The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria

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TheReligionofBabyloniaandAssyria
THERELIGIONOF
BABYLONIAANDASSYRIA
BY
THEOPHILUSG.PINCHES,LL.D.
LecturerinAssyrianatUniversityCollege,London,
Authorof"TheOldTestamentintheLightofthe
RecordsofAssyriaandBabylonia";"TheBronze
OrnamentsofthePalaceGatesofBalewat"etc.etc.
PREPARER'SNOTE
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itinHammurabi,Swithabreve,SandTwithadotbelowthem,U
withmacron,andsuperscriptMinTamtum.Thesehavebeenleft
intheetextasthebaseletter.
The8bitversionofthistextincludesWindowsfontcharacters
likeSwithacaronaboveit(pronounced/sh/)asinama,etc.
Thesemaybelostin7bitversionsofthetext,orwhenviewed
withdifferentfonts.
Greektexthasbeentransliteratedwithinbrackets"{}"usingan
OxfordEnglishDictionaryalphabettable.Diacriticalmarkshave
beenlost.
THERELIGIONOFTHE
BABYLONIANSANDASSYRIANS
CHAPTERI
FOREWORD
Position,andPeriod.
ThereligionoftheBabyloniansandAssyrianswasthepolytheistic
faithprofessedbythepeoplesinhabitingtheTigrisandEuphrates
valleysfromwhatmayberegardedasthedawnofhistoryuntilthe
Christianerabegan,or,atleast,untiltheinhabitantswerebrought
undertheinfluenceofChristianity.Thechronologicalperiodcovered
mayberoughlyestimatedatabout5000years.Thebeliefofthe
people,attheendofthattime,beingBabylonianheathenismleavened
withJudaism,thecountrywasprobablyripeforthereceptionofthe
newfaith.Christianity,however,bynomeansreplacedtheearlier
polytheism,asisevidencedbythefact,thattheworshipofNeboand
thegodsassociatedwithhimcontinueduntilthefourthcenturyofthe
Christianera.
Bywhomfollowed.
ItwasthefaithoftwodistinctpeoplestheSumeroAkkadians,and
theAssyroBabylonians.Inwhatcountryithaditsbeginningsis
unknownitcomesbeforeus,evenattheearliestperiod,asafaith
alreadywelldeveloped,andfromthatfact,aswellasfromthenames
ofthenumerousdeities,itisclearthatitbeganwiththeformer
racetheSumeroAkkadianswhospokeanonSemiticlanguagelargely
affectedbyphoneticdecay,andinwhichthegrammaticalformshadin
certaincasesbecomeconfusedtosuchanextentthatthosewhostudy
itaskthemselveswhetherthepeoplewhospokeitwereableto
understandeachotherwithoutrecoursetodevicessuchasthe"tones"
towhichtheChineseresort.Withfewexceptions,thenamesofthe
godswhichtheinscriptionsrevealtousareallderivedfromthis
nonSemiticlanguage,whichfurnishesuswithsatisfactoryetymologies
forsuchnamesasMerodach,Nergal,Sin,andthedivinitiesmentioned
inBerosusandDamascius,aswellasthoseofhundredsofdeities
revealedtousbythetabletsandslabsofBabyloniaandAssyria.
http://www.sacredtexts.com/ane/rbaa.htm
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Thedocuments.
OutsidetheinscriptionsofBabyloniaandAssyria,thereisbutlittle
bearinguponthereligionofthosecountries,themostimportant
fragmentbeingtheextractsfromBerosusandDamasciusreferredto
above.AmongtheBabylonianandAssyrianremains,however,wehavean
extensiveandvaluablemassofmaterial,datingfromthefourthor
fifthmillenniumbeforeChristuntilthedisappearanceofthe
BabyloniansystemofwritingaboutthebeginningoftheChristianera.
Theearlierinscriptionsaremostlyofthenatureofrecords,andgive
informationaboutthedeitiesandthereligionofthepeopleinthe
courseofdescriptionsofthebuildingandrebuildingoftemples,the
makingofofferings,theperformanceofceremonies,etc.Purely
religiousinscriptionsarefoundneartheendofthethirdmillennium
beforeChrist,andoccurinconsiderablenumbers,eitherinthe
originalSumeriantext,orintranslations,orboth,untilaboutthe
thirdcenturybeforeChrist.Amongthemorerecentinscriptionsthose
fromthelibraryoftheAssyriankingAurbanipliandthelater
Babyloniantemplearchives,therearemanylistsofdeities,with
numerousidentificationswitheachotherandwiththeheavenlybodies,
andexplanationsoftheirnatures.Itisneedlesstosaythatallthis
materialisofenormousvalueforthestudyofthereligionofthe
BabyloniansandAssyrians,andenablesustoreconstructatfirsthand
theirmythologicalsystem,andnotethechangeswhichtookplacein
thecourseoftheirlongnationalexistence.Manyinterestingand
entertaininglegendsillustrateandsupplementtheinformationgiven
bythebilinguallistsofgods,thebilingualincantationsandhymns,
andthereferencescontainedinthehistoricalandotherdocuments.A
trilinguallistofgodsenablesusalsotorecognise,insomecases,
thedialecticformsoftheirnames.
Theimportanceofthesubject.
OfequalantiquitywiththereligionofEgypt,thatofBabyloniaand
Assyriapossessessomemarkeddifferencesastoitsdevelopment.
BeginningamongthenonSemiticSumeroAkkadianpopulation,it
maintainedforalongtimeitsuninterrupteddevelopment,affected
mainlybyinfluencesfromwithin,namely,thehomogeneouslocalcults
whichactedandreacteduponeachother.Thereligioussystemsof
othernationsdidnotgreatlyaffectthedevelopmentoftheearly
nonSemiticreligioussystemofBabylonia.Atimeatlastcame,
however,whentheinfluenceoftheSemiticinhabitantsofBabylonia
andAssyriawasnottobegainsaid,andfromthatmoment,the
developmentoftheirreligiontookanotherturn.Inallprobablythis
augmentationofSemiticreligiousinfluencewasduetotheincreased
numbersoftheSemiticpopulation,andatthesameperiodtheSumero
AkkadianlanguagebegantogivewaytotheSemiticidiomwhichthey
spoke.WhenatlasttheSemiticBabylonianlanguagecametobeused
forofficialdocuments,wefindthat,althoughthenonSemiticdivine
namesareinthemainpreserved,acertainnumberofthemhavebeen
displacedbytheSemiticequivalentnames,suchasamaforthe
sungod,withKittuandMaru("justiceandrighteousness")his
attendants;Nab("theteacher"=Nebo)withhisconsortTamtu("the
hearer");Addu,Adad,orDadu,andRammanu,Ramimu,orRagimu=Hadad
orRimmon("thethunderer");BlandBltu(Beltis="thelord"and
"thelady"/parexcellence/),withsomeothersofinferiorrank.In
placeofthechiefdivinityofeachstateattheheadofeachseparate
pantheon,thetendencywastomakeMerodach,thegodofthecapital
cityBabylon,theheadofthepantheon,andheseemstohavebeen
universallyacceptedinBabylonia,likeAurinAssyria,about2000
B.C.orearlier.
Theunitingoftwopantheons.
Wethusfindtwopantheons,theSumeroAkkadianwithitsmanygods,
andtheSemiticBabylonianwithitscomparativelyfew,united,and
formingoneapparentlyhomogeneouswhole.Butthecreedhadtakena
freshtendency.Itwasnolongeraseriesofsmall,andtoacertain
extentantagonistic,pantheonscomposedofthechiefgod,hisconsort,
attendants,children,andservants,butapantheonofconsiderable
extent,containingalltheelementsoftheprimitivebutsmaller
pantheons,withanumberofgreatgodswhohadraisedMerodachtobe
theirking.
InAssyria.
WhilstacceptingthereligionofBabylonia,Assyrianeverthelesskept
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herselfdistinctfromhersouthernneighbourbyaverysimpledevice,
byplacingattheheadofthepantheonthegodAur,whobecamefor
herthechiefofthegods,andatthesametimetheemblemofher
distinctnationalaspirationsforAssyriahadnointentionwhatever
ofcastinginherlotwithhersouthernneighbour.Nevertheless,
Assyriapossessed,alongwiththelanguageofBabylonia,allthe
literatureofthatcountryindeed,itisfromthelibrariesofher
kingsthatweobtainthebestcopiesoftheBabylonianreligious
texts,treasuredandpreservedbyherwithallthevenerationofwhich
herreligiousmindwascapable,andthereligiousfervourofthe
OrientalinmostcasesleavesthatoftheEuropean,oratleastofthe
ordinaryBriton,farbehind.
ThelaterperiodinAssyria.
Assyriawenttoherdownfallattheendoftheseventhcenturybefore
ChristworshippinghernationalgodAur,whosecultdidnotcease
withthedestructionofhernationalindependence.Infact,thecity
ofAur,thecentreofthatworship,continuedtoexistfora
considerableperiod;butforthehistoryofthereligionofAssyria,
aspreservedthere,wewaitfortheresultoftheexcavationsbeing
carriedonbytheGermans,shouldtheybefortunateenoughtoobtain
textsbelongingtotheperiodfollowingthefallofNineveh.
InBabylonia.
Babylonia,ontheotherhand,continuedtheeventenorofherway.
Moresuccessfulattheendofherindependentpoliticalcareerthan
hernorthernrivalhadbeen,sheretainedherfaith,andremainedthe
unswervingworshipperofMerodach,thegreatgodofBabylon,towhom
herpriestsattributedyetgreaterpowers,andwithwhomalltheother
godsweretoallappearanceidentified.Thistendencytomonotheism,
however,neverreachedtheculminatingpointneverbecameabsolute
except,naturally,inthemindsofthosewho,dissociatingthemselves,
forphilosophicalreasons,fromthesuperstitiousteachingofthe
priestsofBabylonia,decidedforthemselvesthattherewasbutone
God,andworshippedHim.ThatorthodoxJewsatthatperiodmayhave
found,inconsequenceofthismonotheistictendency,converts,isnot
byanymeansimprobableindeed,thenamesmetwithduringthelater
periodimplythatconvertstoJudaismweremade.
Thepicturepresentedbythestudy.
Thuswesee,fromthevariousinscriptions,bothBabylonianand
Assyriantheformerofanextremelyearlyperiodthegrowthand
development,withatleastonebranchingoff,ofoneofthemost
importantreligioussystemsoftheancientworld.Itisnotso
importantformodernreligionasthedevelopmentofthebeliefsofthe
Hebrews,butasthecreedofthepeoplefromwhichtheHebrewnation
sprang,andfromwhich,therefore,ithaditsbeginnings,both
corporealandspiritual,itissuchasnostudentofmodernreligious
systemscanaffordtoneglect.Itslegends,andthereforeits
teachings,aswillbeseeninthesepages,ultimatelypermeatedthe
SemiticWest,andmayinsomecasesevenhadpenetratedEurope,not
onlythroughheathenGreece,butalsothroughtheearlyChristians,
who,beingsomanycenturiesnearerthetimeofthe
AssyroBabylonians,andalsonearertheterritorywhichtheyanciently
occupied,thanweare,werefarbetteracquaintedthanthepeopleof
thepresentdaywiththelegendsandideaswhichtheypossessed.
CHAPTERII
THERELIGIONOFTHEBABYLONIANSANDASSYRIANS
TheSumeroAkkadiansandtheSemites.
ForthehistoryofthedevelopmentofthereligionoftheBabylonians
andAssyriansmuchnaturallydependsuponthecompositionofthe
populationofearlyBabylonia.Thereishardlyanydoubtthatthe
SumeroAkkadianswerenonSemitesofafairlypurerace,butthe
countryoftheiroriginisstillunknown,thoughacertain
relationshipwiththeMongolianandTurkishnationalities,probably
reachingbackmanycenturiesperhapsthousandsofyearsbeforethe
earliestaccepteddate,mayberegardedasequallylikely.Equally
uncertainisthedateoftheentryoftheSemites,whoselanguage
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ultimatelydisplacedthenonSemiticSumeroAkkadianidioms,and
whosekingsfinallyruledovertheland.Duringthethirdmillennium
beforeChristSemites,bearingSemiticnames,andcalledAmorites,
appear,andprobablyformedthelastconsiderablestratumoftribesof
thatracewhichenteredtheland.ThenameMartu,theSumeroAkkadian
equivalentofAmurru,"Amorite",isoffrequentoccurrencealsobefore
thisperiod.TheeasternMediterraneancoastdistrict,including
Palestineandtheneighbouringtracts,wasknownbytheBabylonians
andAssyriansasthelandoftheAmorites,atermwhichstoodforthe
Westingeneralevenwhentheseregionsnolongerborethatname.The
Babyloniansmaintainedtheirclaimtosovereigntyoverthatpartas
longastheypossessedthepowertodoso,andnaturallyexercised
considerableinfluencethere.TheexistenceinPalestine,Syria,and
theneighbouringstates,ofcreedscontainingthenamesofmany
Babyloniandivinitiesisthereforenottobewonderedat,andthe
presenceofWestSemiticdivinitiesinthereligionoftheBabylonians
neednotcauseusanysurprise.
TheBabylonianscriptanditsevidence.
