Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 19 September 2014
Received in revised form
18 January 2015
Accepted 24 February 2015
Available online 17 March 2015
Electric power transformers are the link between the generators of a power system and the transmission
lines and between lines of different voltage levels. Power transformers undergo changes in their
operational life expectancy and reliability over the years. Currently, several tools for diagnosis and
assessment of their operational condition are available, including diagnostic techniques based on
dissolved gas analysis in the insulating oil. Through monitoring of dissolved gases in oil, it is possible to
perform detailed data analysis, seeking systemic failure prediction. The adoption of new technologies for
maintenance of power transformers can induce substantial changes in the reliability of such equipment
in view of the existence of a global trend to decrease operational costs, predict maintenances and control
substations in a centralized way. This paper describes the main factors that lead to lifetime reduction in
transformers and reviews the main methods used for predictive maintenance based on dissolved gas
analysis. The advantages and disadvantages of each one are outlined and some future directions for
research are proposed.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Power transformers
Predictive maintenance
Dissolved gas analysis
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Electric power transformers and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2.1.
Constructive aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2.2.
Maintenance methods for electrical equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2.2.1.
Corrective maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
2.2.2.
Preventive maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.2.3.
Predictive maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.2.4.
Proactive maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Fault analysis in power transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.1.
Operational lifetime degradation factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.1.1.
Failures caused by the network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.1.2.
Failures caused by components, parts and pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.1.3.
Failures due to degradation of the insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Methods for diagnosis and assessment of the operational condition of power transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.1.
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.1.1.
IEC 60599 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.1.2.
Key Gas Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.1.3.
Method of Duval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.1.4.
Method of Doernenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.052
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
202
H. de Faria Jr. et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 201209
4.1.5.
Method of Rogers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5. Analysis of methods and future directions of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
1. Introduction
Electric power transformers are robust and efcient electric
equipment that play a fundamental role in supplying electric
energy at adequate voltage levels to consumers. Nevertheless,
power transformers undergo changes in their reliability and
operational lifetime over the years. This is mainly due to the
heavy loading of the equipment, driven by the need to achieve
increased prots and the related reluctance to invest in new
facilities by the power companies in a competitive market environment [1]. Due to improved monitoring and maintenance methods which emerged with technological advances, their lifespan
have increased.
Since power transformers have a high cost and are very
important to the availability of electrical power systems, several
tools for diagnosis and assessment of their operational condition
are available. Some diagnostic techniques can be based on the
analysis of dissolved gases in oil [26], on the monitoring of liquid
and solid insulation from the physicalchemical analysis of the
insulating oil and analysis of lifetime from the denition of the
degree of polymerization of insulating paper, among others [7].
Studies in the past decades have proved that the dissolved gases in
transformer oil are related closely to incipient faults [4]. If an
incipient failure of a transformer is detected before it leads to a
catastrophic failure, predictive maintenance can be deployed to
minimize the risk of failures and further prevent loss of services
[10]. Therefore, online monitoring and ofine testing are vital for
assessing power transformer conditions [11].
Methods of diagnosis of potential faults concealed inside power
transformers have attracted much research interest [5]. Dissolved
gas analysis (DGA) is a common practice for incipient fault
diagnosis and preventive maintenance of power transformers.
These methods test and sample the insulation oil of transformers
periodically to obtain the constituent gases in the oil due to
breakdown of the insulating materials inside the equipment
[612]. When there is any kind of fault, such as overheating or
discharge fault inside the transformer, it will produce a corresponding characteristic amount of gases in the transformer oil [9].
Through the analysis of the concentrations of dissolved gases, their
gassing rates, and the ratios of certain gases, the DGA method can
determine the fault type. As study results indicate, corona, overheating and arcing are the three main causes for insulation
degradation in power transformers [6]. In DGA, the fault related
gases commonly used are hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), acetylene (C2H2), ethylene (C2H4), ethane (C2H6), carbon monoxide
(CO), and carbon dioxide (CO2). Therefore, if we forecast these
dissolved gases content in power transformer oil according to the
recent historical data, incipient failures of power transformer and
its development trend will be found out early, minimizing the
probability of a transformer loss [5].
