Cells

Cell structure

Magnification

Living things are composed of Cells. Cells are very small (ususally between 1 and 100 m)
and can only be seen by magnification with a microscope. A distinction is made
between Magnification and Resolution: Magnification is how large the image is compared to
real life, whereas Resolution is the amount of information that can be seen in the image defined as the smallest distance below which two discrete objects will be seen as one.

To work out the size of an object viewed with a microscope, a Graticule is used. It is a small
transparent ruler that becomes superimposed over the image. As the same sample may look to
be different sizes under different magnifications, the Graticule must be calibrated.

Actual Size, Image Size and Magnification are related by the formula:
Image Size = Actual Size Magnification
The Light Microscope

Light Microscopes, or Optical Microscopes, as they are more correctly termed, use light and
several lenses in order to magnify a sample. Light from the Condenser Lens, and then
through the Specimen where certain wavelengths are filtered to produce an image. The light
then passes through the Objective Lens, which focuses it and can be changed in order to alter
the magnification. Finally, the light passes through the Eyepiece Lens, which can also be
changed to alter the magnification, and into the eye.

The maximum magnification of light microscopes is usually 1500, and their maximum
resolution is 200nm, due to the wavelength of light. An advantage of the light microscope is
that it can be used to view a variety of samples, including whole living organisms or sections
of larger plants and animals. It is also relatively inexpensive.

There are two types of light microscope. Compound Microscopes contain several lenses and
magnify a sample several hundred times. Dissecting Microscopes on the other hand have a
low final magnification but are useful when a large working distance between the objectives
and the stage is required (e.g. during dissection). They have two eyepieces to produce a 3D
stereoscopic view.

Many specimens require preperation before being viewed by a light microscope, as some
may not be coloured or might distort when cut. Samples are Stained with coloured stains that
bind to certain chemicals or cell structures. For example, Acetic Orcein stains DNA dark red.
Samples may also be Sectioned - embedded in wax; this helps with preserving structure while
cutting.
The Electron Microscope

Light microscopes are great and all, but sometimes their (relatively) low magnification and
resolution are insatisfactory for viewing very small things, like Organelles within cells. In
these circumstances, and Electron Microscope may be used. Electorns have a much lower
wavelength than light (100000 times shorter in fact, at 0.004nm) which means that they can
be used to produce an image with resolution as great as 0.1nm. Electron Microscopes can
have magnifications of 500000.

There are different types of Electron Microscope. A Transmission Electron Microscope

(TEM) produces a 2D image of a thin sample, and has a maximum resolution of 500000.

A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) produces a 3D image of a sample by 'bouncing'

electons off and dectecting them at multiple detectors. It has a maximum magnification of
about 100000.

The preparation of a sample for electron microscopy is a complex process. It may involve
Chemical Fixation: Stabilising an organism/sample's mobile macrostructure
Cryofixation: Freezing the sample very rapidly to preserve its state
Dehydration: Removing the water form a specimen, for example, by replacing it with
ethanol
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Embedding: Embedding in resin, ready to be sectioned
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Sectioning: Cutting the sample into thin strips that are semitransparent to electrons, for
example with a diamond knife
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Staining: Using heavy metals to scatter electrons and produce contrast

Freeze Fracturing: Freezing the sample rapidly, and then fracturing it, for example,
when viewing cell membranes
Mounting: Placing the sample on a copper grid
It is advantageous to use an Electron Microscope in many situations because they offer
a much higher resolution that Light Microscopes, so they can be used to image very small
objects in detail, and also because of the 3D images that SEMs offer. However,
samples must be placed in a vacuum as electrons are deflected by particles in the air, they
are very expensive to buy and maintain, and preparing the samples requires a lot of skill to
do.

Organelle structure and function

Organisms are composed of cells, and these cells have specific structures within in them that
allow them to carry out their functions. These structures are called Organelles. The fine detail
of the cell (which may be revealed by an electron microscope) is called the
cell's ultrastructure. Organelles perform different functions within a cell, and this is called
the Division of Labour.

