HI l1Rr e
- - - - - : - ,- - - - - FR(l1R)
(TIp 211 <x. (l1)Jl (l1)Hf)(l1r ) cOs[(l1;
+ )0
+
F R (l1)
-11 2rz]
dl1
)Tlp
FR(l1)F R(l1)
(~2~<Xs(i~)Jl(i~)H~1)(ig)cos[(~2+11;rzJ }
FR(i~)
d~
(8.246)
- )0
The expressions derived so far are not valid for a case of small values of r which is
our next task. To detennine the Cauchy's principal value (C.P.V.) of the infInite integral
in Eq. 8.234a for r < 1, the complex integrand to be used is
2~<x.(~)Hfl)(~)Jl (~)e-p(Qz
FR(~)
d~
(8.247)
but, for continuity of solution at r = 1, the same superimposing surface wave function,
Eq. 8.245, must be used. Proceeding in the same manner as having obtained Eq. 8.246
we can eventually show that this equation holds as well for r < 1, if in that equation
we replace
340
by Hf)(11)
J 1(11)
by
J 1(11 r )
J 1(i;)
by
H~l)(i;)
H~l)(i;r)
by
J 1(ig)
H?)(11 r )
(8.248)
expressions derived so far hints that they are not suitable for large values of z. For
large z, the integration in Eq. 8.234a can be truncated at 11, which is sufficiently larger
than 11 p ' and we have
.2
-a,.(I1)Z
.m.( 9 ) 9 l1 11<X..(11)Jl(11)Jl(11 r )e
d
(8.249)
'V r, ,z -cos
Jo
FR (11)
11
(8.250)
=c.P.v.[ r~!(11,z)Jm(11
Jo FR(11)
(8.251)
In addition, Eq. 8.251 implies that the C.P.V. of an infmite integral alone implicitly
contains discrete non-outgoing waves for large r, thus does not give the correct value
for a physical quantity.
At this stage, it should be quite obvious that the evaluation of \f(r, 9, z) defined
in Eq. 8.234b can follow the same procedures as used for cI>(r, 9, z). The results are
the following: for small to intermediate z,
\f(r, 9, z) =cos 9
11FR(11)
-<1,(I1)Z
d11]
(8.252)
(8.253)
where 11 is sufficiently larger than 11. In detail, Eq. 8.252 can be written for r > 1 and
small to intermediate z as,
Wave Propagation
341
) -,(l1R)<
e, =COS e{ _m'(21'\R - 1'\.2).11(1'\~ )H(2)(
1 1'\Rr e
2
\{I(r, z)
()
COS 1'\.z
21'\~r
1'\RFR(1'\R)
1'\FR(1'\)
l1p
ea'(l1)<]d
1'\
----=-FR(1'\) F R(1'\)
21'\
(8.254)
The equation above also holds for r < 1 and small to intermediate z, if we replace
various terms in the equation as stipulated in Eq. 8.248 and replace r-1 (in the second
term of Eq. 8.254) by r. In fact, the second term of Eq. 8.254 is the residue of the
integral at ~ =0, and the singular integrands at the lower limit of integration in the third
and fifth terms of Eq. 8.254 nullify each other.
Now, there remains the task of determining x.(r,e,z) defined in Eq. 8.235, which
does not have any surface wave characteristics, hence the task is much simpler than for
<I(r, e, z) and \{I(r, e, z). The dual integral contours to be used are as depicted in
II)
t:I
I
'-"
II)
t:I
342
Fig. 8.16. The results contain only the Cauchy's principal value (C.P.V.) of the infInite
integral involved, i.e. for small to intennediate z,
l}
x(r,a,z)=-sina{c.p.v[ r- J l(Tl)Jl(Tlr)e-,(Il)' d
Jo
Tla..(Tl)
TlJ
(8.255)
2rTl.
LIl'Jl(Tl)H?)(Tlr)cos[(Tl~_Tl2)1I2zJ
Tla.(Tl)
r-Jl(i~)H~I)(ig)cos[(~2+Tl~)lflzJ
+ Jo
~a.(i~)
d~
dTl
(8.257)
The equation above also holds for r < 1 and small to intennediate z, if we replace
various tenns in the equation as stipulated in Eq. 8.248 and replacing r-1 (in the fIrst
tenn of Eq. 8.257) by r. Again, it should be noted that the singular integrands at the
lower limit of integration in the second and third tenns of Eq. 8.257 nullify each other.
In summary, the complete solution to this problem can be expressed as a sum of
a surface wave solution and a body wave solution, i.e.
(8.258b)
(8.259)
CI>(r, a,z)
(8.258a)
in which the superscripts s and b denote a surface wave and a body wave, respectively.
Explicitly, the surface wave solution functions, for r> 1 and z not large, are
c'II(r, a, z) =
'P'(r, a,z)
t(r,a,z)=o
21tiTlRa,(TlR)Jl(TlR)H?)(TlRr)e-P(IlR)' cos a
F~(TlR)
TlRFR(TlR)
(8.260a)
(8.260b)
(8.261)
Comparing Eqs. 8.258a,b and 8.259 with Eqs. 8.246, 8.254 and 8.257, respectively, and
noting Eqs. 8.260 and 8.261, we can identify explicitly the body wave solution functions
4>b(r,a,z), (r,a,z) and xb(r,a,z).
With a brief reflection on the results obtained in this section, one should be able to
Wave Propagation
343
appreciate some conclusions made in the last paragraph of the preceding section for the
general case.
8.10 AXISYMMETRIC TORSION OFA LAYERED HALF SPACE
Consider the harmonic torsional vibration of a layered half space consisting of an
upper layer (1) where -hla S z SO, and an underlying half space (2) where 0 S z < 00.
There will be Love waves provided that the inequality Eq. 8.197b holds. The half space
is subjected to a shear traction on its top surface in a circular area of radius a such that
CJ.9l (r,-hla) =J.l.lr, (r < 1)
(8.262a)
=0,
(r>l)
Equations 8.262 can be written as the single equation (Eq. 6.1l2g),
(8.262b)
(0 S r < 00)
(8.263)
L-
J 2(11)Jl(11 r )dr\.
CJ.9l (r,-hla)
L-
(8.264a,b)
(8.264c)
J 2(11)Jl(11T)d11
The solution is chosen to take the fann of Eq. 8.220 for the upper layer, and Eq. 8.219
with D2 = 0 for the underlying half space, i.e.
Usl(r,z) =
L-
Um(r,z)
L-
(8.265)
(8.266)
11B2e-a,2'Jl(11r)d11
(8.267a)
J,l.za.2
J.l.lasl
ad sin(aslhla) ad cos(adhla)
J{Bl}
Dl
= J2(11)/11
(8.267b)
This equation can be solved for Bl and D l Substituting the results in Eqs. 8.265 and
8.266 yields
(8.268a)
(8.268b)
344
-I
Fig. 8.17 Integral contours for Ue(r,z) in Eqs. 8.268.
cosas 1z
A (TJ,z) == - - = -
a sl cos(as 1h/a)
(8.269a)
(8.269b)
e~.r
(8.269c)
The Cauchy's principal values of infmite integrals in Eqs. 8.268 can be detennined
as in the previous section using dual integral contours as shown in Fig. 8.17. For
simplicity, only one surface wavenumber is explicitly shown in the figure; i.e. one pole
at ~ = 11L lying in between branch points at ~ = 11s1 and 11s2' and another pole -11L in
between branch points -11.1 and -11.2. For the present case, we find that for r > 1,
Uel(r,z)
=- ~
F L (11d
(8.270a)
345
Wave Propagation
(Z not large)
(S.270b)
A ( z)
311,
A4(11,z)
(S.271a)
T1=T1
A(l1,z)+C(l1,Z) A(l1,z)-C(l1,Z)
2FL(l1)
2F dl1)
(S.271b)
Az(l1,Z) Az(l1,-z)
2F dl1)
(S.271c)
= 2FL(l1)
in which
(S.272)
The higher the surface wave mode, the less significant it is, due to the closer to infInity
its F~(1lL) is. It should be noted that Eqs. S.270 do not contain any integral with respect
to 11 in the range from 11.z to l1d' For r> 1 and large z, Eq. S.270b does not hold, so
Usz(r,z) should be calculated anew by truncating the integration in Eq. S.26Sb at 11',
which is suffIciently larger than 11.z, i.e.
Ue2(r,z)=c.p.v{iT1Az(l1'Z~z(~l(l1r) d~
(S.273)
The equation above holds for r:S 1 also as long as z is sufficiently large. For
small and intermediate z and r < 1, we can show that Eqs. S.270 hold, provided that
we replace
by Hf>(l1)
'z(l1)
Hf>(l1r ) by
(l1 r )
by H~l>(i~)
'z(i~)
H:1>(ig) by 'l(ig)
'1
(S.274)
[ A(O,Z)+C(O,Z) + A(O,Z)-C(O,Z)]
2F L(O)
r
2FL(O)
and
(S.27Sa)
346
(8.27Sb)
which are residues of integrals at the pole ~ =O.
The complete solution to this problem can be put as a sum of a surface wave
solution and a body wave solution, i.e.
=U;l(r,z) + u;l(r,z)
Um(r,z) =~(r,z)+~(r,z)
(8.276a)
Uel(r ,z)
(8.276b)
and ~(r,z),
for r > 1 and z not large, are the ftrst terms on the right-hand side of Eqs. 8.270a and
b, respectively.
8.11 TOTAL SOLUTION TO VIBRATION OF HALF PLANES
For in-plane problems of harmonic vibration of isotropic elastic half planes, any
physical quantity is in the form of an inftnite integral as follows
(8.277a)
Jo
or
(8.277b)
where FR(rt) is the Rayleigh wave function, Eq. 8.174. For antiplane problems, any
physical quantity takes the same forms as above with FR(rt) being replaced by the Love
wave function FL(rt), Eq. 8.192. Any surface wavenumber, rtR or TtL, if it exists, must
be real positive and greater than the shear wavenumber (rt.) of the underlying half plane,
and greater than that of the overlying half plane for a multilayered full plane. For the
underlying half plane, /(rt, y) in Eqs. 8.277 is exponentially decaying, i.e.
/(rt, y)
=h. (rt)e-<J('l)Y
(8.278)
where a(rt) is a radical function for the underlying half plane given by Eq. 8.167a or
b. For the overlying half plane, a(rt) should be replaced by -a(rt).
After going through the same arguments as carried out for three dimensional
problems in the preceding sections, one should be able to arrive at the following conclusions: Any physical quantity given by Eq. 8.277a is, for small and intermediate
values of y,
A(x,y)
FR(rt)
FR(rtR)
(8.279)
Wave Propagation
347
where L denotes summation of all Rayleigh waves involved in the problem being
considered, and F~(1'\R) is the derivative of the Rayleigh wave function at a Rayleigh
wavenumber 1'\R' For sufficiently large values of y in the underlying half plane, the
integration in Eq. 8.277a can be truncated at 1'\., i.e.
A(x,y)
=c.p.V.[il1f(1'\'~~(~~S1'\X d1'\]
(8.280)
where 1'\. is sufficiently larger than 1'\p or 1'\. depending on which is involved in a(1'\)
in Eq. 8.278. The Cauchy principal value (C.P.V.) in Eq. 8.279 can be put in a more
explicit form by integrating a complex integrand along appropriate contours. For x> 1,
the complex integrand to be used is
.~
f(~,y)el d~
FR(~)
(8.281)
where 9t(~) =1'\. For a simple case such as a homogeneous half plane, the dual contours
depicted in Figs. 8.15 and 8.16 can be used. However, for a more complicated case
such as a layered or multilayered half plane, we follow the procedure: formulate the
surface wave function and its derivatives, and Eq. 8.277a symbolically; evaluate the
surface wavenumbers, the derivative of the surface wave function at each and every
surface wavenumber; evaluate Eqs. 8.279 and 8.280 numerically.
All these schemes are applicable to any physical quantity given by an infmite sine
integral of the form Eq. 8.277b.
8.12 VffiRATION OF VISCOELASTIC HALF SPACES
The solution to the vibration of an isotropic viscoelastic solid can be obtained
from that of the corresponding elastic one by simply replacing the Lame's constants A.
and Il by the complex moduli A.(ro) and Il(ro), respectively. These moduli have positive
real parts and positive imaginary parts. So the real and imaginary parts of the wave
velocities, cp and c. given by Eqs. 8.12 and 8.14 respectively, are also positive. The
dimensionless body wavenumbers, ~p and ~ (~= 1'\ + i~) determined from Eqs. 8.164b
and c, will have positive real parts but negative imaginary parts. The surface Rayleigh
and Love wavenumbers, ~ and ~ determined from Eqs. 8.174 and 8.192 respectively,
will have the same signs as the body wavenumbers.
Then any physical quantity in the vibration of a multilayered viscoelastic half plane
can be evaluated with the same procedures as those described for the elastic one in the
preceding section. However, each physical quantity in the present case is given solely
by the C.P.V. of its infmite integral. With reference to the dual contours as in Fig.
8.15 (or 8.16 or 8.17), branch points and poles (if any) will not be on the contours like
the elastic case. The 'positive' branch points and poles (~p' ~, ~ or ~) are in the
fourth quadrant of the complex plane, while the 'negative' branch points and poles (-~p,
348
or -~) are in the second quadrant inside the contour C2 The residue at each
pertinent pole, -~p or -~, has an outgoing wave fonn as x tends to infInity. Hence,
the C.P.V. ofan infInite integral representing a physical quantity already contains
(though not explicitly) discrete outgoing surface wave functions, and it is not necessary
to superimpose as the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. 8.279.
This scheme is applicable to three-dimensional viscoelastic cases.
-~, -~
(8.283)
A verification of Eqs. 8.282 and 8.283 can be achieved with the help of the approximate
formulas for Bessel functions for large argument, Eqs. 1.121. These solutions are rather
349
Wave Propagation
Embedded Bar
--I
~ro -1
I
/--201
z
(a) Geometry.
z
R
(b) Infinite elements, HE and RE.
Fig. 8.18 Discretization of material domains.
special and 'particular'. While they satisfy the equations of motion and the attenuating
and outgoing wave requirements, they cannot satisfy the boundary conditions at the half
space surface, since each is a function of a radial coordinate (r or R) only. Weighing
advantages and disadvantages of these solutions against those of continuous spectra of
350
waves (see Eqs. 8.270 and 8.273), Karasudhi et al favored the fonner. They used Eq.
