CHAPTER TWO

TIRES &
WHEELS

Introduction

Definition of pneumatic Tire

a hollow band of rubber, often reinforced with fibers of

other material, fitted around the outer edge of a vehicle's
wheel and filled with compressed air (Dictionary
meaning).

is a flexible structure of the shape of a toroid filled with

compressed air.

All tires manufactured today are considered Pneumatic

tires.

Introduction

What percent of a tire is rubber?

By weight, give or take 30%

By volume, quite a bite more.

Composition of tire

Raw Rubber

Steel

Nylon

Polyester

Rayon

Carbon Black

Synthetic Rubber

Fiberglass

Aramid

Brass

Tire Components
Synthtic Rubber
20%

Rubber
30%

Carbon Black
13%
Rayon
9%

Nylon
15%

Steel
13%

Who Invented The First Tire?

It was invented in 1888, by

John Dunlop.

This would be the end of the

solid tire.

Why are Tires Black?

To protect the rubber from the harmful UV rays.
A common type of UV stabilizer called a competitive absorber is added
to capture and absorb these harmful UV light wave energy
All tire manufacturers use the same competitive absorber, carbon black.

The Purpose of Tires

The tire serves essentially 3 basic functions

It supports the vertical load, while cushioning road shocks

It develops longitudinal force for acceleration and braking

It develops lateral force for cornering (to provide adequate

steering control and direction stability)

Tire- Parts (External parts)

Sipes

Grooves

provides traction.

Ribs

create voids for better water channeling

on wet road surfaces.

Blocks

allow the blocks to flex. This added

flexibility increases traction by creating
an additional biting edge.

are the straight-lined row of blocks that create a circumferential contact "band.

Shoulders
provide continuous contact with the road while maneuvering

The Void Ratio is the amount of open space in the tread.

Tread Design

Tire- Parts (Internal)

Bead
Liner
Plies (carcass)
Belts
Tread
Sidewall

Types of Tire

There are two main types of tires available on the

market today.
1. Bias Ply tires and
2. Radial Ply tires.

According to air handling

Tube tires

used on older vehicles

Tubeless tires

seal between bead and rim

Tubeless tires are the current design

Bias Ply tires

A bias ply tire has plies

running at an angle from bead
to bead.

The cord angle is

reversed from ply to ply.

Tread is bonded directly to the

top ply.

It is Older design
Disadvantages

High rolling resistance

Faster tire wear

also

Belted Bias Tire

Stabilizing belt added

to increase tread stiffness.

Decreases rolling
resistance

These belts only lie on

the tread area and not on
the side walls, like cords.

Radial Ply Tire

Has plies running straight

across from bead to bead
with stabilizer belts lying
directly beneath the tread.

This results in the radial

having flexible side wall, but
a stiff tread.

It has a least amount

of rolling resistance

Radial Ply Tire

Nowadays, most passenger cars use Radial tires because

the life of the radial-ply tire could be as long as twice that of the
equivalent bias-ply tire

of better handling performance [less squirm] and

greater comfort

In the absence of a wiping motion between the tire and the road,
the power dissipation of the radial-ply tire could be as low as 60%
of that of the bias-ply tire under similar conditions,
tire
longitudinal
axis.

radial
plies

sometimes called
the carcass.

Tire Sidewall information

1 -Size number.

2-Maximum allowed inflation pressure.

3-Type of tire construction.

4 -M&S denotes a tire for mud and

snow.

5 -E-Mark is the Europe type approval

mark and number.

6-US Department of Transport (DOT)

identification numbers.

7-Country of manufacture.

8-Manufacturers, brand name, or

commercial name.

The most important information on the sidewall of a tire is the size number,
indicated by 1 .

Tire Dimensions and Marking

P 215 / 60 R 15 96 H

Tire types

The first letter indicates the proper type of car that the tire is made for.

P -stands for passenger car.

T -Temporary

C -Commercial

ST -for special trailer,

LT -light truck.

Tire width.

This three-number code is the width of the unloaded tire from sidewall to
sidewall measured in [mm].

215-Tire width [mm]

175mm, 185, 195, etc

Tire Dimensions and Marking

P 215 / 60 R 15 96 H

Aspect ratio (Tire Profile)

This two-number code is the ratio of the tire section height to

tire width, expressed as a percentage

hT
ST
100
wT

Generally speaking, tire aspect ratios range from 35, for race
car tires, to 75 for tires used on utility vehicles

Tire Dimensions and Marking

Tire construction type

R- for a radial construction.

B for bias belt or bias ply, and

D for diagonal.

P 215 / 60 R 15 96 H

Rim Diameter ( this is number in inches)

to indicate diameter of the rim that the tire is

designed to fit onit on.

13, 14, 15, 16 [in]

Tire Dimensions and Marking

P 215 / 60 R 15 96 H

Many tires come with a service description at the end of the tire
size. The service description is made of

Load rate or load index. (Kgf)

is a representation of the maximum load each tire is designed to support.

a two-digit number (load index )

The load index is generally valid for speeds under 210 km/ h ( 130 mi/ h).

Speed rate (MPH).

Speed rate indicates the maximum speed that the tire can sustain for a ten
minute endurance without breaking down.

S= up to 112 MPH

Z= over 149 MPH

T= to 118 MPH

H= to 130 MPH V= to 149 MPH

Tire Dimensions and Marking

Calculating tire diameter & radius

We are able to calculate the overall diameter of a tire using the tire
size numbers. By multiplying the tire width and the aspect ratio, we
get the tire height.