Membrane Bound Organelles

The Nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell. It contains a dense structure called
the Nucleolus and is surrounded by the Nuclear Envelope, a structure composed of two
membranes, seperated by fluid, which contain a number of nuclear pores that can allow
relatively large molecules through. The nucleus contains nearly all of the cell's genetic
material. The Nucleolus creates Ribonucleic Acid and Ribosomes, which then travel out of
the nucleus, through the nuclear pores, to the cytoplasm where they are involced in Protein
Synthesis.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is found near the Nucleas and is made up of a number of
flattened sacs called Cisternae, which are continuous with the Nuclear Envelope. The Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum is called so because it has a lot of Ribosomes on its outer surface.
The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum however, does not have Ribosomes. The
Rough transports proteins that are synthesised in the Ribosomes, and the
Smooth synthesises Lipids.

The Golgi Apparatus is a stack of membrane bound flattened sacs, and are responsible for
the modification of proteins received from the ER. These proteins are then transported
in vesicles around the cell.

Lysosomes are membrane bound spherical sacs which contain digestive enzymes used to
break down materials, such as non-self microorganisms engulfed by Phagocytes.

Mitochondria are round double membrane bound organellesresponsible for Aerobic

Respiration. Their inner membrane is foldedinside to form Cristae, which are folded in
the Matrix - the central part of a Mitochondrion. During Aerobic Respiration, ATP is
produced in the Mitochondria.

Found only in plants and some protoctists, Chloroplasts are responsible for Photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts contain two fluid separated membranes and the inner membrane is
folded into a network of flattened sacs called Thylakoids that are stacked into Grana (one
Granum, two Grana). The Thylakoids contain Chlorophyll in which the process of
Photosynthesis occurs.

Vesicles are membrane bound sacs that are used to store or transport substances around
the cell. Lysosomes are actually Vesicles.

Vacuoles are essentially larger Vesicles, and they are formed by the joining together of
many Vesicles. They are membrane bound organelles that have no specific shape and
contain water with a number of different compounds within it. Their function varies
greatly depending on the type of cell they are part of. In plant cells they are important in
maintaining Turgor Pressure.
Non Membrane Bound Organelles

Ribosomes are small spherical organelles, composed of two subunits, which can be found
on the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (and also in the cytoplasm and in mitochondria, and
other places). Ribosomes translate genetic information in the form of mRNA into proteins.

Centrioles are microtubules found next to the nucleus of animal cells and some protoctists.
They move Chromosomes around by forming fibres called Spindle, during cell division.

Organelles Working Together

In order for cells to function and survive, their organelles work together to carry out specific
tasks and perform specific roles. Each organelle has its own role that contributes to the
survival of the cell. This is called the Division of Labour.
The Cytoskeleton

The Cytoskeleton of a cell consists of a network of protein fibres that give the
cell stability and allow it to move. In Eukaryotic Cells, the proteins are arranged
as microfilaments (small solid strands) and microtubules (very small protein cylinders).

The Cytoskeleton provides an internal framework for the cell, which preserves its shape and
holds its organelles in position.

Part of the Cytoskeleton, fibres called Actin Filaments, are similar to the fibres found in
muscle cells and they are able to move against each other. They are responsible for
the movement of some of the organelles and also the movement and change in
shape of White Blood Cells.

Undulipodia, Cilia and Flagella

Another part of the Cytoskeleton, fibres called Microtubules, use energy in the form
of ATP to drive movements to perform various functions. These are made of a protein
called Tubulin. Proteins present on some Microtubules, called Microtubule Motors,
move organelles, and other cellular content, along the fibres. This is the mechanism for the
transport of vesicles from the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum to the Golgi Apparatus and the
movement of Chromosomes during Mitosis.

The Cytoskeleton is also responsible for the movement of the cell though its environment,
or the movement (or "wafting") of part of its environment past the cell. This is done by the
organelles Undulipodia, Cilia, and Flagella.

In Eukaryotic Cells, Undulipodia (sometimes incorrectly called Flagella, which are actually
only present in Prokaryotic Cells) and Cilia are responsible for this movement. They are
both structurally similar; they hair-like structures composed of an outer
membrane bounding a ring of nine pairs of Microtubules with a single pair in the centre.

Undulipodia are longer than Cilia and usually occur in ones and twos, whereas cilia are often
found in large numbers. A sperm cell moves because it has a long tail. This is an
Undulipodium. Cilia are responsible for the movement of mucus past ciliated epithelial cells.

