Electric Machines & Power Systems

ISSN: 0731-356X (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uemp19

Evaluation of Transformer Loading Above

Nameplate Rating
S. C. Tripathy, E. Lakervi
To cite this article: S. C. Tripathy, E. Lakervi (2000) Evaluation of Transformer Loading
Above Nameplate Rating, Electric Machines & Power Systems, 28:7, 625-636, DOI:
10.1080/073135600268090
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/073135600268090

Published online: 30 Nov 2010.

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Date: 22 August 2016, At: 09:10

Electric Machines and Power Systems, 28:625636, 2000

C opyright s c 2000 Taylor & Francis
0731-356X / 00 $12.00 + .00

Evaluation of Transformer Loading

Above Nameplate Rating
S. C. TRIPATHY
E. LAKERVI
Department of Electrical and Communication Engineering
Helsinki University of Technology
Espoo, Finland
This article presents the evaluation of transformer overload capabilities based
on variables that aect the functional life of the power and distribution transformers. The combined eect of thermal overloads, mechanical stresses due
to transient overvoltage, and other parameters relating to components other
than windings must be taken into account. The basic criterion, which limits
the transformer load capabilities, is the temperature of the winding and insulation. Several studies to measure the quantitative loss of transformer life due
to the eect of thermal aging have been carried out since 1930. Loading beyond
nameplate rating and cumulative loss of transformer functional life have been
the basic considerations in the well-practiced IEC 354, 1981 ANSI C57.91, and
NEMA Guides for loading oil immersed power and distribution transformers
with 65 C average winding temperature rise.

Introduction

These loading guides [14] have been applied by the utilities, and there have been
no adverse consequences. The winding temperature and hottest spot temperature in
the winding determine the transformer overload conditions. Loss of half the tensile
strength of the cellulose insulation as a result of thermal aging has been decided as
the quantitative end of life criterion. The generally accepted relationship for thermal
aging properties of insulation materials, which is described by Arrhenius Reaction
Rate Law [5,6], is utilized as a basis here. An assumption is made that a single
reaction rate is predominant and is applicable over the full range of temperatures
from those occurring during normal load applications to those used for overload
conditions leading to accelerated loss of transformer life.

T he A rrhenius Chemical Reaction Rate Equation

Log10 transformer life (hours) = A + B = T ,

where
T = absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin.

HST = hottest spot temperature in degrees Celsius.

A & B = constants related to the materials in the insulation system.
Manuscript received in the nal form September 20, 1999.
Address correspondence to Dr. S. C. Tripathy.

625

(1)

626

Tripathy and Lakervi

The commonly accepted values of constants for power and distribution transformers
are
for 65C rise insulation A =
for 55C rise insulation A =

13 .391, B = 6972 .15

14 .133, B = 6972 .15

This provides the loss of life equation as follows:

Maximum loss of transformer life in %
= hours of overload 1000 10 [A + B /

( HST + 273) ]

( 2)

Arrhenius law gives a conservative estimate of transformer life; however, a better

formula in the range of 80C to 140C is the Montsinger law [79] that expresses
the above relationship in a more convenient form. The rate of using life is expressed
as:
v (t ) =

Rate of using life at h

Rate of using life at 98C

= 2(

98
6

= 100. 05 ( h

= e0. 693 (
98 )

98
6

( 3)

where h = HST in C.
If the transformer is operated at hottest spot temperature of 98C, it will
operate for 20 to 30 years of normal life.
The rate of using life becomes double ( life is halved) for every 6C increase in
the hottest spot temperature.
Basic Thermal Diagram (Fig. 1 )
a =
D b =
D c =
D m c =
=
D T =
D m t =
=
D w =
D m w =
=
D r =
D h =
g =
=

Actual or estimated ambient air temperature, C

Bottom oil temperature rise in cooler and winding, K
Top oil temperature rise in cooler, K
Average oil temperature rise in cooler, K
1
2 (D a + D c )
Top oil temperature rise in tank, K
Average oil temperature rise in tank, K
1
2 (D b + D T )
Top oil temperature rise in winding, K
Average oil temperature rise in winding, K
1
D
D w )
2 ( b +
Average winding temperature rise by resistance, K
Hottest spot temperature rise in winding, K
Average temperature dierence between oil and winding, K
(D r D m w )

In IEC 354 [1] loading guide, the hottest spot temperature rise (Fig. 2) is given
as follows:
D h = D T + Hg (factor H = 1 .1 to 1.3 given by IEC 354).

