BIOLOGICAL CAUSES FOR AGGRESSION

Aggression simply defined is a form of physical or verbal behavior leading to selfassertion. This being said, psychology has strived to search for reasons for this
behavior, and in terms of the biological perspective, there are three main causes,
these being: Genes, Neural Mechanisms and Hormones.

GENES
The XYY syndrome
It is the Y chromosome which causes the embryo to develop into a male, therefore
it would lead us to believe that an extra Y chromosome would make a person more
aggressive (since males are considered to be more aggressive than females).
Further studies indicate these men were taller, had higher testosterone and had
lower intelligence than non-XYY individuals.Some researchers challenged the
relationship between the syndrome and aggression, a large scale study found no
link between the two they did however find support from previous findings that XYY
had lower intelligence, they were more likely to commit crimes but these werent
violent crimes. Criminal records were found suggesting that rather than being more
aggressive, their lower levels of intelligence lead them to being caught more easily
than normal criminals, hence the increased percentage in prison. In addition, the
research is gender bias where studies are androcentric.
The MAOA gene
A gene responsible for producing a protein called a Monoamine Oxidase A has been
associated with aggressive behavior. MAOA regulates the metabolism of serotonin in
the brain and low levels of serotonin are associated with impulsive and aggressive
behavior.
Brunner et al. conducted a case study of a Dutch family upon request of females
in the family who were concerned about the behaviour of the males. Out of the 5
affected males in the case study, all of them were affected by borderline mental
retardation and tendencies of abnormal violent behaviour including attempted rape
and arson. Brunner et al had found disturbed monoamine metabolism associated
with a deficit of MAOA from analysis of the urine samples. A mutation in the X
chromosome was also identified, which explained why no females were affected as
the XX genetic make-up counteracted the mutation.

MAO A is involved in serotonin metabolism, and thus Brunner et al concluded that

the impairment of this gene was the cause of the mental retardation as well as their
aggressive behaviour.
Caspi et al. (2003) study of 500 male children found 2 variants of the gene one
associated with high levels of MAOA and one with low levels. Those with low level
significantly more likely to grow up showing anti-social behaviour IF maltreated as
children (no difference if not maltreated) showing a gene environment interaction.
Different forms of these genes have been identified:
-

Low activity (MAOA-L)

Produces less of the enzyme
High activity (MAOA-H)
Produces more of the enzyme

Twin studiesMZ twins share 100% of their genes while DZ twins share 50% but both are in the
same environment. If MZ twins are more similar than DZ twins, evidence for genetic
influence is found.
One study found that concordance rates for aggressiveness were 72% for the MZ
twins and 42% for the DZ twins, as MZ was higher, this suggests the role of genes in
aggression.
Further evidence have been found for MZ twins reared apart. They were found to be
still highly similar in aggression with 64% concordance rate for the MZ twins.
However, findings from twin studies have been extremely variable. One study found
a concordance rate of only 14% for MZ twins. Despite the numbers varying, the
great similarity between MZ twins is consistent, suggesting that there is some role
of genetics.
It is possible that the variances are due to the methods of assessing aggressive
behavior in different studies. Research shows that rates vary when self reports were
used. 39% compared to when peer reported by others, 53%. It is likely MZ are more
concordant because they are treated more similarly as they are identical in their
features, suggesting more nurture rather than nature. Further the MZ concordance
was never a 100%, which if it was purely genetic, it would be.
Adoption studies
If adopted children are more similar to their birth parents rather than their adoptive
ones, it shows nature over nurture.