Undulipodia and Cilia are able to move because the Microtubules within them use ATP to try
to slide over one another (with the use of Dynein'arms' - Motor Proteins). Because they
are attached to the base, this causes the structure to bend.

Some Prokaryotic Cells have Flagella, which look similar to Undulipodia, but have a very
different internal structure. They are made of Flagellin, a spiral of protein that attaches to
a disk at the base. When this rotates, using energy from ATP, the
Flagellum spins, propelling the cell.
Protein Synthesis

A good example of the Division of Labour is in Protein Synthesis.

The instructions to create a particular protein are found in a Gene in the DNA of a cell. So as
to prevent damage to the DNA, when a protein is required to be synthesised, a copy of that
particular gene is encoded onto an mRNA (messenger RNA) molecule. This is
called Transcription. The molecule then leaves the nucleus through a Nuclear Pore.

The mRNA molecule then travels to a Ribosome, which may be located on the Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum, or in the Cytoplasm. There the sequence of Amino Acids is read
and the instructions are Translated to a Polypeptide Chain.

The next stage is called Post Translational Modification. This is where the Polypeptide
Chain is modified to create the final protein, for example, by adding Prosthetic Groups. This
may done in the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum or in the Golgi Apparatus.

When the protein moves from the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, it does so in Vesicles,
which are 'pinched off' from the ER and then fuse with the Golgi Apparatus.

In the final stage of protein synthesis, the newly created protein is transported around the
cell, again in Vesicles. Sometimes, the Vesicle may fuse with the Plasma
Membrane and secrete the protein.

Cell membranes

Biological Membranes

All cells in nature are surrounded by Biological Membranes, which all have the same basic
structure. Some organelles found in Eukaryotic Cells also have membranes.
Membranes separate their contents from the environment. Cell membranes separate the cell
contents from its environment, and organelle membranes separate the organelle contents from their
environment. Membranes regulate the movement of materials through them. For example, cell
membranes might not allow starch molecules to leave the cell.
Cell membranes are also involved in cell communication and recognition, and in holding some
components of metabolic reactions in place.

The Phospholipid Bilayer

All Biological Membranes are made of the same basic structure. This is composed of molecules
called Phospholipids, which form a Phospholipid Bilayer.
Phospholipids are fats. They are composed of two Fatty Acid 'tails' and a Phosphate 'head'. The
Phosphate 'heads' are Hydrophilic whereas the Fatty Acid 'tails' are Hydrophobic, meaning that
Phospholipids are Amphipathic.

When placed in water, the 'heads' orientate themselves towards watermolecules and the
'tails' away, meaning that phospholipids will form a layer above water if left. If Phospholipid
Molecules are completely surrounded by water, they may form a Bilayer.
A Phospholipid Bilayer consists of two layers of Phospholipids where the 'tails' point
inwards and the 'heads' point outwards, towards water. One layer is like a mirror image of the
other.

The Phospholipid Molecules are not bonded together, however, their Amphipathic Nature gives
the Bilayer a degree of stability, since the Hydrophilic 'head' cannot easily through
the Hydrophobic regioncreated by the 'tails'. The molecules can however move freely as
a fluid in the plane of the Bilayer.
Small, non-polar molecules can pass through the Phospholipid Bilayer since they can 'squeeze'
between the Phospholipid Molecules and are not repelled by the hydrophobic
region. Water molecules can also move through the Bilayer, despite being polar.

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Biological Membranes are very small (7-10nm). At this size it is very hard to see the exact
structure, even with an electron microscope. We therefore don't know for sure exactly what's
going on, however, the Fluid Mosaic Model is generally accepted as describing how
membranes are arranged.

The Fluid Mosaic Model states that membranes are composed of a Phospholipid
Bilayer with various protein molecules floating around within it. The 'Fluid' part represents
how some parts of the membrane can move around freely, if they are not attached to other
parts of the cell. The 'mosaic' part illustrates the 'patchwork' of proteins that is found in the
Phospholipid Bilayer.

Some proteins in the membrane are called 'Intrinsic'. This means that they completely span
the Bilayer. Others are called 'Extrinsic' - they are partly embedded in the Bilayer.