As an example, we use tire number

P 235/75R15

Width=235mm Aspect ratio= 75% Rim dia= 15 in

hT = 235 75%= 176.25mm 6.94 in
Tires unloaded diameter D = 2R and radius R.
D = 2 6.94 + 15 = 28.88 in 733.8mm

R = D/2 = 366.9mm

Speed rating code

Two similar tires are coded as

P 235/70R15H and P 235/70R15 100H.

Both tires have code H 210km/ h for speed rating.

However, the second tire can sustain the coded speed only
when it is loaded less than the specified load index, so it
states 100H 800 kg @210km/ h.

BMW tire size code

BMW, a European car, uses the metric system for sizing

its tires.

As an example, T D230/55ZR390 is a metric tire size

code.

TD indicates the BMW TD model,

230 is the section width in [mm],

55

is the aspect ratio in percent,

is the speed rating, (270 km/h)

means radial, and

390 is the rim diameter in [mm].

U.S. DOT tire identification number

The US tire identification number is in the format

"DOT

DNZE ABCD1309."

DOT to indicate that the tire meets US federal standards.

DOT stands for Department of Transportation.

DN refers to the manufacturer and the factory location at which the tire
was made.

ZE refers to the specific mold used for forming the tire. It is an internal
factory code and is not usually a useful code for customers.

The last four numbers, 1309, represents the week and year the tire was
built.

The other numbers, ABCD, are marketing codes used by the

manufacturer or at the manufacturers instruction.

U.S. DOT tire identification number

DOT DNZE ABCD1309

DN

ZE

indicates the 13th week of the year, and

09

is the compound structure code,

13

is the tires mold size,

ABCD

is the plant code for Goodyear-Dunlop Tire located in Wittlich, Germany.

indicates year 2009.

So, the tire is manufactured in the 13th week of 2009 at

Goodyear-Dunlop Tire in Wittlich, Germany.

Wheel and Rim

When a tire is installed on a rim and is inflated, it is called

a wheel.

A wheel is a combined tire and rim. The rim is the

metallic cylindrical part where the tire is installed.

It can be made from

Steel,

Aluminum and

Magnesium

Wheel and Rim

A rim has two main parts:

Flange

The flange or hub is the ring or

shell on which the tire is mounted.

Spider

The spider or center section is the

disc section that is attached to the hub.

Wheel and Rim

There are two main Rim shapes:

drop center rim (DC),

are symmetric with a well between the bead seats. The

well is built to make mounting and demounting the tire
easy.

Wide drop center rim (W DC).

may also come with a hump (W DCH)

are wider than DC rims

are built for low aspect ratio tires.

Rim Numbering

Example- 7 JJ 15 55 5 114.3

7 1/2 -

Rim width [in]

JJ -

Flange shape code

The flange shape code signifies the tire-side profile of the

rim and can be

B, C, D, E, F , G, J , J J , JK, and K.

15

Rim diameter [in]

55-

Offset [mm]

Is the distance between the inner plane and the center

plane of the rim.

5-

Number of bolts

114.3- Pitch circle diameter

Wear Patterns - Air Pressure

Under inflation

wears on outer edges

Wear Patterns - Air Pressure

Over inflation

wears in center

Wear Patterns - Misalignment

one side Wears

Camber

Due to excessive Camber

Which means tire is leaning too much to inside or outside of tread
and placing all work on one side of tire

Wear Patterns - Misalignment

Feathering (scuffing)

This is caused by erratic scrubbing against road

when tire is in need of toe-in or toe-out alignment
correction

Wear Patterns - Poor Suspension or

Tire Balance

Cupping

This means the car may need wheels balanced or

possibly new shock absorbers or ball joints or both

Tire defects

TIRES DYNAMICS

Introduction

The performance of a vehicle is mainly influenced by the

characteristics of its tires.

Tires affect a vehicles

Handling,

Traction,

Ride comfort, and

Fuel consumption.

To understand its importance, it is enough to remember

that a vehicle can maneuver only by longitudinal, vertical,
and lateral force systems generated under the tires.

Axis/Coordinate System

Definition of rotations about axes

Follows the right hand rule

X-Axis Longitudinal, + = Forward
Y-Axis Lateral, + = right of center
Z-axis Vertical, + = down

+Y
+X

+Z

SAE Tire Axis System

Three forces
Longitudinal force Fx.
Lateral force Fy
Normal force Fz

Three moments,
Overturning moment Mx.
Rolling resistance
Moment My.
Aligning Moment Mz.

Camber Angle ()
The inward or outward tilt of a tire at the top

Angle of the wheel plane and the vertical

+ve camber corresponds to the top of the leaned outward from the
wheel

, camber angle

Slip Angle()

Angle between the direction of wheel heading and the direction of

travel.

+ve slip angle corresponds to the tire moving to the right as it

advances in the forward direction

The steer angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle and the longitudinal plane of the wheel

x
Wheel velocity
vehicle longitudinal axis.

x body

y
body

wheel plane

velocity of wheel center

The tire may be steered and have a slip angle

Axis System-Forces

Longitudinal Force (Fx)

Component of force acting on the tire by the road in the plane

of the road and parallel to the intersection of the wheel plane
with the road plane

The force component in the direction of the wheel travel Sine

component of lateral force plus cosine components of the
longitudinal force is called Tractive Force

Tractive Force=(Fy sin)+(FxCos)

y1

y0

Fx = Fx cos Fy sin
Fy = Fy cos + Fx sin

P
x

1
1

x
0

x1

X
0

Axis System-Forces

Lateral Force (Fy)

Component of the force acting on the tire by the road in

the plane of road and normal to the intersection of wheel
plane with the road plane

Normal Force ( Fz)

Component of the force on the tire by the road which is

normal to the plane of road.