Inconsequenceofthedeterminativeprefixforagodoragoddess
being,intheoldestform,apictureofaneightrayedstar,ithas
beenassumedthatAssyroBabylonianmythologyis,eitherwhollyor
partly,astralinorigin.This,however,isbynomeanscertain,the
characterfor"star"intheinscriptionsbeingacombinationofthree
suchpictures,andnotasinglesign.Theprobabilitythereforeis,
thattheuseofthesinglestartoindicatethenameofadivinity
arisesmerelyfromthefactthatthecharacterinquestionstandsfor
/ana/,"heaven."Deitieswereevidentlythusdistinguishedbythe
Babyloniansbecausetheyregardedthemasinhabitantsoftherealms
aboveindeed,theheavensbeingtheplacewherethestarsareseen,a
pictureofastarwastheonlywayofindicatingheavenlythings.That
thegodsoftheBabylonianswereinmanycasesidentifiedwiththe
starsandplanetsiscertain,buttheseidentificationsseemtohave
takenplaceatacomparativelylatedate.Anexceptionhasnaturally
tobemadeinthecaseofthesunandmoon,butthegodMerodach,if
hebe,asseemscertain,adeifiedBabylonianking,musthavebeen
identifiedwiththestarswhichbearhisnameafterhisworshippers
begantopayhimdivinehonoursasthesupremedeity,andnaturally
whatistrueforhimmayalsobesofortheothergodswhomthey
worshipped.Theidentificationofsomeofthedeitieswithstarsor
planetsis,moreover,impossible,andifa,thegodofthedeep,and
Anu,thegodoftheheavens,havetheirrepresentativesamongthe
heavenlybodies,thisisprobablytheresultoflaterdevelopment.[*]
[*]Iftherebeanyhistoricalfoundationforthestatementthat
Merodacharrangedthesun,themoon,theplanets,andthestars,
assigningtothemtheirproperplacesanddutiesatradition
whichwouldmakehimthefounderofthescienceofastronomy
duringhislifeuponearththis,too,wouldtendtothe
probabilitythattheoriginofthegodsoftheBabylonianswasnot
astral,ashasbeensuggested,butthattheiridentificationwith
theheavenlybodieswasintroducedduringtheperiodofhisreign.
Ancestorandheroworship.Thedeificationofkings.
Thoughthereisnoproofthatancestorworshipingeneralprevailedat
anytimeinBabylonia,itwouldseemthattheworshipofheroesand
prominentmenwascommon,atleastinearlytimes.Thetenthchapter
ofGenesistellsusofthestoryofNimrod,whocannotbeanyother
thantheMerodachoftheAssyroBabylonianinscriptions;andother
examples,occurringinsemimythologicaltimes,are/Enweduranki/,
theGreekEdoreschos,and/Gilgame/,theGreekGilgamos,though
Aelian'sstoryofthelatterdoesnotfitinwiththeaccountasgiven
bytheinscriptions.Inlatertimes,thedivineprefixisfoundbefore
thenamesofmanyaBabylonianrulerSargonofAgad,[*]DungiofUr
(about2500B.C.),RimSinorEriAku(AriochofEllasar,about2100
B.C.),andothers.Itwasdoubtlessakindofflatterytodeifyand
paytheserulersdivinehonoursduringtheirlifetime,andonaccount
ofthis,itisveryprobablethattheirgodhoodwasutterlyforgotten,
inthecaseofthosewhowerestrictlyhistorical,aftertheirdeath.
ThedeificationofthekingsofBabyloniaandAssyriaisprobablydue
tothefact,thattheywereregardedastherepresentativesofGod
uponearth,andbeinghischiefpriestsaswellashisoffspring(the
personalnamesshowthatitwasacommonthingtoregardchildrenas
thegiftsofthegodswhomtheirfatherworshipped),thedivine
fatherhoodthusattributedtothemnaturallycould,inthecaseof
thoseofroyalrank,givethemarealclaimtodivinebirthand
honours.AnexceptionisthedeificationoftheBabylonianNoah,
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Utnapitim,who,asthelegendoftheFloodrelates,wasraisedand
madeoneofthegodsbyAaorEa,forhisfaithfulnessafterthegreat
catastrophe,whenheandhiswifeweretranslatedtothe"remoteplace
atthemouthoftherivers."TheheroGilgame,ontheotherhand,was
halfdivinebybirth,thoughitisnotexactlyknownthroughwhomhis
divinitycame.
[*]AccordingtoNabonidus'sdate3800B.C.,thoughmany
Assyriologistsregardthisasbeingamillenniumtooearly.
TheearliestformoftheBabylonianreligion.
Thestateofdevelopmenttowhichthereligioussystemofthe
Babylonianshadattainedattheearliestperiodtowhichthe
inscriptionsrefernaturallyprecludesthepossibilityofa
trustworthyhistoryofitsoriginandearlygrowth.Thereisnodoubt,
however,thatitmayberegardedashavingreachedthestageatwhich
wefinditinconsequenceoftherebeinganumberofstatesinancient
Babylonia(whichwasatthattimeliketheHeptarchyinEngland)each
possessingitsowndivinitywho,initsdistrict,wasregardedas
supremewithanumberoflessergodsforminghiscourt.Itwasthe
addingtogetherofallthesesmallpantheonswhichultimatelymade
thatofBabyloniaasawholesoexceedinglyextensive.Thusthechief
divinityofBabylon,ashasalreadybeenstated,asMerodach;at
SipparandLarsathesungodamawasworshipped;atUrthemoongod
SinorNannar;atErechandDrthegodoftheheavens,Anu;atMuru,
Ennigi,andKakru,thegodoftheatmosphere,HadadorRimmon;at
ridu,thegodofthedeep,Aaora;atNiffur[*]thegodBel;at
Cuthahthegodofwar,Nergal;atDailemthegodUra;atKithegod
ofbattle,Zagaga;LugalAmarda,thekingofMarad,asthecityso
called;atOpisZakar,oneofthegodsofdreams;atAgad,Nineveh,
andArbela,Itar,goddessofloveandofwar;NinaatthecityNina
inBabylonia,etc.Whenthechiefdeitiesweremasculine,theywere
naturallyallidentifiedwitheachother,justastheGreekscalled
theBabylonianMerodachbythenameofZeus;andasZerpantum,the
consortofMerodach,wasidentifiedwithJuno,sotheconsorts,divine
attendants,andchildrenofeachchiefdivinity,asfarasthey
possessedthem,couldalsoberegardedasthesame,thoughpossibly
distinctintheirdifferentattributes.
[*]Noufaratpresent,accordingtothelatestexplorers.Layard
(1856)hasNiffer,Loftus(1857)Niffar.Thenativespellingis
Noufer,duetotheFrenchsystemofphonetics.
HowthereligionoftheBabyloniansdeveloped.
ThefactthattheriseofMerodachtothepositionofkingofthegods
wasduetotheattainment,bythecityofBabylon,ofthepositionof
capitalofallBabylonia,leadsonetosuspectthatthekinglyrankof
hisfathera,atanearlierperiod,wasduetoasomewhatsimilar
cause,andifso,thestillearlierkingshipofAnu,thegodofthe
heavens,maybeinlikemannerexplained.Thisleadstothequestion
whetherthefirststatetoattaintosupremacywasDr,Anu'sseat,
andwhetherDrwassucceededbyridu,ofwhichcityawasthe
patronconcerningtheimportanceofBabylon,Merodach'scity,later
on,thereisnodoubtwhatever.TheriseofAnuandatodivine
overlordship,however,maynothavebeenduetothepolitical
supremacyofthecitieswheretheywereworshippeditmayhavecome
aboutsimplyonaccountofrenowngainedthroughreligiousenthusiasm
duetowonderssaidtohavebeenperformedwheretheywereworshipped,
ortothereporteddiscoveryofnewrecordsconcerningtheirtemples,
ortotheinfluenceofsomerenownedhighpriest,likeEnweduranki
ofSippar,whosedevotionundoubtedlybroughtgreatrenowntothecity
ofhisdominion.
WasAnimismitsoriginalform?
Butthequestionnaturallyarises,canwegobackbeyondthe
indicationsoftheinscriptions?TheBabyloniansattributedlife,in
certainnotverynumerouscases,tosuchthingsastreesandplants,
andnaturallytothewinds,andtheheavenlybodies.Whetherthey
regardedstones,rocks,mountains,storms,andraininthesameway,
however,isdoubtful,butitmaybetakenforgranted,thatthesea,
withallitsriversandstreams,wasregardedasanimatedwiththe
spiritofaandhischildren,whilstthegreatcitiesand
templetowerswerepervadedwiththespiritofthegodwhoseabode
theywere.Innumerablegoodandevilspiritswerebelievedin,suchas
thespiritofthemountain,thesea,theplain,andthegrave.These
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spiritswereofvariouskinds,andborenameswhichdonotalways
revealtheirrealcharactersuchasthe/edimmu/,/utukku/,/du/,
/aakku/(spiritoffevers),/namtaru/(spiritoffate),/l/
(regardedasthespiritofthesouthwind),/gallu/,/rabisu/,
/labartu/,/labasu/,/ahhazu/(theseizer),/lilu/and/lilithu/(male
andfemalespiritsofthemist),withtheirattendants.
Allthispointstoanimismasthepervadingideaoftheworshipofthe
peoplesoftheBabylonianstatesintheprehistoricperiodthe
attributionoflifetoeveryappearanceofnature.Thequestionis,
however,Istheevidenceoftheinscriptionssufficienttomakethis
absolutelycertain?Itishardtobelievethatsuchintelligent
people,astheprimitiveBabyloniansnaturallywere,believedthat
suchthingsasstones,rocks,mountains,storms,andrainwere,in
themselves,andapartfromthedivinitywhichtheyregardedas
presidingoverthem,livingthings.Astonemightbea/btli/or
bethela"houseofgod,"andalmostinvestedwiththestatusofa
livingthing,butthatdoesnotprovethattheBabyloniansthoughtof
everystoneasbeingendowedwithlife,eveninprehistorictimes.
Whilst,therefore,therearetracesofabeliefsimilartothatwhich
ananimisticcreedmightberegardedaspossessing,itmustbe
admittedthattheseseeminglyanimisticdoctrinesmayhaveoriginated
inanotherway,andbeduetolaterdevelopments.Thepowerofthe
godstocreatelivingthingsnaturallymakespossiblethebeliefthat
theyhadalsopowertoendowwithasoul,andthereforewithlifeand
intelligence,anyseeminglyinanimateobject.Suchwasprobablythe
natureofBabyloniananimism,ifitmaybesocalled.Thelegendof
Tiawthu(Tiawath)maywithgreatprobabilityberegardedasthe
remainsofaprimitiveanimismwhichwasthecreedoftheoriginaland
comparativelyuncivilisedBabylonians,whosawintheseatheproducer
andcreatorofallthemonstrousshapeswhicharefoundtherein;but
anydevelopmentofthisideainotherdirectionswasprobablycut
shortbythepriests,whomusthaverealised,undertheinfluenceof
thedoctrineofthedivinerisetoperfection,thatanimismingeneral
wasaltogetherincompatiblewiththecreedwhichtheyprofessed.
ImageworshipandSacredStones.
WhetherimageworshipwasoriginalamongtheBabyloniansandAssyrians
isuncertain,andimprobable;thetendencyamongthepeopleinearly
timesbeingtoveneratesacredstonesandotherinanimateobjects.As
hasbeenalreadypointedout,the{diopetres}oftheGreekswas
probablyameteorite,andstonesmarkingthepositionoftheSemitic
bethelswereprobably,intheirorigin,thesame.Theboulderswhich
weresometimesusedforboundarystonesmayhavebeenthe
representationsofthesemeteoritesinlatertimes,anditis
noteworthythattheSumeriangroupfor"iron,"/anbar/,impliesthat
theearlyBabyloniansonlyknewofthatmetalfrommeteoricironstone.
ThenameofthegodNirigornurtu(Ninip)isgenerallywritten
withthesamegroup,implyingsomekindofconnectionbetweenthetwo
thegodandtheiron.Inawellknownhymntothatdeitycertain
stonesarementioned,oneofthembeingdescribedasthe"poison
tooth"[*]comingforthonthemountain,recallingthesacredrocksat
JerusalemandMecca.BoundarystonesinBabyloniawerenotsacred
objectsexceptinsofarastheyweresculpturedwiththesignsofthe
gods.[]WithregardtotheBabylonianbethels,verylittlecanbe
said,theirtruenaturebeinguncertain,andtheirnumber,toall
appearance,small.Giftsweremadetothem,andfromthisfactit
wouldseemthattheyweretemplestrue"housesofgod,"infact
probablycontaininganimageofthedeity,ratherthanastonesimilar
tothosereferredtointheOldTestament.
[*]Socalled,probably,notbecauseitsentforthpoison,buton
accountofitslikenesstoaserpent'sfang.
[]Notwithstandingmedicalopinion,theirphallicoriginisdoubtful.
OneissculpturedintheformofanEasterncastellatedfortress.
Idols.
WiththeBabylonians,thegodswererepresentedbymeansofstone
imagesataveryearlydate,anditispossiblethatwoodwasalso
used.ThetendencyofthehumanmindbeingtoattributetotheDeitya
humanform,theBabylonianswerenoexceptiontotherule.Human
thoughtsandfeelingswouldnaturallyaccompanythehumanformwith
whichthemindsofmenendowedthem.Whetherthegrosshumanpassions
attributedtothegodsofBabyloniainHerodotusbeofearlydateor
notisuncertainalateperiod,whenthereligionbeganto
degenerate,wouldseemtobethemoreprobable.
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Theadorationofsacredobjects.
Itisprobablethatobjectsbelongingtoordedicatedtodeitieswere
notoriginallyworshippedtheywereheldasdivineinconsequenceof
theirbeingpossessedorusedbyadeity,likethebowofMerodach,
placedintheheavensasaconstellation,etc.Thecitieswherethe
godsdweltonearth,theirtemples,theircouches,thechariotofthe
suninhistemplecities,andeverythingexistinginconnectionwith
theirworship,wereinallprobabilityregardedasdivinesimplyinso
farastheybelongedtoagod.Sacrificesofferedtothem,and
invocationsmadetothem,wereinalllikelihoodregardedashaving
beenmadetothedeityhimself,thepossessionsofthedivinitybeing,
inthemindsoftheBabylonians,pervadedwithhisspirit.Inthecase
ofrivers,theseweredivineasbeingthechildrenandoffspringof
Enki(Aaora),thegodoftheocean.
Holyplaces.
Inacountrywhichwasoriginallydividedintomanysmallstates,each
havingitsowndeities,and,toacertainextent,itsownreligious
system,holyplaceswerenaturallynumerous.Asthespotwherethey
placedParadise,Babyloniawasitselfaholyplace,butinall
probabilitythisideaislate,andonlycameintoexistenceafterthe
legendsofthecreationandtheriseofMerodachtothekingshipof
heavenhadbecomeelaboratedintoonehomogeneouswhole.