Membrane Components

Carbohydrate Polymers may attach to parts of the membrane, forming Glycolipids when
attach to Phospholipid Molecules and Glycoproteinswhen they attach to proteins. Both
Glycolipids and Glycoproteins can act as Cell Receptor Sites. Hormones may bind to them,
as may drugs, to instigate a response within the cell. They may also be involved in Cell
Signalling in the Immune System.

Some Intrinsic Proteins are Channel Proteins. These are Transport Proteins that allow the
movement of molecules that are normally too large or too Hydrophilic to pass through the
membrane by forming a tube-like structure that goes through the whole membrane.

Other Transport Proteins are Carrier Proteins. These use energy in the form
of ATP to actively move substances across the membrane. For example, ions in the soil are
actively transported in the root hair cells of plants.

Enzymes and Coenzymes may be attached to part of the membrane in order to carry
out Metabolic Reactions. Mitochondria have infoldings of the membrane (called Cristae)
containing Enzymes which are partly responsible for Aerobic Respiration.

The Steroid Molecule Cholesterol gives the Plasma Membrane in some Eukaryotic
Cells stability by reducing the fluidity and making the Bilayer more complete.
Membranes and Heat

Increasing temperature increases molecular kinetic energy. This means that the
Phospholipid Molecules in the Bilayer vibrate more and so are more unstable. This makes
the membrane more 'leaky', as it will allow more molecules through that wouldn't normally
be able to. Once a certain temperature has been reached, the membrane breaks.

Some organisms however have adapted to live in environment with extreme temperatures,
and so have membranes that are more resistant to heat. One way of increasing resistance to
heat is by increasing the amount of Cholesterol in the membrane.

Cell Signalling

Cells need to interact with their environment and other cells around them. This is called Cell
Signalling. Single cellular organisms need to detect nutrients in their environment, and cells
in multicellular organisms are involved in a complex system of communication with each
other.
Cells detect signals with Cell Receptors on their plasma membrane, which are
usually Glycoproteins or Glycolipids. The signalling moleculebinds to the Repeptor because
its shape is complementary. This then instigates a chain of reaction withing the cell, leading
to a response.
Cell Signalling Pathways can be categorised based the distance over which the signalling
occurs.
o Endocrine Signalling involves signalling over large distances, often where the
signalling molecule is transported in the circulatory system
o Paracrine Signalling occurs between cells which are close together, sometime
directly, sometimes via extracellular fluid
o Autocrine Signalling is where the cell stimulates a response within itself by
releasing signals for its own Receptors
Hormones are often used as cell signalling molecules in multicellular organisms. Hormones
are produced in a cell, sometimes in response to environmental changes. The Hormones are
are released and bind to Receptor Sites on a Target Cell, which starts a response.
An example of a hormone mediated cell signalling pathway is in the use of Insulin to lower
blood glucose levels. In response to high glucose levels, Beta-Cells in the pancreas release
the hormone Insulin in to the blood, which binds to cells such as muscle and liver cells. This
causes them to take up more glucose.
Some Medicinal Drugs work because they are complementary to certain Cell Receptor
Sites. Some drugs block these Receptors so that they natural signalling molecules cannot
instigate a response. Others are designed to mimic natural signalling molecules that the
body cannot produce, such as drugs to treat some mental conditions.

Viruses invade cells by binding to Cell Receptor Sites that are normally used in cell
signalling. They themselves have Receptor Sites, despite not being cells. Some poisons also
bind to Cell Receptors, preventing the targeted cells from working properly.

Crossing Membranes

Substances need to move around the body of an organism. To do this they must
cross Biological Membranes. There are a number of ways in which this may happen.