The normal force is ve in magnitude

The term vertical load is defined as the negative of the

normal force (thus +ve in magnitude)

Axis System- Moments

Overturning Moment (Mx)

Moment acting on the tire by the road in the plane of the road and
parallel to the intersection of wheel plane with the road plane
It is also called the roll moment, the bank moment, or tilting torque,

Rolling Resistance Moment (My)

Moment acting on the tire by the road in the plane of the road and
normal to the intersection of wheel plane with the road plane
It is also called the pitch moment
Aligning Moment (Mz)

Moment acting on the tire by the road which is normal to the plane of
road
It is also called the yaw moment, self aligning moment, or bore
torque.

Contact Patch

Tireprint/ Contact patch

Tire-Road Interaction

The force on a tire are not applied at a point, but are the result
from normal and shear stress distributed in the contact patch.

The pressure distribution is under a tire is not uniform but will

vary in the x & Y direction

Not symmetrical about the y-axis but tends to be higher in the

forward region of contact patch

Tire-Road Interaction

Because of the tire visco-elasticity deformation

The vertical pressure shifted forward

The centroid of the vertical force not pass through

the spin axis

Therefore generates rolling resistance.

With the tire rolling on the road

Tractive force
Lateral force

Generated by
Shear Mechanism

Tire-Road Interaction

There are 2 main mechanisms responsible for friction

coupling b/n the tire & the road

Adhesion

Hysteresis

Adhesion

tire
road

is very similar to the classical notion of sliding friction.

That is molecular bonds are formed and broken through
asperities in the two materials

frictional
bonds

relative motion

Tire-Road Interaction

Hysteresis

Represent the energy loss in the rubber as it deformed when sliding

over the aggregated in the road

The road surface irregularities cause a deformation in softer tire

surface by doing work on the material.

It is not so affected by water on the road surface, thus a better

wet traction is achieved with the tires that have high-hysteresis
rubber in the tread

Tire Stiffness

The vertical tire force Fz can be calculated as a linear

function of the normal tire deflection z measured at the tire
center.

Fz = kz z
kz is called tire stiffness in the z-direction.

Similarly, the reaction of a tire to a lateral and a longitudinal

force can be approximated by

Fx = kxx

Fy = ky y

kx and ky are called tire stiffness in the x and y directions.

Tire Stiffness

Calculating the tire stiffness is generally based on

experiment
They are dependent on
The tires mechanical properties
Environmental characteristics.

Consider a vertically loaded tire on a stiff and flat ground

The curve can be expressed by a mathematical function

Fz = f (z)
Linear approximation for the range of the usual application.

Tire Stiffness

The coefficient F/(z) is the slope of the experimental

stiffness curve at zero and is shown by a stiffness coefficient
kz
f
K z tan lim

z 0

Therefore, the normal tire deflection z remains proportional

to the vertical tire force Fz .

(z )

Fz = kz Fz

The stiffness curve can be influenced by many parameters.

The most effective one is the tire inflation pressure.

Tire Stiffness

Lateral and longitudinal force/deflection behavior is also

determined experimentally by applying a force in the
appropriate direction.

The lateral and longitudinal forces are limited by the

sliding force

The practical part of a tires

longitudinal and lateral stiffness
curves is the linear part and may be
estimated by linear equations.
Fx = kxx
Fy = ky y

Tire Stiffness

The coefficients kx and ky are called the tire stiffness in the

x and y directions.

They are measured by the slope of the experimental

stiffness curves in the (Fx,x) and (Fy ,y) planes.

f
f
K

lim
K x lim
y
y 0 ( y )
x 0 ( x )
Generally, a tire is most stiff in the
longitudinal direction and least stiff in
the lateral direction.
kx > kz > k y

Effective Radius

The Effective radius of the wheel Rw,

which is also called a rolling radius, is defined by

Rw

Vx

where, vx is the forward velocity, and

w is the angular velocity of the wheel.

The effective radius Rw is approximately equal to

R g Rh
Rw R g
3

Rw is a number between the unloaded or geometric radius Rg

and the loaded height Rh.
Rh < Rw < Rg

Effective Radius

Because Rh is a function of tire load Fz ,

Rh = Rh (Fz)

FZ
Rh Rg
Kz

The vertical stiffness of radial tires is less than non-radial tires under
the same conditions. So, the loaded height of radial tires, Rh, is less
than the non-radials. However, the effective radius of radial tires Rw, is
closer to their unloaded radius Rg

As a good estimate,

for a non-radial tire,

Rw 0.96Rg, and Rh 0.94Rg ,

for a radial tire,

Rw 0.98Rg, and Rh 0.92Rg .

Example

Determine the effective & the geometric radius of a tire

P 235/75R15
hT = 235 75% = 176.25mm 6.94 in
2h 15 2 6.94 15
Rg T
14.44 in 366.9 mm

2
2

Consider a vehicle with such a tire is traveling at a high speed

such as v = 50m/ s = 180km/ h 111.8mi/ h. The tire is radial, and
therefore the
Effective tire radius Rw is approximately equal to

Rw 0.98Rg 359.6mm.

Rolling Resistance

A turning tire on the ground generates a longitudinal force called

rolling resistance.

The force is opposite to the direction of motion and is proportional

to the normal force on the tireprint (Contact patch).

