Transactions on the Built Environment vol 20, 1996 WIT Press, www.witpress.

com, ISSN 1743-3509

Seismic design of circular liquid-containing

structures
N.A. Legates

Abstract
The ability of large, liquid-containing structures to resist earthquakes without damage is a
subject of considerable interest not only to the engineering profession but also to the
community at large. This is because these structures often constitute an essential part of a
community's lifeline and must therefore be maintained viable during emergencies. Also, in
some applications the stored contents may be hazardous in which case their accidental release
must be prevented.
The behavior of structures subjected to earthquake-induced fluid pressures was first
studied in the early 30's by Westergaard and others. In 1949 and 1951 Jacobsen analyzed a
rigid cylindrical liquid-containing tank and a cylindrical pier surrounded by liquid, subjected
to horizontal accelerations. Subsequently, Housner simplified the method of analysis and
introduced the concept of the two components of dynamic pressures, impulsive and
convective.
In subsequent work, Haroun, Housner, Veletsos and others modified the tank model
to account for the flexibility of the tank walls. Essentially, this acknowledges that the tank
wall (together with the impulsive component of the stored liquid) responds independently of,
i.e. at a different frequency than, the accelerating ground.
Design standards and codes currently being drafted in the US have evolved from,
and built upon, these principles.
This paper highlights the seismic analysis and design of concrete liquid-storage
containers, and offers an overview of current US practice in this field. To assist the
practicing engineer, detailed step-by -step design procedures are presented based on several
US design standards recently published or currently under preparation.
1 Introduction
Current methods for analyzing and designing liquid-containing structures
subjected to earthquakes are derived primarily from work originated by
Westergaard^, Jacobsen^^ and others, and further developed by Housner^^.
Housner's work was summarized in a 1963 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission
Report titled, "Nuclear Reactors and Earthquakes" ^. That report, better
known as TED (Technical Information Document) -7024, has become the
classic reference for the analysis of circular and rectangular liquid-containing
structures subjected to earthquakes.
TID-7024 treats ground-supported, flat-bottomed tanks of uniform
rectangular or circular section. The tanks are assumed to behave as rigid

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bodies, rigidly attached to the ground. Consequently, during a horizontal

ground acceleration, the tank wall and floor respond as part of, and in unison
with, the moving ground. The horizontal acceleration of therigidwall and floor
generates inertia forces directly proportional to the ground acceleration.
When the accelerating tank is full, the lower portion of the contained
liquid, Wi, acts as if it were a solid mass rigidly attached to the tank wall (Fig.
1). As this mass accelerates, it exerts a horizontal force against the wall directly
proportional to the maximum acceleration in the tank bottom. This force is
identified as an impulsive force, Pj. Under the same accelerations, the upper
portion of the contained liquid responds as if it were a solid oscillating mass
flexibly connected to the tank wall (We).
This portion, which oscillates
(sloshes) at is own natural frequency, exerts on the wall an additional force that
is proportional to the square of that frequency, as well as to the ground
acceleration. This portion is defined as the convective component PC. The
convective component oscillations are characterized by the "sloshing" action
whereby the liquid rises above the static level on one side of the tank, and drops
below that level on the other.
The rigid-body concept, however, does not adequately represent the
actual behavior of most large liquid-storage tanks. Work by Haroun, Housner,
Veletsos^ ^ ^ and others demonstrated that "the hydrodynamic effects
induced by earthquake ground motions inflexibletanks may be appreciably
greater than those inrigidtanks of the same dimensions." <">
Equations for the natural frequency vary depending on the mode of
lateral deformation of the tank wall (e.g. cantilever shear beam; oscillating ring:
or a series of cantilever strips in flexure), which in turn depends on the
diameter-to-height ratio (D/Ht) of the tank^ ^\ In the interest of simplicity,
however, and in view of the fact that this ratio commonly ranges between 1 and
8, a single Equation is adopted for all tanks (Eq's (12) or (13)).
Once the structural and fluid models are thus established, the ground
motion is represented by a design response spectrum which is either derived
from the actual earthquake record for the site, or is constructed by analogy to
sites with known soil and seismic characteristics (Fig. 2). Alternatively, in lieu
of a seismic design response spectrum, design codes usually define the
seismicity of a region or locality in terms of either (a) the peak ground
acceleration (PGA), A,, for that region or locality; or (b) a seismic coefficient,
Z, which has a direct relationship to the PGA. In either case, the specified
value represents the maximum effective peak acceleration (EPA) corresponding
to a site-dependent ground motion having a 90% probability of not being
exceeded in a 50-year period. Special structures, such as those containing
highly hazardous liquids, may have to be designed for ground accelerations with
higher probabilities of non-exceedance. This paper utilizes the seismic
coefficient Z as reflected in U.S. regional seismic maps ^\

