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By
Enprg~'
A.f.M.K
34
Whm an oil and gas rpservoir is tUPIwd with 'WPilR and oil and gas are
produced, the reservoir pressure is lowerpd and the oil and gas remaining
are thus caused to expand to fill the space vacated by the oil and gas
removed. In connection with this occurrence, it often is the case, where
the oil and gas-bearing strata have good connection with strata containing water, that the lowering of pressure in the oil and gas reservoir will
cause water to encroach and in effect aid in filling space left vacant by
the oil and gas produced. This, of course, decreases the extent to which
the remaining oil and gas must expand and accordingly retards the
decline in reservoir pressure.
Inasmuch as the temperature in oil and gas reservoirs remains substantially constant during the course of production, the expansibilities,
under equilibrium conditions, of the oil and gas remaining in a reservoir
are unique functions of pressure, which are determinable through the
examination of samples of the oil and gas. The sampl ps 2.3 for sneh
pxaminations are preferably and most easily obtained 1I1l(IPr 1)l'('ssuI'p
from the bottom of weils. Thus, if the assumption is made that eomplptp
equilibrium is at all times attained in reservoirs, it is possible to write an
expression relating the quantities of oil, gas and water produced, the
reservoir pressure decline atteIlding the production, the quantity of water
that may have encroached into the reservoir, and finally the total oil and
gas content of the reservoir. These thoughts form the basis for the
development of the expressions mentioned in the foregoing. The
derivation is as shown in the nomenclature on the next page.
The total volume of the liquid in any oil and gas reservoir under
original conditions is the product of the total original number of units
(barrels, or cubic feet) of oil, as measured at the surface, by the volume of
each unit, with its dissolved gas, as it originally existed in the reservoir:
Original liquid volume
= nuo
Similarly, .
Original free gas volume = gvo
where g is the original number of units of free gas in the reservoir.
the original volume of the oil and gas reservoir is:
V = nuo
+ gvo
Hence,
[1]
35
UALPH J. SCHILTHUIS
(n - fln)u n
If, at the same time, the free gas in the reservoir has been changed by an
amount flg and its specific volume changed to v, the volume of free gas
will be:
(g - flg)v
The "lim of these two quantities is the new volume of the reservoir, which
Nomenclature
Symbol
Definition
pu
p
pu.
n
V
dn
.1u
Expressed as
TO
Ts
Tn
Uo
"
e
Vo
t,
(J
36
is equal to the original volume less the volume of any water that may havc
encroached into the reservoir:
(n - Lln)u"
+ (y
- Lly)v
V - (Z - z)
[2]
where:
Z = volume of water that may have encroached into the reservoir, and
z = volume of water produced
Subtracting equation 1 from equation 2:
-n(uo - Un)
unLln
+ vLly
- y(v - vo) -
(Z - z)
l3]
The term Lly is the change in the number of units of free gas III the
reservoir. It may be divided as follows:
1. The free gas produced, LlYl - LlY2, where LlYl is the total gas
produced, and LlY2 is the dissolved gas produced.
2. The gas escaping from solution in the oil remaining, LlYa.
3. Any gas that may be returned to the reservoir, LlY4.
Then:
[4]
Lly = LlYl - LlY2 - LlYa - LlY4
But:
d(LlYl) = rd(Lln)
wherc r = produced gas-oil ratio,
d(LlY2)
whcre r.
and
r srl(Ll1l)
+ (n - /1n)dr.
+ ndl".
- rid(Lln)
[5]
[6]
The number of units of gas released from solution from one unit of
oil, multiplied by its specific volume, is the volume of the gas released.
This is equal to the volume of the mixture of oil and its released gas minus
the volume of the oil:
(ro - r.)v
or,
( ro -
1".
=
=
(u - Un)
(u - Un)
V
[7J
RALPH J. SCHILTHUIS
37
[8]
[9]
[10]
gvo
nuo
[11]
1n = -
Anlu
II =
+ (rio
- /"u)vj - _0._=~ z~
mUII(v -
(11-1111)+
VII)
~--.~
VII
[121
+ (rio - ro)v]
muo(v - vol
)
Uo +
An[u
---'-------C.----;--'------'---c
(u
[13]
Vo
An[u
+ (rn
- ro)v] - (Z - z)
(u - uo)
--~-~~-~~-~-~
[14]
Where there is neither water drive nor an original free gas cap,
'/l
An[u
+ (rio
(u -
- ro)v]
uu)
[1.5]
38
to two, while
oil, appears.