Fr = r Fz= Fr (i)
where r is called the rolling friction coefficient.

r is not constant and mainly depends on

Tire speed, inflation pressure, sideslip and camber angles.

It also depends on mechanical properties, wear, temperature,

load, size, driving and braking forces, and road condition.

Rolling Resistance

Stationary Loaded Tires

Rolled Tires

Rolling Resistance

Because of higher normal stress sz in the front part of the

tireprint, the resultant normal force moves forward.

The contact pressure is asymmetrically distributed towards

the front of the tire. This can be integrated to get a
resultant normal force Fz

Rolling Resistance

Forward shift of the normal force makes a

resistance moment in the y direction, opposing
the forward rotation.

Mr = Fz X (-j)
M r x
Fr
Fz r Fz
Rh Rh

Example

A model for normal stress of a turning tire. We may assume

that the normal stress of a turning tire is expressed by
x 2n y 2n
x
s z s zm 1 2 n 2 n
4a
b
a

where n = 3 or n = 2 for radial tires and n = 1 for non-radial

tires.

For 800 kg car with a tireprint AP = 4 a b = 4 5 cm 12

cm . Determine the max induced stress.
FZ

1
800 9.81 1962 N
4

Example
FZ

AF

0.05
0.05

s z ( x, y )dA

0.12
0.12

1 x6
y6
x
dydx
s zm

6
6
4 0.05
0.12
0.05

1.7143 10 2 s zm

s zm

Fz
1962
5

1
.
1445

10
Pa
2
2
1.7143 10
1.7143 10

Rolling Resistance

The ratio of the rolling resistance to the normal load on

the tire is defined as the coefficient of rolling resistance.

The rolling resistance is a function of many variables

the structure of the tire (construction and materials)

Operating conditions (surface conditions, inflation

pressure, speed, temperature, etc

Rolling Resistance

structure of the tire

Thicker treads and sidewalls and an increased number of carcass plies tend
to increase the rolling resistance because of greater hysteresis losses.
Tires made of synthetic rubber compounds generally have higher rolling resistance
than those made of natural rubber.

Rolling Resistance

Surface conditions

On hard, smooth surfaces, the rolling resistance is

considerably lower than that on a rough road.
On wet surfaces, a higher rolling resistance than on dry
surfaces

Rolling Resistance

Inflation pressure

Inflation pressure affects the flexibility of the tire

Depending on the deformability of the ground the inflation

pressure affects the rolling resistance of the tire in different
manners.

Rolling resistance generally decreases with the increase in

inflation pressure.

This is because, with higher inflation pressure, the deflection

of the tire decreases, with consequent lower hysteresis
losses

Rolling Resistance

Inflation pressure

Rolling Resistance

Inflation pressure

The rolling friction coefficient r decreases by increasing the

inflation pressure.
The effect of increasing pressure is equivalent to decreasing
normal load Fz .
Inflation pressure not only affects the rolling resistance, but also the
tread wear of a tire.
The wear rate at 165 kPa
is used as a reference for comparison.

It can be seen that the effects of inflation

pressure on tread wear are more significant for
the biasply and bias-belted tire than the radial-ply
tire.

Rolling Resistance

Inflation pressure

The following empirical equation has been suggested

to show the effects of both pressure p and load Fz on
the rolling friction coefficient.

Where K=0.8 for radial ply

k=1.0 for non radial pay

Motorcycle rolling friction coefficient.

Rolling Resistance

Effects of improper inflation pressure.

High inflation pressure increases stiffness, which

reduces ride comfort and generates vibration.

Tireprint and traction are reduced when tires are

over inflated.

Over-inflation causes

the tire to transmit shock loads to the suspension, and

reduces the tires ability to support the required load for

cornerability, braking, and acceleration.

Rolling Resistance

Effects of improper inflation pressure

Under-inflation results

in cracking and tire component separation.

It also increases sidewall flexing and rolling resistance that causes

heat and mechanical failure.

A tires load capacity is largely determined by its inflation

pressure. Therefore, under-inflation results in an overloaded tire
that operates at high deflection with a low fuel economy, and low
handling.

Proper inflation pressure is necessary for optimum tire

performance, safety, and fuel economy.

Rolling Resistance

Driving speed

because of the increase of work in deforming the tire and of

vibrations in the tire structure with the increase in speed

For a given tire under a particular operating condition, there

exists a threshold speed above which the phenomenon popularly
known as standing waves

The approximate value of the threshold speed Vth may be

determined by
Ft
Vth
t

where
Ft -is the circumferential tension in the tire
t is the density of tread material per unit area

Rolling Resistance

Operating temperature, & Speed

Fr = C0 + C1 vx + C2 vx4
for a typical raided passenger car tire:
C0 = 9.91 103
C1 = 1.95 105
C2 = 1.76 109

r o 1 1Vx2

applied when the speed is below the tires critical

speed. Critical speed

The rolling friction coefficient r increases with a second degree

of speed.It is possible to express r = r(vx) by the function

Rolling Resistance

Effect of tire structure, size,

Tire radius Rg and aspect ratio hT

/wT are the two size parameters
that affect the rolling resistance
coefficient.

A tire with larger Rg and smaller

hT/wT has lower rolling resistance
and higher critical speed.

Small and large tires

If the driving tires are small,

the vehicle becomes twitchy with low traction

low top speed.

If the driving tires are big

the vehicle has slow steering response

high tire distortion in turns,

decreasing the stability

Soft and Hard Tires

Softer front tires show

Hard front tires

show the opposite.