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TABLE 1
SEISMIC ZONE FACTOR Z

SEISMIC MAP ZONE

1

FACTOR Z
0.075

PEAK GROUND
ACCELERATION, A,
0.075g

2A

0.15

0 isg

0.20

020g

0.30

030g

0.40

040g

Having thus defined the structure and the imposed ground motions, one
proceeds to compute the various inertia forces, and from these derive the total
lateral base shear.
2

General Approach

2.1 For a typical single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system subjected to a

lateral ground acceleration, the general equations for the base shear, V, and
the overturning moment, M, are:
C
V = ZISx
*W
(1)
R
w
C
M = Z/Sx
xAxMT
(2)
R
w
Where,
C = lateral force coefficient (a function of the natural period
of vibration of the structure)
W = effective mass of the structure and its contents
I = Importance Factor (which depends on how important
it is to have the structure continue to function safely
during and after an earthquake) (Table 2)
S = Soil Profile Coefficient (Table 3)
All other symbols are defined in Section 5, Notations

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Equation (1) is the typical base shear equation found in most codes or related
documents <
TABLE 2
IMPORTANCE FACTOR, I
TANK USE

FACTOR I

Tanks that must remain usable, with slight structural damage,

for emergency purposes after an earthquake; or tanks which
are part of lifeline systems

1.25

Tanks that must remain usable, without significant leakage, but

may suffer repair able structural damage

1.0

TABLE 3
SOIL PROFILE COEFFICIENT, S*
TYPE
A

SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTION

A soil profile with either:

( (a) A rock-like material characterized by a shear- wave
velocity greater than 762 m/s or by other suitable
means of classification, or
(b) Medium-dense to dense or medium-stiff to stiff soil
conditions, where soil depth is less than 60 960 mm

COEFF. S

1.0

A soil profile with predominantly medium-dense to

dense or medium-stiff to stiff soil conditions, where the
soil depth exceeds 60 960 mm

1.2

A soil profile containing more than 6 096 mm of soft to

medium-stiff clay but not more than 12 192 mm of soft
clay

1.5

A soil profile containing more than 12192 mm of soft

clay characterized by a shear wave velocity less than
152.4 m/s

2.0

* References (12), (15), (16), (17) (18)

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377

The site factor should be established from properly substantiated geotechnical

data. In locations where the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to
determine the soil profile type, soil profile C should be used. Soil profile D
need not be assumed unless the building official determines that soil profile D
may be present at the site, or in the event that soil profile D is established by
geotechnical data.

2.2 When applied to liquid-containing structures, the total mass W is replaced

by the four discreet mass components: The effective weight of the tank
shell (wall), Ww, and tank roof, Wr ; the impulsive component of the
contained liquid, W; ; and the convective component, We
As a result,
Equations (1) and (2) take the following forms:
(7
^=Z#x_^_x^
(3)

C
V = ZIS x - x W
c
R e
we
=^x-x
we
c
K = ZIS x - x W
V '
M. = ZIS x -Si- x (W. h. + eW^ hj + W,h,)
wi

C
= ZIS x - x W h
c
R
c c
we

(4)

(5)
(6)
(?)

(8)

Fig. 1 contains a physical representation of some of these terms.