8.282 for horizontal infInite elements and Eq. 8.283 for radial infInite elements. These
equations imply that cylindrical wavefronts exist in a horizontal infInite element, and
spherical wavefronts in a radiating infInite element. The waves in these respective
infmite elements attenuate as r-l12 and R-l , i.e. for a horizontal infmite element,
U;-(T).7r
l12 -itJ,r
(8.284)
u!-(llftrl e-iT),R
(8.285)
ue-e-<l+i)ll,'
(8.286a)
ue-e-<1+i)ll,R
(8.286b)
(8.287a)
b -<1+i)ll,'
ue-e
(8.287b)
b -<l+i)ll,'
u.-e
(S.287c)
b -<l+i)llpR
uR-e
(8.288a)
b -<l+i)ll,R
u,-e
(8.288b)
b -<l+i)ll,R
ue-e
(8.288c)
_pz
u"" --Am(e
A (
-qz
dH!;)(ll Rr)
-ale ) d(llRr)
-pz
-qz)H!;)(llRr)
llRr
Uem =m me-ale
(8.289a)
(8.289b)
Wave Propagation
351
(8.289c)
where the superscript s denotes the surface wave, m the hannonic in the Fourier series
with respect to Am an arbitrary constant, T\R the Rayleigh surface wavenumber of the
homogeneous half space, and
(8.290a,b)
p =a.(T\R)' q =a/T\R)
e,
a l =2pqia/iT\R)'
a z =2T\iia p (iT\R)
(8.290c,d)
The radical quantities in the equations above are as defined in Eqs. 8.167, 8.171 and
8.173. It should be noted that the origin in the coordinate system for Eqs. 8.289 is on
the surface of the half space. Equations 8.289 may be assumed to take the following
approximate form
-- iAmiZe
b ( ) -{1+il11Rr
(8.291a)
urm
bUem
(Z) e-{1+i)l1R r
-A
b ()
Uzm
m zze
(8.291b)
-{1+il11Rr
(8.291c)
-a1e-<[Z)
(8.292a)
where
bl(z)
=(e-
bz(z)
=T\~lp(e-PZ - aze
PZ
-1/Z )
(8.292b)
Corresponding spherical displacement components for this surface wave can be obtained
by a standard coordinate transformation as
u;m
(8.293a)
(8.293b)
(8.293c)
Assuming that the displacement components in Eqs. 8.291 and 8.293 are independent
of each other, we obtain surface wave displacement components for a horizontal infinite
element as
(8.294a)
b1(z )e-{1+il11Rr
(8.294b)
b z(z)e -{1+il11Rr
(8.294c)
Uem UZm -
(8.295a)
352
(8.295b)
~_bl(z)e-{l+i)IJRr
(8.295c)
(8.296a)
(8.296b)
(8.296c)
U;m to U!..
u~
are given by Eqs. 8.287,8.288,8.294 and 8.295, respectively. Considering each infmite
element to have two nodes as shown in Fig. 8.18(b), we can express the unknown
constants,
Show detailed derivation for velocity jumps in isotropic elastic domains, from
Eq. 8.84 to Eq. 8.102.
8.14.2
8.14.3
A homogeneous isotropic elastic half plane -00 < x < 00, 0 S; y < 00, is subjected
to the following time harmonic tractions on its surface y =0, -a <x <a: (a)
a uniformly distributed normal force, (b) a normal force distributed in such a
way that the displacement component in the y-direction on the contact area
is uniform in the statical case (Eq. 6.66a). Find the relationship between the
Wave Propagation
353
applied force and the contact normal displacement, and compare the results
with those by Quinlan (1953).
8.14.4
With the same geometry and time harmonic functions as in the preceding
problem, the displacement in the y-direction is prescribed uniformly in the
region -a < x < a, while the shear traction is assumed to vanish everywhere
on the half plane surface. Moreover, the normal traction vanishes outside the
loaded area. Find the distribution of the contact normal stress in terms of the
prescribed indention, and the relationship between the applied force and the
indentation. Reference: Karasudhi, Keer and Lee (1968).
8.14.5
Solve the shear counterpart of the preceding problem, i.e. when the displacement in the x-direction is prescribed uniformly in the region -a <x < a,
while the normal traction is assumed to vanish everywhere on the half plane
surface.
8.14.6
8.14.7
A homogeneous isotropic elastic half space 0 S; r < 00 ,OS; z < 00, is subjected
to the following time harmonic tractions on its surface z =0, 0 S; r < a: (a)
a uniformly distributed normal force, (b) a normal force distributed in such a
way that the displacement component in the z -direction on the contact area
is uniform in the statical case (Eq. 6.78a). Find the relationship between the
applied force and the contact normal displacement, and compare the results
with those by Quinlan (1953) and Sung (1953).
8.14.8
With the same geometry and time harmonic functions as in the preceding
problem, the displacement in the z-direction is prescribed uniformly in the
region 0 S; r < a, while the shear tractions in the x and y-directions are
assumed to vanish everywhere on the half space surface. Moreover, the
normal traction vanishes outside the loaded area. Find the distribution of the
contact normal stress in terms of the prescribed displacement, and the relationship between the applied force and the prescribed displacement. In other
words, this is a three dimensional counterpart of Problem 8.14.4. Reference:
Robertson (1966).
8.14.9
354
CHAPTER IX
PLASTICITY
OL-______________~F~~________________~
~p~==Jt
Fig. 9.1 Typical stress-strain curve in simple tension tests of elastic-ideal
plastic-work hardening metals.
356
specimen may 'neck' at a certain strain, so that its cross-sectional area is reduced in a
small region. When necking occurs under continued elongation, the load reaches a
maximum (ultimate load) and then decreases, although the actual average stress at the
necked cross-section continues to increase. The specimen metal flows beyond the point
D and the specimen breaks at the point E. For mild steel, the flat yield region AB is
large due to many microscopic slips along slip planes of the material crystal. For many
other solids, the stress-strain curve may not have such a flat region (Fig. 9.2), or even
not have an elastic range (Fig. 9.3). Materials like cast iron or any rock materials,
which allow very little plastic deformation before reaching the breaking point, are called
brittle materials. However, rocks tend to become ductile when subjected to large
hydrostatic pressure (large negative mean stress au). This point of view was discovered
by von Karman (1911) in his experiments with marbles.
Upon unloading at any stage in the defonnation, the strain is reduced along an
elastic path and reloading retraces the unloading path with minor deviation, and then
further plastic deformation is produced when approximately the previously applied stress
is exceeded. For better understanding of this point, we may refer to the complete
unloading-reloading cycle CFC in Figs. 9.1 to 9.3. For all practical purposes, the
unloading path CF and the reloading path FC are identical straight lines; parallel to the
elastic line OA for Figs. 9.1 and 9.2, and parallel to the tangent at zero stress for Fig.
9.3. Thus we can see that, at any stage of defonnation such as C in the figures, the
total strain e can be taken as
A, B = Elastic limit
o
E
= Ultimate load
= Breaking point
OL-__~~F__~________________________~_
~T~
e:
357
Plasticity
co
o = Ultimate
= Breaking
load
pOint
(9.1)
where e(P) is the plastic strain and non-recoverable; while e(-) is the elastic strain and
can be computed from the stress at that state by the Hooke's law. If we accept this
fact (that the line CF is parallel to the elastic line OA), Eq. 9.1 holds also for a state
C1 below its yielding state C (Fig. 9.4); and the plastic strain does not change with the
position Cl. However, such a state like Cz which is above its yielding state C is
inadmissible.
Tests of specimens subjected to simple compression and simple shear give diagrams similar to those of Figs. 9.1 to 9.4. Simple experiments on specimens under
combined stresses have been mostly carried out on thin-walled circular cylinders;
subjected to a combination of an axial tension, twisting moment about the cylinder axis,
and an internal or external pressure. It is found that the shear stress, among other things,
is by far the major cause of yielding. Moreover, experiments by Bridgman (1923) have
shown that hydrostatic pressures of the order of the yield stress have practically no
influence on yielding of metals. If a tensile test or shear test is run at atmospheric
pressure in the standard manner, the stress-strain curve recorded will hardly differ in
the small strain range from those obtained in immersion of the whole apparatus in a
pressurized chamber. The major effect of the hydrostatic pressure is to increase greatly
the ductility of the material, i.e. to permit much larger deformation before fracture.
Conversely, very small changes in material density are found when a metal is subjected
to repeated plastic deformation, indicating that the plastic volume change ~) is small.
358
C2 ( inadmissible)
Ideal
plastic
Parallel to OA
There are several theories of plasticity, but their common basic assumption, based
on results of simple tests reviewed in the preceding section, can be listed for the general
three-dimensional case as the following: the strain tensor can be expressed as the sum
of the plastic strain tensor E;~) and the elastic strain tensor ~), i.e.
-
(P)
(e)
(9.2)
Eij-Eij +Eij
CJij
(9.3)
Following Eq. 9.2, we may write the dilatation and the strain deviation tensor,
respectively, as
(P)
(94)
IOu-IOu
+Eu(e)
(P)
(e)
eij-eij
+eij
(9 5)
With the assumption that the plastic volume change is negligible, we have
E~)=O
(9.6)
359
Plasticity
(9.7)
Equations 9.3 and 9.7 imply that Hooke's law holds for the mean stress and the mean
strain at all times, provided the material is isotropic, i.e.
0;;
=3K;;
(9.8)
where K is the bulk modulus. However, Eq. 9.8 does not exist for the general case of
anisotropic materials. By the definition of the strain deviator, Eq. 2.47, we can write
(99)
er)=fft)
eV)
(9.10)
which allows us to use the notation eW) in places where we should write
to indicate
a strain deviation.
A common essential characteristics of all theories of plasticity is that there exists
a yield junction
(9.11)
which depends on the state of stress and strain and on the history of loading denoted
by the work-hardening parameter 1C. The parameter K is a function of the plastic strain
tensor eW). The equation f =0 represents a closed surface in the nine-dimensional stress
space, with axes 0jj (i,j 1,2,3). When a state of stress can be represented by a point
on the yield surface f =0, change in plastic deformation occurs. For a state of stress
with f < 0, the material is elastic (governed by Eq. 9.3), and there is no change in plastic
defonnation, i.e.
iI ..W)
""'ii _ '(P)
(9.12)
(it=e;; =0, f<O
The state of stress where f> 0 has no meaning, i.e. it is inadmissible. The states f =0,
f<O andf>O correspond respectively to points C, C1 and Cz in Fig. 9.4, which is an
illustration of one-dimensional stress.
At this stage, it is appropriate to consider the meaning of loading and unloading
in a plastic state, where the yield condition governs, i.e.
f(C1jj,fft), K) =0
(9.13)
J=
of
a. +
v
OOjj
where
of
O~)
~)+ of K
OK
(9.14)
OK
'(P)
K=~)e;j
(9.15)
360
Obviously, 1 = 0 and < 0 at a time t would imply 1 < 0 the next instant t + dt. Such
a change leads to an elastic state and corresponds to unloading. However, for such a
state, Eq. 9.12 applies, i.e. e~)=O. Hence, due to Eq. 9.15, Kmust also vanish. Thus,
for unloading, 1 =0 at its onset, and
. a/
I, <0
1 = - 0 '..
aO'ij
(9.16)
al .
aO'ij !J >0, 1=0
(9.17)
al .
aO'ij IJ =0, 1=0
(9.18)
or neutral loading, if
- 0 ' ..
The yield function 1 is sometime called a loading junction because of its direct association with these loading criteria. Before making a geometric interpretation of these
criteria (and for reasons to be discussed later), we have to choose a sign convention in
writing Eq. 9.13 such that allaO'ij be directed along the outer normal to 'hypersurface'
1 = O. Then, for a state of stress on the yield surface; loading, unloading, or neutral
loading takes place, according to whether the stress increment vector is directed outward,
inward, or along a tangent to the yield surface. Since loading from one plastic state
must lead to another plastic state, 1 remains zero and so does its time rate
. _ a/ al .(p) al aK .(p)
1 = aO'ij O'ij + ae;~)eij + aKa~)fij =0
(9.19)
For this reason, Eq. 9.13 is called consistency condition by Prager (1948).
For ideal plastic solids, 1 is not affected by ~), thus during loading from a plastic
state, Eq. 9.19 gives
al .
aO' .. O'ij =0, 1= 0
(9.20)
IJ
A comparison of this equation with Eqs. 9.17 and 9.18 shows that loading from a plastic
state for ideal plastic solids is always neutral.
A material is said to be isotropic if the yield function 1 depends only on the
invariants (with respect to orientation of the reference coordinate system) of stress, strain
and strain history. If1 is an isotropic function of the stress alone, the theory is called
an isotropic stress theory for ideal plastic solids. In such theories
1=/(11,12'/3)
(9.21)
where Ii>
12
(9.22)
12
=21 (112 -
(9.23)
O'ijO'ji)
361
Plasticity
(9.24)
in which 0"1> 0"2 and 0"3 are principal stresses.
As mentioned in Section 9.1, it has been found by Bridgman (1923) that the plastic
defonnation of metals is essentially independent of hydrostatic pressure. The result has
been verified by Crossland (1954) and many others. If this finding is accepted, the
yield condition will be independent of II and can be written as
1= 1(12)13)
(9.25)
where 12 and 13 are the second and third deviatoric stress invariants (Eqs. 2.39 to 2.41),
i.e.
(9.26a)
1
1
2
13 ="3SiiSjA,s"i =/3 -"3ll2+
2/1
(9.26b)
1
2
2
:q
12 = 6{[(O"I - 0"3) - (0"2 - 0"3)] + (0"1 - 0"3) + (0"2 -0"3) J
(9.27)
1
3
3
13 = 81 ([2(0"1 - 0"3) - (0"2 - 0"3)] + [2(0"2 - 0"3) - (0"1 - 0"3)]
(9.28)
362
yield function is
(9.29)
where
0"1
0"3
However, f in the form of Eq. 9.29 is not analytic; since it violates the rule that the
labelling of the principal axes 1, 2, 3 should not affect the form of the yield function.
To conform with this rule, we note that during plastic flow one of the differences
10"1 - 0"21 ,I 0"2 - 0"31 ,I 0"3 - 0"11 has the value 2k. Hence, we may put f in a form symmetrical with respect to principal stresses as
f= [(0"1-O"i-4e] [(O"z-0"3)z-4e] [(0"3-O"i-4e]
(9.30)
+ 96k4JZ -64k 6
(9.31)
When the direction and relative magnitudes of the principal stresses are known by
symmetry consideration or by intuition, it is possible to use the simple form of Eq. 9.29.
Otherwise, we are obliged to use the general form of Eq. 9.31.
In 1913, Richard von Mises assumed that the yield function f is independent of
J 3 and takes the simple form
(9.32)
It can be shown that the yield criteria of von Mises and Tresca give the same
yield stress in simple shear; but, in simple tension, the yield stress by von Mises' criterion is smaller than that predicted by Tresca's, by a factor -f3/2. For no other type
of stresses is the discrepancy between the predictions of the yield stresses by von Mises
and by Tresca's criteria as large as that in simple tension (von Mises, 1913).
As illustrative examples of the yield surface f = 0 when f is not affected by
hydrostatic pressure, the von Mises' criterion is plotted in the principal stress space as
shown in Fig. 9.5, the von Mises' and Tresca's yield surfaces projected on 1t-plane in
Fig. 9.6, and the two-dimensional plotting of these two yield surfaces in Fig. 9.7.
