RECIPROCATING ENGINE FAMILIARIZATION

Aircraft engines-piston powered

The lack of a practical propulsion system has been the limiting factor in the
development of mechanical devices throughout history
Leonardo Da Vinci conceived a flying machine, the aerial screw, in 1483,
but with no means of propulsion it was never developed
The first piston engine that could be considered practical was built by Etienne
Lenoir in France in 1860
The next major breakthrough in piston engines came in 1876 when Dr.
Nikolaus Otto developed the four-stroke, five-event cycle engine.
It is this operating cycle which is used for modern piston-type aircraft
engines
The first successful use of the piston engine to power an aircraft in controlled
flight was achieved by Orville and Wilbur Wright in their Wright flyer I at
Kitty Hawk on December 17, 1903
powered by one 12 hp Wright four-cylinder water-cooled petrol engine,
driving two pusher propellers, each of 8 ft 6-inches long
Orville and Wilbur not only designed and built the airplane, but also the
engine and propellers for it

Aircraft engines-turbines
The first turbine engine was patented by the Englishman dr. Frank whittle in
1930, but it was eleven years later that this engine completed its first flight
Meanwhile, a German engineer, Hans von Ohain, working with the Heinkle
Company produced a jet engine that provided 1,100 lbs of thrust
This engine was used to power the Heinkle he-178 that made the first
successful flight of a jet aircraft on august 27, 1939
For an aircraft to remain in level un-accelerated flight, a thrust must be
provided that is equal to and opposite in direction to the aircraft drag
this thrust, or propulsive force, is provided by a suitable type of heat
engine
all engines convert heat energy into mechanical energy, by the flow of
some fluid mass (fuel/air mixture) through the engine
Some examples of aircraft engines:
reciprocating: propeller aircraft engine
Turbojet: turbine-driven compressor
Turbofan: turbine-driven fan
Turbo shaft: turbine-driven shaft (helicopters)
Turboprop: turbine-driven prop (slower jet aircraft)

Four types of reciprocating engines

Classified according to cylinder arrangement with respect to the crankshaft
(in-line, v-type, radial, and opposed); or according to the method of cooling
(liquid cooled or air cooled)
1. In-line engines
Cylinders mounted vertically across the top of the crankshaft. Some
have the cylinders mounted on the bottom and are called inverted
engines
usually has an even number of cylinders
Engine frontal area is more easily streamlined
Liquid or air cooled
2. Opposed or o-type engines
Cylinders mounted vertically or horizontally on both sides of the
crankshaft opposing each other
its wide, rather than high frontal area makes it ideal for horizontal
installation on the aircraft wings
Another advantage is its comparative freedom from vibration
Liquid or air cooled
3. V-type engines
Cylinders arranged in two in-line banks set at 60 degrees apart
most have 8 or 12 cylinders
Liquid or air cooled
4. Radial engines
consists of a row, or rows, of cylinders arranged radially about a
central crankcase
one row may contain 3, 5, 7, or 9 cylinders
One has 4 rows with 7 cylinders in each (28 cylinders)
Power output varies from 100 to 3,800 hp
disadvantage is large frontal, = much drag

The "five event" internal combustion engine

All internal combustion engines have a certain sequence of events that must
take place to convert the chemical energy in the fuel into mechanical energy
and work
1. Intake: fuel and air must be taken into the engine

2. Compression: the fuel-air mixture must be compressed

3. Ignition: the combustible mixture must be ignited

4. Power: the burning gases expand and produce work

5. Exhaust: the burned gases must then be scavenged and released to the
atmosphere

Two types of engine operating cycles

1. Two-stroke cycle engines
requires only one upstroke and one down stroke of the piston to complete
the required five events in the cylinder. Engine completes the operating
cycle in one revolution of the crankshaft
as the piston moves up, two actions occur simultaneously
fuel/air charge in the cylinder is put under compression by the piston
Upward movement of piston also draws fresh fuel/air mixture charge
into crankcase through a check valve
A few degrees before the piston reaches top dead center, ignition occurs
and the piston begins its downward travel on the power stroke
As the piston moves downward, three actions take place
The fuel/air charge in the crankcase in compressed
The piston also uncovers the exhaust port and the spent gases begin to
exit the cylinder
with further travel the intake port is uncovered and the fuel/air mixture
from the crankcase is allowed to flow into the cylinder displacing the
exhaust gases
at this point the cycle repeats itself
The extreme simplicity of the two-stroke cycle engine make them useful in
such devices as chain saws, lawn mowers, and other small displacement
engines
in aviation the inefficiency of this type of engine has limited use
2. Four-stroke cycle engine: most aircraft reciprocating engines operate on the
four-stroke, five event cycle, sometimes called the Otto cycle after its
originator, a German physicist
It has many advantages for use in aircraft
Greater power capabilities and efficiency

lends itself to high performance through supercharging

Requires two upstrokes and two down strokes of the piston to complete the
required five events
Engine completes the operating cycle in two revolutions of the crankshaft

Intake stroke
Piston pulled downward by crankshaft
Cylinder pressure above piston is reduced
Intake valve is opened
fuel/air mixture from carburetor enters cylinder
Compression stroke
Intake valve is closed
Piston now starts moving upward
fuel/air mixture is now under compression
The ignition event takes place (spark)
Power stroke
burning gases expand-driving piston down
Piston rotates crankshaft through connecting rod creating power for the
engine
Exhaust stroke
Piston starts back up again
Exhaust valve opens
Exhaust gases leave cylinder
Exhaust valve closes
Piston is now ready for another cycle
Induction system
A system of pipes and units that form a long curved channel which conducts
air and the fuel/air mixture to the cylinders

Three main components:

1. Carburetor (two types)
(1) float-type
(2) pressure-type
If fuel injection is used, there will be no carburetor
Fuel injection can be two types:
Constant flow
pulsed system
2. Air scoop or ducting
Air enters the system through the ram-air intake (air scoop)
intake opening is located in the slipstream so the air is forced into
the induction system, providing a ram effect
Then it enters the fixed duct riveted to the nose cowling
From there it enters the flexible duct between the fixed duct and the
carburetor air valve
conducts air to the carburetor itself
3. Intake manifold
A series of ducts directing the fuel/air mixture from the carburetor
to the intakes of the cylinders

Ignition systems
All ignition systems must deliver a high-tension spark to each cylinder of the
engine in the correct firing order at a predetermined number of degrees

before top dead center of the piston. Voltage must be sufficient for spark to
jump gap
1. Battery ignition systems
used only by a few older aircraft
battery ran one set of plugs for starting purposes, a magneto ran the
other set of plugs
Battery or generator is the source of energy
Similar system to that found in automobiles
a cam that is driven by the engine opens a set of points to interrupt
the flow of current in a primary circuit
The resulting collapsing magnetic field induces a high voltage in
the secondary of the ignition coil
This high voltage is directed by a distributor to the proper
cylinder
2. Magneto ignition systems
The magneto is a special type of engine-driven AC generator
uses a permanent magnet as a source of energy
develops a high voltage which forces a spark to jump across the
spark plug gap in each cylinder
come in either high tension or low tension systems
Low tension generates a low voltage which is boosted near each
spark plug
High tension sends high voltage energy into the ignition harness
out to the spark plug
also available as either single or dual magneto systems