Since each of these component forces (V;, VJ, or moments, (Mi, Me) are
decoupled (i.e. they oscillate at different frequencies, or "out of phase"
with each other), they are usually combined by the square-root-of-thesum-of-the-squares (SRSS) rule resulting in the following expressions: ^
(16) (17) (19)

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UNDISTURBED
OSCILLATING
WATER SURFACE A WATER SURFACE
/ /\

(a) FLUID MOTION IN TANK

(b) DYNAMIC MODEL

).5V

M, +^-Ph, +Plfc
(c) DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM OF HORIZONTAL FORCES

Figure 1: Dynamic model of liquid-containing tank rigidly supported on the

ground

PERIOD, T
Figure 2: Normalized design response spectrum showing acceleration as a
function of period and damping

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= ZIS x.

379

(9)

= A/A/,i2

00)

The significance of the lateral coefficients Q and Cj can best be

illustrated by reference to a design response spectrum such as in Fig. 2.
Each of these coefficients represents the dynamic amplification factor
(DAF) of a single-degree-of-freedom system with a natural period of
vibration T, where T>0.
Cc represents the DAF of the convective component of the stored
liquid, which typically responds in a low-frequency, high-period (T>2.5s)
mode of oscillation to a horizontal acceleration.
d represents the DAF of the impulsive component of the tank
wall (together with the impulsive component of the liquid), which
constitutes a more rigid structural system responding in a high-frequency,
low-period mode of vibration (T<2.5s).
Coefficients R and Rwi (Table 4) represent the ductility and
energy-dissipating ability of the structure and are used to essentially
convert the elastic response spectrum into an inelastic <^)U3)(i4)
Section 3 below presents a summary of all the Equations involved
in the seismic analysis of a liquid-containing circular tank; while Section 4
contains a step-by-step procedure for calculating all the necessary
parameters to solve Equations (3) and (4), and for computing the resulting
forces and stresses.

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TABLE 4
lw VALUES

fiffi
ON OR
ABOVE
GRADE
4.5

BURIED^
4.5^

1.0

(b) Fixed or hinged-base tanks (A)

2.75

4.0

1.0

(c) Unanchored, contained or

uncontained (B2 or B3)

2.0

2.75

1.0

(d) Elevated tanks

3.0

TYPE OF STRUCTURE *
(a) Anchored, flexible-base tanks (Bl)

1. Buried tank is defined as a tank whose maximum water surface is at or

below ground level.
2. Rwi - 4.5 is the maximum R*i value to be used for any liquid-containing
structure
3. Unanchored, uncontained tanks shall not be built in zones 2B or higher.
*For tank types see Fig. 3

Design Equations
tanh(0.866
w.=

D
H

D
W~

'.W

H
0230 x tanh(3.68M

CO =

il)

02)

(13)

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Earthquake Resistant Engineering Structures 381

CLOSURE
STRIP

- TANK WALL (Typ)

r- FLOOR (Typ)

A1-FIXED

A2-HINGED OR PINNED

TYPE A - NON-FLEXIBLE BASE CONNECTIONS

SEISMIC CABLES
)/OR ANCHORS (Typ)
A/| /- FLEXIBLE BASE PAD
(Typ)
r

81-ANCHORED
FLEXIBLE BASE

FLEXIBLE CONTAIN-

B2-UNANCHORED, CONTAINED
FLEXIBLE BASE

B3-UNANCHDRED, UNCDNTAINED
FLEXIBLE BASE

(FOR SECTION A-A SEE FIG. 4)

TYPE B - FLEXIBLE-BASE CONNECTIONS
(CIRCULAR PRESTRESSED TANKS ONLY)

Figure 3: Types of liquid-containing structures classified on the basis of their

wall-to-foundation connection details

r WALL

SEISMIC BASE CABLi

SECTION A-A
(FROM FIG. 3)

^ FOUNDATION

Figure 4: Details of seismic base cables used in conjunction with prestressedconcrete, flexible-base circular tanks

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from Table 5)

(14)
(15)
(16)