Soft rear tires have

more steerability,
less stability, and
more wear

more rear traction,

make the vehicle less steerable,
more bouncy, and
Less stable.

Hard rear tires have

less rear traction,

make the vehicle more steerable,
less bouncy, and
more stable.

Racing cars

Racecars have very smooth tires, known as slicks.

Smooth tires reduce the rolling friction and maximize

straight line speed.

The slick racing tires are also pumped up to high pressure.

High pressure reduces the tireprint area. Hence, the normal
stress shift reduces and the rolling resistance decreases.

Rolling Resistance

Based on experimental results, many empirical formulas

have been proposed for calculating the rolling resistance of
tires on hard surfaces.

for passenger car tires under rated loads and inflation pressures
on a smooth road, (up to 150 km/h or 93 mph)

For radial-ply

for bias-ply passenger car tires,

where V is in km/h.

Rolling Resistance

for truck tire under rated load and inflation pressure, the
relationship between the rolling resistance coefficient r
and speed V (up to 100 km/h or 62 mph)

for the radial-ply truck tire

for the bias-ply truck tire,

where V is in km/h.

Rolling Resistance

For computer simulation purposes, a fourth degree

equation is presented to evaluate the rolling resistance
force Fr

Fr = C0 + C1 vx + C2 vx4

The coefficients Ci are dependent on the tire

characteristics, however, the following values can be
used for a typical raided passenger car tire:

C0 = 9.91 103

C1 = 1.95 105

C2 = 1.76 109

Rolling Resistance

Dissipated power because of rolling friction

Rolling friction reduces the vehicles power. The

dissipated power because of rolling friction is equal to
the rolling friction force Fr times the forward velocity vx.

The rolling resistance dissipated power for motorcycles

Example

If a vehicle is moving at 27.78m/s 62 mi/h and each

radial tire of the vehicle is pressurized up to 220 kPa and
loaded by 220 kg. Determine the dissipated power,
because of rolling resistance.
K=0.8

assume the vehicle has motorcycle tires with power loss given
It shows that if the vehicle uses
motorcycle tires, it dissipates
more power.

Effect of Sideslip Angle

When a tire is turning on the road with a sideslip

angle ,
a significant increase in rolling resistance occurs.
The rolling resistance force Fr would then be
Fr Fx Cos Fy Sin
Fx C a 2 For small values of the sideslip ,

the lateral force is proportional to

The sum of the components of the longitudinal

force Fx and the lateral force Fy makes the
rolling resistance force Fr .

Effect of Camber Angle

When a tire travels with a camber angle ,

the component of rolling moment Mr on rolling resistance Fr will

be reduced,

however, a component of aligning moment Mz on rolling

resistance will appear.

Fr Fr i

M r Cos

Rh

M z Sin

Rh

only the component Mr cos is perpendicular to the tireplane and

prevents the tires spin.

when a moment in z direction is applied on the tire, only the

component Mz sin will prevent the tires spin.

Longitudinal Force

The longitudinal tire forces Fxf and Fxr are friction

forces from the ground that act on the tires.

Experimental results have established that the

longitudinal tire force generated by each tire depends
on

the slip ratio,

the normal load on the tire and

the friction coefficient of the tire-road interface.

Longitudinal Force- Tire Slip

Slip Ratio

The difference between the actual longitudinal velocity at the

axle of the wheel Vx and the equivalent rotational velocity
rgw of the tire is called longitudinal slip.

Longitudinal slip Velocity =(rgw Vx )

slip ratio
S (s x )

rgw Vx
rgw

S (s x )

(rg Vx ) Accelerati on

rg w Vx
Vx

(Vx rg ) Braking

The force Fx is proportional to the normal force,

Fx = x(s) Fz

x (s) is called the longitudinal friction coefficient

Longitudinal Force - Tire Slip

Proof

Slip ratio, or simply slip, is defined as the difference

between the actual speed of the tire vx and the
equivalent tire speeds Rww.

The ideal distance that the tire would

freely travel with no slip is denoted by dF

the actual distance the tire travels is

denoted by dA.

For a slipping tire, dA > dF,

For a spinning tire, dA < dF . for ice
road

Longitudinal Force- Tire Slip

The difference dF dA is the tire slip and therefore,

the slip ratio of the
tire is
.
.

dF dA
dF dA
s

.
dA
dA

dF = Rgw (Free Speed)

dA = Rww (Actual speed)
where, Rg is the geometric tire radius and
Rw is the effective radius
s

R g w R w w
R w w
Rg w
Vx

Longitudinal Force- Tire Slip

Longitudinal Force- Tire Slip

As the tread element 1st enter the contact patch they cannot
develop a friction force Becoz of their compliancethey must
bend to sustain a force

As the tread element proceeds back through the contact

patch its deflection builds up concurrently with vertical load
and it develops even more friction

Longitudinal Force- Tire Slip

However approaching the rear contact patch the load

diminishes and there comes a point where the tread
element begins to slip noticeably on surface such that the
friction force drops off, reaching zero as it leaves the road

Longitudinal Force -Tire Slip

A tire can exert longitudinal force only if longitudinal

slip is present.

Longitudinal slip is also called circumferential or

tangential slip.

During acceleration, the actual velocity vx is less than

the free velocity Rgw, and therefore, s > 0.

During braking, the actual velocity vx is higher than the

free velocity Rgw and therefore, s < 0.

Longitudinal Force

The frictional force Fx between a tire and the road surface is

a function of

Normal load Fz ,

Vehicle speed vx, and

Wheel angular speed w.