Hutchings and Mednick (1975) with over 14,000 adoptions, found that a
significant number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological parents,
particularly fathers with criminal convictions. If both biological and adoptive fathers
had a criminal record, 36.2% of sons also became criminals. When only the
biological father was the criminal, 21.4% of sons were criminal. When only the
adoptive father was the criminal, 11.5% of the sons were criminal. When neither the
biological nor the adoptive father had a criminal record, only 10.5% of the sons
went on to have a criminal record.
Miles and Carey (1977) A meta-analysis was performed on data from 24
genetically informative studies by using various personality measures of aggression.
There was a strong overall genetic effect that may account for up to 50% of the
variance in aggression. This effect was not attributed to methodological
inadequacies in the twin or adoption designs. Age differences were important. Selfreport and parental ratings showed genes and the family environment to be
important in youth; the influence of genes increased but that of family environment
decreased at later ages.1
The results from Miles and Carey suggested a strong genetic influence that could
account for as much as 50% of the variance in aggression, suggesting the role of
genes in having aggressive tendencies.
Males with the MAOA-L gene were 2x more likely to be diagnosed with a conduct
disorder in adolescence compared to those with the MAOA-H gene. They were 3x
more likely to be convicted of violent crimes by 26 years of age. The reports
indicate the importance of an interaction between the genes and environment
influence neither have the MAOA-L gene in all the experience of maltreatment are
alone predicted later aggressive behavior but having both of them did. Research
supporting the role of genes in determining aggression is socially sensitive as it
brings up many ethical issues for society. If people are predisposed to be more
criminal/aggressive by their genetics, then questions surrounding genetic
engineering and selection of offspring follow. These argue that genes are the only
cause of aggression, not considering the environmental factors. Genetic
explanations focus only on the role of nature ignoring the role of nurture.

NEURAL MECHANISMS
1 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1997. Vol. 72, No. I, 207-217

Amygdala and the prefrontal cortex.

There is one amygdala on each side of the human brain found in the temporal lobe,
a part of the limbic system and are known to be involved with emotions. The
prefrontal cortex is located in the frontal lobe thought to be involved in planning and
moderating our behavior and is directly connected to the limbic system and is
thought to regulate the amygdala driven emotional responses exercising some sort
of emotional control. The theory is that aggression is dependent on the interaction
of these areas in the brain, the amygdala has a role in producing aggression and the
prefrontal cortex acts as a mediator taking the amygdalas impulses and deciding
on whether or not to act on them. It is argued that damage to these brain structures
causes differences in aggression.
There are many supporting evidence that damage to the prefrontal cortex results in
a range of responses associated with aggressive acts including loss of control,
impulsivity and immaturity. One study suggests that damage to the prefrontal
cortex in infancy is particularly significant in later aggression. The research
compares adult patients with onset damage vs infacy damage (before 16 months).
Both showed increased aggression and antisocial behavior, but the infancy onset
group showed more extreme antisocial behavior and they scored poorly on tests on
moral social reasoning performing at a 10 year old level, suggesting that early onset
patients had damaged their prefrontal cortex at crucial time disrupting the normal
development of social normal behavior increasing the risk of this behavior in
adulthood. The adult onset patients had only received after moral reasoning had
developed, therefore damage was less serious.
It is thought that research into neural mechanisms are socially sensitive, if violent
criminals had faulty brain circuitry affecting their social reasoning, should they be
responsible for their behavior?
However, this research is reductionist as it reduces aggression to the functioning of
the brain structures, therefore it focuses exclusively on the role of nature ignoring
the role of nurture. In reality the environment is likely to be very important too.
Animal studies:
Rabid animals are violently aggressive and its known that a virus that damages the
temporal lobe can cause rabies. In addition, sustained electrical stimulation of the
amygdala in labotary animals usually result in fear and rage responses. Such
research on animals allows the IV to be manipulated and therefore identify any
cause and effect relationships.