Passive Transport

When placed in a system, a substance will tend to even out - it will move from a region
of high concentration to a region of low concentration. This is called Diffusion. Within a
system, each molecule has its own Concentration Gradient, and therefore will Diffuse
irrespective of other molecules.
Whenever Diffusion occurs, molecules will always be moving in both directions, but it there
is a Concentration Gradient, their Net Movement will be towards the region of low
concentration.
Substances can be transported across Biological Membranes by Diffusion. In cells, a
number of processes may ensure that the Concentration Gradient is maintained and
the Equilibrium is not met. Useful substances are constantly being used up and waste
products are constantly being produced.
Lipid based molecules are able to diffuse across Biological Membranes unaided, since they
are Hydrophobic, and are not repelled by the Phospholipid 'heads'.
Very small molecules are small enough to pass through the Phospholipid Bilayer, even if
they are charged. Water can diffuse in this way, as can Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen.
Some charged molecules normally are unable to pass through Biological Membranes since
they are repelled by the Hydrophobic Phosphate 'heads'. However, special Proteins,
called Channel Proteins, provide pores though which these molecules can diffuse. These
Proteins are often shaped in such a way as to only allow certain molecules to pass through.
Larger molecules, like Glucose, are too big to diffuse through the Phospholipid Bilayer
unaided. These require special Proteins in the Membrane called Carrier Proteins. Once
a specific molecule collides with the Carrier Protein, it 'flip flops' carrying the molecule to
the other sideof the membrane.

Active Processes

Sometimes substances are required to be moved against the Concentration Gradient,

or faster than they would by Passive Transport. For example, plants need to take up
Magnesium Ions in their roots against the Concentration Gradient. In these cases, Active
Processes are used, which require energy.

Active Transport

Active Transport involves the movement of molecules across a Membrane using Proteins in
the Bilayer similar to Carrier Proteins. These use energy in the form of ATP to 'pump'
molecules in one directionacross a membrane.
The Carrier Proteins involved in Active Transport are Complementary to the molecule they
transport. Once the molecule collides with the Protein, it is transported across the membrane
and released the other side. It cannot then be transported back since the Carrier Protein is no
longer Complementary to it.
Active Transport means that a substance can move against the Concentration Gradient and
at a much faster rate than Diffusion alone.

Bulk Transport

Bulk Transport involves the movement of large amounts of moleculesacross a

membrane. For example, cells that produce Hormones in large quantities transport them out
in bulk. This is done via the movement of Vesicles within the cell, which can easily fuse of be
'pinched off' from a membrane.
The movement of substances into a cell is called Endocytosis, and the movement of
substances out of a cell is called Exocytosis. The prefixes 'phago' and 'pino' can be used to
donate the movement of solid and liquid material respectively.
Energy, in the form of ATP, is used in the movement of Vesicles around the cell
and fusion with, and pinching off from, the membrane.

Osmosis
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Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a Partially Permeable Membrane. It is a

special case of Diffusion in that the concentrations of Solutes in the water can effect how
it occurs.
Since water is a Polar molecule, many substances dissolve in it. These dissolved
substances are termed Solutes, and water is a Solvent. Water molecules cluster around
molecules of a Solute.

Because some water molecules cluster around a Solute when it is dissolved, there
are less 'free' molecules which can diffuse to other areas.
This effectively lowers the concentration of water.
Water Potential measures the concentration of free water molecules. It is a measure of
the tendency of these molecules to diffuse to another area. The more free water
molecules, the higher the Water Potential.
Water diffuses by Osmosis from a region of high Water Potential to a region of low
Water Potential through the Water Potential Gradient. Osmosis can therefore be

defined as the diffusion of water from a region of high Water Potential to a region of low
Water Potential through a Partially Permeable Membrane.

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Water Potential is measured in kiloPascals (kPa), where the HighestWater Potential (that
of pure water) is 0 kPa and lower Water Potentials go into negative numbers.

Osmosis and Cells

Since cells contain various Biological Molecules, such as Sugars and Salts, they have a
Water Potential lower then 0 kPa. Water may move in or outof a cell depending of
the Water Potential Gradient between the insideof the cell and its environment.
When water diffuses into a plant cell, when it is placed in a solution ofhigher Water
Potential than inside it, the cell contents will expand. However, since plant cells are
surrounded by a strong cell wall, they will not burst. The cell contents will push
against the cell wall, and the cell will become Turgid.
If a plant cell is placed in a solution of lower Water Potential, water will diffuse out.
This causes the Cytoplasm to shrink and become Flaccid. If enough water leaves, the
Cytoplasm will pull away from the cell wall. The cell will become Plasmolysed.

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Animal cells will also expand when they are placed in a solution of higher Water
Potential. Since animal cells do not have cell walls, if this happens excessively the cell
will burst open and become Haemolysed.
If water leaves an animal cell by Osmosis, it will shrink and appear 'wrinkled'. It will
become Crenated.