In addition to these variables there are a number of

parameters that affect Fx, such as

tire pressure, tread design, wear, and road surface.

It has been determined empirically that a contact friction of

the form

Fx = x(w, vx)Fz

Longitudinal Force

If the fiction coefficient of the tire-road interface is assumed

to be 1 and the normal force is assumed to be a constant,
the typical variation of longitudinal tire force as a function of
the slip ratio

Longitudinal Force

The friction coefficient reaches a driving peak value dp at

s0.1(for dry surface) before dropping to an almost
steady-state value ds

The friction coefficient x (s) or the longitudinal tire force

may be assumed proportional to s when s is very small
Fxf K xf s xf
Fxr K xrs xf

where Kxf, and Kxr are called the longitudinal tire stiffness
parameters of the front and rear tires respectively.

If the longitudinal slip ratio is not small or if the road is

slippery, then a nonlinear tire model needs to be used to
calculate the longitudinal tire force.

Tractive Properties-Acceleration

Slip ratio is 0 < s < in driving.

When we drive, a driving moment is applied to the tire axis.
The tread of the tire will be compressed circumstantially in
the tireprint zone. Hence, the tire is moving slower than a free
tire

Rww < Rgw (Rw < Rg)

Tire contact patch moved forward relative to axle.

a driving tire turns faster than a free tire

Elements deform upon entering and slide upon exit

Largest forces at exit.

Tractive Properties-Acceleration

Zero Acceleration

The tire speed Rww equals vehicle speed vx only if acceleration is

zero.

In this case, the normal force acting on the tire and the size of the

tireprint are constant in time. No element of the tireprint is slipping

on the road.

100% Slip

This is often observed on an icy surface, where the driven

tires are spinning at high angular speeds, while the vehicle
does not move forward

Tractive Properties-Braking

Contact patch moves rearward relative to axle.

Force builds up as elements move rearward and become

deformed.

Elements slide out the rear of the contact patch

Slip ratio is 1 < s < 0 in braking.

When we brake, a braking moment is applied to the wheel

axis.

The tread of the tire will be stretched circumstantially in the

tireprint zone. Hence, the tire is moving faster than a free tire

Rww > Rgw (Rw > Rg)

Tractive Properties-Braking

The peak value of force occurs at

About 10-15% of total slip

peak

unstable

stable
Force-slip curves
slip
1.0

Tractive Properties-Braking

In the stable region,

an increase in braking torque (from disk/drum brakes) leads to an

increase in wheel slip and hence an increase in longitudinal force.

A decrease in brake torque

in long force.

decrease in slip

decrease

In the unstable region,

an increase in brake torque

longitudinal force.

increase in slip

A decrease in brake torque

decrease in slip
longitudinal force (and hence less slip).

decrease in
increase in

Tractive Properties-Braking

Therefore, once the tire longitudinal slip transitions from

the stable to unstable region, the tire road system rapidly
progresses to wheel lockup faster than most humans
can control.

In the stable region, it is relatively easy for a person to

control the amount of braking effort (i.e. longitudinal
force) put out.

Lateral Force

When a turning tire is under a vertical force Fz and a lateral

force Fy, its path of motion makes an angle with respect to
the tire-plane.

The angle is called sideslip angle and is proportional to the

lateral force

Fy = C
where C is called the cornering stiffness of
the tire.

Lateral Force

The lateral force Fy is at a distance ax behind the

centerline of the tireprint and makes a moment Mz called
aligning moment.

M z Fy a x (k )

For small , the aligning moment Mz tends to turn the tire

about the z-axis and make the x-axis align with the velocity
vector v.

The aligning moment always tends to reduce .

Lateral Force- proof

When a wheel is under a constant load Fz and then a lateral

force is applied on the rim, the tire will deflect laterally

The tire acts as a linear spring under small lateral forces

Fy = ky y

(ky lateral stiffness)

The wheel will start sliding laterally when the lateral force
reaches a maximum value FyM .

At this point, the lateral force approximately

remains constant and is proportional to
the vertical load

FyM = y Fz.
y is the tire friction coefficient in the y-direction

Lateral Force

A bottom view of the tireprint of a laterally deflected tire is

shown in Figure-a

If the laterally deflected tire is turning forward on the road,

the tireprint will also flex longitudinally.

A bottom view of the tireprint for such a laterally deflected

and turning tire is shown in Figure-b
Fig-b

Fig-a

Lateral Force

Although the tire-plane remains perpendicular to the

road, the path of the wheel makes an angle with tireplane.

As the wheel turns forward, undeflected treads enter the

tireprint region and deflect laterally as well as
longitudinally.

The point where the laterally deflected tread slides back

is called sliding line.

Lateral Force

Lateral distortion of the tire treads is a result of a tangential

stress distribution y over the tireprint.

Assuming that the tangential stress y is proportional to the

distortion, the resultant lateral force Fy
Fy y dAp
AP

a distance ax behind the center line.

a x

1
Fy

dAp

AP

The distance ax is called the

pneumatic trail

Lateral Force

The resultant moment Mz is called the aligning moment.

Mz = Fy ax (k)

The aligning moment tends to turn the tire about the z-axis and
make it align with the direction of tire velocity vector v.

The slip angle always increases by increasing the lateral force

Fy

However, the sliding line moves toward the tail at first and then
moves forward by increasing the lateral force Fy .

Slip angle and lateral force Fy work as action and reaction.

A lateral force generates a slip angle, and a slip angle generates

a lateral force.

Lateral Force

we can steer the tires of a car to make a slip angle and

produce a lateral force to turn the car.