RALPH J. SCHILTHUIS
39
probably that part of the total quantity of oil that is contained in the
interconnected and permeable portions of a reservoir, and, which actively
contributes to the maintenance of the reservoir pressure. This introduces
the concept of "active oil." Aside from its interpretation as the portion
of the oil contained in the permeable parts of a reservoir, the" active oil"
also has possible applications to the study of the performance of oil and
gas reservoirs, as follows:
1. Determination of the effectiveness of any natural water drive that
may be acting upon a reservoir.
2. To calculate the approximate pressure changes to be expected
under various rates of flow in a field under water drive.
3. Evaluation of the benefits to be derived from gas return operations.
4. Estimation of the reservoir energy changes that occur during the
course of production.
The use of the" active oil" in connection with the latter problem will
be discussed in a part of the paper to follow.
GENERAL ApPLICATION
The exact details of the manner in which the equations 12, 13, 14 or 15
may be employed to best advantage can be worked out only from a consideration of the data available in the particular case. No specific rules
can be laid down. Where an original free gas cap is encountered, it is
necessary to make some estimate, from geologic data, of the original size
of the gas cap. This quantity is usually best expressed in the equations
as a ratio between the portion of the original volume of the reservoir
filled with free gas and that portion filled with oil.
Although ordinarily it is best to have the original reservoir conditions
as a starting point for the application of the equations, it is not absolutely
necessary. When little is known regarding actual original reservoir
pressures, etc., any convenient subsequent time in the operations may be
used; provided, of course, that all production and reservoir-pressure data
employed in the computations are referred to the time chosen as a
starting point.
The effect of any water drive that may be active is evaluated in the
following manner: In many cases, it may be assumed that the rate at
which water enters a field is proportional to the pressure gradient that
exists between the water-bearing strata and the oil and gas reservoir.
For practical purposes, the value of this gradient would be the difference
between the value of the original reservoir pressure and any subsequent
Yalue, or (Po - p). Thus, the rate of water encroachment would
be expressed:
dZ
-- = k(po - p)
dO
[16]
40
whence:
dZ
k(po - p)dO
and
[17]
To evaluate k, 'it is assumed that over any reasonably long period of
time, during which the reservoir pressures and the production rate may
have remained constant, the volume of water encroaching into the oil and
gas reservoir is equal to the volumetric withdrawal, that is, the volume
of oil, gas, and water withdrawn, all under reservoir conditions of pressure
and temperature, Thus, from equation 16:
k
dZ
(Po - p)dO
+ (rn
d(tin)
- To)V]-----ctO
+ dO
dz
d(tin)
- ro)v]1iO
dz
+ dO
+ (rn
[18J
= ----~~- - - - , - - - - - -
(po - p)
h
d(tin) dz
d (
. )
' ,
po - p are constant,
un d er t h e con dItlOns t at ------ao' dO an
In
= nUII(1
+ rn)
- (Z - z)
+ [n:ou o -
tin(rn -
ro)]v
+ [n:ou o -
tin(rn -
ro)]v
Equating:
nUo(1
+ m)
- (Z - z) = (n - tin)u
[19]
Had there been no water drive, (Z - z) would be zero, and the terms
41
RALPH J. SCHILTHUIS
u and v would have had values u' and' v', corresponding to the pressure p',
that would have prevailed in the absence of water drive. Therefore,
nUo(1
+ m)
= (n - 1n)u'
+ [n7ou o -
1n(rn - ro)
]V'
[20]
U =
Vo
n - 6n
v)
[21]
Values of p' may be assumed, the corresponding values of u' and v' substituted in equation 21, and, by trial and error, the correct value of
p' determined.
A specific example illustrating the application of the equations developed in the foregoing will be presented after consideration has been given
to the energy changes that occur during the course of production.
RESERVOIR ENERGY
oil.
42
.3
J
FIG. 2.-PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM.