A more general form of f, in isotropic stress theory for ideal plastic solids which
is unaffected by hydrostatic pressure, is
f=F(JZ,J3)-e
(9.33)
A simple example is
F
=Ji -
CJ;
(9.34)
Plasticity
363
=Dijlk'
When a metal rod is subjected to repeated tension-compression tests, the stressstrain curve sometimes appears as in Fig. 9.8. The tension stroke and the compression
stroke are dissimilar. This is referred to as the Bauschinger effect (J. Bauschinger,
1886). Von Mises' and Tresca's yield functions discussed in the preceding paragraphs
imply the initial isotropy, and the equality of tensile and compressive yield stresses at
all stages of the deformation, i.e. no Bauschinger effect.
To include Bauschinger effect but preserve isotropy, some yield functions have
been suggested for work hardening solids (by including ;<y~ as follows.
Axis is the line
0:2
Y OJ ="2=
'\
0'3
von Mises
Tresca
-------OJ
Fig. 9.5 A yield surface in the principal stress space.
Tresca;
maximum shear= const.
364
/=F(JJ-msijr:$)-k",
(m=aconstant)
(9.36)
/=F(JZ,J3 )-msijr:$)-k"
(9.37)
(9.38)
(9.39)
2
OJ3
tij =su,S1r,i -3 Jl'ij =aa.
(9.40)
(9.41)
1/
yields the Bauschinger effect, and does not preserve the initial anisotropy during
defonnation.
It should be noted that each of these suggested fonns uses a single analytic function
to represent the entire yield surface. H a yield surface is composed of piecewise smooth
surfaces which meet to fonn comers, it would be convenient to use a separate expression
for each of these piecewise smooth surfaces. This concept was generalized by Koiter
(1953, 1960) and will be discussed in Section 9.4.
9.4 HARDENING AND FLOW RULES
(9.43)
which shows that only the elastic part of the strain, 00('), is recovered upon the completion of a loading cycle. The concept has been generalized by Drucker (1951) and
can be stated as: Suppose, at a point in the material domain with a state of stress O'ij
and strain Eu, an external agency increases the stress by dO'ij and produces a small strain
increment du. On the removal of the stress dO'ij, an elastic strain ~) is recovered.
Then, the material is said to be work hardening or strain hardening if the following
365
Plasticity
U'
c'
+ dU'
de:
<e)
upon loading
(9.44)
(9.45)
ideal plastic deformation when the equality sign prevails in Eq. 9.45, i.e.
dcrij~)=O
(9.46)
and the yield function is independent of ~). The differentials dcrij and ~) must be
interpreted as in Fig. 9.9.
In addition to having the yield function f to furnish a criterion when yielding
occurs, we need further information on the increment or rate of deformation in order
to complete our description of the material behavior. In other words, we need to derive
the plastic flow rule. Equation 9.20 may be recalled for this purpose and rewritten as
af
-dcr = 0
acrij 'I
(9.47)
~)=A. af
acrij
(9.48)
366
f!t) =A ()aji
al
(9.49)
The sign of A. or A is restricted by the condition that plastic flow must involve
dissipation of energy, i.e.
(9.50)
Equation 9.48, the rule we are seeking for the plastic flow of ideal plastic solids, was
frrst given by von Mises (1928), and is known as the theory 01 the plastic potential.
An interesting geometric interpretation of Eq. 9.49 has been given by Prager
(1948). It is that the plastic strain rate ij') is a normal vector to the surface 1=0 in
the nine-dimensional stress space with eJji(i,j = 1,2,3) as coordinates.
It should be noted that a direct application of the flow rule in a one-dimensional
stress experiment could be difficult, since the plastic flow will continue when the stress
reaches its yielding limit, with no possibility of increasing the stress beyond that limit
To deduce some useful information from an experiment, it should be a combined-stress
system, such as a thin-walled circular cylinder subjected to a twisting moment and to
a tension or internal pressure. Such arrangement gives non-trivial changes of deJji and
deu, to which the preceding derivation applies.
Koiter (1953, 1960) generalized the flow rule by allowing the yield criterion to
be specified by several yield functions,
/"(eJji)' /z(eJji)'
... , !,.(eJji)
(9.51)
We have an elastic state if all these functions are negative. At a plastic state, at least
one yield function vanished. It is inadmissible to have any yield functions greater than
zero. If functions J,. = ... = I". = 0, whereas all other !'S are negative, the Koiter's
generalization of the flow rule (Eq. 9.48) is
'(P)
a/".
aJ,.
(9.52)
where A", ... , A". are arbitrary nonnegative constants of proportionality. Thus, the basic
concept leads at once to a general incremental stress-strain relationship in ideal plasticity.
For von Mises' yield function, Eq. 9.32, the flow rule, Eq. 9.49, gives
'(P)
ij =Asji
(9.53)
;'CjJ)-A
-z -
l'
;'CjJ)--1.
"'3
:av
367
Plasticity
where Al > 0, and ft, Ez, ~ are the principal strains, the directions of which coincide
with those of the principal stresses under Tresca's condition of isotropy.
Following Drucker's definition of work hardening (or strain hardening) materials,
we can prove the following:
(1) The yield (or loading) surface must be convex.
(2) The plastic strain increment must be a vector normal to the yield surface at
a smooth point on the surface, and it must lie between adjacent normals to the yield
surface at a corner of the surface.
(3) The plastic strain rate must be a linear function of the stress rate.
In a short statement; the above three points are often referred to as convexity, normality,
and linearity, respectively. The statement is often interpreted as the requirement for
stable materials. The yield function and the yield surface assume the general fOnDS,
Eqs. 9.11 and 9.13, respectively. Moreover, the yield surface should be taken as a
hypersurjace (in the nine-dimensional stress space). The proof of these points can be
found in Naghdi (1960). Only a simple proof of linearity would be presented here, i.e.
the flow rule will be derived.
The normality of the plastic strain rate at a smooth point of the yield surface
implies that
acrii
ft=A af
(9.55)
where A is a function, in general, of stress, stress rate, strain, and strain history. Since
is associated with a positive work done during loading, we can show that A must
be nonnegative. Substituting Eq. 9.55 into Eq. 9.19, we can solve for A. Eventually,
Eq. 9.55 becomes
ij')
(9.56)
where
a = -[(a~ + ;~a~;)a::r
(9.57)
Equation 9.56 proves the linearity. These results were first obtained by Prager (1948)
and Drucker (1959).
For a yield surface being composed of a number (say n) of smooth surfaces!, 's
which meet to form corners, Koiter's generalization (1953, 1960) gives the plastic strain
rates as follows
(9.58)
where
Cp =0; if
t, < 0,
or
at, .
-a
cri cri < 0
(9.59a)
368
(9.59b)
and h/s are positive functions of stress, strain, and strain history. Conditions in Eqs.
9.59 specify, of course, whether yielding and/or loading occur as governed by Eqs. 9.16
to 9.18.
We may now wonder what possible fonns the plastic strain ~) can have in the
yield function f(Jij'~)' lC). Laws governing this aspect are called hardening rules. If
they are independent of the hydrostatic pressure, the yield surfaces in the principal stress
space are cylinders of infinite length perpendicular to the 1t-plane (Jl + (J2 + (J3 0, and
characterized by their cross-section on this plane. We know also that these crosssectional curves are closed, convex and piecewise smooth, but they could change in
size and shape as plastic defonnation proceeds. Several proposed hardening rules
characterized by the 1t-plane cross-sectional curves are illustrated in Fig. 9.10. In Fig.
9.10(a) Tresca's initial yield surface is shown as a regular hexagon on the 1t-plane. In
Fig. 9.1O(b) is shown the so-called isotropic hardening, which assumes a unifonn
expansion of the initial yield surface. Isotropic hardening, though conveniently used in
analysis, has little experimental support. Figure 9.1O(c) illustrates Prager's kinematic
hardening. The initial yield surface translates in the 1t-plane without rotation and
without change in size. None of the flow rules deduced from Drucker's hypothesis
is violated, the Bauscbinger effect can be represented very simply, and the development
of anisotropy due to plastic defonnation appears most naturally. With some variation
in the model, Prager (1954) was able to represent various models of plasticity: rigid
perfectly plastic, rigid work-hardening, elastic, etc. Hodge (1956) pointed out that the
concept of kinematic hardening must be applied in nine-dimensional stress space.
Modified kinematic hardening by Ziegler (1959) is illustrated in Fig. 9.10(d). In Fig.
9.1O(e) the plastic defonnation causes a linear segment to move. In Fig. 9.1O(t) the
plane loading surface changes with plastic loading in some independent manner. More
complicated hardening rules have been proposed from time to time, e.g. Hodge (1957)
has extended the kinematic hardening to include an expansion of the yield surface
simultaneously with its translation.
In contrast to the incremental theories ofplasticity discussed so far, there is another
group called deformation theories of plasticity. The difference lies in the flow rule.
The characterizing feature of the defonnation theory is the unique relationship between
the plastic strain and the stress deviator in the plastic state; there is no such uniqueness
in the incremental theories. The plastic strain as a unique function of the stress deviator
given in Prager's fonn is
where tij is as defmed in Eq. 9.40. For isotropic materials P and Q are naturally
functions of the invariants J 2 and J 3 It can be shown that Prager's fonn is the most
Plasticity
369
o
(0)
o
( c)
(e)
(0
Fig. 9.10 Several hardening rules: (a) initial yield condition (Tresca), (b)
isotropic hardening, (c) kinematic hardening (Prager), (d) kinematic
hardening (Ziegler's modification), (e) independently acting plane
loading surfaces, (f) interdependent plane loading surfaces. (From
Naghdi, 1960).
general fonn under the assumption that the plastic strain can be expressed in powers of
sij. Different choices of the yield function f(sij,rft), K), functions P and Q, and the
hardening parameter K lead to different theories of plasticity. Defonnation theories were
developed by Hencky (1924) and Nadai (1950, 1963) and their followers. Handelman,
Lin and Prager (1947) pointed out some conceptual difficulties of defonnation theories.
In some problems, a defonnation theory yields the same answer as the corresponding
incremental theory. Such is the case where in the loading process the ratio of the stress
components
eJ11 : eJ22 : eJ33 : eJ12 : eJ23 : eJ31
is kept constant at all times. For such problems the incremental flow rule can be
integrated to yield the defonnation rule. For a much wider class of loading, Budiansky
(1959) and Kliushnikov (1958) independently showed that the defonnation rule can be
derived from the incremental rule provided that 'comers' develop in the loading surface
as plastic defonnation proceeds.
9.5 INCREMENTAL FORMULATION FOR ISOTROPIC HARDENING
The work increment per unit volume in the transfer from the plastic state of stress
eJij and strain fv to another plastic state of stress eJij + deJij and strain ij + de;j (see the
370
dW=O'iidEv
(9.61)
dW()
=O'ii~)
(9.62)
dW(P)
=O'iid4") =siid4")
(9.63)
In writing the last equation, we have used the condition of plastic incompressibility, Eq.
9.6.
For isotropic stress theory of materials obeying work-hardening hypothesis, the
yield function takes the fann
(9.64)
/=/(J,.,J 3, W(P~
(9.65)
As the plastic flow proceeds, the yield surface / (in the nine-dimensional stress space)
enlarges, as measured in the direction of its nonnal, by a distance
d/=
a/ dO'..
OO'ii
(9.66)
II
d/=Ad4")dO'ii
H the Prandtl-Reuss equation (Prandtl, 1924 and Reuss, 1930) holds, i.e.
d4")=XSii
(9.68)
d/=TdJ,.
(9.69)
cr
cr
and, in a similar fashion, the equivalent or effective plastic strain increment dE}P) as
cJ?) =(~)d4")/3)112
we can have, due to Eq. 9.68,
d-(P)
=2Xcr/3
Furthennore, the plastic work increment dW(P) in Eq. 9.63 can be rewritten as
(9.71)
(9.72)
Plasticity
371
=2'1.<"0)2/3
dW(P)
(9.73)
=crd\P)
(9.74)
With the assumption of the independence of f from J 3 and the existence of a
universal plastic stress-strain curve relating cr and e(P), the total plastic work W(P)
becomes a single-valued function of ?), and Eq. 9.64 is simplified into
f=fT.cr,H(?~]
(9.75)
which is known as the strain-hardening hypothesis for isotropic strain-hardening
materials. Equations 9.56 and 9.57 for the present case can be written, respectively as
A~(P) -IT
_ A(af
-
aa
uc, ..
IJ
)2 acr
acr
aaij aa/cI
da/cI
(9.76)
(9.77)
where
,
H
dH
=de_(P)
(9.78)
acr 3s"",
aa"", ="2 cr
(9.79)
6= {
af
(9.80)
,af)-l
(9.81)
-H-=
aH aa
f=cr-H
Thus Eqs. 9.81 and 9.76 become, respectively,
1
6=H'
(P) _ 9sijs/cIds/cI
de - ---=--IJ
H'(2a)2
f may be taken as
(9.82)
(9.83)
(9.84)
372
(P)
(9.86)
~ =2H'o
Numerical values of H' can be obtained easily as the slope of the stress versus plastic
strain curve in uniaxial tension.
As expressed in Eq. 9.3, the stress 0ii is related to the elastic strain ~) according
to Hooke's law, at all times. The same condition is applicable to their increments, i.e.
for isotropic materials,
(9.87)
where E, J.1 and v are Young's modulus, shear modulus, and Poisson's ratio, respectively.
However, the total strain increment is the sum of elastic and plastic increments, i.e.
dev=~)+~)
(9.88)
Substituting Eqs. 9.86 and 9.87 into Eq. 9.88 we fmd the total strain increment tensor
in terms of the stress increment tensor
1 - 2v
dsii 3siido
dev="3EdOkkSii+ 2J.1 + 2H'o
(9.89)
Multiplying Eq. 9.89 by sii' and using Eqs. 9.70 and 9.85, we find
Sk/dek/
--;;{1
1)
= OdvlH' + 3J.1
or
do
Sk/dek/
(9.90)
H'o= (Oil+~3,..
Substituting Eq. 9.90 into Eqs. 9.86 and 9.89 leads to, respectively,
(P) _
SiiSk/dek/
(9.91)
- 2(0)2 1 +~
3,..
(9.92)
Alternatively, the relationship between the stress increment tensor and the elastic
strain increment tensor can be put in the fann of the inverse of Eq. 9.87 as
ii
E
...I~(O)I: 2" rt ,,(o)
3(1 _ 2v) uc.kk uii + fAU<'ii
(9.93)
(P)
(9.94)
Plasticity
373
Substituting Eq. 9.91 into Eq. 9.94 we fmd the relationship between the stress increment
tensor and the total strain increment tensor
E
3J.1 s(iSk/OOk/
- v
(0')
2'
1 +!!.
(9.95)
311
Equation 9.92 or its inverse, Eq. 9.95, can be conveniently used in the numerical analysis
of boundary value problems, in which the loads (and displacements) are increased by
small amounts at each step of the analysis.
For ideal plastic solids, the yield function is independent of the plastic strain tensor,
thus Eq. 9.78 gives
H'=O
(9.96)
and, with the von Mises yield condition, the yield surface is
(j-...J3k =0
(9.97)
or
0' O'y
(9.98)
where k and O'y are yield stresses in simple shear and simple tension, respectively.