Aninterestinglist.
Oneofthemostinterestingdocumentsreferringtotheholyplacesof
BabyloniaisatinytabletfoundatNineveh,andpreservedinthe
BritishMuseum.ThistextbeginswiththewordTiawthu"thesea,"and
goesontoenumerate,inturn,Tilmun(identifiedwiththeislandof
BahreininthePersianGulf);Engurra(theAbyss,theabodeofEnkior
a),withnumeroustemplesandshrines,including"theholyhouse,"
"thetempleoftheseerofheavenandearth,""theabodeofZer
pantum,"consortofMerodach,"thethroneoftheholyplace,""the
templeoftheregionofHades,""thesupremetempleoflife,""the
templeoftheearofthecorndeity,"withmanyothers,thewholelist
containingwhatmayberegardedasthechiefsanctuariesoftheland,
tothenumberofthirtyone.Numerousothersimilarandmoreextensive
lists,enumeratingeveryshrineandtempleinthecountry,alsoexist,
thoughinaveryimperfectstate,andinadditiontothese,manyholy
placesarereferredtointhebilingual,historical,andother
inscriptions.AllthegreatcitiesofBabylonia,moreover,weresacred
places,thechiefinrenownandimportanceinlaterdaysbeingthe
greatcityofBabylon,wheresagila,"thetempleofthehighhead,"
inwhichwasapparentlytheshrinecalled"thetempleofthe
foundationofheavenandearth,"heldthefirstplace.Thisbuilding
iscalledbyNebuchadnezzar"thetempletowerofBabylon,"andmay
betterberegardedasthesiteoftheBiblical"TowerofBabel"than
thetraditionalfoundation,zida,"theeverlastingtemple,"in
Borsippa(theBirsNimroud)notwithstandingthatBorsippawascalled
the"secondBabylon,"anditstempletower"thesupremehouseof
life."
TheTowerofBabel.
ThoughquiteclosetoBabylon,thereisnodoubtthatBorsippawasa
mostimportantreligiouscentre,andthisleadstothepossibility,
thatitsgreattemplemayhavedisputedwith"thehouseofthehigh
head,"sagilainBabylon,thehonourofbeingthesiteofthe
confusionoftonguesandthedispersionofmankind.Thereisnodoubt,
however,thatsagilahasthepriorclaim,itbeingthetempleofthe
supremegodofthelaterBabylonianpantheon,thecounterpartofthe
GodoftheHebrewswhocommandedthechangingofthespeechofthe
peopleassembledthere.Supposingtheconfusionoftonguestohave
beenaBabylonianlegendaswellasaHebrewone(asispossible)it
wouldbebycommandofMerodachratherthanthatofNebothatsucha
thingwouldhavetakenplace.sagila,whichisnowtheruinknownas
themountofAmranibnAli,isthecelebratedtempleofBeluswhich
AlexanderandPhilipattemptedtorestore.
Inadditiontothelegendoftheconfusionoftongues,itisprobable
thatthereweremanysimilartraditionsattachedtothegreattemples
ofBabylonia,andastimegoeson,andtheexcavationsbringmore
material,alargenumberofthemwillprobablyberecovered.Already
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wehaveaninterestingandpoeticalrecordoftheentryofBeland
BeltisintothegreattempleatNiffer,probablycopiedfromsome
ancientsource,andGudea,akingofLaga(Telloh),whoreignedabout
2700B.C.,givesanaccountofthedreamwhichhesaw,inwhichhewas
instructedbythegodstobuildorrebuildthetempleofNinGirsuin
hiscapitalcity.
sagilaaccordingtoHerodotus.
AsthechieffaneinthelandafterBabylonbecamethecapital,and
thetypeofmanysimilarerections,sagila,thetempleofBelus,
meritsjustashortnotice.AccordingtoHerodotus,itwasamassive
towerwithinanenclosuremeasuring400yardseachway,andprovided
withgatesofbrass,orratherbronze.Thetowerwithinconsistedofa
kindofsteppyramid,thestagesbeingseveninnumber(omittingthe
lowest,whichwastheplatformformingthefoundationofthe
structure).Awindingascentgaveaccesstothetop,wherewasa
chapelorshrine,containingnostatue,butregardedbythe
Babyloniansastheabodeofthegod.Lowerdownwasanothershrine,in
whichwasplacedagreatstatueofZeus(BelMerodach)sitting,witha
largetablebeforeit.Bothstatueandtablearesaidtohavebeenof
gold,aswerealsothethroneandthesteps.Outsidethesanctuary(on
theramp,apparently)weretwoaltars,onesmallandmadeofgold,
whereononlyunweanedlambsweresacrificed,andtheotherlarger,for
fullgrownvictims.
ABabyloniandescription.
In1876thewellknownAssyriologist,Mr.GeorgeSmith,wasfortunate
enoughtodiscoveraBabyloniandescriptionofthistemple,ofwhich
hepublisheda/prcis/.Accordingtothisdocument,thereweretwo
courtsofconsiderableextent,thesmallerwithinthelargerneither
ofthemwassquare,butoblong.Sixgatesadmittedtothetemplearea
surroundingtheplatformuponwhichthetowerwasbuilt.Theplatform
isstatedtohavebeensquareandwalled,withfourgatesfacingthe
cardinalpoints.Withinthiswallwasabuildingconnectedwiththe
great/zikkurat/ortowertheprincipaledificeroundwhichwere
chapelsortemplestotheprincipalgods,onallfoursides,and
facingthecardinalpointsthattoNeboandTamtbeingontheeast,
toAaoraandNuskuonthenorth,AnuandBelonthesouth,andthe
seriesofbuildingsonthewest,consistingofadoublehouseasmall
courtbetweentwowings,wasevidentlytheshrineofMerodach(Belos).
Inthesewesternchambersstoodthecouchofthegod,andthegolden
thronementionedbyHerodotus,besidesotherfurnitureofgreatvalue.
Thecouchwasgivenasbeing9cubitslongby4broad,aboutasmany
feetineachcase,orrathermore.
Thecentreofthesebuildingswasthegreat/zikkurat/,ortemple
tower,squareonitsplan,andwiththesidesfacingthecardinal
points.Theloweststagewas15/gar/squareby51/2high(Smith,300
feetby110),andthewall,inaccordancewiththeusualBabylonian
custom,seemstohavebeenornamentedwithrecessedgroovings.The
secondstagewas13/gar/squareby3inheight(Smith,260by60
feet).Heconjectured,fromtheexpressionused,thatithadsloping
sides.Stagesthreetofivewereeachone/gar/(Smith,20feet)high,
andrespectively10/gar/(Smith,200feet),81/2/gar/(170feet),
and7/gar/(140feet)square.Thedimensionsofthesixthstageare
omitted,probablybyaccident,butSmithconjecturesthattheywerein
proportiontothosewhichprecede.Hisdescriptionomitsalsothe
dimensionsoftheseventhstage,buthegivesthoseofthesanctuary
ofBelus,whichwasbuiltuponit.Thiswas4/gar/long,31/2/gar/
broad,and21/2/gar/high(Smith,80x70x50feet).Hepointsout,
thatthetotalheightwas,therefore,15/gar/,thesameasthe
dimensionsofthebase,i.e.,thelowestplatform,whichwouldmake
thetotalheightofthisworldrenownedbuildingrathermorethan300
feetabovetheplains.
Othertempletowers.
Towersofasimilarnatureweretobefoundinallthegreatcitiesof
Babylonia,anditisprobablethatinmostcasesslightdifferencesof
formweretobefound.ThatatNiffer,forinstance,seemstohavehad
acausewayoneachside,makingfourapproachesintheformofa
cross.Butitwasnoteverycitywhichhadatowerofsevenstagesin
additiontotheplatformonwhichitwaserected,andsomeofthe
smalleronesatleastseemtohavehadslopingorroundedsidestothe
basementportion,asisindicatedbyanAssyrianbasrelief.Naturally
smalltemples,withhardlymorethantheroomsonthegroundfloor,
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weretobefound,butthesetempletowerswereaspecialityofthe
country.
Theirorigin.
Thereissomeprobabilitythat,asindicatedinthetenthchapterof
Genesis,thedesireinbuildingthesetowerswastogetnearerthe
Deity,ortothedivineinhabitantsoftheheavensingeneralit
wouldbeeasiertheretogainattentionthanonthesurfaceofthe
earth.Thentherewasthebelief,thatthegodtowhomtheplacewas
dedicatedwouldcomedowntosuchasanctuary,whichthusbecame,as
itwere,thesteppingstonebetweenheavenandearth.Sacrificeswere
alsoofferedatthesetempletowers(whetheronthehighestpointor
notisnotquitecertain),inimitationoftheChaldanNoah,
Utnapitim,who,oncomingoutoftheark,madeanoffering/ina
zikkuratad/,"onthepeakofthemountain,"inwhichpassage,itis
tobenoted,theword/zikkurat/occurswithwhatisprobablyamore
originalmeaning.
CHAPTERIII
THEBABYLONIANSTORYOFTHECREATION
ThisisthefinaldevelopmentoftheBabyloniancreed.Ithasalready
beenpointedoutthatthereligionoftheBabyloniansinall
probabilityhadtwostagesbeforearrivingatthatinwhichthegod
Merodachoccupiedthepositionofchiefofthepantheon,thetwo
precedingheadshavingbeen,seemingly,Anu,thegodoftheheavens,
andaorAa,alsocalledEnki,thegodoftheabyssandofdeep
wisdom.Inordertoshowthis,andatthesametimetogiveanideaof
theirtheoryofthebeginningofthings,ashortparaphraseofthe
contentsoftheseventabletswillbefoundinthefollowingpages.
AnEmbodimentofdoctrine.
Asfarasourknowledgegoes,thedoctrinesincorporatedinthis
legendwouldseemtoshowthefinalofficialdevelopmentofthe
beliefsheldbytheBabylonians,due,inallprobability,tothe
priestsofBabylonafterthatcitybecamethecapitalofthefederated
states.Modificationsoftheircreedprobablytookplace,butnothing
seriouslyaffectingit,untilaftertheabandonmentofBabyloninthe
timeofSeleucusNicator,300B.C.orthereabouts,whenthedeityat
theheadofthepantheonseemsnottohavebeenMerodach,butAnuBl.
Thislegendisthereforethemostimportantdocumentbearinguponthe
beliefsoftheBabyloniansfromtheendofthethirdmillenniumB.C.
untilthattime,andthephilosophicalideaswhichitcontainsseemto
havebeenheld,inamoreorlessmodifiedform,amongtheremnants
whostillretainedtheoldBabylonianfaith,untilthesixthcentury
ofthepresentera,astherecordbyDamasciusimplies.Properly
speaking,itisnotarecordofthecreation,butthestoryofthe
fightbetweenBelandtheDragon,towhichtheaccountofthecreation
isprefixedbywayofintroduction.
Waterthefirstcreator.
Thelegendbeginsbystatingthat,whentheheavenswereunnamedand
theearthborenoname,theprimvaloceanwastheproducerofall
things,andMummuTiawath(thesea)shewhobroughtfortheverything
existing.Theirwaters(thatis,oftheprimvaloceanandofthesea)
wereallunitedinone,andneitherplainsnormarshesweretobe
seen;thegodslikewisedidnotexist,eveninname,andthefates
wereundeterminednothinghadbeendecidedastothefutureof
things.Thenarosethegreatgods.LahmuandLahamecamefirst,
followed,afteralongperiod,byAnarandKiar,generally
identifiedwiththe"hostofheaven"andthe"hostofearth,"these
beingthemeaningsofthecomponentpartsoftheirnames.Aftera
furtherlongperiodofdays,therecameforththeirsonAnu,thegod
oftheheavens.
Thegods.
Herethenarrativeisdefective,andiscontinuedbyDamasciusinhis
/DoubtsandSolutionsoftheFirstPrinciples/,inwhichhestates
that,afterAnos(Anu),comeIllinos(EllilaorBel,"thelord"/par
excellence/)andAos(Aa,Ae,ora),thegodofEridu.OfAosand
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Dauk(theBabylonianAaandDamkina)isborn,hesays,asoncalled
Belos(BelMerodach),who,they(apparentlytheBabylonians)say,is
thefabricatoroftheworldthecreator.
Thedesignsagainstthem.
AtthispointDamasciusendshisextract,andtheBabyloniantablet
alsobecomesextremelydefective.Thenextdeitytocomeinto
existence,however,wouldseemtohavebeenNudimmud,whowas
apparentlythedeityAaora(thegodoftheseaandofrivers)as
thegodofcreation.AmongthechildrenofTauth(Tiawath)enumerated
byDamasciusisonenamedMoumis,whowasevidentlyreferredtointhe
documentatthatphilosopher'sdisposal.Ifthisbecorrect,hisname,
undertheformofMummu,probablyexistedinoneofthedefective
linesofthefirstportionofthislegendinanycase,hisname
occurslateron,withthoseofTiawathandApsu(theDeep),his
parents,andthethreeseemtobecompared,totheirdisadvantage,
withtheprogenyofLahmuandLahame,thegodsonhigh.Asthewaysof
theselastwerenotthoseofTiawath'sbrood,andApsucomplainedthat
hehadnopeacebydaynorrestbynightonaccountoftheir
proceedings,thethreerepresentativesofthechaoticdeep,Tiawath,
Apsu,andMummu,discussedhowtheymightgetridthebeingswho
wishedtorisetohigherthings.Mummuwasapparentlytheprimemover
intheplot,andthefaceofApsugrewbrightatthethoughtofthe
evilplanwhichtheyhaddevisedagainst"thegodstheirsons."The
inscriptionbeingverymutilatedhere,itsfulldriftcannotbe
gathered,butfromthecompleteportionswhichcomelateritwould
seemthatMummu'splanwasnotaremarkablycunningone,beingsimply
tomakewaruponanddestroythegodsofheaven.
Tiawath'spreparations.