Steering causes a slip angle in the tires and creates a lateral

force.

The slip angle > 0 if the tire should be turned about the zaxis to be aligned with the velocity vector v.

A positive slip angle generates a negative lateral force Fy .

Hence, steering to the right about the z-axis makes a

positive slip angle and produces a negative lateral force to
move the tire to the right.

Lateral Force

A sample of measured lateral force Fy as a function of slip

angle for a constant vertical load is plotted in Figure

The lateral force Fy is linear for small slip angles, however

the rate of increasing Fy decreases for higher .

The lateral force remains constant

or drops slightly when reaches a
critical value at which the tire slides
on the road.

C - Cornering Stiffness

Lateral Force

The cornering stiffness C of radial tires are higher than

C for non-radial tires. This is because radial tires need a
smaller slip angle to produce the same amount of
lateral force Fy .

The pneumatic trail ax increases for

small slip angles up to a maximum
value, and decreases to zero and
even negative values for high slip
angles.

Lateral Force

The lateral force Fy = C can be decomposed to

Fycos ,

Fy sin ,

The component Fy cos , normal to the path of motion, is

called Cornering Force,

the component Fy sin , along the

path of motion, is called Drag force.

Lateral force Fy is also called side force or grip.

We may combine the lateral forces of all a
vehicles tires and have them acting at the cars
mass center C.

Effect of tire load on lateral force

curve.

When the wheel load Fz increases, the tire treads can stick
to the road better.

Hence, the lateral force increases at a constant slip angle ,

and the slippage occurs at the higher slip angles.

Increasing the load not only

increases the maximum attainable
lateral force, it also pushes the
maximum of the lateral force to
higher slip angles.

Gough diagram

The slip angle is the main affective parameter on the lateral

force Fy and aligning moment Mz = Fy ax .

However, Fz and Mz depend on many other parameters such

as

speed v, pressure p, temperature, humidity, and road

conditions.

A better method to show Fz and Mz is to plot them versus

each other for a set of parameters. Such a graph is called a
Gough diagram.

Gough diagram

Every tire has its own Gough diagram, although we may

use an average diagram for radial or non-radial tires.

Effect of velocity.

The curve of lateral force as a function of the slip angle Fy

() decreases as velocity increases.

Hence, we need to increase the sideslip angle at higher

velocities to generate the same lateral force.

Sideslip angle increases by increasing the steer angle.

Because of this behavior, a fixed

steer angle, the curvature of a onewheel-car trajectory, increases by
increasing the driving speed

A model for lateral force & stress

When the sideslip angle is not small, the linear

approximation cannot model the tire behavior.

where FyM is the maximum lateral force that the tire can support.

Consider a tire turning on a dry road at a low sideslip angle .

Assume the developed lateral stress on tireprint can be expressed by
the following equation:

Camber Force/ Camber Trust

Camber angle is the tilting angle of tire about the

longitudinal x-axis.

Camber angle generates a lateral force Fy called camber

trust or camber force.

Camber angle is assumed positive > 0, when it is

in the positive direction of the x-axis, measured
from the z-axis to the tire.
The camber force is proportional to at low
camber angles, and depends directly on the wheel
load Fz
Fy = C
C is called the camber stiffness of tire.

Camber Force/ Camber Trust

In presence of both, camber and sideslip , the overall

lateral force Fy on a tire is a superposition of the corner
force and camber trust.

Fy = C C

Proof.

When a wheel is under a constant load and then a

camber angle is applied on the rim, the tire will deflect
laterally such that it is longer in the cambered side and
shorter in the other side.

Camber Force/ Camber Trust

As the wheel turns forward, un
deflected treads enter the
tireprint region and deflect
laterally as well as longitudinally.
However, because of the shape
of the tireprint, the treads
entering the tireprint closer to
the cambered side, have more
time to be stretched laterally.
Because the developed lateral stress
is proportional to the lateral stretch

Camber Force/ Camber Trust

the nonuniform tread stretching generates an asymmetric

stress distribution and more lateral stress will be developed
on the cambered side.

The result of the nonuniform lateral stress distribution over

the tireprint of a cambered tire produces the camber trust Fy
in the cambered direction
Fy y dA
AP

The camber trust is proportional to the camber angle for

small angles.

Fy = C

Camber Force/ Camber Trust

The camber trust Fy shifts a distance ax forward when the cambered tire
turns on the road. The resultant moment

Mz = Fy ax (k)

The resultant moment is called camber torque, and the distance ax is

called camber trail.

the camber torque can be ignored in linear analysis of

vehicle dynamics.
Because the tireprint of a cambered tire deforms to be
longer in the cambered side, the resultant vertical force Fz

The distance ay is called the camber arm,

Camber moment.

Camber Force/ Camber Trust

The camber moment tends to turn the tire about the x-axis
and make the tire-plane align with the z-axis.

The camber arm ay is proportional to the camber angle for

small angles.

ay = Cy

Camber force Fy for different

camber angle at a constant tire
load Fz = 4500N
Radial tires generate lower camber
force due to their higher flexibility.

Camber Force/ Camber Trust

the variation of camber force Fy as a function of normal load

Fz at different camber angles

If we apply a slip angle to a turning cambered tire, the

tireprint will distort similar to the shape in Figure below and
the path of treads become more complicated.

Tireprint of a cambered tire under a sideslip.

Camber Force/ Camber Trust

lateral force as a function of and at a constant load Fz =

4000N.