Substituting Eqs. 9.96 and 9.98 into Eqs. 9.91, 9.92 and 9.95 leads to, respectively,
~) =3s(isk/~
(9.99)
2cfv
1 - 2v
ds(i
3s(isk/ook/
(9.100)
3JlS"sk/ook/
(9.101)
Equation 9.100 or its inverse, Eq. 9.101, can be conveniently used in the numerical
analysis of boundary value problems of ideal plastic solids.
For rigid-strain hardening, the elastic strain tensor is assumed to be negligible in
comparison with the plastic strain tensor, thus E and J.1 tend to infmity,
U =it)
(9.102)
=~~OOk/OOk/)1I2
(9.104)
374
Substituting Eq. 9.104 into Eq. 9.103 we obtain the stress-strain increment relationship
in the form
(9.105)
in which 0 is a function of the stress deviation tensor as in Eq. 9.70. The same ~e
of relationship for rigid-plastic solids can be obtained by simply setting 0 = cry = "'3 k
in Eq. 9.105.
9.6 VISCOPLASTICITY
Constitutive models of plasticity discussed so far can describe the plastic behavior
of materials, but cannot be used to deal with rate sensitive yield materials due to their
fundamental assumption of time independence. To overcome this difficulty, Bingham
(1922) introduced the concept of a viscoplastic model through a stress-strain relation in
a uniaxial context. Since then, many viscoplastic laws have been suggested. According
to these laws, the viscous properties of these materials introduce a time dependence of
the states of stress and strain, and the plastic properties make these states depend on
the loading paths. Thus different results will be obtained for different loading paths
and different durations of the process. Most existing constitutive laws of viscoplasticity
can be described by stress-strain incremental relationships based, to a certain extent, on
the elements of plasticity theory, i.e. the yield criterion, the flow rule and the hardening
rule. An extensive review of these was made by Hill (1950).
Many metals when subjected to uniaxial tension or compression have been found
to exhibit several rate effects. Among these the yield stress sensitivity to the rate of
straining is the most pronounced one. As early as in 1909, Ludwik: proposed an
empirical constitutive relation to describe such metals under tension as
cr=crylog(e(vp%iVP)
(9.106)
with e(vp) denoting the viscoplastic strain rate, the difference between the total strain
rate and the elastic strain rate, i.e.
e(vp)=e-e(e)
(9.107)
The elastic strain rate obeys Hooke's law, i.e. (for the uniaxial tension case)
e(e)=~
E
(9.108)
In addition, cry is the yield stress in uniaxial tension, and ~vp) is a material constant.
Obviously, Eq. 9.106 fails to describe the material behavior near the origin of the (cr,e(vP)
plane. Later Prandtl (1928) proposed the hyperbolic sine speed law; this has the
advantage of being valid at the origin and admissible in the compression region; it is
e{vp) = EiVP) sinh ~
cry
(9.109)
375
Plasticity
A general relation was proposed by Malvern (1951) in which the viscoplastic strain rate
is assumed to be a function of the current stress and strain, i.e.
e(vp) =f(cr, e)
(9.110)
Many forms have been proposed for the function f(cr,e). For example, Gilman (1960)
assumed
f(cr,e) =EEoexp(-A/cr),
where A and Eo are material constants.
Sokolovsky (1948) in his attempt to separate dynamic effects from strain hardening, introduced a linear viscoplastic law in which the viscoplastic strain rate is a
function of the dynamic overstress above the fIrst yield point. Mathematically, it can
be written as
(9.111)
Perzyna (1963) likewise proposed the following relation for the viscoplastic strain rate
e(vp)={
:y
-1)
(9.112)
While all these constitutive laws provide useful explicit relations for computing
viscoplastic strain rates, their applications generally come after the material stress state
exceeds a specifIc yield condition. The total strain rate can then be split into an elastic
part e(e) governed by Hooke's law and a viscoplastic part e(vp), given by one of these
laws.
It should be mentioned that there exist several one-dimensional constitutive laws
of viscoplasticity in the literature. An excellent survey made by Cormeau (1976) is
recommended to all who are interested in the historical development.
Following the derivation adopted in the one dimensional cases, several models of
three dimensional viscoplasticity have been developed by Perzyna (1966), Philips and
Wu (1973), Nicholson and Philips (1974), and others. SimplifIed versions of Perzyna's
model have been proposed by Zienkiewicz and Cormeau (1974), and Hughes and Taylor
(1978). A brief review of Perzyna's model and these two modifIed models for isotropic
solids will now be presented.
Perzyna's constitutive laws for elasto-viscoplastic materials under multi-axial
deformation assume the existence of an initial yield surface beyond which viscoplastic
flow will occur. The rate of increase of viscoplastic strain components is taken as a
function of the extent to which the stress state exceeds the static yield criterion, which
can be expressed by
F(crm,]2,J3)
f(cr ..) =
1
(9.113)
cry
I,
crm =3"cru
(9.114)
376
The sign of the yield functional F is taken such that 1 is negative for all elastic states,
positive for viscoplastic states, and zero for the incipient plastic states.
The total strain rate v is resolved into elastic ~) and viscoplastic Pii parts as
U =Eli + Pii
(0)
(9.115)
where
(9.116)
(9.117)
in which ).1, K and 'Y denote shear modulus, bulk modulus and a material dependent
fluidity parameter, respectively; the symbol < cl>(f) > defmes a switch-on/off operator
such that
(9. 118a)
< cl>(f) > = cl>(f), if I> 0
=0,
if I~O
(9. 118b)
For many practical cases cl>(f) is assumed as 1" with n being a positive integer depending
on the material under considemtion. Larger values of n characterize slower 'creep'
rates, but different values of n give the same final plastic solution. Using the chain
rule of differentiation to evaluate oFlocrii' we can transform Eq. 9.117 into
I of of
OF)
Pii='Y<cl>(f ( 3 ocr", aii+aJ/ii+aJ/ii
(9.119)
where tii is as defmed in Eq. 9.40. Equation 9.115 together with Eqs. 9.116 and 9.119
define the constitutive relations of Perzyna's model.
For von Mises materials, Zienkiewicz and Cormeau (1974) simplified Perzyna's
model with the following viscoplastic strain rates
Pii='Y<cl
01
ocrii
(9.120)
where
<cl=(tJ", if 1>0
=0,
if I~O
(9.121a)
(9.121b)
1 =f3];--(Jy
(9.122)
~ ~3 21312 2~ 2~l
(9.123)
Note that Pii is a symmetric second order tensor, and thus can be expressed in the fonn
of six distinct elements in a column matrix as
{P} =(1311
377
Plasticity
S33
SlZ
SZ3
(9.124)
(9.125)
S3J T
<(P>=/", if />0
(9. 126a)
=0, if /~O
(9. 126b)
and
(9.127)
The basic characteristic of all these models is that when a stress state at a point
falls outside the yield surface, they pennit viscoplastic 'creep' at that point (Fig. 9.11)
to occur, so the stresses are redistributed and relaxed till the stress state falls back on
to the yield surface. Further, when the stress state at no point exceeds the yield surface,
the solution by these models will correspond to the elastoplastic solution of the given
problem.
In both strain rate models described above, n equal to one was used~ It should
be note that the relations proposed by Zienkiewicz and Conneau (1974) have been well
accepted for the whole path of the viscoplastic 'creep', while those introduced by Hughes
and Taylor (1978) may not reflect the true behavior of such stress relaxation. However,
both models should give the same steady state or fmal solution.
Loading
~~------------------~U2
~I
Fig. 9.11 Viscoplastic 'creep' on to three-dimensional von Mises yield surface.
CHAPTER X
FINITE DEFORMATION
ORIGINAL
DEFORMED
nI
379
Finite Deformation
occupied the point Xi at time t =0 characterizes the mapping of the initial configuration
into the current configuration (at time t) of the fonn
(10.1)
Yi =Yi(Xj , t)
In reverse, the mapping is in the fonn
Xi
=xi(Yj, t)
(10.2)
(10.3)
In addition, note that the vector dxi defining the infmitesimalline element pOQo in the
original configuration becomes dYi' defining the element PQ in the defonned configuration, thus
(10.4)
or, due to Eq. 10.3,
(10.5)
and
aYi
aUi
'Xj
'Xj
-a =Oij+-a
(10.6)
du=-dx
I
aXj
All vectors involved in the transfonnation of pOQo into PQ are illustrated in Fig. 10.2.
In the preceding paragraph, Yi and Ui are regarded as functions of Xi and time t.
Conversely, when Xi and Ui are regarded as functions of Yi and t,
aXi
dx =-dy.
I
aYj
(10.7)
(10.8)
380
(10.9)
dA dYk
-a
A(yj,t)=:\-a
!Xj
cJYk !Xj
(10.10)
8.. = dxjdYk
" dYkdXj
(10.11)
In fact Xj is truly independent of t, but Yj is not so. For a function A (Yj' t), its
(10.13)
dYj
v=
I
dt
(10.14)
v=
I
dt
(10.15)
Finite Deformation
381
(10.16)
The acceleration <X; is the material derivative of Vi and can be obtained according to
the rule of Eq. 10.13 as
(10.17)
The ftrst and the second tenns in this equation are called the local and the convective
parts of the acceleration, respectively.
To lay a groundwork for the material derivative of the volume differential dV,
two very close points P and Q in the defonned conftguration at time t are considered.
Let Yi and Yi + dYi denote the position vectors for P and Q, respectively as shown in
Fig. 10.3. At time t + At (where At is sufftciently small), these two points assume,
respectively, the positions P' and Q'. Let the position vectors for P' and Q' be Zi and
Zi + dzi, respectively. According to the concept of one-to-one mapping, we can state
that
aZi
dz.=-dy.
(10.18)
aYj J
If Vi is the velocity at P, then the position vector for P' can be put in the form
Zi =Yi + viAt
(10.19)
Substituting the last equation into Eq. 10.18 yields
av
(10.20)
3
Fig. 10.3 Transfonnation of element dYi at time t into element dzi at
time t+At.
382
Ov
dv.=-'dy.
, iJYj J
(10.21)
All vectors involved in the transfonnation of the line element PQ into the line element
P'Q' are illustrated in Fig. 10.3. Next, consider a volume differential dV at P, which
we may choose for convenience to be a rectangular element as shown in Fig. 10.4, i.e.
dV =dy1dYzdY3
(10.22)
where dYI' dyz and dY3 are mutually orthogonal line elements characterized, respectively,
by the following vectors
s:
dYi(Z)-d
- YZuiZ
At time t
(10.23)
At time t+M
3
Fig. 10.4 Defonnation of a volume differential dV at time t into dV'
at time t + l1t.
Substituting Eqs. 10.23 into Eq. 10.20, we fmd the vectors characterizing the same line
elements at time t + l1t
(I)
dz,
(2)
dzi
(3)
dzi
s:
Ovi
=dYlu'l
+-dYIl1t
'iJYI
s:
Ovi
=dYZUiZ
+:;--dYzl1t
UYz
(10.24)
Ovi
l1t
=dY3Us:i3 +:;--dY3
UY3
In general, dz?), dz?) and dzf3) are no longer mutually orthogonal, but rather fonn a
parallelepiped as shown in Fig. 10.4. The volume of the latter can be expressed,
according to the law of products of vectors (Eqs. 1.5, 1.6, 1.31 and 1.32), in the fonn
383
Finite Deformation
dV' =eu"dzi(l)dzj(2)dzr)
(10.25)
where V" is the pennutation tensor defmed in Eq. 1.33. On the other hand, the basic
defmition of the material derivative of dV is
d(dV)
=Lim dV' - dV
(10.26)
Ilt
Substituting Eq. 10.25 into Eq. 10.26, using Eqs. 10.22 and 10.24, and neglecting the
remaining tenns of Ilt we obtain
dt
Ar-+O
d(dV) =av i dV
dt
0Yi
For the material derivative of an integral in the fann
(10.27)
L A (Yj,t)dV,
where V is the domain of the continuum at time t, the operations of differentiation and
integration may be interchanged, since the differentiation is with respect to a defmite
portion of the continuum (i.e. a specific mass system). Therefore
L A (Yj,t)dV
=L ! [A (Yj,t)dV]
which, upon carrying out the differentiation and using Eq. 10.27, results in
rr
d
[dA(yj,t)
av i ]
dt Jv A(Yj,t)dV =Jv
dt +A(Yj,t)OYi dV
(10.28)
Applying Gauss's divergence theorem (Eq. 1.87) into Eq. 10.28 we fmd
d
[dA(yj,t) oA(Yj,t)
dt Jv A (Yj,t)dV = Jv
dt
0Yi Vi dV + Js A (Yj,t)vinidS
(10.29)
where S is the surface enclosing V and ni is the unit outward. nannal vector to S. With
the help of Eq. 10.13, we can rewrite Eq. 10.29 in the fann
d
oA(Yj,t)
dtJvA(Yj,t)dV= Jv ot dV+ JsA(Yj,t)vinidS
Without the assumption of the spatial differentiability of A (Xj,t) and
derivative above can be considered as
Ar-+O
(10.30)
Vi'
the material
(10.31)
The numerator on the right-hand side of the equation above can be considered as
consisting of two tenns; one over the region that V(t) and V(t + Ilt) share in common,
i.e.
oA IltdV
Jv ot
'
384
and another the volume swept by particles occupying an element of area dS, i.e.
A (xj , t )vjAtnjdS .
Substituting these two terms into Eq. 10.31, we can readily obtain Eq. 10.30.
If A(Yj,t) in Eqs. 10.28 to 10.30 is taken as a unit scalar quantity, we have the
change of the material volume with respect to time, i.e. the material derivative of the
volume, in the forms
-d
dt
iy i
dV=
-'dV
yaYj
dv
(10.32)
vjnjdS
(10.33)
Note that Eq. 10.32 is equivalent to Eq. 10.27. If A in Eq. 10.30 is replaced by the
material mass density p, then the left-hand side of that equation must vanish because
of the conservation of mass, i.e.
rap dV + Jsrpv.n.dS
=0
Jyat
JJ
(10.34)
Applying the same technique to Eq. 10.28, but dropping the integration symbols there
(since the equation holds for any V), we fmd
dp
dvj
-+p-=O
dt
aYj
(10.35)
pOdVO
=pdV
(10.37)
where pO and VO are the mass density and the material domain at the original state. For
convenience, we may choose dVo as a volume of an infmitesimal rectangular element
of the form
(10.38)
where dxh dx2 and dx3 are mutually orthogonal line elements in the original configuration, and characterized respectively by the following vectors
385
Finite Deformation
(10.39)
dx?) =dx30i3
Substituting Eqs. 10.39 into Eq. 10.4 yields, respectively, the vectors characterizing the
same line elements in the deformed configuration as follows
d ( l ) -dy
-'dx
Yi - dXl 1
(10.40)
dy
d (3)-_'dx
Yi - dX3 3
In general, the line elements dyP), dy?) and dy?) are not mutually orthogonal. In other
words, an original rectangular element of volume dVo transforms into an element of a
parallelepiped shape of volume dV. The latter can be put in the form
dV =f\jkdYP)dyy)dy~3)
(10.41)
Due to Eqs. 10.38 and 10.40, Eqs. 10.41 and 10.37 become, respectively
dydydy
dV=fvk-'-'-"dVO
dXl dXz dX3
(10.42)
or
o
dYidYjdYk
(10.43)
Before proceeding further, we should recall the following properties of the determinant
(Eqs. 1.46 and 1.48)
1
1 dX, 1 = ..