However human aggression may be more complex than that of animals. It is likely
that there are additional factors that influence humans so it may not be possible to
generalize to humans.
Human studies:
In humans, supporting evidence from psychosurgeries are present. One study
reported that 43/51 patients received operations to destroy the amygdala showed
more normal social behavior afterwards including reduced aggression. In addition, it
has been found out that patients with temporal lobe epilepsy can become more
aggressive to people close by even attacking furniture, supporting the view that the
temporal lobe is involved in aggression.
More direct evidence comes from finding that humans who have their amygdalas
electrically stimulated show a rage response.
The case of Charles Whitman: Killed 14 people and wounded 32 others during a
shooting rampage around Texas Universitys campus in 1966. He was shot and killed
at the scene and an autopsy revealed he had a tumor pressing on his amygdala.
Neuroimaging studies:
One study investigated the brain activity of 41 murderers vs a control group using
PET scans. PET scans are used to assess the brain activity by measuring the glucose
uptake in brain cells, the more glucose they take up, the more activity there is. The
research found reduced glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex of the
murderers brains suggesting reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex.

HORMONES
The main hormone thought to be involved in aggression is Testosterone, which is
the main male sex hormone belonging to the class hormones called androgens.
There is numerous research indicating a relationship between aggression and
testosterone.
Animal studies:
When castrating male mice, they found that testosterone reduced, and when
injecting testosterone later on to the rats, they found that aggression was
reestablished. Later research revealed that high testosterone is necessary but not
sufficient to trigger aggression. In an experiment, male mice were rated as
aggressive or non-aggressive, then castrated and when given testosterone
replacement therapy, only the mice initially rated as aggression showed restoration
of aggressive behavior, therefore testosterone is necessary for aggressive mice to

exhibit aggression, but injecting it is not sufficient enough to change a passive

mouse into an aggressive one. Furthermore, castration only reduces aggression if
done before puberty. It is possible that testosterone contributes to the development
of aggression and once it is accomplished, its effects become relatively permanent.
Similar to the other lab experiments, animal research is helpful because a cause
and effect relationship can be established but it may not be generalizable to
humans.
Human studies:
For ethical reasons, testosterone cannot be given to people to see if aggression
changes. Instead, researchers must investigate testosterone levels in people
displaying aggression. One study investigated the relationship between
testosterone and crime and prison behavior. Testosterone was measured in the
saliva of 692 adult male prisoners and found that those who committed crimes
involving sex and violence had higher levels of testosterone than inmates who had
committed crimes of burglary and theft. In addition, high testosterone males
violated more prison rules involving confrontation.
This study is criticized for only looking at criminal behavior, however, similar
behavior was found in college students in Dabbs et al (1996). They measured the
testosterone levels of 240 members of 12 fraternities in 2 US universities and
obtained descriptions of the fraternities from university officials, fraternity officers,
yearbook and chapter house photographs, and researcher field notes. It was found
that members of fraternities with the highest testosterone were described as
boisterous and macho, known for their crude behavior, whereas those in the lowest
testosterone levels fraternities were attentive and helpful and academically
successful.
Research is criticized for being gender biased as it studies only males and therefore
is androcentric, in addition, the research is correlational and there is a problem with
bi-directional ambiguity. However, while women have less testosterone, its effects
are considered to be the same. Researchers measured the levels of testosterone in
84 female prison inmates and found that testosterone levels were related to
criminal violence, although this relationship is not straightforward. Testosterone was
highest in unprovoked violence but lowest where violence was defensive. This too
raises socially sensitive questions such as if violent criminals have faulty biology
that increases their aggression, then should they be held responsible for their
behavior?

Serotonin

Normal levels of serotonin have an inhibitory effect on areas of the brain that are
regulated by serotonin. Low levels are thought to reduce the ability to control
aggressive impulses leading to aggressive behavior. Some studies have deliberately
manipulated the levels of serotonin in order to conduct research into the topic.
Mann et al administrated a drug that reduced the levels of serotonin in the brain
for 35 healthy adults. A questionnaire was given to participants that assessed their
levels of hostility and aggression before and after treatment. The study found that
the rate of hostility and aggression in the males increased after the treatment with
the drug in addition the research carried out by Coccaro & Kavoussi (1997) found
that aggression was reduced after administering the antidepressant drug Prozac.