Similar to lateral force, the aligning moment Mz can be

approximated as a combination of the slip and camber angle
effects

Mz = CM + CM .

Banked road.

Consider a vehicle moving on a road with a transversal

slope , while its tires remain vertical.

There is a downhill component of weight,

There is also an uphill camber force due to camber

of tires with respect to the road

F1 = mg sin , that pulls the vehicle down.

F2 = C .

The resultant lateral force

Fy = C mg sin
Depends on camber stiffness C and determines if the vehicle goes
uphill or downhill.

Banked road.

The effects of cambering are particularly important for

motorcycles that produce a large part of the cornering
force by cambering.

For cars and trucks, the cambering angles are much

smaller and in many applications their effect can be
negligible.

However, some suspensions are designed to make the

wheels camber when the axle load varies.

Tire Force

Tires may be considered as a force generator with

two major outputs:

Forward force Fx,

lateral force Fy ,

three minor outputs:

Aligning Moment (Mz) ,

Roll Moment (Mx), and

Pitch Moment (My)

The input of the force generator are

The tire load Fz ,

Sideslip ,

Longitudinal slip s, and

The camber angle .

Tire Force

Longitudinal Force

Lateral Force

Mx = Mx (Fz , , s, )

Pitching Moment

Fy = Fy (Fz , , s, )

Rolling Moment

Fx = Fx (Fz, , s, )

My = My (Fz , , s, )

Aligning Moment

Mz = Mz (Fz , , s, )

Tire Force

Ignoring the rolling resistance and aerodynamic force, and

when the tire is under a load Fz plus only one more of the
inputs , s, or , the major output forces can be
approximated by a set of linear equations

Fx = x (s) Fz

x (s) = Cs s (Cs is the longitudinal slip coefficient)

Fy = C

(C is the lateral stiffness)

Fy = C

(C is the camber stiffness)

Tire Force

Driving and braking forces change the lateral force Fy

generated at any sideslip angle .

This is because the longitudinal force pulls the tireprint in

the direction of the driving or braking force and hence, the
length of lateral displacement of the tireprint will also
change.

Tire Force

how a sideslip affects the longitudinal force ratio Fx/Fz

as a function of slip ratio s.

Tire Force

Longitudinal force ratio Fx/Fz as a function of sideslip

for different slip ratio s.

Tire Force

the effect of sideslip on the lateral force ratio Fy/Fz as a

function of slip ratio s.

Tire Force

Lateral force ratio Fy/Fz as a function of sideslip for

different slip ratio s

Friction Ellipse

When the tire is under both longitudinal and sideslips, the

tire is under combined slip.

The shear force on the tireprint of a tire under a combined

slip can approximately be found using a friction ellipse

model.
Fshear = Fx (i) + Fy (j)
Fx = Cs s Fz

Fy = C

These forces cannot exceed their maximum values

FyM and FxM .
FyM = y Fz
FxM = x Fz

Friction Ellipse

The tire shown in Fig is moving along the velocity vector v at

a sideslip angle .

The x-axis indicates the tire-plane.

When there is no sideslip,

the maximum longitudinal

force is

FxM = x Fz = OA.

Friction Ellipse

Now, if a sideslip angle is applied,

a lateral force Fy = OE is generated, and

The longitudinal force reduces to Fx = OB.

The maximum lateral force

would be FyM = y Fz = OD
when there is no longitudinal
slip

Friction Ellipse

In presence of the longitudinal and lateral forces, we

may assume that the tip point of the maximum shear
force vector is on the following friction ellipse:

When x=y=, the friction ellipse would be a circle

Fshear = Fz

Summary

The x-axis

The z-axis

makes the coordinate system right-hand.

the tire orientation using two angles:

camber angle and

sideslip angle .

The camber angle

is perpendicular to the ground,

the y-axis

is along the intersection line of the tire-plane and the ground.

is the angle between the tire-plane and the vertical plane measured about the xaxis, and

the sideslip angle

is the angle between the velocity vector v and the x-axis measured about the z-axis.

Summary

A vertically loaded wheel turning on a flat surface has an

effective radius Rw, called rolling radius
where Vx is the forward velocity, and
w is the angular velocity of the wheel

The effective radius Rw is approximately equal to

Rw is a number between the unloaded or geometric radius

Rg and the loaded height Rh.

Rh < Rw < Rg

Summary

Rolling resistance

A turning tire on the ground generates a longitudinal force

called rolling resistance

The force is opposite to the direction of motion and is

proportional to the normal force on the tireprint.

Fr = r Fz r is called the rolling friction coefficient

r is a function of tire mechanical properties, speed,

wear, temperature, load, size, driving and braking
forces, and road condition.

Summary

The longitudinal force

The tire force in the x-direction is a combination of the

longitudinal force Fx and the roll resistance Fr.

Fx = x(s) Fz

where s is the longitudinal slip ratio of the tire

Rg w
Vx

x (s) = Css

s<<1

Summary

The Lateral Force

The wheel force in the tire y-direction, Fy, is a combination

of the lateral force and the tire roll resistance Fr .

Fy = C C

where C is called the camber trust and

-C is called the sideslip force.

CHAPTER TWO

The End

Rolling Resistance

As a tire rolls, it does not remain circular. The part in contact with
the ground lies parallel to the ground (i.e. flat).
w
v
contact patch

The continual deformation of tire material takes energy (e.g. feel

tires temp on long road trip.) When a portion of the tire leaves the
contact patch, it returns to its undeformed state. However, internal
damping in the tire material means all the energy is not recovered.
This continual loss of energy is termed Rolling Resistance