( 4)

Transformer Loading Above Nameplate Rating

627

Figure 1. Basic thermal diagram of transformers.

Figure 2. Temperature rises in dierent parts of transformers.

Cyclic Loading of Distribution Transformers

The principal guide [1014] to be observed is that the temperature of oil-impregnated

paper insulation should not exceed (140C h ) and that load currents must be
less than 1.50 times rated based on 2 hours overloading with initial 75% load.
Temperature restrictions are limiting daily loss of life to normal values. If currents
are limited to 1.5 times rated, mechanical forces within the winding will be acceptable. These general statements must be examined to assess their application
in each case where a loading regime is being considered. Irreversible deterioration
of oil paper dielectrics takes place above a temperature of about 140C, and gas
bubbles may lead to reduced strength in areas that are electrically stressed. This
phenomenon is closer to reality in nitrogen-lled transformers manufactured in the
United States [15].

628

Tripathy and Lakervi

Table 1
Temperatures and transformer life (distribution transformers)
These are as follows:
III.1 Normal cycle loading
a) Current (pu)
b) Hot spot temperature and metallic parts in contact
with insulating material
c ) Top oil temperature
III.2 Long time emergency cycle loading
d) Current (pu)
e) Hot spot temperature and metallic parts in contact
with insulating material
f ) Top oil temperature
III.3 Short time emergency loading for a few minutes
g) Current (pu)
h) Hot spot temperature and metallic parts in contact
with insulating material
i) Top oil temperature

1.5
140C
105C
1.8
150C
115C
2.0
160C
115C

Table 2
Ambient temperature
a)
b)
c)
d)

Maximum ambient air temperature = 40C

Average air temperature in any one day = 30 C
Average air temperature in any one year = 20C
Low temperatures allow high overloads (viscosity of oil is limitation)

Table 3
Correction for increase of ambient temperature due to enclosure (KIOSKS)
No. of transformers installed 1: Add 10 to 20C to outside ambient temperature.
Note: Some national standards may use other gures that reect local meteorological
conditions ( e.g., arctic or tropical climates) . An ambient temperature range of 20 C to
+ 40 C should therefore be considered before decision.

Calculation of Temperature Rise

Many authors [1621] have calculated hottest spot temperature by approximating

the load curve. Generally, calculation of temperature increases are based on the
rectangular load prole (Fig. 3). It is necessary to nd a two-step load cycle that
is equivalent to the actual load curve. The problem is to nd values for K 1 and K 2
and t such that area 1 + area 2 = area 3 + area 4, and area a + area b = area c . A
reasonable approach is to assume a value for t as some whole number of hours and
then calculate average values of loads during these two distinct periods.

Transformer Loading Above Nameplate Rating

629

Figure 3. Determination of two-step load prole for a typical cyclic load.

Background to Calculations

A study of heat ows in a transformer can provide some guidance on the problem
of temperature rise, which limits loading capability. Taking the oil as the heat sink,
the temperature rise of oil can be studied as analogous to charging of a capacitor in
an R -C circuit. The heating of core and windings, which are themselves independent thermal sinks, can be modeled as a more complex circuit containing several
interconnected R and C elements.
Four routine calculations which lead to the temperature rise curves of Figure 4,
semiemperical formulas are used.

Figure 4. Thermal eect of increased load on transformers.