11M
dy.
(10.44)
(10.45)
pO =1 dYi 1
p dXj
(10.46)
386
(10.47)
:0=1 ~~: I
(10.48)
Equations 10.46 and 10.48 relate the mass density ratio to a unique transformation from
one configuration to another as described in Section 1.13. Moreover, since the mass
densities are naturally positive definite, the transformation is admissible and proper.
10.3 STRESS TENSORS IN DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS
The equation of equilibrium, Eq. 2.8, obtained in Chapter IT corresponds to a
deformed configuration and is simply expressed in terms of the Eulerian stress tensor
crv. This is a natural physical concept. However, if strains are referred to the original
configuration, it would be more convenient in the course of analysis to define stresses
with respect to the same configuration.
As has been established in Eq. 2.6, a stress vector Xi on a small area dS in a
strained continuum is related to the Eulerian stress tensor crv by
XidS
=crjinjdS
(10.49)
where ~ is the unit outer normal to dS. In the undeformed state, imagine the force
XidS acting on the area dSo which is the original of dS. Simultaneously, a stress vector
in the same direction as Xi' and a stress tensor <fv may be introduced in a relationship
similar to Eq. 10.49, i.e.
X?
-;;()
.-0
XidS =ujinjdS
(10.5 0)
where nio is the unit outer normal to dSo. Known as the Lagrangian stress tensor or
the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor (G. Piola, 1833 and G. Kirchhoff, 1852), <fv is a
stress component in the xrdirection on a plane (in the unstrained continuum) perpendicular to the Xi-axis. Equating the last two equations we find
crjinjdS
=cr;njOdSO
(10.51)
In order to fmd the relationship between crv and <fv, we must know the relation between
njdS and njOdSo. Let dYi and 8Yi be the sides of the small parallellogram dS. According
to the law of a cross product of two vectors (Eqs. 1.6 and 1.~2), we can write
(10.52)
nidS =Evkdyj8Yk
387
Finite Deformation
Another equation similar to Eq. 10.52 can be written for the original state as follows
niodSo = Eijldxjax l
(10.53)
where dx i and ax i are the originals of dYi and BYi' respectively. Therefore, by Eq. 10.7,
aXj aXl
n dS = P. .. L---dy/By
"~ay/aYm
(10.54)
(10.56)
poaxm
cr--n
,. p aYj m dS = crndS
,. J
or, (since njo is nonzero),
pO aXj
cr=--cr .
,. p aYm ""
(10.57)
Equation 10.57 shows that the Lagrangian stress tensor ~ is not symmetric, though the
Eulerian stress tensor crij is symmetric, as will be shown formally later. Thus it will
be inconvenient to use ~ in a stress-strain law which is normally in terms of symmetric
stress and strain tensors. For this reason, l:ij known as the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress
tensor or simply the Kirchhoff stress tensor is introduced as
(10.58)
or, due to Eq. 10.57,
(10.59)
From the last equation we can see that l:ij is a symmetric tensor, i.e. l:ij = l:ft. Making
use of the identities in Eqs. 10.12, we can obtain the inverses to Eqs. 10.57 to 10.59
as the following
(1O.60a)
aYi
cr=-l:
,.
aXm Jm
(l0.60b)
388
p dYidYj
aft
aft
(l0.60c)
(10.61a)
(10.61b)
At this stage, it is appropriate to consider the directions of the stress vector
components on each side of the infmitesimal parallelepipeds. As shown in Fig. 10.5,
a stress vector a~i acting on the plane (in the original configuration) nonnal to Xl -direction has Cartesian components ~l' ~2 and ~3' Alternatively, the same stress vector
due to Eq. 1O.60b, is
o
dYi
dYi
dYi
ali =I.u -a +I.12 -a +I.13 -a
!Xl
!X2
!X3
(10.62)
It should be noted that each vector on the right-hand side of Eq. 10.62 is parallel to a
particular edge of the infmitesimal parallelpiped in the defonned configuration. For
example, the vector I.lldy/dxl is parallel to dyP> (defined in Eq. 10040), since both
vectors are parallel to the same vector dy;ldxl' In fact, an original edge in the Xl-direction
and with a unit length becomes a vector dy;ldxI in the defonnedconfiguration. Similarly,
we can say that the shear components ~2dy;ldX2 and I.13dy;ldx3 are parallel to dy?)
ORIGINAL
DEFORMED
389
Finite Deformation
and dyP), respectively. Thus the stress vector on the side originally perpendicular to
xI-axis can be decomposed into three components as shown in Fig. 10.5. Repeating
the same discussion for other sides of the parallelpiped, we can show that "Lnay/axz is
parallel to dy?), ~ay/aX3 to dyP), ~Iay/axi to dy;(I), ~3ay/aX] to dyP), ~Iay/axi to
dyP), and ~zay/axz to dy?).
Such knowledge of the directions of the stress vector components is useful in
interpreting the phenomena physically and in making rational assumptions in real
structural systems. As an example, taking the case in which the original dimension of
the structure in the x3-direction is relatively small, we may assume that ~3' ~I and ~2
are zero, since that gives the same effect as the usual assumption that stress vector
components in the dyp>-direction should vanish.
Instead, we choose the current volume dV as a volume of an infInitesimal rectangular element of the form
(10.63)
where dYI' dY2 and dY3 are mutually orthogonal line elements in the deformed configuration, and characterized respectively by the following vectors
(lO.64a)
(lO.64b)
(I0.64c)
Substituting Eqs. 10.64 into Eq. 10.7 yields, respectively, the vectors characterizing the
same line elements in the original configuration as follows
ax;
=-dYI
aYI
(1O.65a)
(2)
ax;
dx =-dY2
I
ayz
(1O.65b)
(I)
dx
I
(3)
dx;
ax;
=-a
dY3
Y3
(1O.65c)
ay;
aXk
0" .. =-O"k
(10.66)
o ay; aYj
Eji =
0"1m
(10.67)
JI
and
ct:
-a-a
Xm
Xl
Note that
is not symmetric but l:.~ is. Making use of Eq. 10.12, we can obtain the
inverse of Eqs. 10.66 and 10.67 as the following
390
(Tt2
DEFORMED
ORIGINAL
three
components parallel
aA
aAaYj
-=--
(10.71)
Finite Deformation
391
(10.72)
in which we may neglect the tenn
aA aA
-a
=:;-,
!Xj UYj
au/aXj,
(10.73)
Using Eq. 10.73, we can readily obtain Eq. 10.71 from any of the Eqs. 10.58 to 10.60
and 10.66 to 10.69.
lOA EQUATIONS OF MOTION IN DIFFERENT DESCRIPTIONS
In Fig. 10.1, a continuum at time t occupies a domain V with a boundary S in
the defonned state. The body is subjected to a body force Xj per unit mass and a
surface traction Xj per unit area of S. Newton's second law of motion states that the
rate of change of the linear momentum is equal to the applied force, i.e.
d
(10.74)
dt (pvjdV) =dFj
where dFj is the resultant force acting on dV. Note the identity
EukVjVk =0
(10.75)
(since the tenn represents a cross product of two identical vectors), and the rate of
change of the moment of momentum
d
d
(10.76)
dt (E;jkYjpvkdV) =E;jkYj dt (pvkdV) + EukVjvkPdV
Substituting Eqs. 10.74 and 10.75 into Eq. 10.76 we find
d
dt (ijkYjpvkdV) =dTj
(10.77)
dTj =ijkyjdFk
Writing Eqs. 10.74 and 10.77 for V as a whole, we have, respectively,
(10.78)
!IvPVjdV=Fj
(10.79)
(10.80)
Iv ijkYjpvkdV =Tj
where
Is :KjdS
T j =Iv ijkPYrkdV + Is E;jkYrkdS
F j =Iv pXjdV +
(10.81)
(10.82)
392
Equations 10.79 and 10.80 are Euler's first and second laws of motion, respectively,
already described in Section 2.4. To derive the equations of motion in terms of the
Eulerian stress tensor aij in a more formal way using the frrst law, we substitute Eq.
10.81 into Eq. 10.79 and use Eqs. 10.30 and 10.49 to obtain
i [ at
v
a(PV;)
---pX.
dV=
Iss(a .. -pvjv.)n.dS
J
JI
(10.83)
If aji and pVjVj on the right-hand side of the equation above are assumed differentiable
with respect to Yj' we can apply Gauss's divergence theorem and obtain
i[ a~;j)
- PX]dV
i[
= ~~ a(~~Vj) JdV.
Since this equation holds for an arbitrary V, the integrands on both sides must be equal,
i.e.
(10.84)
or, due to Eq. 10.13,
aaji
~+pXj=p
uYj
dVj
rap a
~
dt +Vj -:\+:;-(pVj) .
ut
uYj
However, the last term in this equation must vanish due to an equation of continuity,
i.e. Eq. 10.36. Thus
aaji
dVj
aYj + pXj =P dt
(10.85)
This is the Eulerian equation of motion in the differential form, while Eq. 10.83 is that
in an integral form. Alternatively, when the spatial differentiability of p and Vj can be
assumed, substituting Eq. 10.81 into Eq. 10.79 and making use of Eq. 10.28 yield
r[d(PVj)
av j
or
(10.86)
If aji is also differentiable with respect to Yj' the equation above can be reduced to Eq.
10.85.
On the other hand, if Euler's second law of motion is used, we will obtain
r [
JVijk PVjVk-Yj
(aa/k
dVk]
ay, +pXk-P"dt dV= JVilka/kdV,
393
Finite Deformation
The last equation simply means the symmetry of the Eulerian stress tensor, i.e. aij =aji.
To adopt Eq. 10.85 as a governing equation of related boundary value problems
makes the task difficult, since the variable Yi itself is unknown, and both the velocity
and the acceleration defmed in Eqs. 10.16 and 10.17 contain nonlinear terms. The
problems become simpler when the deformation is considered so small that: these
nonlinear terms may be neglected; there is no need to distinguish Xi from Yi; the basic
unknown in the problem is Ui'
In the Lagrangian description, the functions involved have Xi and t as independent
variables, thus the velocity and the acceleration are
dUi(Xj,t)
vi(xj,t) = dt
(10.87)
dvi ifUi
Cli(Xj,t)=-at= dt 2
(10.88)
Iv
(10.89)
J.
yOp
odvi
-at dV
(10.90)
Noting the fact that the same body force Xi per unit mass acts in both dV and dVo, and
that the same surface force (Eq. 10.50) acts on both dS and dSo, we can change the
resultant force acting on the system (Eq. 10.81) into
J. pOX;dVo + f. a~njOdSO
Fi =
SO
yO
(10.91)
=f. a~.n?dSO
J. [podvidt - pOXJdVO
'
yO
soP}
(10.92)
If the spatial differentiability of the stress field can be assumed, we can transform the
surface integral in Eq. 10.92 into a volume integral by Gauss's divergence theorem, and
finally get the equation of motion for an arbitrary domain VO as
ddfi
odvi
-+
P X =P dXj
,
dt
(10.93)
Alternatively, we can obtain Eq. 10.93 and the symmetry of l:ij by considering the
equilibrium of the infmitesimal parallelepiped after deformation, in the same way that
394
a (aYi
aXj aXm:Ejm
0
odvi
+ P Xi =P at
(10.94)
=Eft,
Eij
=Eft
(10.100)
hence there is at least one set of principal axes for each of them. Another important
consequence of Eqs. 10.96 and 10.97 is that: a necessary and sufficient condition that
a deformation of a body be a rigid-body motion (consisting only of translation and
rotation without changing distances between particles) is that all the components of the
strain tensor Eij or E;j be zero throughout the body.
With the use of Eqs. 10.3 and 10.6, the strain tensors can be expressed in terms
of the displacement Ui as
(10.101)
395
Finite Deformation
2 aYj
ayj ayj
aYj
(10.102)
(10.109)
which is analogous to Eq. 3.4. Substituting into the equation above Eq. 10.3 for Uj and
Eq. 1O.60b for cr~, we get
396
=~.
!jdYidYi )
2,\dXm dXj
:fill
=~.
!jdYidYi_3.)
2,\dXm dXj :fill
(10.110)
:fill
Replacing the term in the parentheses in the equation above by Ejm as defmed in Eq.
10.98, we get
(10.111)
which is equivalent to Eq. 3.7 for small deformation. If the material is assumed to be
elastic, i.e. when the stress components are unique and homogeneous functions of the
strain components, there exists the strain energy function U as a scalar homogeneous
function of the strain components, i.e.
U =U(Eij)
(10.112)
Accordingly, its total differential is
dU
dU=-dE ..
dnv "
(10.113)
In Eqs. 10.111 and 10.113, each of the nine strain components are considered as an
independent variable in the function U. Comparing these two equations, we have
odU
,t.. =p (10.114)
dEij
"
which is equivalent to Eq. 3.10 for small deformation.
Thus we may conclude that a rational form of the constitutive law is the relaand the Green's strain Eij.
tionship between the Kirchhoff stress
The small strain tensor as obtained in Chapter II can be specialized from Eq.
10.102 by restricting ourselves to small derivatives of displacements, i.e. dU/dYj 1,
and consequently neglecting their products in that equation. Eventually, we get
.tv
(10.115)
and Eqs. 10.102 and 10.107 become identical. With the additional help of Eq. 10.73,
we can conclude that there is no need to distinguish Eij from Ejj, Ev or ~ in small
deformation.
10.6 REFORMED LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION
If a transformation function
(10.116)
or, reversely,
(10.117)
397
Finite Deformation
=Yi(Zj' t)
(10.119)
oA dXk
OZi
!Xk oZi
::IA(xj,t)=-a: I
(10. 120a)
(10. 120b)
(l0.120c)
(l0.12Od)
dXi dZk
OZi dX k
OZk OXj
= ij =OXk OZj
0Yi OZk
OZi OYk
(10. 120e)
- - = ( ) .. = - OZk oYj
IJ
0Yk OZj
(10. 120f)
(10. 120g,h)
Denoting the refonned Lagrangian description by the superscript r, and adopting the
same procedures as used in the preceding sections to derive various conditions in the
correspondence between two different descriptions, we can get the one-to-one mapping
of a vector defining an infmitesimal line element as
(l0.12Ia,b)
or, reversely,
OZi
OZi
dXj
oYj
(1O.121c,d)
398
OZj
oYj
(10.122a,b,c)
(1O.122d,e,f)
oz.
po
- ' n~dS' =-n~dSo
OXj'
p.1
OZj
(1O.123a)
(1O.123b)
-ndS =-ndS
oYj ,
p' 1
The equality of force vectors on two corresponding surfaces gives
=r
~
=XjdS
XjdS
=XjdS
(l0.124a,b)
Xj =vjinj' Xj =ajinj ,
00-
=r-,.~
Xj=ajinj
(10. I 25a,b,c)
pOox",
JI
(10. 126a)
l1li
p' OZj
cf..=--a.
pay",
JI
(l0.126b)
l1li
p'oz.' _oz.