2. The fluids to be produced are discharged from the engine at atmospheric pressure, the piston moving from position 2 to position 3. The
volumes of the fluids change by the amount that is produced, but the
pressure remains constant at atmospheric. This operation is indicated on
the p-v diagram as the horizontal line BC, and the work done on the fluids
is Paf:.v, or the rectangular area BCFE.
43
RALPH J. SCHILTHUIS
t>E
[22]
ABEH = n
[23]
pa
-4111
[24]
+ [g
[25]
Then,
t>E = n.copdu
- ro) L:pdv ]
- Pat>n[u a + (rn - ro)va] [26]
t>E
-,- =
.:In
nJ:Popdu
P
+ g.!:popdv
t>n
+ JPa
rppdu + (rn
- ro) rppdv
JPa
- pa[U a + (rn - ro)v a ]
[27]
where
nmuo
Vo
g=--
To calculate the extent to which any water drive that may be present
contributes to the energy of the reservoir, the following equation applieR:
t>Ew = (n - t>n)
L
p
p'
pdu
+ [nmuo
_.- Va
t>n(r" - ro)
J1P pdv
p'
[28]
44
(Z - z)(p
p')
In equation 28, p' is the reservoir pressure that would have prevaiIPd ill
the absence of the water drive.
Under ideal operation, without considering gas return, the oil would
be produced with only its dissolved gas and at such a rate that water
drive would maintain the reservoir pressure at its original value. Under
this operation, the energy consumption would be limited to that associated with the oil, and its dissolved gas, produced. Thus:
f1E II< = f1n[J::opdu -
p"u" - pouoJ
[29]"
By way of illustrating the use of the equations developed for calculating the "active oil" and the energy consumption, the Conroe field,
Montgomery County, Texas, has been chosen as an example upon
which the calculations will be made. This field has a free gas cap and
there is considerable evidence to indicate that it is under active water
drive. The case is therefore the most complicated for the application.
45
RALPH J. SCHILTHUIS
t~
I,
I __
V-A
...
.,
_ _"'"
~
..or_IF.
r-.
~.
8
v-~.
~~
---
r'A,mo
~I
t-
~
1:1
y~
,.
I"I-
I-
1--1-'
I-
I-'~
roo
j,...
r!"'~
... f-
j,...
t'~UL"77_ ~
.... ~
I;)
nH
IY2
IFIG.
- -
...,
aDo
't\.
v,. /.z/
'\ I\.
-- - -
.Cu H. _
1\'l'\.
/J! ~
/,.N
~7ZM!~: /7t:J"F
'1\ ~
'\.
.~
'"
If~
f::::
r'
........
S
.-
.(Jt)~
._
.~
._
" ""-
.111/
",
""
.OII
...........
i'...
~
.111$
"
_
__~
FIG.
46
,
1\
1\
'\
~.
'\.
~
C::J.
~ r-..
t'-...,
'"'"" "'"
-..........
N-/P'du
f'...
'" t'....
'\.
I...........
r--
/?f7Y
'\.
"I'-.,
6()~
~I?ArUI?4'""
"-
~ V-
~ U$OM,Ii' 1.63.
P,
"-"-
'"
;'.du
r-.....
f'.I'--_
FIG.
apply only to the main Conroe sand and not to both the Conroe and upper
Cockfield sands.
The field originally contained, in the Conroe sand, about 181,225 acrefeet of gas sand and 810,000 acre-feet of oil sand 4 Therefore,
m
181,225
During the period, Oct. 1, 1934, to Apr. 1, 1935, the production rate
and reservoir pressure remained substantially constant. The data for
this period are as follows:
Reservoir pressure, p; 2090 lb. per sq. in.
Pressure differential, (Po - p); 185 lb. per sq. in.
Production rate, d(f:.n)/d8; 44,100 bbl. per day
4 E. O. Buck: Engineering Report on the Conroe Field, to Conroe Operators
Association, Nov. 1, 1934.
47
HALPH J. SCHILTHUIS
+ (rn
k = (Po
p) .
In Fig. 6, the curve of pressure drop against time is plotted, from which
the expression,
.fo8 (po
is obtained graphically.
