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Catalytic Cracking:
- Process in which high molecular weight fractions from crude oil are broken
into lower molecular weight substances to increase the output of highdemand products.
- Is done in anaerobic conditions and requires less heat than thermal (500
C) and uses a catalyst (zeolite) which lowers the activation energy for the
reaction.
- Zeolite particles are extremely porous and have a large surface area
where the reactions can take place.
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24 + C36
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with only single bonds between the carbon
atoms and are non-polar molecules with weak dispersion forces. They can
undergo
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2C26 + 7O2(g)
62O(l) +
4CO2
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that have double bonds. They are more
reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond which is stronger.
Because of this alkenes can undergo addition reactions and is the basis of
making polymers.
The reactive double bond in ethylene means that it can easily be converted into
a range of very useful products such as ethanol and the starting materials for
several important plastics.
- Hydration Reaction: Ethylene is reacted with water at 300C and high
pressure, with the catalyst of concentrated sulfuric acid to form Ethanol.
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which many identical small molecules
(monomers) combine together to form one large molecule (polymer).
Generally, the longer the chain length, the higher the molecular weight, the
greater the dispersion forces and hence the greater the melting point. Also the
greater the packing density, the greater the dispersion forces.
- Flexibility
The higher the branching, the lower the amount of compaction and hence results
in a flexible polymer. Cross Links, the interactions between polymer chains also
affects flexibility. The stronger the cross links, the more rigid the structure.
- Stability
Most bonds such as the C-C bonds are fairly stable however in PVC, the C-Cl bond
can be decomposed by UV radiation and needs to be treated with an UVstabiliser.
The compounds obtained from the petrochemical industry primarily come from
the fossil fuel crude oil, which has been predicted to be depleted in the next
few decades, as it as a non-renewable resource.
- This will leader to a greater cost in the future.
- Detrimental to the environment because of its greenhouse emissions.
Hence an alternative source for these compounds is needed that is renewable
and environmentally-friendly.
A Condensation Polymer is formed by the elimination of a small molecule (often
water) when pairs of monomer join.
- Unlike addition polymers it forms through the reaction of functional groups
such as Carboxylic Acids and Alkanols, instead of double bonds.
Cellulose is an example of a condensation polymer and is found as a major
component of biomass.
- Forms from the monomer Glucose (C6H12O6) and condenses out a molecule
of water.
- Its structure is an alternating, upright, inverted arrangement of the
monomers.
- As it is able for form hydrogen bonds between the chains, it is very strong
and rigid and also has high tensile strength.
Cellulose has the basic carbon-chain structures required to build petrochemicals
as glucose is has 6 carbons in its structure which can be decomposed into
petrochemicals.
Advantages:
- Renewable
and creates
- Biodegradable
- Readily Available
decompose
method of acid hydrolysis
intensive and expensive.
Disadvantages:
- Production requires large area of land
lots of waste
- Difficult, expensive process
- No economically viable method to
cellulose as the industrial
is very energy
Biopolymers are polymers that have been created or found naturally within a
living organism. They are biodegradeable.
Evaluation:
- At present it is a complex procedure to get the bacteria to produce PHB
- Creates a waste problem which is difficult to dispose of.
- It is much more expensive to make than oil-based polymers of similar
properties.
- It has high tensile strength due to the hydrogen bonding between the
chains and is also water and acid resistant, so it is used in packaging,
bottles, plastic bags and plastic wraps.
- It is biodegradable so be used in disposable packaging with little harm to
the environment.
- It is biocompatible so it can be used for sutures within the body.
This removes the requirement for surgery to remove the stitches and
hence reduces risk and cost.
Ethanol is an alternative source for ethylene and can be dehydrated to obtain
this.
- Dehydration is a chemical reaction in which water is removed from the
compound and the catalyst concentrated H2SO4 is required.
- Hydration is the reverse reaction which uses the reactants ethylene and
water to form ethanol. It requires heat and a catalyst, which is generally
dilute sulfuric acid.
Ethanol is used widely as a solvent in cosmetics, cleaning agents and antiseptics
as it can dissolve both polar and non-polar substances. This is because it has a
polar part which is the hydroxyl end and a non-polar part which is the ethyl
end.
- The polar end is able to form hydrogen bonds with other polar substances.
- The non-polar end is able to form dispersion forces with non-polar
substances.
Ethanol can be used as a fuel as it:
- Readily undergoes complete combustion because of the hydroxyl group
in its structure.
- It is easily transportable as it is a liquid.
Disadvantages
Lower heat of combustion than
Octane.
Expensive to produce currently.
Requires large fields to grow cellulose.
Fermentation creates lots of waste
which is hard to dispose of.
The current usage of ethanol as an alternative car fuel is not economically viable
although it provides a cleaner and renewable alternative than octane. This is
due to a number of problems including the fuel needed for fractional distillation,
car engine modifications, inefficiency in production and land clearing.
Fermentation of Sugars Process:
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