'IJ. =__
1 E
IJ
po OXI ax", ml
(10. 127a,b)
(10. 127c)
Oafi.
.Ovj
-+pX.=pOZj
,
at
or
J.
(OYj ~
OZj OZ'" ~j",
(l0.128a)
Ovj
+ P Xj =p at
r
(l0.128b)
p'dU=EqdEij
where Eij is the reformed Green's strain tensor, i.e.
(10.129)
Finite Deformation
399
2 dZj dZj
dZj dZj
dXkdXm
=---Ekm
OZj OZj
(10. BOa)
(10. BOb)
Thus another rational fonn of the constitutive law is the relationship between the
refonned Kirchhoff stress tensor ~ and the refonned Green's strain Eij. For linear
elastic solids, Hooke's law applies, and relationships in the Lagrangian and refonned
Lagrangian descriptions take the following fonns
(1O.131a)
(10.131b)
Making use of Eqs. 10. 120e, 10. 127c, 1O.130b and 10.131, we get the relationship
between the stiffness tensors in these two different descriptions as
(l0.132a)
az-az- dZ az-Cmnop
(l0.132b)
Cijld =pr
rn
II
=a=l
L N(a)(z.)x~a)
J
(10.133)
(10.134)
In the equation above, zla) is the position vector of the node a in the refonned Lagrangian
description, and can be expressed as
z(a)--1
for a = 1,4,5,8
(l0.135a)
1 -,
= 1, for a = 2,3,6,7
(10. 135b)
z(a)=_l
2
, for a = 1,2,5,6
(10. 136a)
= 1, for a = 3,4,7,8
(10.136b)
z(a)=-l
3
, for a = 1,2,3,4
(10. 137a)
= 1, for a = 5,6,7,8
(l0.137b)
400
ui = I. N(a)(z)u?)
(10.138)
a=l
=z,J(Zj' z}"~,
for a
=1 to
for a
=5
(10. 139a)
to 8
(10. 139b)
Finite Deformation
401
(10.141)
dy=GAdeA
(10.142)
or
where G Ais the covariant base vector after deformation, i.e.
G _ ay =
A- aeA-y,A
(10.143)
Note the direction of each G A in Fig. 10.8. In fact, all identities derived in Sections
1.14 and 1.15 in terms of g and x also hold when g and x are changed into G and y,
respectively. For examples; the square of the length of the element PQ is
DEFORMED
ORIGINAL
Curve
402
(10.144)
where G'AjJ. is the covariant metric tensor after deformation, the volume of the infmitesimal parallelepiped after deformation is
dV =-{(jd81d82d83
where G =det[G~, and the derivative of Gil with respect to 8 v is
(10.145)
G~V={~rGA
in which
{~}
(10.146)
(10.147)
Comparing the last equation with Eq. 10.96, we define the strain tensor in curvilinear
coordinates as follows
(10.148)
As shown in Fig. 10.8 the displacement vector u(8\ 8 2, 83) is related to the position
vectors x and y as
(10.149)
y=x+u
The contravariant and covariant components of u have been defmed in Eqs. 1.199 and
1.202, respectively, i.e.
u = VAgA= V~A
(10. 150a,b)
Substituting Eq. 10.149 into Eq. 10.143, and using Eqs. 1.174, 1.200 and 1O.150a, we
fmd
GA =(~+ v;~g.,
(10.151)
_.!.(
1C
1C
1C P)
2 gA1Cv;1l + gKJ1V;A + g1CpV;AV;1l
'AjJ. -
(10.152)
Finite Deformation
403
unit mass) and tractions on the six infmitesimal surfaces. Since the area of the surface
e A= constant in the original configuration is, due to Eq. 1.193, proportional to de f1de lC,
it is logical to put the resultant force vector corresponding to this surface in the form
(10.154)
dTA= tA~ def1delC, (A. :;!: J.! :;!: x:)
where g is as defined in Eqs. 1.183b to d. Naturally, the resultant force vector on the
side corresponding to the surface e A+ deA= constant in the original configuration is
a(dTA)
dTA+--A-de\ (A. not summed).
ae
All resultant force vectors involved are depicted on appropriate sides of the parallelepiped, following the sign convention of stresses (positive if in tension), in Fig. 10.9.
Accordingly, the equilibrium of this parallelepiped can be put in the form
a(dTl) del + a(dT2) de2 + a(dT3) de3 + OXdV o = 0
ae l
ae2
ae3
p
(10.155)
Substituting Eqs. 1.186 and 10.154 into the last equation we fmd
(~tlC).lC+pOX~ =0
The vector
(10.156)
f1
(10.157)
404
"'=1
or, due to Eqs. 10.154 and 10.157,
't~Gf1 X G", = 0,
or
1
2('t~-~)Gf1xG", =0.
Since the vector Gf1 x G", is nonzero for J.1::. A, the equation above gives
't~=~
(10.158)
i.e. the stress tensor ~ is symmetric.
The body force X may be expressed in terms of its contravariant components
before deformation as follows
X =X~g",
(10.159)
Substituting Eqs. 10.157 and 10.159 into Eq. 10.156, and using Eqs. 1.194 and 10.151,
we find
(10.160)
The equation above holds for dynamic equilibrium as well if X is considered as the
sum of the actual body force vector and the D' Alembert's force vector, which is equal
to the negative of the acceleration vector.
If 't~f1gf1 is the stress vector on the surface where a 1 constant in the original
configuration, the resultant force dT 1 there, because of Eq. 1.193, becomes
dT 1 ='t~f1gll"g gllda2da3
(10.161)
(10.163)
(10.164)
1 ('tlf1G \
'tlf1g =__
o f1 -{ill
'"
or
(10.165)
Finite De/ormation
405
'tllLg
OIL
(10. 166a,b)
.. I
A.3
1 (A.lG
uG2+'tA.3G3),
_ru.
't
I +'t
-Vg U
(A. not asummed)
(10. 167a,b)
Substituting Eq. 10.151 into Eq. 10.165 then considering the vectorial components of
the result in g}, g2 and g3 directions yield, respectively,
(10. 168a)
(10. 168b)
(10.168c)
DEFORMED
Curve
406
Thus we may write a general relationship between ~ and .(I' as the following
~ =}gu<-"(~ + v;~,
(10.169)
It should be noted that while .(I' carries a meaning similar to the Cartesian Kirchhoff
stress tensor 11;, ~ carries a meaning similar to the Cartesian Lagrangian stress tensor
ag. Moreover, Eqs. 10.167 imply that the stress vector ~gJ1 has three vectorial components in a 1, a 2 and a 3 directions in the original configuration, but in Gl> G2 and G3
directions in the deformed configuration. Figure 10.10 depicts, as an example, such
vectorial decompositions of the stress vector 't~J1gJ1' If the original dimension of the
structure in the a 3-direction is relatively small, we may assume that .-r3, .-r1 and .-r2 are
zero, i.e. the same assumption as of the plane stress conditions with respect to the
surface where a 3 =constant.
10.9 PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF VECTORS AND TENSORS
When the a-system is a local rectangular Cartesian coordinate system, mathematical conditions involved are very much simplified as Eqs. 1.211 to 1.213 show, and
the physical meaning of the quantities involved can be comprehended more easily. Most
obviously, a contravariant or a covariant component of a vector such as in Eqs. 10.150
and 10.159 becomes indeed a Cartesian component of that vector. The strain tensor
given in Eq. 10.153 carries the same physical meaning as Eq. 10.101, since the former
can be reduced to the form
(10.170)
Next, rewriting Eq. 10.154 under the special conditions mentioned above for 1..= 1, as
an example, we have
(10.171)
dT1 =t 1da2da\ (for Cartesian system)
which shows that t 1 has the same physical meaning as cr:i in Eq. 10.62. With an
observation that GA has the same physical meaning as 'OY/dX1 for the global Cartesian
coordinate system, we can also conclude that the stress tensor.(l' in Eq. 10.157 carries
the same meaning as ~ii in Eq. 10.60b. Further, we can write the equation of equilibrium,
Eq. 10.160, in the form
(10.172)
Finite Deformation
407
for physical components from the non-physical ones referred to the a-system can start
with setting up a local rectangular Cartesian coordinates system (z-system) at the
material point pO as shown in Fig. 10.11. Denoting the unit vector in the direction of
z~-axis by j~, and noting the identities
o( ) o( )oz"
oa). = oz" oa).
o( ) o( )oa"
oz). oa" oz).
--=----
(10.173a)
(10.173b)
we have
(10. 174a)
. ax 09"
=oz). =oz).~
oz). ..
oa" =J).' gIL
J).
(l0.174b)
(10.174c)
(10. 174d)
9 1 Curve
408
(10.175)
u=u JA
Equating this equation with Eq. 10.150, and using Eq. 1O.174a, we get
A dZ A
u =-v ll
dell
(10.176)
(10.177)
where X: has been defined in Eq. 10.159, while X A is the Cartesian component in
zA-direction, i.e.
(10.178)
Being consistent with the derivations of strain tensors of Eqs. 10.98 and 10.148,
the physical strain component defmed with respect to the z-system is
1[ dY dY
E,.,. =2
ax ax]
dZ A dZ Il - dZ A dZ Il
Using Eqs. 10.148, 1O.173b and 1O.174c, we can rewrite the last equation as
del< de p
P. - - . - A .
~-dZA dZIl~
(10.179)
(10.180)
or, conversely,
(10.181)
In fact, ~ is a local Cartesian component of the Green's strain tensor.
For the relationship between stress tensors of the two different curvilinear coordinate systems, the derivation is based on the equilibrium of the system shown in Fig.
10.12 where the infmitesimal tetrahedron PRST denotes the deformed configuration of
pORoSoTo in the original state. In addition to the surface forces on this infmitesimal
tetrahedron depicted in Fig. 10.9, there is another force XdS~ on the surface RST, where
dS~ is the area of the surface ROSoTo. The condition of equilibrium of the forces acting
on the tetrahedron can be put in the form
XdS~=(dTl+dT2+dT3)/2
(10.182)
The body (actual and D' Alembert's) forces do not enter into this equation, because they
are of higher order of smallness than the surface forces. Substituting Eq. 10.154 into
the last equation, and using Eqs. 1.188, we find
X = (gl<. n;,)tl<
(10.183)
where ~ is the unit vector normal to the surface ROSoro. On the other hand, if we
write X with respect to the z -system, i.e. for an infmitesimal tetrahedron formed by
409
Finite De/ormation
'dY2 and'd
Jl'dY 1, J2
J3 Y3, we get
X=('h:~SA
(10.184)
SA=r.'4L dy
(10.185)
az ll
Since X, being a physical quantity, does not depend on the choice of coordinate systems,
we can equate Eq. 10.184 with Eq. 10.183 and get
(jA' ~)SA= (gil' ~)f
(10.186)
By taking the direction ~ coincident with a zlt-axis and substituting Eqs. 10.157 and
10.185 into Eq. 10.186, we have
V~
::p =
(gil .
jJ~
!A
(10.187)
(10. 188a)
or, conversely,
(10.188b)
ORIGINAL
Curve
DEFORMED
T_----"
410
In fact, 'J:,'J..jL is a local Cartesian component of the Kirchhoff stress tensor. Next, we
will find the physical components when the a-system is orthogonal, for which some
prevailing conditions are listed in Eqs. 1.210. Setting a local rectangular Cartesian
coordinate system (z-system) to have the same orientation as the a-system, i.e. j1' jz
and j3 are in the same directions as gl' gz and g3' respectively, we can show that
g" =...{fuj"
(10. 189a)
(l0.189b)
(l0.189c)
az l1
w;:;:
11
u"=...{fuv"
(10. 190a)
X "...{fu"
= guXg
(l0.190b)
~ =-Vg""g11l1 ~
(10. 190c)
=-Vg""g1111 -(11
(10. 19Od)
'J:,'J..jL
dS~, and
X the
stress vector on dS~. Substituting Eq. 10.163 into Eq. 10.183 we find
-
VJ1
X =X g gl1
(l0.191b)
~ = I. (g,,' n~)'t~
(10.192)
(10.193)
,,=1
The virtual work due to X through 8u is, because of Eqs. 1.178 and 10.191,
Thus the boundary conditions on the boundary dS~ involve the prescription of either
Finite Deformation
411
X:g"lC or VlC
(10.194)
A
If dS~ is a surface where 9 = constant, n:, is in the same direction as fl, then due to
Eqs. 1.192c, 10.192 and 10.194, boundary conditions become either in
~g"lC or VlC, (on surface where 9 A=constant)
(10.195)
At the instant that the position vector y for the point pO(91, 92, 93) in Fig. 10.8 is
increased by dy, such vector for the surface where 9A+ d9A= constant is increased by
dy + o~:~) d9\
Thus the corresponding increase of the strain energy for the infmitesimal parallelepiped
at the point pO (Figs. 10.8 and 10.9) is
pOdUdVo =
(10.196)
A
where U is the strain energy per unit mass. Neglecting the (d9 )2 terms in the equation
above yields
pOdUdVO=[
pOdUdVo =
(10.197)
f dr o(dy)
d9\
o9
A=l
or
(10.198)
Substituting Eqs. 10.143 and 10.154, in view of Eqs. 1.186 and 10.157, into the equation
above, we get
pOdU =
<"G,,' dGA
(10.199)
=2'1"J.a
' .d(G GJ
P dU
412
we may conclude that a rational form of the constitutive law is the relationship betweeJ
the non-physical stress -(- and the non-physical strain ~.
Following the same scheme as adopted to derive Eqs. 3.11 to 3.15, we obtain the
stress-strain relationship for linear elastic solids as
-(-=D')..pDfJ~
(10.201
aelLaea ae~
az" az 3 az az~
(10.203
or
(10.204:
10.11 COMPATIBILITY CONDmONS
The Riemann-Christoffel tensor R~ (Spiegel, 1959) is dermed in the deforme(
configuration as
R~ =~:JG
_~~r +{ lG{A.}G _1 lC}G{ A.1
ae
ae ~
4tv
lC
ILVGl
1CV
lCcJ
(10.205:
and its associated fourth order tensor commonly known as the Riemann-Christoffe,
covariant curvature tensor is
R'AjJ.VGl
=G~.,.R:VGl
(10.206:
Only 6 of the 81 components of R'AjJ.VGl are distinct, due to the following symmetr)
conditions
(10.207:
R'AjJ.VGl = RVGl'AjJ. = -R~VGl = -R'AfuJN = -R'AlsN1L
The 6 distinct covariant components of the curvature tensor may be chosen as
R 2323 R 3131 R 1212 R l231 R2312 R 3123
(10.208:
If we take the strain components ~ as arbitrary continuous functions of coordinates of points in the material domain, the deformation of the material body would b~
insured of continuity only if
(10.209:
It is easy to prove that these compatibility conditions are necessary. but difficult to prov
Finite DejormtJtion
413
that they are sufficient; the latter will not be given here. The proof of sufficiency is
based on the fact that the covariant differentiation in a Euclidean space is commutative,
thus the Riemann-Christoffel tensor and curvature tensor are zero in the Eulidean space
where the positions of points in the material body are defmed after defonnation.