It is possible to monitor various parameters of a transformer,
enabling early identication of failures, so that they can be treated
predictively. Various types of sensors can be installed on the
transformer to measure variables such as the temperature of the
oil and the windings, the dissolved gases and moisture content of
the oil, the capacitances and power factor of the bushings and the
contact wear on load tap changers. The data obtained by these
Corrective maintenance;
preventive maintenance;
predictive maintenance; and
proactive maintenance.
H. de Faria Jr. et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 201209
203
Table 1
Types of maintenance.
Maintenance
Preventive
Corrective
Routine
Inspection
Systemic
Selective
Planned
Nonplanned
204
H. de Faria Jr. et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 201209
Temporary overvoltage.
Switching overvoltage.
Very fast transient overvoltage.
Atmospheric discharge overvoltage [15].
Mechanical problems.
Wear of contacts.
Inadequate maintenance.
Deterioration of insulating oil of load keys.
H. de Faria Jr. et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 201209
Table 2
Dissolved gases in insulating oil.
Gases
Combustile
Non-combustile
Table 3
Classication of dissolved gases in accordance with
the type of failure and material involved.
Corona
Oil
H2
Cellulose
H2, CO, CO2
Pyrolysis
Oil
Low temperatures
CH4, C2H6
High temperatures
C2H4 H2 (CH4, C2H6)
Cellulose
Low temperatures
CO2 (CO)
High temperatures
Electric arc
H2, C2H2 (CH4, C2H6, C2H4)
205
Method of Duval;
Method of Doernenburg; and
Method of Rogers.
All methods are empirical and their results are based on
correlations between the gases found in gas analysis. The ratios
used in these methods are listed below.
R1:
R2:
R3:
R4:
R5:
(CH4/H2);
(C2H2/C2H4);
(C2H2/CH4);
(C2H6/C2H2); and
(C2H4/C2H6).
Table 4
Interpretation of data obtained by DGA and classication of aw types according to IEC 60599.
Abreviation
Description
C2H2/C2H4
CH4/H2
C2H4/C2H6
PD
D1
D2
T1
T2
T3
Partial discharges
Low energy discharges
High energy discharges
Thermal aw, T o 300 1C
Thermal aw, 300 1C o To 700 1C
Thermal aw, T o 700 1C
Non-signicant value
41.0
0.62.5
Non-signicant value
o 0.1
o 0.2
o 0.1
0.10.5
0.11.0
Non-signicant value
4 1.0
4 1.0
o 0.2
4 1.0
4 2.0
o 1.0
1.04.0
4 4.0
206
H. de Faria Jr. et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 201209
Table 5
Gas composition prole for the Key Gas Method.
Key Gas Method
Key gas
Fault type
H2 e C2H2
High quantities of H2 e C2H2 are produced. Smaller proportions of CH4 and C2H4. CO2 e CO can be formed if cellulose is
involved. Oil may be carbonized.
Mainly H2. Small quantities of CH4. Traces of C2H4 and ethylene.
H2
C2H4
CO
H2
Mainly C2H4. Smaller proportions of C2H6, CH4 and H2. Traces of C2H2 at very high fault temperatures.
Mainly CO. Hydrocarbon gases such as CH4 and C2H4 if fault involves structures in oil.
Mainly H2.
Table 6
Risk diagnosis in transformers in accordance with the concentrations of dissolved gases in ppm (part per million).
Conditions
H2
CH4
C2H2
C2H4
C2H6
CO
CO2
Total gas
Condition
Condition
Condition
Condition
100
101700
7011800
4 1800
120
121400
4011000
4 1000
1
29
1035
435
50
51100
101200
4200
65
66100
101150
4150
350
351570
5711400
41400
2500
25004000
400110000
4 10000
720
7211920
19214630
44630
1
2
3
4
No
Yes
Yes
H2CH4 C2H2
C2H4 > 2L1
Gas
input
Normal
condition
No
C2H6 CO
> L1
No
Relation test
OK?