Cell Division, Diversity and Organisation

Eukaryotic Cellular Division Process

Every cellular organism uses the process of Cellular Division. This is where genetically
identical daughter cells are produced from parent cells. The daughter cells must be able to
carry out the same functions as the parent cell.
The Cell Cycle is the series of events in which a parent cell divides to produce identical
daughter cells which then grow to full size. This may in fact be the whole Life Cycle of the
organism, if it is a single-celled organism.
Cellular Division occurs for:
o Asexual Reproduction: Single-celled, and sometimes multicellularorganisms
(through budding) reproduce by dividing.
o Growth: Cells are produced so that multicellular organisms can grow.
o Replacement: Any cells in multicellular organisms that have been worn out or have
been damaged need to be replaced by cellular division

Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

In Eukaryotes, the cell cycle is divided in Interphase, where the cell readies itself for
division, and Mitosis, where the process of divisionoccurs. Interphase takes up
the majority of the cell cycle. Meiosis can sometimes occur instead of Mitosis.

Interphase

Interphase can be divided into 3 discrete stages:

o G1: Gap Stage 1
o S: Synthesis Stage
o G2: Gap Stage 2
During Gap 1, the cell functions normally and protein and organelle synthesis occurs such
that the cell doubles in size. The extra proteins and organelles mean that both daughter
cells will be able to function the same as their parent cell.
In the Synthesis Stage, DNA is replicated. This is done by Semi-conservative Replication,
and produces two identical copies of each Chromosome.
Chromosomes are wrapped around proteins called Histones in Eukaryotes, and together with
these proteins, Chromosomes are called Chromatin. After DNA replication has occurred, two
identical Chromosomes, called Sister Chromatids are formed held together at a point
termed the Centromere.
When DNA replication happens, it is checked for any incorrect copyingwhich may result
in mutations that stop the new cell working.
During Gap 1, more growth occurs and proteins are rapidly synthesisedin preparation for
Mitosis.

Mitosis

The process of Mitosis can be described as happens

in 4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase. Most animal cells are capable
of Mitosis, whereas only Meristematic cells in plants are capable of Mitosis.
The first phase, Prophase, involves the Supercoiling of the Chromosomes.
They shorten and thicken such that it is now possible to see them using a light microscope.
In animals, an organelle called the Centriole divides in two and begins to form protein
threads called Spindle Fibre. In plants, Tubulin Protein Threads are made in
the Cytoplasm. This will attach to the Centromereson the Sister Chromatids. The Nuclear
Envelope also disappears.
In Metaphase, the Chromosomes line up towards the centre of the cell, held by the Spindle
Fibre.
During Anaphase, the Spindle Fibres contract, which separates the Sister Chromatids so
that one goes to each end of the cell. They do this pulled by the Centromere, giving them
a 'V' shape.

Finally, in Telophase, the Spindle Fibres break down and a Nuclear Envelope forms
around the two sets of Sister Chromatids at each end of the cell. The Chromosomes uncoil so
that they are no longer visible to a light microscope.
The cell now splits in two in a process called Cytokinesis. In animals cells this starts from
the outside, with the membrane 'nipping in'. However, in plants, a cell plate first forms to
slit the cell in two, and cell membrane and wall material is laid out along this plate.

More About Cellular Division

Cellular Division is vital to all life on earth. It is used in a number of ways throughout the
natural world, and also by humans.

Clones

Clones are Genetically Identical Cells or Organisms that are derived fromone parent.
The offspring of an organism that reproduces Asexually(only one parent) are Clones.
Eykaryotic Cells that undergo Mitosis are Clones of the parent cell. It may be that the
organism is single-celled, such as an Amoeba, in which case Mitosis is the means of Asexual
reproduction.
Many plants can produce Clones, reproducing Asexually. For example, strawberry plant
runners or plants of the genus Kalanchoe. This is known as Vegetative Propagation. Many
plants that can reproduce in this way can also reproduce Sexually.

Bacteria reproduce by Cloning, through a process known as Binary Fission, which is

different from Mitosis. Mitosis refers to division involving Chromosomes, and Bacteria do
not contain Chromosomes. Instead, they have a single, naked DNA strand in
the Cytoplasm. They also have extra DNA in the form of Plasmids, which can
be swapped with other bacteria.
Artificial Cloning is the process by which humans force the Asexual reproduction of
organisms to produce Clones. Plants may be Artificially Cloned by growers to
produce Genetically Identical Individuals. Since 1997, it has also been possible to
Clone animals. This however raises many ethical issues.