Thepreparationsmadeforthiswereelaborate.Restlessly,dayand
night,thepowersofevilragedandtoiled,andassembledforthe
fight.'MotherHubur,"asTiawathisnamedinthispassage,calledher
creativepowersintoaction,andgaveherfollowersirresistible
weapons.Shebroughtintobeingalsovariousmonstersgiantserpents,
sharpoftooth,bearingstings,andwithpoisonfillingtheirbodies
likeblood;terribledragonsendowedwithbrilliance,andofenormous
stature,rearedonhigh,ragingdogs,scorpionmen,fishmen,andmany
otherterriblebeings,werecreatedandequipped,thewholebeing
placedunderthecommandofadeitynamedKingu,whomshecallsher
"onlyhusband,"andtowhomshedeliversthetabletsoffate,which
conferreduponhimthegodheadofAnu(theheavens),andenabledtheir
possessortodeterminethegatesamongthegodshersons.
KingureplacesAbsu.
Thechangeinthenarrativewhichcomesinheresuggeststhatthisis
thepointatwhichtwolegendscurrentinBabyloniawereunited.
HenceforwardwehearnothingmoreofApsu,thebegetterofallthings,
Tiawath'sspouse,norofMummu,theirson.Inallprobabilitythereis
goodreasonforthis,andinscriptionswilldoubtlessultimatelybe
foundwhichwillexplainit,butuntilthenitisonlynaturalto
supposethattwodifferentlegendshavebeenpiecedtogethertoforma
harmoniouswhole.
Tiawath'saim.
Aswillbegatheredfromtheabove,thestorycentresinthewishof
thegoddessofthepowersofevilandherkindredtoretaincreation
theformingofalllivingthingsinherownhands.AsTiawathmeans
"thesea,"andApsu"thedeep,"itisprobablethatthisisakindof
allegorypersonifyingtheproductivepowerseenintheteeminglifeof
theocean,andtypifyingthestrangeandwonderfulformsfound
therein,whichweresymbolical,totheBabylonianmind,ofchaosand
confusion,aswellasofevil.
Thegodshearoftheconspiracy.
Aa,ora,havinglearnedoftheplotofTiawathandherfollowers
againstthegodsofheaven,naturallybecamefilledwithanger,and
wentandtoldthewholetoAnar,hisfather,whoinhisturngaveway
tohiswrath,andutteredcriesofthedeepestgrief.After
consideringwhattheywoulddo,AnarappliedtohissonAnu,"the
mightyandbrave,"sayingthat,ifhewouldonlyspeaktoher,the
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greatdragon'sangerwouldbeassuaged,andherragedisappear.In
obediencetothisbehest,Anuwenttotryhispowerwiththemonster,
butonbeholdinghersnarlingface,fearedtoapproachher,andturned
back.Nudimmudwasnextcalledupontobecometherepresentativeof
thegodsagainsttheirfoe,buthissuccesswasasthatofAnu,andit
becameneedfultoseekanotherchampion.
AndchooseMerodachastheirchampion.
ThechoicefelluponMerodach,theBelus(BelMerodach)ofDamascius's
paraphrase,andatoncemetwithanenthusiasticreception.Thegod
askedsimplythatan"unchangeablecommand"mightbegiventohim
thatwhateverheordainedshouldwithoutfailcometopass,inorder
thathemightdestroythecommonenemy.Invitationsweresenttothe
godsaskingthemtoafestival,where,havingmettogether,theyate
anddrank,and"decidedthefate"forMerodachtheiravenger,
apparentlymeaningthathewasdecreedtheirdefenderintheconflict
withTiawath,andthatthepowerofcreatingandannihilatingbythe
wordofhismouthwashis.Honourswerethenconferreduponhim;
princelychamberswereerectedforhim,whereinhesatasjudge"in
thepresenceofhisfathers,"andtheruleoverthewholeuniversewas
giventohim.Thetestingofhisnewlyacquiredpowerfollowed.A
garmentwasplacedintheirmidst:
"Hespakewithhismouth,andthegarmentwasdestroyed,
Hespaketoitagain,andthegarmentwasreproduced."
Merodachproclaimedking.
Onthisproofoftherealityofthepowersconferredonhim,allthe
godsshouted"Merodachisking!"andhandedtohimsceptre,throne,
andinsigniaofroyalty.Anirresistibleweapon,whichshouldshatter
allhisenemies,wasthengiventohim,andhearmedhimselfalsowith
spearordart,bow,andquiver;lightningflashedbeforehim,and
flamingfirefilledhisbody.Anu,thegodoftheheavens,hadgiven
himagreatnet,andthishesetatthefourcardinalpoints,inorder
thatnothingofthedragon,whenhehaddefeatedher,shouldescape.
Sevenwindshethencreatedtoaccompanyhim,andthegreatweapon
called/Abubu/,"theFlood,"completedhisequipment.Allbeingready,
hemountedhisdreadful,irresistiblechariot,towhichfoursteeds
wereyokedsteedsunsparing,rushingforward,rapidinflight,their
teethfullofvenom,foamcovered,experiencedingalloping,schooled
inoverthrowing.Beingnowreadyforthefray,Merodachfaredforthto
meetTiawath,accompaniedbytheferventgoodwishesof"thegodshis
fathers."
ThefightwithTiawath.
Advancing,heregardedTiawath'sretreat,butthesightoftheenemy
wassomenacingthateventhegreatMerodach(ifweunderstandthe
textrightly)begantofalter.This,however,wasnotforlong,and
thekingofthegodsstoodbeforeTiawath,who,onherside,remained
firmandundaunted.Inasomewhatlongspeech,inwhichhereproaches
Tiawathforherrebellion,hechallengeshertobattle,andthetwo
meetinfiercestfight.Toallappearancethetypeofallevildidnot
makeuseofhonestweapons,butsoughttoovercomethekingofthe
godswithincantationsandcharms.These,however,hadnotthe
slightesteffect,forshefoundherselfatonceenclosedinMerodach's
net,andonopeninghermouthtoresistandfreeherself,theevil
wind,whichMerodachhadsentonbeforehim,entered,sothatshe
couldnotcloseherlips,andthusinflated,herheartwas
overpowered,andshebecameapreytoherconqueror.Havingcuther
asunderandtakenoutherheart,thusdestroyingherlife,hethrew
herbodydownandstoodthereon.Herfollowersthenattemptedto
escape,butfoundthemselvessurroundedandunabletogetforth.Like
theirmistress,theywerethrownintothenet,andsatinbonds,being
afterwardsshutupinprison.AsforKingu,hewasraisedup,bound,
anddeliveredtobewithUgga,thegodofdeath.Thetabletsoffate,
whichTiawathhaddeliveredtoKingu,weretakenfromhimbyMerodach,
whopressedhissealuponthem,andplacedtheminhisbreast.The
deityAnar,whohadbeen,asitwouldseem,deprivedofhisrightful
powerbyTiawath,receivedthatpoweragainonthedeathofthecommon
foe,andNudimmud"sawhisdesireuponhisenemy."
Tiawath'sfate.
ThedismembermentofTiawaththenfollowed,andherveinshavingbeen
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cutthrough,thenorthwindwascausedbythedeitytocarryherblood
awayintosecretplaces,astatementwhichprobablytypifiesthe
openingofobstructionswhichpreventtheriversflowingfromthe
northfromrunningintothesouthernseas,helpedtheretobythenorth
wind.Finallyherbodywasdivided,like"a/mad/fish,"intotwo
parts,oneofwhichwasmadeintoacoveringfortheheavensthe
"watersabovethefirmament"ofGenesisi.7.
Merodachorderstheworldanew.
Thencametheorderingoftheuniverseanew.Havingmadeacovering
fortheheavenswithhalfthebodyofthedefeatedDragonofChaos,
MerodachsettheAbyss,theabodeofNudimmud,infront,andmadea
correspondingedificeabovetheheavenswherehefoundedstations
forthegodsAnu,Bel,andAe.Stationsforthegreatgodsinthe
likenessofconstellations,togetherwithwhatisregardedasthe
Zodiac,werehisnextwork.Hethendesignatedtheyear,settingthree
constellationsforeachmonth,andmadeastationforNibiru
Merodach'sownstarastheoverseerofallthelightsinthe
firmament.Hethencausedthenewmoon,Nannaru,toshine,andmade
himtherulerofthenight,indicatinghisphases,oneofwhichwason
theseventhday,andtheother,a/abattu/,ordayofrest,inthe
middleofthemonth.Directionswithregardtothemoon'smovements
seemtofollow,buttherecordismutilated,andtheirrealnature
consequentlydoubtful.Withregardtootherworkswhichwereperformed
wehavenoinformation,asagappreventstheirbeingascertained.
Something,however,seemstohavebeendonewithMerodach'snet
probablyitwasplacedintheheavensasaconstellation,aswashis
bow,towhichseveralnamesweregiven.Lateron,thewindswerebound
andassignedtotheirplaces,buttheaccountofthearrangementof
otherthingsismutilatedandobscure,thoughitcanberecognised
thatthedetailsinthisplacewereofconsiderableinterest.
Thecreationofman.
Toallappearancethegods,afterhehadorderedtheuniverseandthe
thingsthenexisting,urgedMerodachtofurtherworksofwonder.
Takinguptheirsuggestion,heconsideredwhatheshoulddo,andthen
communicatedtohisfatherAehisplanforthecreationofmanwith
hisownblood,inorderthattheserviceandworshipofthegodsmight
beestablished.Thisportionisalsounfortunatelyveryimperfect,and
thedetailsofthecarryingoutoftheplanareentirelywanting.
Berosus'narrativefillsthegap.
Itisnoteworthythatthisportionofthenarrativehasbeenpreserved
byAbydenus,GeorgetheSyncellus,andEusebius,intheirquotations
fromBerosus.AccordingtothisChaldanwriter,therewasawoman
namedOmoroca,or,inChaldan,Thalatth(apparentlyamistakefor
Thauatth,i.e.Tiawath),whosenamewasequivalenttotheGreek
Thalassa,thesea.Itwasshewhohadinherchargeallthestrange
creaturesthenexisting.Atthisperiod,Belus(BelMerodach)came,
andcutthewomanasunder,formingoutofonehalftheearth,andof
theothertheheavens,atthesametimedestroyingallthecreatures
whichwerewithinherallthisbeinganallegory,forthewhole
universeconsistsofmoisture,andcreaturesareconstantlygenerated
therein.Thedeitythencutoffhisownhead,andtheothergodsmixed
theblood,asitgushedout,withtheearth,andfromthismenwere
formed.Henceitisthatmenarerational,andpartakeofdivine
knowledge.
Asecondcreation.
ThisBelsus,"whoiscalledZeus,"dividedthedarkness,separatedthe
heavensfromtheearth,andreducedtheuniversetoorder.Theanimals
whichhadbeencreated,however,notbeingabletobearthelight,
died.Belusthen,seeingthevoidthusmade,orderedoneofthegods
totakeoffhishead,andmixthebloodwiththesoil,formingother
menandanimalswhichshouldbeabletobearthelight.Healsoformed
thestars,thesun,themoon,andthefiveplanets.Itwouldthusseem
thatthereweretwocreations,thefirsthavingbeenafailurebecause
Belushadnotforeseenthatitwasneedfultoproducebeingswhich
shouldbeabletobearthelight.Whetherthisrepetitionwasreally
intheBabylonianlegend,orwhetherBerosus(orthosewhoquotehim)
hasmerelyinsertedandunitedtwovaryingaccounts,willonlybe
knownwhenthecuneiformtextiscompleted.
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Theconcludingtablet.
Thetabletofthefiftyonenamescompletestherecordofthetablets
foundatNinevehandBabylon.InthisMerodachreceivesthetitlesof
alltheothergods,thusidentifyinghimwiththem,andleadingto
thattendencytomonotheismofwhichsomethingwillbesaidlateron.
Inthistext,whichiswritten,liketherestofthelegend,in
poeticalform,Merodachisrepeatedlycalled/Tutu/,amysticword
meaning"creator,"and"begetter,"fromthereduplicateroot/tu/or
/utu/whichwastoallappearanceshisnamewhenitwasdesiredto
refertohimespeciallyinthatcharacter.Noteworthyinthisportion
isthereferencetoMerodach'screationofmankind:
Line25."Tuto:Agaazaga(thegloriouscrown)mayhemakethecrowns
glorious.
26.Thelordofthegloriousincantationbringingthedeadto
life;
27.Hewhohadmercyonthegodswhohadbeenoverpowered;
28.Madeheavytheyokewhichhehadlaidonthegodswhowere
hisenemies,
29.(And)toredeem(?)them,createdmankind.
30.'Themercifulone,''hewithwhomissalvation,'
31.Mayhiswordbeestablished,andnotforgotten,
32.Inthemouthoftheblackheadedones[*]whomhishandshave
made."
[*]I.e.mankind.
Mantheredeemer.
Thephrase"toredeemthem"is,intheoriginal,/anapadiunu/,the
verbbeingfrom/pad/,"tospare,""setfree,"andifthisrendering
becorrect,asseemsprobable,theBabylonianreasonsforthecreation
ofmankindwouldbe,thattheymightcarryontheserviceandworship
ofthegods,andbytheirrighteousnessredeemthoseenemiesofthe
godswhowereundergoingpunishmentfortheirhostility.Whetherby
thisTiawath,Apsu,Mummu,Kingu,andthemonsterswhomshehad
createdwereincluded,oronlythegodsofheavenwhohadjoinedher,
therecorddoesnotsay.Naturally,thisdoctrinedependsentirely
uponthecorrectnessofthetranslationofthewordsquoted.Jensen,
whofirstproposedthisrendering,makesnoattempttoexplainit,and
simplyasks:"Does'them'in'toredeem(?)them'refertothegods
namedinline28ortomankindandthentoafuturehowmeant?
redemption?Eschatology?Zimmern's'intheirplace'unprovable.
Delitzschrefrainsfromanexplanation."
Thebilingualaccountofthecreation.AruruaidsMerodach.
Whilstdealingwiththispartofthereligiousbeliefsofthe
Babylonians,afewwordsareneededconcerningthecreationstory
whichisprefixedtoanincantationusedinapurificationceremony.