Q = J3.68g x tanh(3.68 -)

(17)
TV

For tank types Al and A2 (Fig. 3),

(18)

For tank type Bj_, B2, or B3 (Fig. 3),

(19)

k =
a

*j*5* " , r P P P

_~ 1.25

c =
c

,. 5 < 2.75)

6.0

1 -

(20)

(21)

(22)

cosh(3.68^)-l
D

(23)

hi: For tall tanks (D/Ht <1.333),

/i = 05 - 0.093 75() x//
H
L J

(24a)

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Earthquake Resistant Engineering Structures 383

For shallow tanks (D/Ht >1.333),

hi = 0.375 HL

(24b)

hw = 0.5OHw (for uniform-thickness wall)

g = O.oi51()^ -0.1908()-f 1.021

(25)
(Reference 11)

(References 20 and 21)

(26)

(27)

(29)
(30)

(33)
Piy and Pcy represent the vertical distribution of the lateral impulsive and
convective forces respectively; and Pwy represents the vertical distribution
of the inertia force of the tank wall. The distribution of these forces is
defined and illustrated in Fig. 5.

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TABLE 5
COEFFICIENT
HL/R

D/HL

c*

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0
1
2
3
4
5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2. 1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
26
27
28
29
30

6.67
5.00
4.00
3.33
2.86
2.50
2.22
2.00
1.82
1.67
1.54
1.43
1.33
1.25
1.18
1.11
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.80
0.77
0.74
0.71
0.69
0.67

0 1222
0 1293
0 1366
0 1431
0 1488
0 1537
0 1578
0 1612
0. 1639
0. 1658
0. 1671
0 1679
0 1681
0 1679
0 1673
0 1664
0 1652
0 1638
0 1621
0 1604
0 1584
0 1564
0 1544
0 1522
0 1500
0 1478
0 1456
0 1434

(*) Based on tw/R = 0.01, PL/PC -0.40 and Poiss an's Ratio v = 0.17
By A. S. Veletsos, unpublished communicatioii

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g<e3-

- EXACT PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

LINEAR APPROXIMATION

= $: 4Hf - 6/1 - 6H, - 12/i, x

^
' ^ ^ '^

=m

-0^-^D/7^-lZA7^
4//,L -6h^-(6Hr
-126

(Adapted from Reference 19)

F
/^ =

(Constant for uniform-thickness wall)

Figure 5: Vertical distribution of impulsive and convective hydrodynamic

forces, and wall inertia forces, along the wall height

385

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Earthquake Resistant Engineering Structures

4 Step-By-Step Design Procedure

4.1 - Total Base Shear
1.
2.

3.

4.
5.

6.
7.

8.
9.
10.
11.

Calculate the mass of the tank shell (wall), W*, and roof, W? Also,
calculate coefficient e, Equation (26).
Calculate the effective mass of the impulsive component of the stored
liquid, Wj and the convective component, We, using Equations (11) and
(12).
Calculate the combined natural frequency of vibration, C0j, of the
containment structure and the impulsive component of the stored liquid,
Equations (13) and (14).
Calculate the frequency of vibration C0c, of the convective component of the
stored liquid, Equations (15) and (16).
Using the frequency values determined in 3 and 4, calculate the
corresponding natural periods of vibration, Tj and TC , Equations (17),
(18), (19), and (20).
Based on the periods determined in 5, calculate the corresponding lateral
force coefficients Q and Q, Equations (21) and (22).
Determine the seismic coefficient Z from the seismic zone maps or Table 1.
NOTE:
Where a site-specific response spectrum is available, substitute the sitespecific spectral accelerations Ai and & for coefficients Q and Q (step 6),
S (step 8) and coefficient Z (step 7) combined. Ai, representing the
Effective Peak Acceleration, should be used for short-period structures
(T<0.31 sec) and for a damping ratio P = 5%;, while AC, representing the
Effective Velocity-Related Peak Acceleration, should be used for longperiod structures or structural components for a damping ratio (3 = 0.50%
(Reference 12).
Select an Importance Factor 1 and Soil Profile Coefficient S, Tables 2 & 3.
Select the Factor R* specified for the class of structure being investigated,
Table 4.
Compute the total base shear, V, Equation (9)
Compute the vertical distribution of the impulsive and convective force
components, Fig. 5.

