*VISION

OF SOCIAL CHANGES IN INDIA

1)Introduction and motto

2) Historical background of Indian economy
3) Different models available before us
4) Why Nehruvian model
5) Diagnosis by Nehruvian model (Mixed economy)
6) Criticisms (SUKHMOI CHAKROBARTI) - failure of model
7) Steps taken to prevent further sidetracking (2 leg model)
8) Five year plans and their failure

9) Education and social change

10) Problem with education

11) Law, constitution and social change (pre, during and post
colonial) - problem with law as an agent of social change

12) Land tenure system (pre, during and post colonial)

13) Policy of land reform and consequence

IDEA OF DEVELOPMENTAL PLANNING & MIXED ECONOMY

1) Development---> change and transformation of economy from low production and low
consumption equilibrium to high production and high consumption equilibrium
2) 2 imperative things (growth and equity)
3) GROWTH---> increase in production and income
4) EQUITY---> Redistribution of resources---> standard of life increase
5) 3 paths used to bring developmental economy.......

Capitalist state

BACKGROUND OF INDIAN ECONOMY

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Agricultural backwardness
Low level of production
India (satellite) ----> raw material-----> Britain (core)
No industrialisation in India
Limited industrialisation in India till 1914 (WW-I)



WHAT MODEL TO GO FOR?

1) communist remained on margins
2) Gandhi was like a grandfather no body listened to
3) Nehru was the only option for nation building

NEHRUVIAN IDEAS

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Agriculture can't be an engine of growth

Limited role of agriculture
> subsistence supply and prevent inflation
> no surplus, just enough to feed our people at affordable prices
> low food prices---> wages will be low---> profits of bourgeoisie will be high---> surplus
will be reinvested
6) Agriculture to the point of plateau

DIAGNOSE OF INDIAN ECONOMY BY NEHRU

1) Backward due to lack of arterial capital

1) Eg. Steel, heavy engineering, machine & tools, heavy electronics
2) These machines will create machines for production of consumer goods (FMCG)
3) So, invest in capital goods and infrastructure
4) Moderate inequality is desirable
5) Never attempted to create 100% equality
6) Moderate inequality---> healthy growth
7) Bourgeoisie savings will be invested
8) Poor will merely spend
9) Target of 20% savings from 5%
10)20% on consistent basis---> self sustaining growth
11) Market economy of Europe failed in 19th century
12)> albeit, it encouraged entrepreneurship
13)> accentuated existing inequality
14)India took a middle path and went for MIXED ECONOMY
15)Our focus was on supply side problem
16)Communists were against meritocracy
17)Western model ---> market economy failed; moreover, it asked for huge capital
requirement

SUKHMOY CHAKRABARTI CRITICS THE ABOVE DIAGNOSE

1)
2)
3)
4)

Focus was on to solve supply side problem

Assumption was that demand side problem will take care of itself
What a wrong assumption of Indian economists of that time
Stagflation appeared (recession and dwindling unemployment)




FURTHER DIAGNOSED

1)
2)
3)
4)

Generate savings
Invest savings to generate material capital
Planners came to decide how much and where to invest
Indian bourgeoisie neither have capacity not intention to intervene (since long
gestation period)
5) Planners directed the investments

SOME STEPS WHICH WERE TAKEN TO PREVEN FUTHER SIDETRACKED OF

ECONOMY

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

State should take responsibility of mobilising resources and savings

Savings to produce capital goods, defence and infrastructure (PUBLIC SECTOR)
Infra will encourage private sectors
Public sector was machine intensive
Private sector was labour intensive
Urban migration
The TEXTILE APPROACH OF JAPAN was rejected
We adopted IMPORT SUBSTITUTION MODEL
1) > importing technology, exporting nothing
2) > prevented indigenous industries from unhealthy competition
9) Problem of financing the plan
10)BOP crisis
11) THOUGHT ---> export later
1) > 1st produce FMCG---> wages are less---> cheap FMCG and steel---> will export,
and outperform rest of the nations! (what a hubris)
12)Where the finances will come from......

This dependence upon private (capital goods) and public enterprises(consumer
goods) was also called "Two-leg model"

STRATEGY INTO ACTION (career of strategy)

1) 1st FYP

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)

A rehab plan
Great deal of dislocation
Fertile area went to Pakistan
Food shortages
Refugee problem
Economy needed to be on track
Rehab plan (Developing agriculture)
Not N-M plan
BHAKHRA NANGAL
1st plan got successful
66MT of food grain, target was 52




2) 2nd FYP

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)

N-M model was implemented

Personal supervision of Nehru
Successful since industrial production increased
Deemphasise on agriculture
absolute term was increased, but % term declined

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)
L)
M)
N)
O)
P)
Q)

Started good but.....