630

Tripathy and Lakervi

Table 4
Ratio of full load loss to no load loss in 24 kV/ 400 V, 3-phase,
50 Hz distribution transformers, below 2500 kVA rating

kVA rating

No load loss

Full load loss

Ratio of
(full load loss/
no load loss)

50
100
160
250
400
630
1000
1600
2500

190
320
460
650
930
1300
1700
2600
3800

1100
1750
2350
3250
4600
6500
10500
17000
26500

5.79
5.47
5.11
5.00
4.95
5.00
6.17
6.54
6.97

Average value of ( full load loss/ no load loss) = 5.66.

Steady State Temperature Rise with ON Cooling

2
h = a + D T ( rated ) ((1 + R K )= (1 + R ))x + H gK y ,

( 5)

where
h = hot spot temperature, C
a = ambient temperature (assumed to be 20C )
D T ( r a t e d ) = rated top oil temperature rise (for ONAN distribution transformer,

it is assumed to be 55K)
R = ratio of load loss to no-load loss at rated current ( for ONAN transformer
assumed to be 5)
K = load factor = load current/ rated current (p.u)
x = oil exponent (for ONAN transformer assumed to be 0.9)
H = hot spot factor = 1.1 for distribution transformer
g = 20 K
H g = 23K
y = winding exponent = 1.6
o = oil time constant = 3 hours

Hot spot temperatures h can be calculated for any load factor, initial K 1 , and
nal K 2 . The measurement data [22] for R , that is, the ratio of full load loss to no
load loss, is given in Table 4.

Transient Response of Oil Temperature Rise

The calculation of transient response of temperature rise in the case of cyclic [1013]
loading involves only the oil time constant o . The calculation of steps for hot-spot
temperature at time t 1 hours measured from the beginning of step peak load is
D h (t 1 ) = (D h (at K 2 )

D h (at K 1 ))(1

t 1/ o

) + D h (at K 1 ) ,

( 6)

Transformer Loading Above Nameplate Rating

631

where D h (K 1 ) is calculated from the formula for steady state temperature using
equation (5) for load factor K 1 . D h (K 2 ) is calculated from the formula for steady
state temperature using equation (5) for load factor K 2 .
Example:
A 50 kVA ONAN transformer carries an 80% load for a long time. Calculate the
winding temperature if a 130% load is applied for 4 hours. Ambient temperature
is 20C. The rst step is to calculate the steady state hot spot temperature for
K 1 = 0 .8 per unit load and R = 6, using the formula
h = a + 52((1 + 6K 12 )= (1 + 6))0. 9 + 26(K 1 )1. 6 = 75C

and with K 2 = 1 .3, h = 139 C.

For transient temperature calculation during 4 hours overload, use equation (6).
Short Time Overload ( Emergency Loading)
In the case of short time overloads lasting over a few minutes (of the order of 10
minutes), the winding temperature time constant should also be taken into account
in addition to oil time constant. The formula for average winding to oil temperature
rise is
D w o (K 1 , K 2 , t 1 ) = D w o (K 1 ) + (D w o (K 2 )

D w o (K 1 ))(1

t 1/ w

),

(7)

where the steady state values (e.g., D w o (K 1 ), D w o (K 2 )) can be computed using

the third term of equation (5). w is the winding time constant, taken as 12 minutes
(or 0.2 hour if t 1 is expressed in hours). As before, t 1 is measured in hours from the
instant of occurrence of short time overload.

Eect of Initial Load Factor K

The relationship between initial load factor K 1 , overload-load factor K 2 , and time
of overload t is shown in Figure 5. The limiting factor is the hot spot temperature
of 98C (an average value assumed for illustration only). The loss of life is limited
to 0.1%.

Figure 5. Typical curves relating transformers load capability factor K 2 to initial

K 1 for ONAN transformer in an ambient temperature of 20C.