4.2 Overturning Moments

12. Calculate the heights h*, hr, h; and he to the center of gravity of the tank
wall, roof, impulsive component and convective component respectively,
Equations (23), (24) and (25)

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387

13. Calculate the overturning moment M due to the impulsive and convective
force components, Equation (10).
4.3 Vertical Acceleration
14. Calculate the natural period of vertical acceleration, TV, Equation (27).
15. Calculate the vertical force coefficient Cv as a function of TV, Equation
(28).
16. To calculate the additional pressure on the tank wall caused by the vertical
"pounding" of the tank, multiply the hydrostatic load by a spectral
amplification factor, Kv,

4.4 Stresses
17. Unit shear stresses at the base:
(35)
18. Dynamic hoop (circumferential) stresses in tank wall: Calculate the
circumferential forces, Njy, Ncy and N*y due to the impulsive, convective,
and wall inertia forces respectively; and circumferential forces, Kv*Nhy, due
to the vertical acceleration, Equations (29), (30), (31), (32) and (34).
Combine by the SRSS rule, and obtain the resultant hoop stress Oy:
'N+N
\ +"cy
+ N^ , . ..,,
f,y+wy)

w
19. Calculate the vertical stresses due to the overturning moments.
4.5 Sloshing
20. Sloshing of the convective portion of the stored liquid causes vertical
displacement of the liquid surface which represents the amplitude of
oscillation, Fig. 1. The maximum displacement, or sloshing height, dmax, can
be calculated using the following approximate relationship:
CJ

P?)

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Earthquake Resistant Engineering Structures

Notation

Aa =
A. =

seismic coefficient representing the Effective Peak Acceleration

cross-sectional area of the base cable, strand, or conventional
reinforcing
B = fraction of horizontal acceleration to be used as vertical acceleration
Cc = lateral convective force coefficient (Equation 22)
Ci = lateral impulsive force coefficient (Equation 21)
d = a factor for adjusting coefficient C* for liquids other than water
(Equation 14)
Cv = a vertical seismic coefficient (Equation 28)
Cw = a coefficient for determining the fundamental frequency of the tank
liquid system, Table 5.
d = freeboard (sloshing height) (Equation 37)
D = tank diameter
EC = modulus of elasticity of concrete
ES = modulus of elassticity of steel
g = acceleration due to gravity
Gp = shear modulus of elastomeric bearing pads
he, hj, hr, hw = Vertical distance from the base of the wall to the centers of
gravity of We, W;, W,, and W*
HL = depth of stored liquid
HW = wall height
I = importance Factor, Table 2
ka = spring constant of the tank wall system (Equation 20)
Kv = coefficient applied to the hydrostatic force to account for the effect of
vertical acceleration (Equation 34)
Lp = length of individual elastomeric bearing pads
LS = effective length of base cable taken as the sleeve length plus 35 times
the cable diameter
Ncy = hoop (circumferential) force due to the convective component of the
acclerating liquid at height y from the base (Equation 30)
Nhy = hydrostatic hoop force at the level being investigated (Eq. 32)
Niy = hoop (circumferential) force due to the impulsive component of the
accelerating liquid at height y from the base (Equation 29)
Nwy = hoop (circumferential) force due to the inertia of the accelerating wall,
at height y from the base (Equation 31)
Pcy, Piy and P*y = lateral impulsive, convective and wall inertia forces acting on
the wall at a height y from the wall base, Fig. 5
Q = a coefficient defined in Equation (16)
R = radius of circular tank

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Rw =

Sp
Ss
tp
tw
TC
Ti

=
=
=
=
=
=

TV
iiv
V
Vc
Vj
Vr
Vw
Wp
We

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Wi =
WL
Wr
Ww
y

=
=
=
=

Z
a
P
YL
e

=
=
=
=
=

PC
PL
Gy
T
C0c
CD;