Nehru foreign policy failed
Was talking about disbanding the army!
Hindi-chini bhai bhai
PANCHSHEEL
1962 attacked, canvas shoes
Need for improving army
1964 died
1965 Pakistan attacked
Need for improving defence preparedness (massive investment)
1965-66-67 (drought-no rain-lord Indira)
PL-480, begging from US
Food shortages and price rise
Project delays inflated the cost eg 100 crore to 139 crore
Planning became impossible. (PLAN HOLIDAY)
Further fuelled the inflation
Shortage of capital due to defence production

3) 3rd FYP

4) 4th FYP

A) Strategy of betting in the strong

B) Quick infrastructure for food supply
C) NORMAN BOURLAG

D)
E)
F)
G)
H)

HVYs (seed fertiliser technique ---> little stalk and leafage)

Haryana, Punjab and western UP
Food production increased
Euphemistically called "GREEN REVOLUTION"
Loan to good farmers

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)
L)
M)

1971 Pakistan war

Inflation increased
Arab war (Israel vs Egypt)---> OPEC was formed
Prices rise, poverty increased
Poverty line heightened
Self sufficiency, the goal of 4th plan, was achieved but.....
Poverty eradication, the goal of 5th plan was not achieved
1973-75 emergency
Janata party in 1977
Rolling plan (anchoring and adjustment)
5th plan could not be completed
Congress back in 1980
5th plan was dispensed

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)

N-M strategy
7% growth consistently
Trickling down since 80% population BPL
1950-80 Hindu growth rate
In 6th plan, 50% people BPL
anti poverty program
Direct assault on poverty (CREATING ARTIFICIAL EMPLOYMENT)
Eradication of poverty by growth
A) > IRDP, NREGP ETC

5) 5th Plan

6) 6th plan

I)
J)
K)
L)
M)
N)

Minimum needs program

FOOD FOR WORK PROGRAM
BOP problem endemic since ignored export
Kerala remittances helped
Kuwait war halted the help
N-M abandoned

REASONS OF FAILURE

1) neglect of agriculture, even problem lingers today

2) Failed to realise the logical implication of mixed economy
3) Private wealth was lying ideal
4) Taxing rich---> Swiss bank accounts
5) Politicisation of PSUs--- private fiefdoms of politicians
6) Outdated technology
7) Import substitution model (eg. Maruti and ambassador)---> no R&D
8) Protectionist approach made private sector inefficient
9) Misdirected subsidies (RAJA CHELIAH) culture of subsidies
10)Neglect of military and agriculture
11) Trickle down of MAHALANOBIS did not work

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

Formal process of communicating knowledge between older and younger population

Education can play as an agent of Social change
Gives people new values, beliefs and attitude
Relevant for 3rd world societies, since traditional education ---> status quoist
Modern education ---> idea of nationalism, democracy, equality and individuality
Developed with the help of western education
> woods dispatch
>MaCaulay's minute (1835)
> university act

10)> hunter commission

11) Modern nationalism and anti colonial struggle
12)Professional middle class
13)Caste based hierarchy and gender inequality DOWN
14)PRARTHANA SAMAJ, BS, AS, SNDP,SR MOVEMENT, MAHAR MOVEMENT AND
SATYASHODHAK SAMAJ, PEASANT MOVEMENT, TELANGANA MOVEMENT,
NAXALBARI MOVEMENT, participated by masses, but led by educationist
15)Education effect on family
1) > nuclear vs joint families
2) >!equality in filial and conjugal bonds
16)Economic modernity of India by education
17)Major software power (IT) by education
18)Education----> fertility control
19)Eg. Kerala, more education, less fertility
20)Education raises expectations---> protest
21)Consumerism and rapid economic growth (demand side problem is solved)
22)Modernity of skills (supply side problem is solved)
23)Education helps in social mobility (MAHAR AND DALIT MOBILISATION)
24)Peasant access to education (OKALINGAS, KAMAS AND JATS)
25)Education, a prerequisite for modernity
26)Education ---> secularisation of world view
27)Empowerment of tribe a d women
28)PRIs---> if educated women, will make it more meaningful
29)Education spread scientific view and rationalisation
30)No magico-animistic view