TheoriginaltextisSumerian(dialectic),andisprovidedwitha
Semitictranslation.Inthisinscription,afterstatingthatnothing
(inthebeginning)existed,andeventhegreatcitiesandtemplesof
Babyloniawereasyetunbuilt,theconditionoftheworldisbriefly
indicatedbythestatementthat"Allthelandsweresea."Therenowned
citiesofBabyloniaseemtohavebeenregardedasbeingasmuch
creationsofMerodachastheworldanditsinhabitantsindeed,itis
apparentlyfortheglorificationofthosecitiesbyattributingtheir
origintoMerodach,thatthebilingualaccountofthecreationwas
composed.."Whenwithintheseatherewasastream"thatis,whenthe
veinsofTiawathhadbeencutthroughridu(probably=Paradise)and
thetemplesagilawithintheAbysswereconstructed,andafterthat
Babylonandtheearthlytempleofsagilawithinit.Thenhemadethe
godsandtheAnnunnaki(thegodsoftheearth),proclaimedaglorious
cityastheseatofthejoyoftheirhearts,andafterwardsmadea
pleasantplaceinwhichthegodsmightdwell.Thecreationofmankind
followed,inwhichMerodachwasaidedbythegoddessAruru,whomade
mankind'sseed.Finally,plants,trees,andtheanimals,were
produced,afterwhichMerodachconstructedbricks,beams,houses,and
cities,includingNifferandErechwiththeirrenownedtemples.
WeseehereachangeintheteachingwithregardtoMerodachthegods
arenolongerspokenofas"hisfathers,"butheisthecreatorofthe
gods,aswellasofmankind.
Theorderofthegodsintheprincipallists.
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Itisunfortunatethatnolistsofgodshavebeenfoundina
sufficientlycompletestatetoallowoftheschemeafterwhichthey
weredrawnuptobedeterminedwithoutuncertainty.Itmay,
nevertheless,beregardedasprobablethattheselists,atleastin
somecases,arearrangedinconformity(toacertainextent)withthe
appearanceofthedeitiesinthesocalledcreationstory.Someof
thembeginwithAnu,andgivehimvariousnames,amongthembeing
AnarandKiar,LahmuandLahame,etc.Morespeciallyinteresting,
however,isawellknowntrilinguallistofgods,whichcontainsthe
namesofthevariousdeitiesinthefollowingorder:
EXTRACTSFROMTHETRILINGUALLIST
/Obverse/
Sumer.DialectSumer.StandardCommonExplanation
(Semit.orSumer.)
1.DimmerDingirluGod.
2.UkiEnkiaaorAa.
3.Gaan(?)kiNinkiDawkinaDauk,theconsortofa.
4.MuullilEnlillaBlTheGodBel.
5.ElumAlimBl
6.Gaan(?)lilNinlilladambisalBel'sconsort.
7.UluaNirignurtuThegodofNiffer.
8.UlibaNirignurtu
912havenurtu'sconsort,sister,andattendant.
13.UabsibEnagdugaNuskuNusku
1419havetwoothernamesofNusku,followedbythreenamesofhis
consort.Anumberofnamesofminordivinitiesthenfollow.At
line43fivenamesofaaregiven,followedbyfourof
Merodach:
48.UbiluluEnbiluluMardukMerodach
49.UTindirkiEnTindirkiMardukMerodachas"lordofBabylon."
50.UdimmerankiaEndingerankiaMardukMerodachas"lordgodofheavenandearth."
51.UabaruEnabaruMardukMerodach,apparentlyas"lordofthe36,000steers."
52.UbargisiNinbargisiZerpantumMerodach'sconsort.
53.GaanabzuNinabzudambisal"theLadyoftheAbyss,"hisconsort.
Theremainderoftheobverseismutilated,butgavethenamesofNebo
inSumerian,andapparentlyalsoofTamtum,hisconsort.The
beginningofthereversealsoismutilated,butseemstohavegiven
thenamesofthesungod,ama,andhisconsort,followedbythoseof
KttuandMarum,"justiceandrighteousness,"hisattendants.Other
interestingnamesare:
/Reverse/
8.UlibirsiEnubarsiDumuziTammuz
9.SirtumuSirduamaDumuzigithemotherofTammuz
12.GaanannaInnannaItarItar(Venus)as"ladyofheaven."
20.NinsiannaInnannamulItarthestar(theplanetVenus).
21.NinNintagtagaNanaaagoddessidentifiedwithItar.
23.UahNinaahPapsukalthegods'messenger.
24.UbandaLugalbandaLugalbanda
26.UMersiNinGirsuNinGirsuthechiefgodofLaga.
27.MasibsibGatumdugaBauBau,agoddessidentifiedwithGula.
FournonSemiticnamesofGulafollow,ofwhichthatinline31isthe
mostinteresting:
31.GaantidibbaNintinguuaGula"theladysavingfromdeath."
33.GaankigalErekigalaAllatuPersephone.
36.UmuzidaNingizidaNingizida"thelordoftheeverlastingtree."
37.UurugalNeerigalNerigalNergal.
42.MuluhursagGaluhursagAmurrutheAmoritegod.
43.GaanguedinaNinguedina(apparentlytheconsortofAmurru).
Inallprobabilitythislistisoneofcomparativelylatedate,though
itschronologicalpositionwithregardtotheothersiswholly
uncertainitmaynotbelater,andmayevenbeearlier,thanthose
beginningwithAnu,thegodoftheheavens.Theimportantthingabout
itis,thatitbeginswith/lu/,god,ingeneral,whichiswritten,
inthestandarddialect(thatofthesecondcolumn)withthesame
characterasthatusedforthenameofAnu.AfterthiscomesAaora,
thegodoftheearth,andhisconsort,followedbyEnlilla,theolder
BelIllinosinDamascius.Thenameofaisrepeatedagaininline43
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andfollowing,whereheisapparentlyreintroducedasthefatherof
Merodach,whosenamesimmediatelyfollow.Thispeculiarityisalso
foundinotherlistsofgodsandisundoubtedlyareflectionofthe
historyoftheBabylonianreligion.AsthislistreplacesAnuby
/lu/,itindicatestheruleofEnkiora,followedbythatof
Merodach,who,ashasbeenshown,becamethechiefdivinityofthe
BabylonianpantheoninconsequenceofBabylonhavingbecomethe
capitalofthecountry.
CHAPTERIV
THEPRINCIPALGODSOFTHEBABYLONIANSANDASSYRIANS
Anu.
ThenameofthisdivinityisderivedfromtheSumeroAkkadian/ana/,
"heaven,"ofwhichhewastheprincipaldeity.Heiscalledthefather
ofthegreatgods,though,inthecreationstory,heseemstobe
describedasthesonofAnarandKiar.Inearlynamesheis
describedasthefather,creator,andgod,probablymeaningthe
supremebeing.HisconsortwasAnatu,andthepairareregardedinthe
listsasthesameastheLahmuandLahameofthecreationstory,who,
withotherdeities,arealsodescribedasgodsoftheheavens.Anuwas
worshippedatErech,alongwithItar.
Ea.
Isgivenasifitwerethe/Semitic/equivalentof/Enki/,"thelord
oftheearth,"butitwouldseemtobereallyaSumerianword,later
written/Ae/,andcertaininscriptionssuggestthatthetruereading
was/Aa/.Histitlesare"kingoftheAbyss,creatorofeverything,
lordofall,"thefirstbeingseeminglyduetothefactthatAaisa
wordwhichmay,initsreduplicateform,mean"waters,"orifread
/a/,"houseofwater."Healso,likeAnu,iscalled"fatherofthe
gods."Asthisgodwaslikewise"lordofdeepwisdom,"itwastohim
thathissonMerodachwentforadvicewheneverhewasindoubt.On
accountofhisknowledge,hewasthegodofartisansingeneral
potters,blacksmiths,sailors,builders,stonecutters,gardeners,
seers,barbers,farmers,etc.ThisistheAos(aformwhichconfirms
thereadingAa)ofDamascius,andtheOannesoftheextractsfrom
Berosus,whostatesthathewas"acreatureendowedwithreason,with
abodylikethatofafish,andunderthefish'sheadanotherhead,
withfeetbelow,likethoseofaman,withafish'stail."This
descriptionappliesfairlywelltocertainbasreliefsfromNimroudin
theBritishMuseum.ThecreaturedescribedbyBerosuslivedinthe
PersianGulf,landingduringthedaytoteachtheinhabitantsthe
buildingofhousesandtemples,thecultivationofusefulplants,the
gatheringoffruits,andalsogeometry,law,andletters.Fromhim,
too,cametheaccountofthebeginningofthingsreferredtoin
chapterIII.which,intheoriginalGreek,isprecededbya
descriptionofthecompositemonsterssaidtohaveexistedbefore
Merodachassumedtheruleoftheuniverse.
Thenameofhisconsort,DamkinaorDawkina,probablymeans"the
eternalspouse,"andherothernames,/Gaanki/(Sumeriandialectic)
and/Ninki/(nondialectic),"Ladyoftheearth,"sufficiently
indicatesherprovince.Sheisoftenmentionedintheincantations
witha.
TheforsakingoftheworshipofaaschiefgodforthatofMerodach
seemstohavecausedconsiderableheartburninginBabylonia,ifwemay
judgefromthestoryoftheFlood,foritwasonaccountofhis
faithfulnessthatUtnipitim,theBabylonianNoah,attainedto
salvationfromtheFloodandimmortalityafterwards.Allthroughthis
adventureitwasthegodawhofavouredhim,andafterwardsgavehim
immortalitylikethatofthegods.ThereisaninterestingSumerian
textinwhichtheshipofaseemstobedescribed,thewoodsofwhich
itsvariouspartswereformedbeingnamed,andinit,apparently,were
Enki(a),Damgalnunna(Damkina),hisconsort,Asariluduga
(Merodach),Inab(orIne),thepilotofridu(a'scity),and
Niniginagarsir,"thegreatarchitectofheaven":
"Maytheshipbeforetheebringfertility,
Maytheshipaftertheebringjoy,
Inthyheartmayitmakejoyofheart...."
awasthegodoffertility,hencethisendingtothepoetical
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descriptionoftheshipofa.
Bel.
Thedeitywhoismentionednextinorderinthelistgivenaboveis
the"olderBel,"socalledtodistinguishhimfromBelMerodach.His
principalnameswere/Mullil/(dialectic)or/Enlilla/[*](standard
speech),the/Illinos/ofDamascius.Hisnameisgenerallytranslated
"lordofmist,"socalledasgodoftheunderworld,hisconsortbeing
/Gaanlil/or/Nanlilla/,"theladyofthemist,"inSemitic
Babylonian/Bltu/,"theLady,"parexcellence.Bel,whosenamemeans
"thelord,"wassocalledbecausehewasregardedaschiefofthe
gods.Astherewasconsiderableconfusioninconsequenceofthetitle
BelhavingbeengiventoMerodach,TiglathpileserI.(about1200
B.C.)referstohimasthe"olderBel"indescribingthetemplewhich
hebuiltforhimatAur.Numerousnamesofmencompoundedwithhis
occuruntilthelatesttimes,implyingthat,thoughthefavouritegod
wasMerodach,theworshipofBelwasnotforgotten,evenatBabylon
thatheshouldhavebeenadoredathisowncity,Niffur,andatDur
Kurigalzu,whereKurigalzuI.builtatemplefor"Bel,thelordof
thelands,"wasnaturallytobeexpected.Being,likea,agodofthe
earth,heisregardedashavingformedatrinitywithAnu,thegodof
heaven,anda,thegodofthedeep,andprayertothesethreewasas
goodasinvokingallthegodsoftheuniverse.Classificationofthe
godsaccordingtothedomainoftheirpowerwouldnaturallytakeplace
inareligioussysteminwhichtheywereallidentifiedwitheach
other,andthisclassificationindicates,asJastrowsays,adeep
knowledgeofthepowersofnature,andamorethanaverage
intelligenceamongtheBabyloniansindeed,heholdsitasaproof
that,attheperiodoftheolderempire,therewereschoolsand
studentswhohaddevotedthemselvestoreligiousspeculationuponthis
point.HealsoconjecturesthatthethirdcommandmentoftheLawof
MoseswasdirectedagainstthisdoctrineheldbytheBabylonians.
[*]Ordinarilypronounced/Illila/,ascertainglossesandDamascius's
/Illinos/(for/Illilos/)show.
Beltis.
ThisgoddesswasproperlyonlythespouseoftheolderBel,butas
/Bltu/,herBabylonianname,simplymeant"lady"ingeneral(justas
/Bl/or/blu/meant"lord"),itbecameatitlewhichcouldbegiven
toanygoddess,andwasinfactbornebyZerpantum,Itar,Nanaa,
andothers.Itwasthereforeoftenneedfultoaddthenameofthecity
overwhichthespecial/Bltu/presided,inordertomakeclearwhich
ofthemwasmeant.Besidesbeingthetitleofthespouseoftheolder
Bel,havingherearthlyseatwithhiminNiffurandotherless
importantshrines,theAssyrianssometimesnameBltuthespouseof
Aur,theirnationalgod,suggestinganidentification,intheminds
ofthepriests,withthatdeity.
nurtuorNirig.[*]
Whether/nurtu/beatranslationof/Nirig/ornot,isuncertain,
butnotimprobable,themeaningbeing"primevallord,"orsomething
similar,and"lord"thatofthefirstelement,/ni/,intheSumerian
form.Insupportofthisreadingandrenderingmaybequotedthefact,
thatoneofthedescriptionsofthisdivinityis/asaridlani
hu/,"theeldestofthegodshisbrothers."Itisnoteworthythat
thisdeitywasaspecialfavouriteamongtheAssyrians,manyofwhose
kings,tosaynothingofprivatepersons,borehisnameasacomponent
partoftheirs.Inthebilingualpoementitled/Anakimegimma/
("FormedlikeAnu"),heisdescribedasbeingthesonofBel(hence
hisappearanceafterBelinthelistprintedabove),andinthe
likenessofAnu,forwhichreason,perhaps,hisdivinityiscalled
"Anuship."Beginningwithwordspraisinghim,itseemstorefertohis
attitudetowardsthegodsofhostilelands,againstwhom,apparently,
herodeinachariotofthesacredlapislazuli.Anuhavingendowed
himwithterribleglory,thegodsoftheearthfearedtoattackhim,
andhisonrushwasasthatofastormflood.BythecommandofBel,
hiscoursewasdirectedtowardskur,thetempleofBelatNiffur.