=
=
=
=
=
=

389

response-modification factor representing the energy-dissipating ability

of the structure (Rwc for the convective component of the accelerating
liquid; R*i for the impulsive component), Table 4
site profile representing the soil characteristics as they pertain to the
structure, Table 3
spacing of elastomeric bearing pads
spacing between individual base cable loops
thickness of elastomeric bearing pads
wall (shell) thickness
natural period of thefirst(convective) mode of vibration (Eq. 17)
fundamental period of oscillation of the tank wall (plus the impulsive
component of the tank contents( (Equations 18 & 19)
natural period of vertical acceleration, sec. (Equation 27)
vertical acceleration
total horizontal base shear
horizontal shear due to convective component of the stored liquid
horizontal shear due to impulsive component of the stored liquid
horizontal shear due to the inertial force of the accelerating tank roof
horizontal shear due to the inertial force of the accelerating tank wall
width of elastomeric bearing pads
equivalent mass of the convective component of the stored liquid,
(Equation 12)
equivalent mass of the impulsive component of the stored liquid
(Equation 11)
total mass of the stored liquid
mass of the tank roof
mass of the tank wall (shell)
liquid level at which tank wall is being investigated (measured from
tank base)
seismic Zone Factor, from Table 1
angle of base cable or strand with the horizontal
percent of critical damping
unit mass of water
ratio of effective mass of the tank shell (wall) to the actual mass,
(Equation 26)
mass density of concrete
mass density of the contained liquid
combined hoop stresses in wall at height y from base, (Equation 36)
radial shear stress through wall, (Equation 35)
circular frequency of oscillation of thefirst(convective) mode
circular frequency of oscillation of the tank wall (plus the impulsive
component of the tank contents)

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References
1. Westergaard, H.M. Water pressures on dams during earthquakes,
Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 98, 1933.
2. Jacobsen, L.S. Impulsive hydrodynamics of fluid inside a cylindrical tank
and offluidsurrounding a cylindrical pier, Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 189-204, 1949.
3. Jacobsen, L.S. & Ayre, R.S. Hydrodynamic experiments with rigid
cylindrical tanks subjected to transient motions, Bulletin of the
Seismological Society of America, Vol. 41, 313-348, 1951.

4. Housner, G.W. Dynamic pressures on accelerated fluid containers,

Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. 47, No. 1, 15-35,
1957.
5. Housner, G.W. The dynamic behavior of water tanks, Bulletin of the
Seismological Society of America, Vol. 53, No. 20, pp. 381-387, 1963.
6. Housner. Dynamic Pressure on Fluid Containers, Technical Information
Document (TID) 7024, Chapter 6 and Appendix F, U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, 1963.
7. Veletsos, AS & Yang, J.Y. Dynamics offixed-baseliquid storage
tanks, Proceedings, U.S.-Japan Seminar on earthquake with emphasis
on Lifeline Systems, Tokyo, pp. 317-341, November 1976.
8. Veletsos, AS & Yang, J.Y. Earthquake response of liquid-storage tanks,
Advances in Civil Engineering through Engineering Mechanics,
American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 1-14, May 1977.
9. Haroun, MA & Housner, G.W. Earthquake response of deformable
liquid-storage tanks, Proceedings, Pressure Vessel and Piping
Technology Conference, San Francisco, CA, August 1980.
10. Haroun, M.A. & Housner, G.W. Seismic design of liquid-storage tanks,
Journal of the Technical Councils of the American Society of Civil
Engineers, Vol. 107, No. TCI, pp. 191-207, 1981.

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Earthquake Resistant Engineering Structures 391

11. American Society of Civil Engineers, Guidelines for the Seismic Design of
Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems, Prepared by the Committee on Gas and
Liquid Fuel Guidelines of the Technical Council on Lifeline Engineering,
Section 7, 1981.
12. International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Building Code,
Whittier, CA, 1994.
13. Applied Technology Council, Tentative Provisions for the Development
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