- p) dO
~~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
~ ~
iii
:\
'"
~I
,;
"
"
--
- ...-
if'
,"
/'
,"
,,"
<:>
Fw.
""z
," I
4
.,
/Z
/6
TiME'
zo N
HI
IJ.1/:)NTH.5
,;U
26
oM
30
6.2
!U
!l6
40
48
"active oil" had been produced. It is pointed out that the Conroe field
has a slow rate of pressure decline, which may be due to one of two
causes: (1) a very high content of "active oil," or (2) a lower" active oil"
content coupled with a powerful water drive. To be conservative, the
highest rate of water intrusion compatible with the data was used, which,
in turn, makes the figures for" active oil" minimum values.
TABLE
eu*-/AV. .:s.c.
" =.00';"7
u..~ ;;t?O
cv-h/cw.#. .:sc.
" ~ /.rl
~ pdu" G.CIt/O'
-7..: ~ -/Z.MG
n7:
C'~Ft/AIJL.",c
C'v.Ii1/cvl'i!.tI.c
h/a,!DbI.&c.
-H.1"/cw.R.~c.
~~:~.OZN
IZ'f:Ib ::
~59
49
RALPH J. SCHILTHUIS
/"
-~
"v /
7f
r-
......
i"
-V
"",...
I--~
~
/5
"I
-~
III>
5D
~
2!S
.-0
~"'/GW" IW/.u~ QI"~.
Fw.
4tJ
..
drive had i>eon inactive, is also shown in Fig. 9. The energy (~()nHlIlllPd lip
to Sept. 1, 1935, would have been between 19 and 20 per cent higher had
I\..
\~
'~~
", ,'"
,
I;-o~""
1'""--
---- - _- -
UNQH!
w,,77F>Ir ~
...
...
--,,
i!
III>
Ab w"T""'"
rC~CU~AT~O
'-';---... ,
t7~,_
- .........
~
.....
_
,,
~
FIG.
the water drive been inactive. In Fig. 10, the reservoir energy consumption is expressed also as foot-pounds per barrel of oil produced. The
50
~
~
At>
Hl4r_
01/7 /
l/"/
/
"....
V
./
,;'
/ ' ~HI4""""~""
~V
... ~ ..."....
i"""
~
\)
/:J
FIG.
..
IA
~\
~N
,~
...
1\ '- r---!)
'!l<:e-NAt.
r_Y
\"
Cl:wrJ!'olVr ,orA? ~. (2-
\..- V
"l
",
P~T/oN" MILLIOVS OF ~.
,qa::.~CT/ON ..
FlU.
--
r--....
-~
fc",eA?rIVT
/ '.....
_
I'-
&J8L5.
lO.-ENERGY CONSUMED PER BARREL OF OIL PIWDUCED, CONROE FIELD.
M//ON:J ai'"
the original free gas was 9.97 million foot-pounds per barrel of oil. In
Fig. 10, it is seen that the energy consumed per barrel of oil produced was
much higher during the early stages of production than the original
DISCUSSION
51
energy content, per harrel of oil. This was caused hy the waste of
excessive qllantities of free gaR during the early stageR of productioll.
Currently, the eommmption of pnergy is even lesR than the original COI1tent per barrel because very few wells now produce with excessive gas-oil
ratios. Most of the oil is produced with its dissolved gas only.
CONCLUSION
DISCUSSION
(M. Alber/son presiding)
52
D. L. KATZ, * Bartlesville, Okla.-As reservoir pressure declines, is the mechanism by which gas escapes from solution in the oil that of equilibrium or differential
vaporization?
R. J. SCHlLTHUIs.-The actual mechanism is probably some combination of both.
However, the data on the saturation pressures and oil to gas ratios of subsurface
samples taken from a few reservoirs after moderate decline in pressure had occurred
seem to indicate that any gas that had escaped solution remained in contact with the
oil from whence it came. Such samples were found to be substantially identical with
others obtained very soon after development of the fields began and before any
appreciable pressure decline had occurred. In view of this, it is believed that the
t.entative conclusion is justified that gas liheration in oil reservoirs conforms more
closely with the equilibrium rather than the differential process o\"er moderate preHsure decline at least.