HerehewasmetbyNusku,thesuprememessengerofBel,who,with
wordsofrespectandofpraise,askshimnottodisturbthegodBel,
hisfather,inhisseat,normakethegodsoftheearthtremblein
Upukennaku(theheavenlyfestivalhallofthegods),andoffershima
gift.[]Itwillthusbeseenthatnurtuwasarivaltotheolder
Bel,whosetemplewasthegreattowerinstagescalledkura,in
which,inallprobability,umedu,theshrineofnurtu,was
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likewisesituated.Theinscriptionscallhim"godofwar,"though,
unlikeNergal,hewasnotatthesametimegodofdiseaseand
pestilence.Toallappearancehewasthegodofthevariouskindsof
stones,ofwhichanotherlegendstatesthathe"determinedtheir
fate."Hewas"thehero,whosenetoverthrowstheenemy,whosummons
hisarmytoplunderthehostileland,theroyalsonwhocausedhis
fathertobowdowntohimfromafar.""Thesonwhosatnotwiththe
nurse,andeschewed(?)thestrengthofmilk,""theoffspringwhodid
notknowhisfather.""Herodeoverthemountainsandscattered
seedunanimouslytheplantsproclaimedhisnametotheirdominion,
amongthemlikeagreatwildbullheraiseshishorns."
[*]/nurtu/isthereadingwhichIhaveadoptedastheSemitic
Babylonianequivalentofthenameofthisdivinity,inconsequence
oftheAramaictranscriptiongivenbycertaincontracttablets
discoveredbytheAmericanexpeditiontoNiffer,andpublishedby
Prof.ClayofPhiladelphia.
[]Theresultofthisrequestisnotknown,inconsequenceofthe
defectivestateofthetablets.
ManyotherinterestingdescriptionsofthedeityNirig(generallyread
Ninip)occur,andshow,withthosequotedhere,thathisstorywas
oneofmorethanordinaryinterest.
Nusku.
ThisdeitywasespeciallyinvokedbytheAssyriankings,butwasinno
wiseexclusivelyAssyrian,asisshownbythefactthathisname
occursinmanyBabylonianinscriptions.Hewasthegreatmessengerof
thegods,andisvariouslygivenas"theoffspringoftheabyss,the
creationofa,"and"thelikenessofhisfather,thefirstbornof
Bel."AsGibil,thefiregod,haslikewisethesamediverseparentage,
itisregardedaslikelythatthesetwogodswereidentical.Nuskuwas
thegodwhosecommandissupreme,thecounsellorofthegreatgods,
theprotectoroftheIgigi(thegodsoftheheavens),thegreatand
powerfulone,thegloriousday,theburningone,thefounderof
cities,therenewerofsanctuaries,theprovideroffeastsforallthe
Igigi,withoutwhomnofeasttookplaceinkura.LikeNebo,hebore
thegloriousspectre,anditwassaidofhimthatheattackedmightily
inbattle.Withouthimthesungod,thejudge,couldnotgive
judgment.
Allthispointstotheprobability,thatNuskumaynothavebeenthe
firegod,butthebrotherofthefiregod,i.e.eitherflame,orthe
lightoffire.Thesungod,withoutlight,couldnotsee,and
thereforecouldnotgivejudgment:nofeastcouldbepreparedwithout
fireanditsflame.Astheevidenceofthepresenceoftheshining
orbsintheheavensthelightoftheirfireshewasthemessengerof
thegods,andwashonouredaccordingly.Fromthisidea,too,hebecame
theirmessengeringeneral,especiallyofBelMerodach,theyounger
Bel,whoserequestshecarriedtothegodaintheDeep.Inone
inscriptionheisidentifiedwithNirigornurtu,whoisdescribed
above.
Merodach.
Concerningthisgod,andhowhearosetothepositionofkingofall
thegodsofheaven,hasbeenfullyshowninchapterIII.Thoughthere
isbutlittleinhisattributestoindicateanyconnectionwithama,
thereishardlyanydoubtthathewasoriginallyasungod,asis
shownbytheetymologyofhisname.Theform,asithasbeenhanded
downtous,issomewhatshortened,theoriginalpronunciationhaving
been/Amaruduk/,"theyoungsteerofday,"anamewhichsuggeststhat
hewasthemorningsun.Ofthefournamesgivenattheendofchapter
III.,two"lordofBabylon,"and"lordgodofheavenandearth,"may
beregardedasexpressinghismorewellknownattributes./Enabar
u/,however,isaprovisional,thoughnotimpossible,readingand
rendering,andifcorrect,the"36,000wildbulls"wouldbea
metaphoricalwayofspeakingof"the36,000heroes,"probablymeaning
thegodsofheaveninalltheirgrades.Thesignificationof/En
bilulu/isunknown.LikemostoftheothergodsoftheBabylonian
pantheon,however,Merodachhadmanyothernames,amongwhichmaybe
mentioned/Asari/,whichhasbeencomparedwiththeEgyptianOsiris,
/Asariluduga/,"/Asari/whoisgood,"comparedwithOsirisUnnefer;
/Namtila/,"life",/Tutu/,"begetter(ofthegods),renewer(ofthe
gods),"/arazaga/,"thegloriousincantation,"/Muazaga/,"the
gloriouscharm,"andmanyothers.Thelasttworefertohisbeingthe
godwho,byhiskindness,obtainedfromhisfathera,dwellinginthe
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abyss,thosecharmsandincantationswhichbenefitedmankind,and
restoredthesicktohealth.Inthisconnection,afrequenttitle
giventohimis"themercifulone,"butmostmercifulwasheinthat
hesparedthelivesofthegodswho,havingsidedwithTaiwath,were
hisenemies,asisrelatedinthetabletofthefiftyonenames.In
connectionwiththefightheborealsothenames,"annihilatorofthe
enemy,""rooteroutofallevil,""troubleroftheevilones,""life
ofthewholeofthegods."FromthesenamesitisclearthatMerodach,
indefeatingTiawath,annihilated,atthesametime,thespiritof
evil,Satan,theaccuser,ofwhichshewas,probably,theBabylonian
type.ButunliketheSaviourintheChristiancreed,hesavednotonly
man,atthattimeuncreated,butthegodsofheavenalso.As"kingof
theheavens,"hewasidentifiedwiththelargestoftheplanets,
Jupiter,aswellaswithotherheavenlybodies.Traversingtheskyin
greatzigzags,JupiterseemedtotheBabylonianstosuperintendthe
stars,andthiswasregardedasemblematicofMerodachshepherding
them"pasturingthegodslikesheep,"asthetablethasit.
AlonglistofgodsgivesasitwerethecourtofMerodach,heldin
whatwasapparentlyaheavenly/sagila/,andamongthespiritual
beingsmentionedare/Minkulbli/and/Minitbli/,"whatmy
lordhaseaten,"and"whathasmylorddrunk,"/Nadinmgati/,"he
whogiveswaterforthehands,"alsothetwodoorkeepers,andthe
fourdogsofMerodach,whereinpeopleareinclinedtoseethefour
satellitesofJupiter,which,itisthought,wereprobablyvisibleto
certainofthemoresharpsightedstargazersofancientBabylonia.
Thesedogswerecalled/Ukkumu/,/Akkulu/,/Iksuda/,and/Iltebu/,
"Seizer,""Eater,""Grasper,"and"Holder."Imagesofthesebeings
wereprobablykeptinthetempleofsagilaatBabylon.
Zerpantum.
ThiswasthenameoftheconsortofMerodach,andisgenerallyread
Sarp(b)anitumatranscriptionwhichisagainstthenativeorthography
andetymology,namely,"seedcreatress"(Zerbantum).Themeaning
attributedtothiswordispartlyconfirmedbyanothernamewhich
Lehmannhaspointedoutthatshepossessed,namely,/Erua/or/Aru'a/,
who,inaninscriptionofAntiochusSoter(280260B.C.)iscalled
"thequeenwhoproducesbirth,"butmoreespeciallybythe
circumstance,thatshemustbeidenticalwithAruru,whocreatedthe
seedofmankindalongwithMerodach.Whyshewascalled"theladyof
theabyss,"andelsewhere"thevoiceoftheabyss"(/Meabzu/)isnot
known.ZerpantumwasnomerereflectionofMerodach,butoneofthe
mostimportantgoddessesintheBabylonianpantheon.Thetendencyof
scholarshasbeentoidentifyherwiththemoon,Merodachbeinga
solardeityandthemeaning"silvery"/Sarpanitum/,from/sarpu/,one
ofthewordsfor"silver,"wasregardedassupportingthisidea.She
wasidentifiedwiththeElamitegoddessnamedElagu,andwiththe
LahamumoftheislandofBahrein,theBabylonianTilmun.
NeboandTamtum.
As"theteacher"and"thehearer"thesewereamongthemostpopularof
thedeitiesofBabyloniaandAssyria.Nebo(inSemiticBabylonian
Nab)wasworshippedatthetempletowerknownaszida,"theever
lastinghouse,"atBorsippa,nowtheBirsNimroud,traditionally
regardedasthesiteoftheTowerofBabel,thoughthattitle,ashas
alreadybeenshown,wouldbestsuitthesimilarstructureknownas
sagila,"thehouseofthehighhead,"inBabylonitself.In
compositionwithmen'snames,thisdeityoccursmorethananyother,
evenincludingMerodachhimselfaclearindicationoftheestimation
inwhichtheBabyloniansandAssyriansheldthepossessionof
knowledge.Thecharacterwithwhichhisnameiswrittenmeans,with
thepronunciationof/ak/,"tomake,""tocreate,""toreceive,""to
proclaim,"andwiththepronunciationof/me/,"tobewise,""wisdom,"
"openofear,""broadofear,"and"tomake,ofahouse,"thelast
probablyreferringtothedesignratherthantotheactualbuilding.
Underthenameof/Dimara/hewas"thecreatorofthewritingofthe
scribes,"as/Nizu/,"thegodwhoknows"(/zu/,"toknow"),as
/Mermer/,"thespeeder(?)ofthecommandofthegods"ontheSumerian
sideindicatingsomeconnectionwithAdduorRimmon,thethunderer,
andontheSemiticsidewithnurtu,whowasoneofthegods'
messengers.AsmallfragmentintheBritishMuseumgavehisattributes
asgodofthevariouscitiesofBabylonia,butunfortunatelytheir
namesarelostorincomplete.Fromwhatremains,however,weseethat
Nebowasgodofditching(?),commerce(?),granaries(?),fasting(?),
andfood;itwashewhooverthrewthelandoftheenemy,andwho
protectedplanting;and,lastly,hewasgodofBorsippa.
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TheworshipofNebowasnotalwaysaspopularasitbecameinthe
laterdaysoftheBabylonianempireandafteritsfall,andJastrowis
ofopinionthatHammurabiintentionallyignoredthisdeity,givingthe
preferencetoMerodach,thoughhedidnotsuppresstheworship.Why
thisshouldhavetakenplaceisnotbyanymeanscertain,forNebowas
adeityadoredfarandwide,asmaybegatheredfromthefactthat
therewasamountainbearinghisnameinMoab,uponwhichMosesalso
an"announcer,"addsJastrowdied.Besidesthemountain,therewasa
cityinMoabsonamed,andanotherinJuda.Thatitwasthe
BabylonianNebooriginallyisimpliedbytheformtheHebrew
correspondingwordis/nabi/.
HowoldtheworshipofTamtum,hisconsort,is,isdoubtful,buther
namefirstoccursinadateofthereignofHammurabi.Details
concerningherattributesarerare,andJastrowregardsthisgoddess
astheresultofBabylonianreligiousspeculations.Itisnoteworthy
thatherworshipappearsmoreespeciallyinlatertimes,butitmaybe
doubtedwhetheritisaproductofthoselatetimes,especiallywhen
webearinmindtheremarkablesealimpressiononanearlytabletof
35004500B.C.,belongingtoLordAmherstofHackney,inwhichwesee
amalefigurewithwideopenmouthseizingastagbyhishorns,anda
femalefigurewithnomouthatall,butwithveryprominentears,
holdingabullinasimilarmanner.Herewehavethe"teacher"andthe
"hearer"personifiedinaveryremarkablemanner,anditmaywellbe
thatthisprimitivepictureshowstheideathenprevailingwithregard
tothesetwodeities.ItistobenotedthatthenameofTamtumhas
aSumerianequivalent,namely,/Kurnun/,andthattheideographby
whichitisrepresentedisonewhosegeneralmeaningseemstobe"to
bind,"perhapswiththeadditionalsignificationof"toaccomplish,"
inwhichcase"shewhohears"wouldalsobe"shewhoobeys."
amaandhisconsort.
AtalltimestheworshipofthesuninBabyloniaandAssyriawas
exceedinglypopular,as,indeed,wastobeexpectedfromhis
importanceasthegreatestoftheheavenlybodiesandthebrightest,
withoutwhosehelpmencouldnotlive,anditisanexceedingly
noteworthyfactthatthisdeitydidnotbecome,likeRainEgypt,the
headofthepantheon.ThisplacewasreservedforMerodach,alsoa
sungod,butpossessingattributesofafarwiderscope.amais
mentionedasearlyasthereignofannatum,whosedateissetat
about4200B.C.,andatthisperiodhisSemiticnamedoesnot,
naturally,occur,thecharacterusedbeing/Utu/,or,initslonger
form,/Utuki/.
Itisworthyofnotethat,inconsequenceoftheBabylonianideaof
evolutioninthecreationoftheworld,lessperfectbeingsbrought
forththosewhichweremoreperfect,andthesunwasthereforethe
offspringofNannaraorSin,themoon.Inaccordancewiththesame
idea,theday,withtheSemites,beganwiththeevening,thetimewhen
themoonbecamevisible,andthusbecomestheoffspringofthenight.