Budding in Yeast

Yeast are single-celled fungal organisms that are Eukaryotes. They most commonly
reproduce Asexually by Mitosis, but the process is slightly different from other forms of
Mitosis, in that it involves Budding.
When the cell first begins to reproduce, a Bud is formed of the surface of the cell. The cell
then proceeds through Interphase, duplicating its Chromosomes and Organelles.
Next the Yeast cell undergoes Mitosis, where the new Chromosomes and DNA are placed in
the Bud. After this occurs, the Bud contains nucleuswith an identical copy of the parent
cell's DNA.
Finally, the Bud separates from the parent cell, producing a new Yeast Cell that
is Genetically Identical to its parent Cell.

Producing Genetically Different Cells

Many organisms reproduce Sexually, where half of the offspring's DNAcomes from one
individual, and half comes from another.
This involves the fusion of nuclei from two cells which contain half the Genetic
Information of a normal cell. These cells are known as Haploid Cells. When they come
together during Sexual reproduction, they produce a cell with a full set of Genetic
Information, known as a Diploid Cell.
Almost all cells in a Eukaryotic organism are Diploid, containing a full set of Genetic
Information. They contain a full set of pairs of Homologous Chromosomes (there are 23
pairs of Homologous Chromosomes in normal human cells).

Each Chromosome in a Homologous Pair contains the same Genes, but can
contain different Alleles of these genes. One Chromosome comes from the father and one
from the mother of the organism.
In order to produce Haploid Cells, which only contain one Chromosomeof every
Homologous Pair, a cellular division process called Meiosisoccurs. Effectively, a parent cell
divides into two daughter cells, giving one of its Chromosomes in every one of
its Homologous Chromosome Pairs to each of its daughter cells.
The actual process is a little more complicated, and involves the formation of two
intermediary daughter cells, and four Haploid cells. The result is effectively the same the
same however.

The Haploid Cells produced are Genetically Different from each other. These cells are
referred to as Gametes, and are involved in Sexual reproduction.
One Gamete from each parent comes together to form a cell that contains half the Genetic
Information of each parent. This cell is called a Zygote.

Cell Specialisation and Organism Organisation

Multicellular organisms contain a wide range of different cells. Every cell is specialised to
perform its function as best as possible. There are many differences between different cells specialised
for different functions. Cells may have different shapes, different contents or different numbers of an
organelle.

In order for a cell to become specialised, a process called Differentiationoccurs,

where unspecialised cells (called Stem Cells) produce cells with specialised structures.

All multicellular organisms contain some form of Stem Cells. These are the cells that divide
to replace damaged or old tissue, or new cells for growth.

In plants, Stem Cells are found in Meristematic Tissue. New cells are continuously being
produced since the plant continues to growthroughout its lifetime.

In humans, early embryos consist of Stem Cells that can produce any type of cell. These cells
are described as Totipotent. Stem Cells are also found in a few places in adults, but these can only
differentiate into a limited number of types of cell and are called Multipotent.
Organisation

Cells that work together to perform a particular function are organised into Tissues. Examples
of Tissues include Xylem Tissue, Ciliated Epithelial Tissue and Parenchyma Tissue.

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In animals, Tissues are grouped into four main categories:

Epithelial Tissue - Linings and layers
Connective Tissue - Holding structures together
Muscle Tissue - Actuation of movement
Nervous Tissue - Communication via electrical signals.
Tissues that work together to perform a larger function are organised into Organs. Examples
include Leaves, the Heart and Kidneys.

Organs may be further organised into Organ Systems, that carry out an overall function. For
example, the Circulatory System, the Nervous System, and the Reproductive System.
Examples of Cell Specialisation and Organisation
Blood Cells

All blood cells begin as unspecialised Stem Cells in the bone marrow, which then differentiate
through various paths to become specialised cells, such as Erythrocytes and Neutrophils.