Without loss of generality in the application into the compatibility conditions, we
can put the curvilinear coordinates identical to the reference Lagrangian (global Cartesian) coordinates, i.e.
a1 =X a2 =x2' a3 =~
1,
(10.210)
(10.211)
"
1 dG
= 4GdEv'
(i = j)
(10.213a)
(i :f:. j)
(10.213b)
where
(1O.214a)
G =det[G~
1 +2Ell
2E12
2E13
2E12
2E13
1+2Ezz
2~
2~
1+2~3
(10.214b)
va
(10.214c)
In fact,
as indicated by Eq. 10.145 is the ratio between the new and the original
volumes; thus, in view of Eqs. 10.37 and 10.46, we can write
..JG =IdY/dXjl
dUI
dXl
dUz
dXl
dU]
dXl
1+=
(10.215)
dUI
dx2
1+ dUz
dX2
dU]
dX2
dUI
dx3
dUz
dX]
dU]
1+dX3
(10.216)
414
l3
ll
ll
Finite De/ormation
415
aXI
(10.217)
etc.
13
aXI
aX3
If the strain components are sufficiently small compared with unity and can be
neglected, then the difference between the covariant and the contravariant components
of the Riemann-Christoffel tensor will be slight and consist only of terms of the same
order of magnitude as the strain components. In order to incorporate this condition, we
must omit all terms in Eqs. 10.217 which have strain components as factors but not
their derivatives, since the latters may be considerably greater than strain components
themselves. With this modification, we obtain the six distinct compatibility conditions
as follows
aX2
aX3
aX2
aXI
aX2
aXI
aX2
aXl'
aX2aX3 - aXI
aX3
+ aX2
aX I
aXI
aX:!
aXI
aX2
aXI
a.xz
aXI
aX3
aX2 aX3
aXI
aX3
aXI
aX2 aX2
aXI
aX3'
etc.
(10.218)
Finally, if we assume that not only strains but their derivatives are small compared
with unity, we can omit all product terms in the previous equations whereupon Eq.
is obtained.
2.62
416
In Chapter IV, we have illustrated the use of the compatibility conditions in the
solution approach, with strains as basic unknowns, to the problems of elastic planes
under the small defonnation theory. Such an approach under the ftnite defonnation
theory is not so practical, because the compatibility conditions become too complicated.
10.12 PROBLEMS
pdU
{aYjau.)
(J ..
-'
!I
(10.219)
where eij is as defmed in Eq. 10.107. Substituting Eq. 10.48 into the equation above
yields an identity which is similar to Eq. 10.111 of the Lagrangian description, i.e.
pOdU
where
(Jijdfv
_I
1-1dU*
<lEv= -ax",
ay"
(10.220)
(10.221)
Note that Ev defmed in Eq. 10.221 is a symmetric tensor of the second order. If (Jij
components are unique and homogeneous functions of the components of the 'new'
strain tensor Ev, we can have the strain energy function as a unique and homogeneous
function of such strain tensor components. Thus there can be a rational constitutive
law in the Eulerian description relating the Eulerian stress tensor (Jij with the strain
tensor Ev deftned in Eq. 10.221. However, such a law is rather complicated due to the
nature of Eq. 10.221 and the type of description.
(10.223)
Finite Deformation
417
If the generalized Hooke's law, Eq. 3.11, holds relating Eli with Eli' the equation above
becomes
pO
JyO
JyO
SO
iXm
OXj
(10.224)
Pol
yO
X~)u~l)dVo+f. ~)u~l)dSo=1
SO
yO
C. E(2)Oy;(2)[oYl1)-~.JdVO
jmld 1<1
a,v""ma,v
""j
(10.225)
Though the stiffness tensor Cli1<l is symmetric as in Eq. 3.14, Eqs. 10.224 and 10.225
are not identical. Thus the Maxwell-Betti reciprocal theorem does not exist in fmite
deformation.
REFERENCES
The article by Truesdell and Toupin (1960) contains an extensive list of references from
the years 1678 to 1960. The works cited in this book and published in the twentied
century are listed alphabetically below:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
420
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
References
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
421
119.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
422
52.
53.
54.
55.
56
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
References
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
423
424
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
References
425
426
pp. 1144-1158.
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1948, pp. 435-440.
125. Reissner, E., 'Small Bending and Stretching of Sandwich Shells', NACA TN 1832,
1949.
126. Reuss, E., 'Beriicksichtigung der elastischen Fonnilnderungen in der Plastizitatstheorie', Z. angew. Math. Mech., Vol. 10, 1930, pp. 266-274.
127. Robertson, I.A., 'Forced Vertical Vibration of a Rigid Circular Disc on a
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128. Rongved, L. 'Force at a Point in the Interior of One of the Two Joined SemiInfinite Solids', Proc. 2nd. Midwest. Con/. Solid Mech., Lafayette, Ind., 1955.
129. Sadowsky, M., 'Zweidimensionale Probleme der Elastizitlitstheone', Z. angew.
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130. Schapery, R.A., 'Approximate Methods of Transform Inversions in Viscoelastic
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pp. 1075-1085.
131. Schiffman, R.L., and Fungaroli, A.A., 'Consolidation due to Tangential Loads',
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256.
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Vol. 17, 1959, pp. 55,..65.
165. Zienkiewicz, O.C., and Cormeau, I.C., 'Viscoplasticity-Plasticity and Creep in
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AUTHOR INDEX
E
Abramowitz, M, 25, 28
Achenbach,I.D., 107,292
Agabein, M.E., 178
Airy, G.B., 114
Alam, K.M.A., 188
Alfrey, T., 33, 268
Almansi, E., 394
Alvappillai, A., 231
Apirathvorakij, V., 217, 231
F
Ferry, I.D., 260
Folie, C.M., 189
Frazer, R.A., 16
Fung, Y.C., 361, 364
Fungaroli, A.A., 229
Haar, D. ter, 33
Habip, L.M., 189
Hamel, G., 394
Hamming, R.W., 224
Handelman, G.H., 369
Harkrider, D.G., 329, 334
Hencky, H., 369
Hill, R., 374
Hodge, P.G., Ir., 368
Hooke, R., 88
Hopkins, IL., 224
Hovichitr, 1., 188
Hsu, H.P., 31
Hughes, T.I.R., 375, 376, 377, 400
Hunter, S.C., 272, 273
Hwang, B.Y., 217, 223
J
Iardetzky, W.S., 316, 329, 334
Iou, T.S., 183, 189
429
430
K
Kalaba, R.E., 34
Kalker, J.J., 273
Kanai, K., 325
Kanok-Nukulchai, W., 400
Kao, J.S., 189
Karasudhi, P., 180, 183, 188, 189,211,217,223,
225, 226, 231, 348, 353
Kannan, T. von, 356
Karunasena, W.M., 231
Keer, L.M., 353
Keller, H.B., 296
Kirchhoff, G., 159, 386
Kliushnikov, V.D., 369
Koiter, W.T., 364, 366, 367
Koppe, H., 325
Kosherick, HJ., 178, 187
o
Osgood, W.R., 362
Author Index
431
s
Sadowsky, M., 208
Saint Venant, B. de, 394
Schapery, R.A., 33
Schiffman, R.L., 229
Scholte, J.G., 325
Schreiner, RN., 271
Schwarzl, F., 260
Scordelis, A.C., 180
Seafeldt, C.A., 334
Sezawa, K., 325
Sneddon, LN., 198, 204, 208, 217
Sokolnikoff, LS., 64, 106
Sokolovsky, V.V., 375
Spiegel, M.R., 14,32,243,279,282,334,412
Stakgold, I., 24
Staverman, AJ., 260
Stegun, LA., 25, 28
Sternberg, E., 217,222,223,274,287
Stoneley, R., 325
Sung, T.Y., 353
Suriyamongkol, S., 180
Swanson, S.R., 34
T
Tansirikongkol, V., 183, 189
Taylor, R.L., 375, 376, 377, 400
V
Vijakkhana, C., 180
w
Wang, C.-T., 76
Watson, GN., 25, 198
Whittaker, E.T., 198
Widder, D.V., 33
Williams, M.L., 218
Woinowsky-Krieger, S., 168
Wu, H.C., 375
Wylie, C.R., 180
Y
Young, T., 94
Z
Zakeria, M., 189
Ziegler, H., 368
Zienkiewicz, O.C., 375, 376, 377
SUBJECT INDEX
Cauchy's principal value. 334. 335. 347
Cauchy-Riemann conditions. 117. 120
Characteristic
equation. 13. 16
value. 13
vector. 13
Christoffel symbol. 41. 43. 402
of the second kind. 41. 43. 402
Coefficient of
consolidation. 109
permeability. 109
Cofactor. 11.40
Collocation method. 33. 34
Column matrix. 10
Comma-subscript convention. 18.41.297
Compatibility conditions. 64. 82. 100. 102. 113.
267.269
Canonical form. 15
Carrier wave. 291
Cartesian
components, 4. 19.378.388.406.408.410
coordinares. 36
coordinare system. 4. 7. 17.406
tensor. 1. 7. 9
433
434
surface, 37, 40
systems, 4, 6, 43, 406, 412
Comer force, 161, 162, 167
Covariance, 6, 38
Covariant
base vector, 37,41,43,401
component, 42, 402, 406, 415
derivative, 42
metric tensor, 38, 402
partial differentiation, 43, 44
tensors, 38
Cramer's rule, 13
Creep, 237, 377
compliance, 238, 240, 257, 263
function, 244
law, 240, 244, 245, 255
Cross product, 3
Curvature, 20, 155, 302
Curvilinear
coordinates, 36,401,410
coordinate system, 6, 38,43,67,406
Cylindrical
bending, 165
coordinates, 67, 114, 203
rotation components, 74
wavefront, 309, 350
D
Effective
plastic strain increment, 370
stress, 370
Eiconal equation, 301, 304, 307
Eigenvalue, 12, 13, 16, 55, 56, 306, 322
problem, 12, 13, 16, 322
Eigenvector, 13, 14, 15, 45, 56, 306, 322
Einstein summation convention, 5, 38, 297
Elastic
range, 355
solid, 86, 88, 93
strrun, 357, 358, 364, 372, 374
Elasticity, 86, 235
Elastic-viscoelastic
analogy, 270
correspondence principle, 270, 279
Elastostatics, 111, 196
Energy dissipation per cycle, 260, 262, 283
Energy identity, 267
Engineering shear strrun, 62, 90
Equations of
continuity, 384, 392
motion,49,53,69,296, 391, 392, 393
Equilibrium, 49, 86, 87, 102,402
equations, 159, 269
Equivalent
plastic strain increment, 370
stress, 370
Equivoluminal wave, 294
Euclidean space, I, 4, 11, 39, 413
Euler's laws of motion, 52, 53, 392
Eulerian
coordinates, 379, 395
description, 379, 394, 397, 416
stress tensor, 386, 387
Excess pore pressure, 108
gradient, 109, 229
F
Factor of stress singularity, 218
Far field, 122, 225, 334, 348
Field equations, 99, 164, 196, 203, 229
Subject Index
435
Final-value theorem, 30
Finite
deformation, 47, 378, 416, 417
elements, 225, 228, 348
First
order tensor, 6
Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, 386
Flexural rigidity, 162
Flow rule, 365, 366
Fourier transform, 30, 198, 255, 259, 270
Fredholm integral equation, 217, 223
Free index, 6, 8, 18
Frenet-Serret formula, 20, 46, 308
G
Generalized
coordinates, 15
Kelvin model, 237
Maxwell model, 237
Generic letter, 5
Geometrical nonlinearity, 378
Gibbs notation, 2, 38, 44
Glassy
creep compliance, 244
modulus, 245
Gradient, 23, 109, 229
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process, 180
Green's
strain tensor, 394, 398, 408
theorem, 18, 157
Group velocity, 292
H
Half
plane, 121, 140, 144, 145, 197, 218, 233, 323,
324, 326, 327, 346, 352, 353, 354
space, 203, 207, 209, 217, 225,232,233,272,
277, 334,343, 347,348,353,354
Hankel
function, 25,28, 338
transform, 204, 230, 330
Hardening rules, 368, 374
Harmonic
equation, 103
function, 103, 104, 117
operator, 113
surface wave of Rayleigh type, 321
Heaviside
expansion formula, 243, 279, 282
step function, 24, 238, 261, 264
Hooke's law, 88, 357, 359, 399, 417
Hookean elastic solid, 235, 283
Hoop stress, 124, 141
Huyghen's principle, 308
Hydrostatic
pressure, 95, 356, 357, 361, 368
stress, 60
Hyperdomain, 297
Hype~urface,
Ideal plastic
deformation, 365
range, 355
solids, 360, 362, 366, 373
Identity matrix, 10, 12, 13
In-plane problems, 73, 189, 196, 320
Incompressible material, 95, 280
Incremental
formulation for isotropic hardening, 369
stress-strain relationship, 366
theories of plasticity, 368
Indicial notation, 5,44, 378
Infinite
elements, 225, 348
plane, 121, 142, 143, 197
space, 203
Initial-value theorem, 30
Inner product, 9
Interpolation function, 229, 399
Invariant, 54, 55, 60, 102
Inverse
Laplace transform, 32,231, 243,284, 287
matrix, 12
Irrotational wave, 295
Isochoric deformation, 83
Isothermal harmonic vibration, 262, 282
Isotropic
elastic solids, 93, 292
hardening, 368, 370
Subject Index
436
materials, 93, 372
plane problems, 112, 113
~ilierny, 360, 370
J
Jacobian, 36, 303, 309
Jump, 297, 301, 304
K
Kelvin
functions, 27, 182
model,237
Kinematic
hardening, 368
jump condition, 301, 305
Kinetic energy, 87,288
Kirchhoff
shear forces, 159
stress tensor, 387
Kronecker
delta, 8,44
symbol, 13, 18, 40, 43
L
ttansformation, 15
viscoelasticity, 235
Linearity, 29, 235, 367
Load ttansfer, 217, 231, 348
Loading function, 360
Loss
angle, 260, 276
modulus, 260
Love
wave equation, 326, 327
wave velocity, 327
wavenumbers, 326
waves, 326, 334
M
Mass density, 51, 384, 386
Material
derivative, 380
description, 379
Maxwell model, 237, 318
Maxwell-Betti reciprocal ilieorem, 100, 267, 416
Metric
form, 39
tensor, 38
Michell's solution, 172, 184
Mindlin's solution, 216, 232
Mises yield condition, 362, 366, 371, 373
Modulation, 292
Modulus of foundation, 181
Moment
equilibrium, 51, 404
of momentum, 52, 391
Subject Index
437
o
Octahedral
plane, 60, 80
shear stress, 60, 61
One-to-one
correspondence, 35, 384, 397
mapping, 34, 378, 397, 398
Orthogonal