Relations
analysis not
applicable
Resample
Yes
R1 = CH4 / H2
No
R2 = C2H2 / C2H4
Yes
R1 < 0.1
Yes
R3 < 0.3
Yes
R4 > 0.4
R3 = C2H2 / CH4
R4 = C2H6 / C2H2
No
No
R3 > 0.3
R2 > 0.75
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Electric arc
discharge
R4 < 0.4
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
R1 > 1
R2 < 0.75
No
Yes
R3 < 0.3
Partial discharges
Radio interference
voltage (RIV)
Yes
R4 > 0.4
Thermal fault
Table 7
Limit values for gases dissolved in oil.
Key gas
Concentrations
(ppm)
Hydrogen (H2)
100
Methane (CH4)
120
Carbon monoxide (CO) 350
Acetylene (C2H2)
35
Ethylene (C2H4)
50
Ethane (C2H6)
65
H. de Faria Jr. et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 201209
207
Table 8
Relationships for dissolved gas in oil and free gas suggested by the method of Doernenburg.
Suggested diagnosis for fault
Dissolved in oil
Free gas
Dissolved in oil
Free gas
Dissolved in oil
Thermal decomposition
41.0
40.1
o 0.75
o 1.0
o 0.1
o0.01
Non-signicant
40.01
o0.1
40.75
41.0
Yes
Gas
input
R2 < 1
No
Dissolved in oil
Free gas
o 0.3
o 0.1
4 0.4
40.2
o 0.3
o 0.1
4 0.4
40.2
4 0.3
40.1
o 0.4
o 0.2
Yes
0.1 < R1 < 1
Free gas
Yes
R5 < 1
Normal
condition
No
No
R1 = CH4 / H2
Yes
R2 = C2H2 / C2H4
Low temperature
thermal fault
Overload
1 < R5 < 3
R5 = C2H2 / C2H6
Yes
Yes
R1 > 1
Thermal fault
< 7000 C
1 < R5 < 3
No
Yes
Thermal fault
> 7000 C
R5 > 3
Yes
Yes
Yes
R1 < 1
R2 < 1
Partial discharges
Radio interference
voltage (RIV)
R5 < 1
No
Yes
Yes
1 < R2 < 3
Yes
0.1 < R1 < 1
R5 > 3
High energy
electric arc
Table 9
Relationships for dissolved gas in oil and free gas and failure diagnosis suggested by
the Method of Rogers.
Case Relation 2
Relation 1
(R2) C2H2/C2H4 (R1) CH4/H2
0
o 0.1
Relation 5
Failure diagnosis
(R5) C2H4/C2H6 suggested
o1.0
Normal unit
o 0.1
40.1
o1.0
o0.1
o1.0
1.03.0
0.11.0
43.0
o 0.1
1.03.0
o 0.1
40.1
o1.0
41.0
1.03.0
o 0.1
41.0
43.0
208
H. de Faria Jr. et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 46 (2015) 201209
6. Conclusions
This paper presented a review of predictive maintenance
methods and current methodologies for fault diagnosis, seeking
to present the key concepts related to transformer maintenance
with the use of dissolved gas analysis in insulating oil.
There is a trend toward the adoption of computational techniques
as a means of implementing and/or combining methods of gas
analysis such as Rogers, Doernenburg, Duval and Key Gas. These
implementations and combinations seek to increase the reliability of
the analysis, since these methods alone are not 100% reliable. A
sequential combination of methods is indicated to rst analyze
whether the equipment is in a state of normality or abnormality.
Abnormal operation can be studied with more than one technique
together to identify the type of anomaly that is occurring.
The main challenges found in the literature review are related
to the need for condence in the data obtained from the gas
analysis. All methods investigated also present difculty in obtaining a high level of reliability and accuracy when subjected to
analysis of low amounts of dissolved gases.
A state of the art predictive maintenance tool should employ a
real time DGA monitoring system that uses a set of DGA methods
for the analysis of gases and compares measured data with historic
database to perform risk analysis. A prediction failure indicator
could use results from Monte Carlo simulation, allowing the
shutdown of the equipment before it is committed to signicant
damage.
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