Intheinscriptionsamaisdescribedas"thelightofthingsabove
andthingsbelow,theilluminatoroftheregions,""thesupremejudge
ofheavenandearth,""thelordoflivingcreatures,thegraciousone
ofthelands."Dawninginthefoundationofthesky,heopenedthe
locksandthrewwidethegatesofthehighheavens,andraisedhis
head,coveringheavenandearthwithhissplendour.Hewasthe
constantlyrighteousinheaven,thetruthwithintheearsofthe
lands,thegodknowingjusticeandinjustice,righteousnesshe
supporteduponhisshoulders,unrighteousnessheburstasunderlikea
leatherbond,etc.Itwillthusbeseen,thatthesungodwasthe
greatgodofjudgmentandjusticeindeed,heisconstantlyalludedto
as"thejudge,"thereasoninallprobabilitybeing,thatasthesun
shinesupontheearthalldaylong,andhislightpenetrates
everywhere,hewasregardedasthegodwhoknewandinvestigated
everything,andwasthereforebestinapositiontojudgearight,and
deliverajustdecision.Itisforthisreasonthathisimageappears
attheheadofthesteleinscribedwithHammurabi'slaws,andlegal
ceremonieswereperformedwithintheprecinctsofhistemples.The
chiefseatsofhisworshipwerethegreattemplescalledbabbara,
"thehouseofgreatlight,"inthecitiesofLarsaandSippar.
TheconsortofamawasAa,whosechiefseatwasatSippar,sideby
sidewithama.Thoughonlyaweakreflexofthesungod,herworship
wasexceedinglyancient,beingmentionedinaninscriptionof
Manitusu,whoisregardedashavingreignedbeforeSargonofAgad.
Fromthefactthat,inoneofthelists,shehasnamesformedby
reduplicatingthenameofthesungod,/Utu/,shewouldseemonceto
havebeenidenticalwithhim,inwhichcaseitmaybesupposedthat
shepersonifiedthesettingsun"thedoublesun"fromthemagnified
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discwhichhepresentsatsunset,when,accordingtoahymntothe
settingsunsungatthetempleatBorsippa,Aa,intheSumerianline
Kurnirda,wasaccustomedtogotoreceivehim.Accordingtothelist
referredtoabove,Aa,withthenameofBuridainSumerian,wasmore
especiallytheconsortofazu,"himwhoknowstheheart,"oneofthe
namesofMerodach,whowasprobablythemorningsun,andthereforethe
exactcounterpartofthesunatevening.
BesidesamaandUtu,thelatterhisordinarySumerianname,thesun
godhadseveralothernonSemiticnames,including/Ginu/,[*]"the
light,"/Mabandaanna/,"thebarkofheaven,"/U/,"therising
sun,"/Mitra/,apparentlythePersianMithra;/Umeima/andNahunda,
Elamitenames,andSahi,theKassitenameofthesun.Healso
sometimesbearsthenamesofhisattendantsKittuandMaru,"Truth"
and"Righteousness,"whoguidedhimuponhispathasjudgeofthe
earth.
[*]Itisthegroupexpressingthiswordwhichisusedforamain
thenameofamaumukn(Saosduchinos),thebrotherofAur
banipli(Assurbanipal).TheGreekequivalentimpliesthe
pronunciation/awa/,aswellas/ama/.
TammuzandItar.
ThedateoftheriseofthemythofTammuzisuncertain,butasthe
nameofthisgodisfoundontabletsofthetimeofLugalandaand
Urukagina(about3500B.C.),itcanhardlybeoflaterdatethan
4000B.C.,andmaybemuchearlier.Asheisrepeatedlycalled"the
shepherd,"andhadadomainwherehepasturedhisflock,Professor
SayceseesinTammuz"DaonusorDaos,theshepherdofPantibibla,"
who,accordingtoBerosus,ruledinBabyloniafor10/sari/,or36,000
years,andwasthesixthkingofthemythicalperiod.Accordingtothe
classicstory,themotherofTammuzhadunnaturalintercoursewithher
ownfather,beingurgedtheretobyAphroditewhomshehadoffended,
andwhohaddecidedthustoavengeherself.Beingpursuedbyher
father,whowishedtokillherforthiscrime,sheprayedtothegods,
andwasturnedintoatree,fromwhosetrunkAdoniswasafterwards
born.Aphroditewassocharmedwiththeinfantthat,placinghimina
chest,shegavehimintothecareofPersephone,who,however,when
shediscoveredwhatatreasureshehadinherkeeping,refusedtopart
withhimagain.Zeuswasappealedto,anddecidedthatforfourmonths
intheyearAdonisshouldbelefttohimself,fourshouldbespent
withAphrodite,andfourwithPersephone,andsixwithAphroditeon
earth.Hewasafterwardsslain,whilsthunting,byawildboar.
Nothinghascomedowntousasyetconcerningthislegendexceptthe
incidentofhisdwellinginHades,whitherItar,theBabylonian
Venus,wentinsearchofhim.Itisnotbyanymeansunlikely,
however,thatthewholestoryexistedinBabylonia,andthencespread
toPhnicia,andafterwardstoGreece.InPhniciaitwasadaptedto
thephysicalconditionsofthecountry,andtheplaceofTammuz's
encounterwiththeboarwassaidtobethemountainsofLebanon,
whilsttherivernamedafterhim,Adonis(nowtheNahrIbrahim),which
ranredwiththeearthwasheddownbytheautumnrains,wassaidtobe
socolouredinconsequenceofbeingmingledwithhisblood.The
descentofTammuztotheunderworld,typifiedbytheflowingdownof
theearthladenwatersoftheriverstothesea,wasnotonly
celebratedbythePhnicians,butalsobytheBabylonians,whohadat
leasttwoseriesoflamentationswhichwereusedonthisoccasion,and
wereprobablytheoriginalsofthosechantedbytheHebrewwomenin
thetimeofEzekiel(about597B.C.).Whilstonearth,hewastheone
whonourishedtheeweandherlamb,thegoatandherkid,andalso
causedthemtobeslainprobablyinsacrifice."Hehasgone,hehas
gonetothebosomoftheearth,"themournerscried,"hewillmake
plentytooverflowforthelandofthedead,foritslamentationsfor
thedayofhisfall,intheunpropitiousmonthofhisyear."Therewas
alsolamentationforthecessationofthegrowthofvegetation,and
oneofthesehymns,afteraddressinghimastheshepherdandhusband
ofItar,"lordoftheunderworld,"and"lordoftheshepherd'sseat,"
goesontolikenhimtoagermwhichhasnotabsorbedwaterinthe
furrow,whosebudhasnotblossomedinthemeadow;tothesapling
whichhasnotbeenplantedbythewatercourse,andtothesapling
whoseroothasbeenremoved.Inthe"Lamentations"intheManchester
Museum,Itar,oroneofherdevotees,seemstocallforTammuz,
saying,"Return,myhusband,"asshemakesherwaytotheregionof
gloominquestofhim.Eregala,"theladyofthegreathouse"
(Persephone),isalsoreferredto,andthetextseemstoimplythat
Itarenteredherdomaininspiteofher.Inthistextothernamesare
giventohim,namely,/Tumugiba/,"sonoftheflute,"/Amaelaggi/,
and/iumunnagi/,"lifeofthepeople."
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ThereferencetosheepandgoatsintheBritishMuseumfragment
recallsthefactthatinanincantationforpurificationtheperson
usingitistoldtogetthemilkofayellowgoatwhichhasbeen
broughtforthinthesheepfoldofTammuz,recallingtheflocksofthe
GreeksungodHelios.Thesewerethecloudsilluminatedbythesun,
whichwerelikenedtosheepindeed,oneoftheearlySumerian
expressionsfor"fleece"was"sheepofthesky."ThenameofTammuzin
SumerianisDumuzi,orinitsrarefullestform,Dumuzida,meaning
"true"or"faithfulson."Thereisprobablysomelegendattachedto
thiswhichisatpresentunknown.
InallprobabilityItar,thespouseofTammuz,isbestknownfromher
descentintoHadesinquestofhimwhenwithPersephone(Erekigal)
intheunderworld.Inthisshehadtopassthroughsevengates,andan
articleofclothingwastakenfromherateach,untilshearrivedin
theunderworldquitenaked,typifyingtheteaching,thatmancantake
nothingawaywithhimwhenhedepartsthislife.Duringherabsence,
thingsnaturallybegantogowrongupontheearth,andthegodswere
obligedtointervene,anddemandherrelease,whichwasultimately
granted,andateachgate,asshereturned,theadornmentswhichshe
hadleftweregivenbacktoher.Itisuncertainwhetherthehusband
whomshesoughttoreleasewassetfree,buttheendofthe
inscriptionseemstoimplythatItarwassuccessfulinhermission.
Inthisstoryshetypifiesthefaithfulwife,butotherlegendsshow
anothersideofhercharacter,asinthatofGilgame,rulerofher
cityErech,towhomshemakeslove.Gilgame,however,knowingthe
characterofthedivinequeenofhiscitytoowell,reproachesher
withhertreatmentofherhusbandandherotherloversTammuz,to
whom,fromyeartoyear,shecausedbitterweeping;thebright
colouredAllalabird,whomshesmoteandbrokehiswings;thelion
perfectinstrength,inwhomshecutwounds"bysevens";thehorse
gloriousinwar,towhomshecausedhardshipanddistress,andtohis
motherSililibitterweeping;theshepherdwhoprovidedforherthings
whichsheliked,whomshesmoteandchangedtoajackal;Iullanu,her
father'sgardener,whomshetried,apparently,topoison,butfailing,
shesmotehim,andchangedhimtoastatue(?).Onbeingthusreminded
ofhermisdeeds,Itarwasnaturallyangry,and,ascendingtoheaven,
complainedtoherfatherAnuandhermotherAnatu,theresultbeing,
thatadivinebullwassentagainstGilgameandEnkidu,hisfriend
andhelper.Thebull,however,waskilled,andaportionoftheanimal
havingbeencutoff,Enkiduthrewitatthegoddess,sayingatthe
sametimethat,ifhecouldonlygetholdofher,hewouldtreather
similarly.ApparentlyItarrecognisedthattherewasnothingfurther
tobedoneinthematter,so,gatheringthehandmaidens,pleasure
womenandwhores,intheirpresencesheweptovertheportionofthe
divinebullwhichhadbeenthrownather.
TheworshipofItar,shebeingthegoddessofloveandwar,was
considerablymorepopularthanthatofherspouse,Tammuz,who,as
amongthewesternSemiticnations,wasadoredratherbythewomenthan
themen.Herworshipwasinallprobabilityofequalantiquity,and
branchedout,sotosay,inseveraldirections,asmaybejudgedby
hermanynames,eachofwhichhadatendencytobecomeadistinct
personality.Thusthesyllabariesgivethecharacterwhichrepresents
hernameashavingalsobeenpronounced/Innanna/,/Ennen/,and/Nin/,
whilstanotuncommonnameinotherinscriptionsis/AmaInnanna/,
"motherItar."TheprincipalseatofherworshipinBabyloniawasat
Erech,andinAssyriaatNinevehalsoatArbela,andmanyother
places.Shewasalsohonoured(atErechandelsewhere)underthe
ElamitenamesofTipakanduinak,"theSusiangoddess."
Nina.
Fromthename/Nin/,whichItarbore,thereishardlyanydoubtthat
sheacquiredtheidentificationwithNina,whichisprovableasearly
asthetimeoftheLagaitekings,LugalandaandUrukagina.As
identifiedwithAruru,thegoddesswhohelpedMerodachtocreate
mankind,Itarwasalsoregardedasthemotherofall,andinthe
BabylonianstoryoftheFlood,sheismadetosaythatshehad
begottenman,butlike"thesonsofthefishes,"hefilledthesea.
Nina,then,asanotherformofItar,wasagoddessofcreation,
typifiedintheteeminglifeoftheocean,andhernameiswritten
withacharacterstandingforahouseorreceptacle,withthesignfor
"fish"within.HerearliestseatwasthecityofNinainsouthern
Babylonia,fromwhichplace,inallprobability,colonistswent
northwards,andfoundedanothershrineatNinevehinAssyria,which
afterwardsbecamethegreatcentreofherworship,andonthisaccount
thecitywascalledafterherNinaaorNinua.Astheirtutelary
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goddess,thefishermenintheneighbourhoodoftheBabylonianNinaand
Lagawereaccustomedtomaketoher,aswellastoInnannaorItar,
largeofferingsoffish.
Asthemasculinedeitieshadfeminineforms,soitisnotbyanymeans
improbablethatthegoddesseshadmasculineforms,andifthatbethe
case,wemaysupposethatitwasamasculinecounterpartofNinawho
foundedNineveh,which,asiswellknown,isattributedtoNinos,the
samenameasNinawiththeGreekmasculinetermination.
NinGursu.
Thisdeityisprincipallyofimportanceinconnectionwiththeancient
BabylonianstateofLaga,thehomeofanoldandimportantlineof
kingsandviceroys,amongthelatterbeingthecelebratedGudea,whose
statuesandinscribedcylindersnowadorntheBabyloniangalleriesof
theLouvreatParis.Hisnamemeans"LordofGirsu,"whichwas
probablyoneofthesuburbs,andtheoldestpart,ofLaga.Thisdeity
wassonofEnlilaorBl,andwasidentifiedwithNirigornurtu.
Toallappearancehewasasundeity.Thedialecticformofhisname
was/UMersi/,ofwhichavariant,/EnMersi/,occursinan
incantationpublishedinthefourthvolumeofthe/Cuneiform
InscriptionsofWesternAsia/,pl.27,where,fortheSumerian"Takea
whitekidofEnMersi,"theSemitictranslationis"ofTammuz,"
showingthathewasidentifiedwiththelattergod.Inthesecond
volumeofthesameworkNinGirsuisgivenasthepronunciationofthe
nameofthegodofagriculturalists,confirmingthisidentification,
Tammuzbeingalsogodofagriculture.
Bau.