curvilinear coordinate system, 38, 410
eigenvectors, 14, 56
Orthogonality condition, 8
Orthogonalization process, 180
Orthonormality conditions, 8
Orthotropic elastic solids, 91, 111
Outer product, 9
Outgoing wave, 289
p
bending, 154
on elastic foundation, 180, 187
Poisson's ratio, 94, 96
Polar coordinates, 115
Poles, 32, 334, 335, 347
Polynomial approximation, 28
Porosity, 109
Position vector, 17,37,381,399,402
Positive definite, IS, 91, 107, 265, 386
Potential, 103, 104, lOS, 113, 114,203,229,329
energy, 86, 288
Prandtl-Reuss equation, 370
Prefactor matrix, 10
Pressure wave speed, 106, 292
Principal
axis, 55
direction, 55
normal,19
plane, 55
stress, 55
stress space, 361
Principle of virtual work, 98, 156
Proper transformation, 36, 37, 386
Pseudo
frequency, 262, 283
time, 261, 273, 283, 285, 287
Pulse, 24
Pure torsion bending, 166, 181
x-plane, 361, 362, 368
Q
Quadratic form, 15
Quarter planes, 218
Quasi-static problems, 34, 108,229,267,270,278
Quiescent initial conditions, 236
R
Radius
of curvature, 20
of torsion, 20
Rayleigh
wave velocity, 324
wavenumbers, 322
Rectangular
Cartesian coordinate system, 4, 7, 410
coordinate system, 4, 7, 39
438
Subject Index
Reduced
firequency, 262, 283
time, 261, 283, 285
Reflected wave, 311
Reformed
Green's strain tensor, 398
Kirchhoff stress tensor, 398
Lagrangian coordinates, 397
Lagrangian description, 396
Lagrangian stress tensor, 398
Relaxation, 238, 244, 377
function, 244
law, 240, 244, 245, 251, 262
modulus, 238
time, 245
Residue, 335, 341, 346, 348
theorem, 337
Retardation_time, 245
Riemann-Christoffel
covariant curvature tensor, 66, 412
tensor, 412
Riemann-Lebesgue lemma, 198
Riemannian space, 39
Rigid-body
displacement, 64, 69, 72, 112, 116
motion, 394
rotation, 74
translation, 74
Rigid
-plastic solids, 374
-strain-hardening, 373
Rotation
tensor, 63
vector, 63
Rotational wave, 293
Rubbery modulus, 244
s
S-wave, 293, 306, 307
S-wavenumber, 321
Sandwich plate, 189
Saturated porous elastic media, 108, 229
Scalar product, 3
Schapery's approximation, 33, 231
Second
order tensors, 6
Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, 387
Separation of variables, 268, 270
Shear
discontinuity, 306
modulus, 94, 97
strain,62
stress, 48, 388
stress resultant, 158
wave, 106,293
wave speed, 106,293
Shift factor, 261, 283
Shifting property, 29
Signum, 31
Simple
closed curve, 18, 45, 156
wave equation, 290, 294, 295
wave function, 289
Singular
contraction, 228
matrix,12
Skew coordinates, 43
Small deformation, 47, 52, 390, 396
Space, I, 4, 11, 39, 413
curve, 19, 20, 46
Spatial description, 379
Specific loss, 260
Spherical
Bessel function, 27
coordinates,67,226,293
Hankel function, 28
rotation components, 74
stress, 60
waveftunt, 294, 295,309,350
Standard linear solid model, 237
Standing wave, 289
Static equilibrium, 51
Stationary shear stresses, 57, 58
Steady
state harmonic function, 253, 269
tensor field, 17
Stieltjes integral, 239
Stiffness tensor, 90, 399
Stirling's formula, 32
Stoneley wave, 325
Strain
deviator, 63,94
energy, 86, 98, 411
energy function, 87, 107, 395, 398, 416
hardening, 364
hardening hypothesis, 371
tensor, 61, 394, 398, 402,408,413,416
439
Subject Index
Stress
component, 48, 49, 386, 388, 390
concentrntion factor, 124
deviator, 60, 94
-free state, 264, 273, 285, 286
invariants, 54, 60
potential, 104
resultant, 156, 159
space, 371, 366, 370
symmetry, 51, 54, 393
tensor, 48, 386, 387, 389, 398,404,410
vector, 50, 386, 388, 390, 398, 406, 410
Summation convention, 5, 10, 38, 297
Supplemented shear forces, 159
Surface
trnction, 47,48, 50, 391
waves, 320, 321, 325, 334,342, 345, 347, 350
wave solution, 335, 342, 346
Symbolic notation, 2, 9, 17, 38
T
Tangent, 19,46
Tensor
equation, 1, 5, 38
field, 17
Theory of plastic potential, 366
Thermorheologically simple solids, 260, 273
Torsion, 20, 308
Total differential, 22, 87, 396
Traction,47,48,50,403
Transformation
law, 1,8
of coordinates, 34
Translation property, 29
Transmitted wave, 311
Transpose matrix, 10
Transverse
discontinuity, 306
wave, 293
Tresca's yield condition, 361, 366, 368
Twisting moment, 159
u
Uniaxial stress, 94, 266, 273, 372
Unified Hooke's law, 112
Uniqueness theorem, 30
Unit eigenvector, 14
v
Variational symbol, 98, 156
Vector
addition, 2
components, 6
equations, 2
field, 17, 18
product, 3
subtrnction, 3
triad, 4
Velocity jump, 304, 305
Virtual
displacement, 410
quantity, 98, 156
work 98, 156,410
Viscoelasticity, 235
Viscoplastic
model,374
strain rate, 374
Viscoplasticity, 374
Viscous dashpot model, 236, 240
Voigt model, 237, 241
w
Wave, 288
equation, 106, 290, 292, 293, 295
group, 292
propagation, 288
Wavefront, 288, 294, 295, 297, 299, 310, 350
function, 299
Wavelength,291
Wavenumber, 291, 321, 322, 325, 326
Widder's general inversion formula, 33
Work hardening, 355, 364, 367
hypothesis, 370
parameter, 359
range, 355
y
Yield
condition, 359, 361, 366, 369, 371, 373, 374
function, 359, 365, 370, 376
Young's modulus, 94, 96
Mechanics
From 1990, books on the subject of mechanics will be published under two series.
1.
2.
3.
R.T. Haftka, Z. Gilrdal and M.P. Kamat: Elements of Structural Optimization. 2nd rev.ed.,
1990
ISBN 0-7923-0608-2
J.J. Kalker: Three-Dimensional Elastic Bodies in Rolling Contact. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0712-7
ISBN 0-7923-0772-0
P. Karasudhi: Foundations of Solid Mechanics.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mechanics
From 1990, books on the subject of mechanics will be published under two series:
FLUID MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Series Editor: R.I. Moreau
SOLID MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Series Editor: G.M.L. Gladwell
Prior to 1990, the books listed below were published in the respective series indicated below.
MECHANICS: DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS
Editors: L. Meirovitch and G.lE. Oravas
1. E.H. Dowell: Aeroelasticity of Plates and Shells. 1975
ISBN 90-286-0404-9
2. D.G.B. Edelen: Lagrangian Mechanics of Nonconservative Nonholonomic Systems.
1977
ISBN 90-286-0077-9
3. J.L. Junkins: An Introduction to Optimal Estimation of Dynamical Systems. 1978
ISBN 90-286-0067-1
4. E.H. Dowell (ed.), H.C. Curtiss Jr., R.H. Scanlan and F. Sisto: A Modern Course in
Aeroelasticity.
Revised and enlarged edition see under Volume 11
5. L. Meirovitch: Computational Methods in Structural Dynamics. 1980
ISBN 90-286-0580-0
6. B. Skalmierski and A. Tylikowski: Stochastic Processes in Dynamics. Revised and
enlarged translation. 1982
ISBN 90-247-2686-7
7. P.C. MUller and W.O. Schiehlen: Linear Vibrations. A Theoretical Treatment of MultiISBN 90-247-2983-1
degree-of-freedom Vibrating Systems. 1985
8. Gh. Buzdugan, E. MiMilescu and M. Rade: Vibration Measurement. 1986
ISBN 90-247-3111-9
9. G.M.L. Gladwell: Inverse Problems in Vibration. 1987
ISBN 90-247-3408-8
10. G.I. Schueller and M. Shinozuka: Stochastic Methods in Structural Dynamics. 1987
ISBN 90-247-3611-0
11. E.H. Dowell (ed.), H.C. Curtiss Jr., R.H. Scanlan and F. Sisto: A Modern Course in
Aeroelasticity. Second revised and enlarged edition (of Volume 4). 1989
ISBN Hb 0-7923-0062-9; Ph 0-7923-0185-4
12. W. Szempliriska-Stupnicka: The Behavior of Nonlinear Vibrating Systems. Volume I:
Fundamental Concepts and Methods: Applications to Single~Degree-of-Freedom
Systems. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0368-7
13. W. Szemplidska-Stupnicka: The Behavior of Nonlinear Vibrating Systems. Volume II:
Advanced Concepts and Applications to Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0369-5
Set ISBN (Vols. 12-13) 0-7923-0370-9
MECHANICS OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Editors: J.S. Przemieniecki and G.lE. Oravas
1. L. FrYba: Vibration of Solids and Structures under Moving Loads. 1970
ISBN 90-01-32420-2
2. K. Marguerre and K. Wi>lfel: Mechanics of Vibration. 1979
ISBN 90-286-0086-8
Mechanics
3. E.B. Magrab: Vibrations of Elastic Structural Members. 1979
ISBN 90-286-0207-0
4. R.T. Haftka and M.P. Kamat: Elements of Structural Optimization. 1985
Revised and enlarged edition see under Solid Mechanics and Its Applications, Volume 1
5. 1.R. Vinson and R.L. Sierakowski: The Behavior of Structures Composed of Composite
Materials. 1986
ISBN Hb 90-247-3125-9; Pb 90-247-3578-5
6. B.E. Gatewood: Virtual Principles in Aircraft Structures. Volume 1: Analysis. 1989
ISBN 90-247-3754-0
7. B.B. Gatewood: Virtual Principles in Aircraft Structures. Volume 2: Design, Plates,
Finite Elements. 1989
ISBN 90-247-3755-9
Set (Gatewood 1 + 2) ISBN 90-247-3753-2
MECHANICS OF ELASTIC AND INELASTIC SOLIDS
Editors: S. Nemat-Nasser and G.lE. Oravas
1. G.M.L. Gladwell: Contact Problems in the Classical Theory of Elasticity. 1980
ISBN Hb 90-286-0440-5; Pb 90-286-0760-9
2. G. Wempner: Mechanics of Solids with Applications to Thin Bodies. 1981
ISBN 9O-286-0880-X
3. T. Mura: Micromechanics of Defects in Solids. 2nd revised edition, 1987
ISBN 90-247-3343-X
4. R.G. Payton: Elastic Wave Propagation in Transversely Isotropic Media. 1983
ISBN 90-247-2843-6
5. S. Nemat-Nasser, H. Abe and S. Hirakawa (eds.): Hydraulic Fracturing and GeotherISBN 90-247-2855-X
mal Energy. 1983
6. S. Nemat-Nasser, R.I. Asaro and G.A. Hegemier (eds.): Theoretical Foundation for
Large-scale Computations of Nonlinear Material Behavior. 1984 ISBN 90-247-3092-9
7. N. Cristescu: Rock Rheology. 1988
ISBN 90-247-3660-9
8. G.I.N. Rozvany: Structural Design via Optimality Criteria. The Prager Approach to
Structural Optimization. 1989
ISBN 90-247-3613-7
Mechanics
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS AND TRANSPORT PROCESSES
Editors: R.J. Moreau and G.}E. Oravas
Mechanics
MECHANICS: ANALYSIS
Editors: V.J. Mizel and G.1E. Oravas
l. M.A. Krasnoselskii, P.P. Zabreiko, E.I. Pustylnik and P.E. Sbolevskii: Integral
Operators in Spaces of Summable Functions. 1976
ISBN 90-286-0294-1
2. V.V. Ivanov: The Theory of Approximate Methods and Their Application to the
ISBN 90-286-0036-1
Numerical Solution of Singular Integral Equations. 1976
3. A. Kufner, O. John and S. Puclk: Function Spaces. 1977
ISBN 90-286-0015-9
4. S.G. Mikhlin: Approximation on a Rectangular Grid. With Application to Finite
ISBN 90-286-0008-6
Element Methods and Other Problems. 1979
5. D.G.B. Edelen: Isovector Methods for Equations of Balance. With Programs for
Computer Assistance in Operator Calculations and an Exposition of Practical Topics of
the Exterior Calculus. 1980
ISBN 90-286-0420-0
6. R.S. Anderssen, F.R. de Hoog and M.A. Lukas (eds.): The Application and Numerical
ISBN 90-286-0450-2
Solution of Integral Equations. 1980
7. R.Z. Has'minskiI: Stochastic Stability of Differential Equations. 1980
ISBN 90-286-0100-7
8. A.1. Vol'pert and S.1. Hudjaev: Analysis in Classes of Discontinuous Functions and
Equations of Mathematical Physics. 1985
ISBN 90-247-3109-7
9. A. Georgescu: Hydrodynamic Stability Theory. 1985
ISBN 90-247-3120-8
10. W. Noll: Finite-dimensional Spaces. Algebra, Geometry and Analysis. Volume I. 1987
ISBN Hb 90-247-3581-5; Pb 90-247-3582-3
ISBN 90-286-0688-2
MECHANICS OF CONTINUA
Editors: W.O. Williams and G.1E. Oravas
1. C.-C. Wang and C. Truesdell: Introduction to Rational Elasticity. 1973
ISBN 90-01-93710-1
ISBN 90-286-0515-0
2. P.J. Chen: Selected Topics in Wave Propagation. 1976
ISBN 90-286-0007-8
3. P. Villaggio: Qualitative Methods in Elasticity. 1977
Mechanics
MECHANICS OF FRACTURE
Editors: G.C. Sih
1. G.C. Sib (ed.): Methods of Analysis and Solutions of Crack Problems. 1973
ISBN 90-01-79860-8
2. M.K. Kassir and G.C. Sib (eds.): Three-dimensional Crack Problems. A New Solution
of Crack Solutions in Three-dimensional Elasticity. 1975
ISBN 90-286-0414-6
3. G.C. Sib (ed.): Plates and Shells with Cracks. 1977
ISBN 90-286-0146-5
4. G.C. Sib (ed.): Elastodynamic Crack Problems. 1977
ISBN 90-286-0156-2
5. G.C. Sih (ed.): Stress Analysis of Notch Problems. Stress Solutions to a Variety of
Notch Geometries used in Engineering Design. 1978
ISBN 90-286-0166-X
6. G.C. Sih 3nd E.P. Chen (eds.): Cracks in Composite Materials. A Compilation of Stress
Solutions for Composite System with Cracks. 1981
ISBN 90-247-2559-3
7. G.C. Sih (ed.): Experimental Evaluation of Stress Concentration and Intensity Factors.
Useful Methods and Solutions to Experimentalists in Fracture Mechanics. 1981
ISBN 90-247-2558-5
MECHANICS OF PLASTIC SOLIDS
Editors: J. Schroeder and G.JE. Oravas