632

Tripathy and Lakervi

T hermal Limits for Short-circuit Conditions

The analysis starts with the following assumptions:

1. All heat is stored in the conductor material (disregarding its associated turn
insulation) . This means that adiabatic increase of temperature is assumed.
2. The specic heat of conductor material remains constant (independent of
temperature) .
3. The resistance loss depends on temperature. The eect of eddy current loss
is neglected.
The present IEC standard2 uses the following:
For copper:
1 = 0 +

2(0 + 235)
;
101000
1
2

( 8)

2(0 + 225)
,
43600
1
2

( 9)

J t

for aluminum:
1 = 0 +

J t

where
0 = initial temperature
2
J = short circuit current density, A/ mm
t = duration of short circuit, s (< 2 seconds)
1 max = 250C for copper

= 200C for aluminum

1 = highest average temperature in C

E 2 = (J r = J ) 100% = total impedance voltage in %
2
J r = rated current density in A/ mm

The short circuit current depends on percentage impedance between the transformer and fault point. If the fault occurs at the transformer terminal, only the
percentage of impedance of the transformer should be taken into calculation of
fault current.
The highest average temperature for copper and aluminum are plotted in Figures 6 and 7.

A mbient Temperature

The authors of references 17 through 21 discuss results of their computer programs

based on varying ambient temperature conditions. They present the results of their
analyses for winter loading when the temperature changes are quite rapid.

10

Technique for M easurement of Temperature

Until the early 1970s, the principal factor in determining the thermal rating, and
thus the loading capability of transformers, was the average temperature rise of
the windings. This temperature rise was determined by measuring the change in
winding resistance when the load was applied to the transformer.

Transformer Loading Above Nameplate Rating

633

Figure 6. Steady state temperature of copper conductor under short circuit condition at dierent current densities.

Figure 7. Steady state temperature of aluminum conductor under short circuit

condition at dierent current densities.

634

Tripathy and Lakervi

Table 5
Loss of life in conventional distribution transformer

Load
percent
rated

Hot spot
temp.,
C

Top oil
temp.,
C

10

20

100
110
120
130
140
150

98
104
110
116
122
127

75
79
84
87
92
96

0
1
2
4
8
16

0
2
4
8
16
> 20

0
4
8
16
> 20
> 20

% Time at overload

Loss of life in years over normal

transformers life of 20 years

The temperature rise by resistance standard was changed when it was discovered that the hottest spot winding temperature gives a better indication of how
the load aects the life expectancy of a transformer [2329]; however, the hottest
spot temperature cannot be measured directly because of the hazard of inserting
temperature sensors directly into the windings. As a result, numerous methods have
been developed to calculate the hottest spot temperature, but these are very complicated. The winding and oil temperatures of a transformer are measured with a
ber optic temperature measurement system. Although the sensors are not directly
located in the hottest spot of the windings, signicant information can be obtained.

11

Calculation Results

Assuming a conventional ONAN transformer design according to BS 171 using a

cellulose insulation and mineral oil, a loss of life table can be constructed for a
range of overloads and varying periods of timeout overload.
The result of an example assuming an average load of 100 kVA are given in
Table 5. It can be seen that, where overloads in excess of 120% occur over 5% of
the working life of the transformer or longer, serious aging occurs. If the 100 kVA
transformer operates at 120% rating for 20% of the time, then the normal life will be
reduced by 40%. A 140% load for 10% of the time reduces the normal life by 80%.
To avoid any signicant loss of life in the latter case, the transformer rating
would have to be increased to 130 kVA. This increases the rst cost.
In these circumstances it would be preferable to retain the 100 kVA rating and
provide a design that would be safely overloaded without detrimental aging.

12

Conclusions

A comprehensive survey of literature and calculation of aging based on continuous

overload for a certain percentage of time has been carried out in this project. The
paper further distinguishes between cyclic load and emergency load and presents
appropriate formula for calculation of hottest spot temperature. The thermal time
constant of winding is often neglected in computation; however, it is shown that

Transformer Loading Above Nameplate Rating

635

if the emergency load is only for 10 minutes or so in the case of short circuit and
shifting of load to another transformer due to the outage of the short-circuited one,
the winding time constant must be taken into account. The eect of stray loss due
to harmonics is also important for further study [3031].

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[5] Sharma, S. N., and Gupta, D. P., 1984, Loading Limits of Power Transformers,
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[6] Lahoti, B. D., and Flowers, D. E., 1981, Evaluation of Transformer Loading above
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