PROBLEM WITH EDUCATION

1) uneven spread
2) Education structure Is top-heavy
3) BENFIT to upper caste and UMC
4) capital and knowledge intensive
5) Large section excluded (therefore, 25% reservation)
6) Constitution 8 years of compulsory education----> a distant dream
7) Literacy, an index of education
8) But here no function literacy
9) Regional imbalance (BIMARUO)
10)Poor infra at school level
11) South Indian states performed well

12)Partial and uneven change

13)On Role of education, no consensus on cognitive component on modernity
14)Concurrent subject
15)Esoteric nature

CONSTITUTION, LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE


ROLE OF LAW ON SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIAN HISTORY

1) Pre-colonial period

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)

Law was not an instrument to change

In india, No interventionist state except Ashoka and Aurangzeb (JAJIYA)
Interventionist state actively interferes and brings changes
State makes law to bring change
Totalitarian state during Ashoka
But, rest of the time, state to collect revenue merely
Non-interventionist sate---> law, a customary one
> here institutions like kin group, caste system etc. work as per traditional system
> kind of status quo
> perpetuation and maintenance is important



2) colonial period

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)

Law as instrument to Change

Brits passed laws to introduce new land tenure system
> permanent settlement, MAHALWARI, RYOTWARI SYSTEM
Overhaul the entire judicial structure
Introduce CPC,CrPC & IPC
Acts like ---> limitations act, contract act, evidence act, succession act and transfer of
property act
G) Social---> abolish sati, widow remarriage, native & special marriage act, university act
H) Political---> (1909,1919, 1935) right to inheritance, divorce in muslims(women got
right)
I) Brits introduced on laws as an instrument to bring change

3) post-colonial period


A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)
L)
M)
N)
O)
P)
Q)
R)

Change in society through legislation

Indian political elites (lawyers) followed what Brits started
Indian state became highly interventionist
Constitution emerged
Included politically, not economically to poor
Constitution created bourgeoisie state
Liberal ideas and Westminster model
Polar opposite to traditions
Social, political and economic equality
However, right to property from FR to legal right
Constitution considers individual as against holism (tradition)
> holism---> basis of caste group, village etc
Economic equality in DPSP, and political equality in FR--->roof of bourgeoisie
state!
The assets of Indian bourgeoisie are increasing exponentially, so does the no.
Of deaths due to malnourishment----> bourgeoisie state!
Traditional society plural and religious, now secular due to constitution
UAF by constitution (got easily) (political inclusion)
Democratisation started colonisation (1909, 1919, 1935)
Reached logical end by constitution (1949)

S) Equality in conjugal and filial relationship or bonds

T) Democracy deeply penetrated by 73rd & 74th amendment
U) Women got representation, appeared in public life
V) Proxy, panchayatpati
W) But some, indeed, proved themselves
X) Abolished feudal and semi feudal mode of production
Y) Land reforms
Z) Commodification of land
AA)Breakdown of jajmani system
BB)Affected family life (dowry act and Hindu marriage act)
CC)Marriage sacrament ---> contract
DD)Protective discrimination
EE)Nuclearisation of families----> change in micro structure

Problem with law as an agent of change in post colonial period

1) Element of populism (makes everyone happy)
1) > liberal democratic state is weak
2) > but assigned the work to transform!
3) > populism guides while passing a law
4) > populism while not implementing it in letter & spirit
2) Law means establishing an institution of norms
1) > but it must be internalised also
2) >mobilisation of people and their awareness is necessary to do so
3) > often these laws <> customs
4) > internalised custom always wins (Khap Panchayats)
5) > therefore, one child norm will or work here
6) > eg. DOWRY
7) > law is observed in its breach
8) > certain nitty gritty in laws like the world "keep" makes the matter more complex

Evolution of land tenure system

How land ownership relations developed

1) Pre-British era


A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)
L)
M)

Self sufficient village community

Based on hereditary system
Self cultivating and self possessing peasants (KHUDKASHT)
Equilibrium between artisans and peasants
Patronages were there
Land was not a commodity
No buying and selling
RS land transfer
Intermediaries to collect revenue only (revenue farmers)
Collect revenue and pass on to state
payment of revenue was in kind
Artisans too paid in kind
Revenue was fixed (1/6, 1/3, 1/2)

2) During British rule

A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)
H)
I)
J)
K)
L)
M)
N)
O)
P)
Q)
R)
S)