Erythrocytes, commonly known as Red Blood Cells, carry oxygen from the lungs to respiring
tissues. There are specialised in several ways for their function. They contain large
amounts of Haemoglobin, that holds oxygen, and many of the organelles (including the nucleus)
present in normal cells are not present in Erythrocytes, to make space for more Haemoglobin. Their
shape is biconcave, which maximises surface area, and so the speed of movement of Oxygen into and
out of the cell.

Neutrophils are a type of White Blood Cell that ingests and destroys invading microorganisms.
They have large amounts of Lysosomes, which contain enzymes that kill ingested cells. This makes
their Cytoplasmappear Granular. They also have a Lobed Nucleus, which allows for greater
flexibility.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial Tissue is made up of Epithelial Cells cover external and internal surfaces in an
animal. Different Types of Epithelial Cells exist, for example, Squamous Epithelial Cells and Ciliated
Epithelial Cells.

Squamous Epithelial Cells make up Squamous Epithelial Tissue. They are flat cells that form
a single thin, smooth layer that lines tubeswhere diffusion occurs. They occur, for example, in Alveoli
and some blood vessels. They are held in place by a Basement Membrane. This is composed
of Collagen and Glycoproteins, secreted by Epithelial Cells, that binds them to Connective Tissue.

Ciliated Epithelial Cells are column shaped cells, that cover many surfaces. They have tiny
projections on their exposed surface, called Cilia, which beat in a synchronised pattern to move Mucus,
produced by Goblet Cells, along the surface. They can be found, for example, in the Trachea, the Uterus
and the Bronchi.
Spermatozoon

Spermatozoon are motile Sperm Cells. They are the male sex cellinvolved in sexual
reproduction. They travel toward the female's Egg and attempt to fertilize it to produce a Totipotent
Zygote.

Sperm Cells are specialised in a number of ways. They have an Undulipodium (tail) which moves
by energy generated by many mitochondria and propels the cell. The head of the cell contains
an Acrosome, which is a specialised Lysosome that releases enzymes so that the Sperm Cell
can penetrate the Ovum Coat of the Egg. Sperm Cells are also very small and thin, which aids their
movement.

Root Hair Cells

Root Hair Cells are found in the roots of plants. Their role is to absorb water and minerals in
the soil. They have a large surface area, due to their hair-like projections, which eases uptake. They
also have a large amount of Mitochondria, which provide more energy for Active Transport.

Xylem and Phloem

Xylem and Phloem are the transport tissues of plants. Xylem

transports water and minerals up the plant, and Phloem carry sugars up and downthe plant.

Both are found in Vascular Bundles. These consist of Xylem and Phloem Tissue, separated
by Meristematic Tissue (undifferentiated cells) called the Cambium. The cells in the
Cambium differentiate to produce new Xylem and Phloem Cells.

Xylem Tissue consists of Xylem Vessels and Parenchyma Cells. Xylem Vessels are made
of dead cells that have become elongated and reinforced and waterproofed with deposits of Lignin.
The dead cells also do no have any ends, so that successive cells form a tubes with wide Lumen.
Xylem transports water up the plant can helps to support it.

Phloem Tissue is made up of Sieve Tubes and Companion Cells. Sieve tubes line up and their
ends form Sieve Plates through which substancescan move. Companion Cells lie next to Sieve Tube
Cells and allow them tostay alive.

Photosynthesis in Leaves

Leaves are the main Organs in which Photosynthesis occurs. Several Tissues and Cells are
specialised to work together to maximise the rate of Photosynthesis.

The Upper Epidermis of the leaf is transparent and lets light through to the Palisade Layer
beneath. The Palisade Layer consists of long, thin Palisade Mesophyll Cells. They are specialised for
carrying out Photosynthesis since they contain large amounts of Chlorophyll, and their long
shape maximises light absorption.

The layer of Spongy Mesophyll beneath has many air spaces to maximise gas
circulation. Veins also run through the leaf which contain Xylem and Phloem Tissue. These transport
the water to Photosynthesising cells and transport the products of Photosynthesis to other parts of the
plant.

The Lower Epidermis of the leaf contains Pores known as Stomata, which allow the movement
of gases in and out of the leaf. A Stoma is made from two Guard Cells. These have spiral thickenings of
Cellulose which mean that when the Cells are Turgid, the Stoma opens, and when they are Flaccid,
the Stoma closes.