British bought zamindari rights in Kolkata & SUTANATI

Diwani right
Auctioning revenue to highest bidder
Quinquennial settlement
Decennial settlement
Brits problem--> no regular supply of income
Brits Needed assured supply of income for budget
Introduced zamindari system on the lines of Brits system, which was there back home
Wanted to improve agriculture so to enhance their revenue
CORNWALLIS brought PSS (9/10th)
KHUDKASHTS turned into tenants
Zamindars were owners
Revenue in cash
Sunset rule
Failure led to confiscation
Cash & economic nexus introduced
Cash crops (forced to grow) since rent collection in cash
Initially, zamindars faced problem on rent collection, so confiscation
Quasi-judicial powers with zamindars
A) Power to collect & evict
T) Revenue was fixed, but exorbitant
U) PARGANNA RATE
V) More land under cultivation to engender revenue

W) CORNWALLIS was anticipating more investment in agriculture

A) > wrong since it led to sub-infeudation & rack-renting
X) Multiple intermediaries
Y) 3/4th to 4/5th in rent
Z) O surprise, no incentive and eviction any time
AA)Floyd commission
BB)No property rights over land
CC)Zamindars are not investing
DD)Decrease in production and impoverishment
EE)PSS did not serve the purpose
FF)Absentee landlordism
GG)Tagore and Abhijaat bhadralok (flourishing zamindars)
HH)57% agriculture land under PSS
II) In south, RYOTWARI system since zamindars were not there
JJ)Ryotwari (38%)
KK)Mahalwari (5%) punjab & UP
LL)Land became commodity
MM)Rain & monsoon failures
NN) Moneylenders (usury)

DANDEKAR

1) introduction of (new land tenure system, cash crops, compulsory payment system of
revenue, sunset rules, massive indebtedness due to usury, commodification of
land, absentee landlordism, shared tenancy, rack renting, arbitrary eviction, PSS &
RYOTWARI covered 75% of cultivated area by tenants
2) Rents in most cases were exorbitant and tenants were required to offer their personal
services in semi feudal structure
3) No one had an interest on increasing productivity
4) Famines and droughts frequently (Bengal famine)
5) Pressure of population dependent upon land increased
6) Moneylender (absentee landlord)

3) POST INDEPENDENCE (FREE INDIA)

1) abrogate Old land tenure system

2) Agriculture cannot be an engine of growth
3) Production for subsistence

4) Transformation of land tenure system

5) Right to Property from FR to legal right
6) The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and 31,
now it is under 300-A
7) Congress slogan. "land to tillers"
8) Semi-feudal relations
9) Fertile area of Punjab to Pakistan

POLICY OF LAND REFORMS

4 steps


1) Abolish intermediaries

A) land by landlords for self cultivation

B) Rest disseminate to tenants
C) Superior tenants were conferred land!
A) > tenants having document of tenancy
D) A little abridgement of gulf

2) Tenancy reform

A) 1st tenancy has to be registered

B) No arbitrary eviction
C) Fixed rent (1/5)

3) Consolidation of land holding

A) Encourage capital investment in land


4) redistribution of landholdings

A) Surplus land to landless

B)
C)
D)
E)
F)
G)

Ceiling declared
But enough time was given
Different Limit by different states (state list)
Land reforms under Concurrent list, uniform laws
Lack of political will
State officials from land owning cast

A.B. BANDHOPADHYAY

1) 12% of surplus land to be distributable

2) WB declared 10% of land as surplus, 7%
distributed
3) CPM survived for 30 years
4) Operation BARGA
5) 3% lock in court cases
6) Kerala 1.4% surplus
7) Haryana 1.2% surplus
8) ROI .7% surplus
9) Nexus b/w rich peasants and lower bureaucracy

CONSEQUENCES OF LAND REFORMS

OPERATION BARGA

Operation Barga was a land

reform movement throughout
rural West Bengal for recording
the names of sharecroppers
(bargadars)

The ultimate aim of these land

reforms was to facilitate the
conversion of the state's
bargadars into landowners, in
line with the Directive
Principles of State Policy of the
Indian Constitution (Art. 34)

1) Capitalistic transformation of agriculture

2) Land could be hold individually
3) Motivation for capital investment
4) HYV & WB's land reforms ---> agriculture 5%
5) Rest 2-3%
6) Semi-feudal to capitalistic agriculture
7) Due to redistribution aspect, consolidation failed
8) Rich farmers got fertile land (so, LR was anti-poor)
9) Oral and informal tenancy emerged, since tenancy was abrogated de-jure
10)LR increased production and productivity
11) But worked against poor