Thisgoddessatalltimesplayedaprominentpartinancient
Babylonianreligion,especiallywiththerulersbeforethedynastyof
Hammurabi.Shewasthe"mother"ofLaga,andhertemplewasat
Uruazaga,adistrictofLaga,thechiefcityofNinGirsu,whose
spouseshewas.LikeNinGirsu,sheplanted(notonlygrainand
vegetation,butalsotheseedofmen).Inhercharacterofthegoddess
whogavelifetomen,andhealedtheirbodiesinsickness,shewas
identifiedwithGula,oneofthosetitlesis"theladysavingfrom
death".Gatumduga,whosenameprobablymeans"makingandproducing
good,"wasalsoexceedinglypopularinancienttimes,andthough
identifiedwithBau,isregardedbyJastrowhashavingbeenoriginally
distinctfromher.
ErekigalorAllatu.
AstheprototypeofPersephone,thisgoddessisoneofmuchimportance
forcomparativemythology,andthereisalegendconcerningherof
considerableinterest.ThetextisoneofthosefoundatTelel
Armana,inEgypt,andstatesthatthegodsoncemadeafeast,andsent
toErekigal,sayingthat,thoughtheycouldgodowntoher,she
couldnotascendtothem,andaskinghertosendamessengertofetch
awaythefooddestinedforher.Thisshedid,andallthegodsstood
uptoreceivehermessenger,exceptone,whoseemstohavewithheld
thistokenofrespect.Themessenger,whenhereturned,apparently
relatedtoErekigalwhathadhappened,andangeredthereat,she
senthimbacktothepresenceofthegods,askingforthedelinquent
tobedeliveredtoher,thatshemightkillhim.Thegodsthen
discussedthequestionofdeathwiththemessenger,andtoldhimto
taketohismistressthegodwhohadnotstoodupinhispresence.
Whenthegodswerebroughttogether,thattheculpritmightbe
recognised,oneofthemremainedinthebackground,andonthe
messengeraskingwhoitwaswhodidnotstandup,itwasfoundtobe
Nerigal.Thisgodwasdulysent,butwasnotatallinclinedtobe
submissive,forinsteadofkillinghim,asshehadthreatened,Ere
kigalfoundherselfseizedbythehairanddraggedfromherthrone,
whilstthedeathdealinggodmadereadytocutoffherhead."Donot
killme,mybrother,letmespeaktothee,"shecried,andonhis
loosinghisholduponherhair,shecontinued,"thoushaltbemy
husband,andIwillbethywifeIwillcauseyoutotakedominionin
thewideearth.Iwillplacethetabletofwisdominthinehandthou
shaltbelord,Iwillbelady."Nerigalthereupontookher,kissed
her,andwipedawayhertears,saying,"Whateverthouhastaskedme
formonthspastnowreceivesassent."
ErekigaldidnottreatherrivalintheaffectionsofTammuzso
gentlywhenItardescendedtoHadesinsearchofthe"husbandofher
youth."Accordingtothestory,notonlywasItardeprivedofher
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garmentsandornaments,butbytheordersofErekigal,Namtarsmote
herwithdiseaseinallhermembers.Itwasnotuntilthegods
intervenedthatItarwassetfree.Themeaningofhernameis"lady
ofthegreatregion,"adescriptionwhichissupposedtoapplyto
Hades,andofwhichavariant,Erekigal,"ladyofthegreathouse,"
occursintheHymnstoTammuzintheManchesterMuseum.
Nergal.
Thisnameissupposedtomean"lordofthegreathabitation,"which
wouldbeaparalleltothatofhisspouseErekigal.Hewasthe
rulerofHades,andatthesametimegodofwarandofdiseaseand
pestilence.Aswarrior,henaturallyfoughtonthesideofthosewho
worshippedhim,asinthephrasewhichdescribeshimas"thewarrior,
thefiercestormfloodoverthrowingthelandoftheenemy."Aspointed
outbyJastrow,hediffersfromNirig,whowasalsoagodofwar,in
thathesymbolises,asgodofdiseaseanddeath,themiseryand
destructionwhichaccompanythestrifeofnations.Itisin
consequenceofthissideofhischaracterthatheappearsalsoasgod
offire,thedestroyingelement,andJensensaysthatNerigalwasgod
ofthemiddayorofthesummersun,andthereforeofallthe
misfortunescausedbyanexcessofhisheat.
ThechiefcentreofhisworshipwasCuthah(/Kut/,Sumerian/Gudua/)
nearBabylon,nowrepresentedbythemoundsofTelIbrahim.The
identitywiththeGreekAriesandtheRomanMarsisprovedbythefact
thathisplanetwas/Mutabarrmtanu/,"thedeathspreader,"which
isprobablythenameofMarsinSemiticBabylonian.
Amurru.
Althoughthisisnotbyanymeansafrequentnameamongthedeities
worshippedinBabylonia,itisworthyofnoticeonaccountofits
bearinguponthedateofthecompilationofthetabletwhichhasbeen
takenasabasisofthislistofgods.Hewasknownas"Lordofthe
mountains,"andhisworshipbecameverypopularduringtheperiodof
thedynastytowhichHammurabibelongedsayfrom2200to1937B.C.,
whenAmurruwasmuchcombinedwiththenamesofmen,andisfoundboth
ontabletsandcylinderseals.Theideographicmannerofwritingitis
/Martu/,awordthatisusedfor/Amurru/,thelandoftheAmorites,
whichstoodfortheWestingeneral.AmoriteshadenteredBabyloniain
considerablenumbersduringthisperiod,sothatthereisbutlittle
doubtthathispopularitywaslargelyduetotheirinfluence,andthe
tabletcontainingthesenameswasprobablydrawnup,oratleasthad
theSemiticequivalentsadded,towardsthebeginningofthatperiod.
SinorNannara.
ThecultofthemoongodwasoneofthemostpopularinBabylonia,the
chiefseatofhisworshipbeingatUru(nowMuqayyar)theBiblicalUr
oftheChaldees.TheoriginofthenameSinisunknown,butitis
thoughtthatitmaybeacorruptionofZuena,"knowledgelord,"as
thecompoundideographexpressinghisnamemaybereadandtranslated.
Besidesthiscompoundideograph,thenameofthegodSinwasalso
expressedbythecharacterfor"30,"providedwiththeprefixof
divinity,anideographwhichisduetothethirtydaysofthemonth,
andisthoughttobeoflatedate.WithregardtoNannar,Jastrow
explainsitasbeingforNarnar,andrendersit"lightproducer."Ina
longhymntothisgodheisdescribedinmanylinesas"thelord,
princeofthegods,whoinheavenaloneissupreme,"andas"father
Nannar."Amonghisotherdescriptivetitlesare"greatAnu"(Sum./ana
gale/,SemiticBab./Anurab/)anotherinstanceofthe
identificationoftwodeities.Hewasalso"lordofUr,""lordofthe
templeGinugala,""lordoftheshiningcrown,"etc.Heisalsosaid
tobe"themightysteerwhosehornsarestrong,whoselimbsare
perfect,whoisbeardedwithabeardoflapisstone,[*]whoisfilled
withbeautyandfullness(ofsplendour)."
[*]Probablyofthecolouroflapisonly,notmadeofthestone
itself.
BesidesBabyloniaandAssyria,hewasalsoworshippedinotherparts
oftheSemiticeast,especiallyatHarran,towhichcityAbraham
migrated,scholarssay,inconsequenceofthepatrondeitybeingthe
sameasatUroftheChaldees,wherehehadpassedtheearlieryears
ofhislife.TheMountainofSinaiandtheDesertofSin,bothbear
hisname.
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AccordingtokingDungi(about2700B.C.),thespouseofSinor
NannarawasNinUruwa,"theladyofUr."SargonofAssyria(722705
B.C.)callsherNingala.
AdduorRammanu.
ThenumerousnameswhichHadadbearsintheinscriptions,bothnon
SemiticandSemitic,testifytothepopularitywhichthisgodenjoyed
atalltimesinBabylonia.AmonghisnonSemiticnamesmaybe
mentionedMer,Mermer,Muru,all,itmaybeimagined,imitative.Addu
isexplainedasbeinghisnameintheAmoritelanguage,andavariant
form,apparently,whichhaslostitsfirstsyllable,namely,Dadu,
alsoappearstheAssyriansseemalwaystohaveusedthe
terminationlessformofAddu,namely,Adad.InallprobabilityAddu,
Adad,andDaduarederivedfromtheWestSemiticHadad,buttheother
name,Rammanu,isnativeBabylonian,andcognatewithRimmon,whichis
thusshownbytheBabylonianformtomean"thethunderer,"or
somethingsimilar.Hewasthegodofwinds,storms,andrain,feared
onaccountoftheformer,andworshipped,andhisfavoursought,on
accountofthelast.InhisnameBirqu,heappearsasthegodof
lightning,andJastrowisofopinion,thatheissometimesassociated
onthataccountwithama,bothofthembeing(althoughindifferent
degrees)godsoflight,andthisisconfirmedbythefactthat,in
commonwiththesungod,hewascalled"godofjustice."Inthe
Assyrianinscriptionsheappearsasagodofwar,andthekings
constantlycomparethedestructionwhichtheirarmieshadwroughtwith
thatof"Adadtheinundator."Forthemhewas"themightyone,
inundatingtheregionsoftheenemy,landsandhouses,"andwasprayed
tostrikethelandofthepersonwhoshowedhostilitytotheAssyrian
king,withevilworkinglightning,tothrowwant,famine,drought,and
corpsestherein,toorderthatheshouldnotliveonedaylonger,and
todestroyhisnameandhisseedintheland.
TheoriginalseatofhisworshipwasMuruinSouthBabylonia,towhich
thepatesiofGirsuinthetimeofIbiSinsentgrainasanoffering.
Itssiteisunknown.Otherplaces(oraretheyothernamesofthe
same?)wherehewasworshippedwereEnnigiandKakru.Theconsortof
Adduwasala,whoseworshipwaslikewiseverypopular,andtowhom
thereweretemples,notonlyinBabyloniaandAssyria,butalsoin
Elam,seeminglyalwaysinconnectionwithAddu.
Aur.
Inallthedeitiestreatedofabove,weseethechiefgodsofthe
BabylonianandAssyrianpantheon,whichwereworshippedbyboth
peoplesextensively,noneofthembeingspecificallyAssyrian,though
worshippedbytheAssyrians.Therewasonedeity,however,whosename
willnotbefoundintheBabylonianlistsofgods,namely,Aur,the
nationalgodofAssyria,whowasworshippedinthecityofAur,the
oldcapitalofthecountry.
Fromthiscircumstance,itmayberegardedascertain,thatAurwas
thelocalgodofthecitywhosenamehebore,andthatheattainedto
thepositionofchiefgodoftheAssyrianpantheoninthesamewayas
MerodachbecamekingofthegodsinBabylonianamely,becauseAur
wasthecapitalofthecountry.Hisacceptanceaschiefdivinity,
however,wasmuchmoregeneralthanthatofMerodach,astemplesto
himweretobefoundallovertheAssyriankingdomacircumstance
whichwasprobablyduetoAssyriabeingmorecloselyunitedinitself
thanBabylonia,causinghisnametoarousepatrioticfeelingswherever
itmightbereferredto.Thiswasprobablypartlyduetothefact,
thatthekinginAssyriawasmoretherepresentativeofthegodthan
inBabylonia,andthatthegodfollowedhimonwarlikeexpeditions,
andwhenengagedinreligiousceremoniesindeed,itisnotbyany
meansimprobablethathewasthoughttofollowhimwhereverhewent.
Onthesculpturesheisseenaccompanyinghimintheformofacircle
providedwithwings,inwhichisshownsometimesafulllengthfigure
ofthegodinhumanform,sometimestheupperpartonly,facing
towardsanddrawinghisbowagainstthefoe.Inconsequenceofits
generalappearance,theimageofthegodhasbeenlikenedtothesun
ineclipse,thefarstretchingwingsbeingthoughttoresemblethe
longstreamersvisibleatthemomentoftotality,anditmustbe
admittedasprobablethatthismayhavegiventheideaofthesymbol
shownonthesculptures.Asasungod,andatthesametimenotthe
godama,heresembledtheBabylonianMerodach,andwaspossibly
identifiedwithhim,especiallyas,inatleastonetext,Bltu
(Bltis)isdescribedashisconsort,whichwouldpossiblyidentify
Aur'sspousewithZerpantum.Theoriginalformofhisnamewould
seemtohavebeenAuar,"waterfield,"probablyfromthetractwhere
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thecityofAurwasbuilt.HisidentificationwithMerodach,ifthat
waseveraccepted,mayhavebeenduetothelikenessofthewordto
Asari,oneofthatdeity'snames.ThepronunciationAur,however,
seemstohaveledtoacomparisonwiththeAnarofthefirsttablet
oftheCreationstory,thoughitmayseemstrangethattheAssyrians
shouldhavethoughtthattheirpatrongodwasadeitysymbolisingthe
"hostofheaven."Nevertheless,theGreektranscriptionofAnar,
namely,/Assoros/,givenbyDamascius,certainlystrengthensthe
indicationsoftheideographinthismatter.Delitzschregardsthe
wordAur,orAur,ashereadsit,asmeaning"holy,"andquotesa
listofthegodsofthecityofNineveh,wherethewordAuroccurs
threetimes,suggestingtheexclamation"holy,holy,holy,"or"the
holy,holy,holyone."Inallprobability,however,therepetitionof
thenamethreetimessimplymeansthattherewerethreetemples
dedicatedtoAurinthecitiesinquestion.[*]Jastrowagreeswith
DelitzschinregardingAurasanotherformofAir(foundinearly
Cappadociannames),buthetranslatesitratheras"overseer"or
"guardian"ofthelandandthepeopletheterminationlessformof
/airu/,whichhasthismeaning,andisappliedtoMerodach.
[*]OrtheremayhavebeenthreeshrinestoAurineachtemple
referredto.
Astheuseofthecharacters/Anar/forthegodAuronlyappears
atalatedate(JastrowsaystheeighthcenturyB.C.),thiswouldseem
tohavebeentheworkofthescribes,whowishedtoreadintothename
theearliersignificationofAnar,"thehostofheaven,"an
explanationfullyinaccordwithJastrow'sreasoningswithregardto
thenatureofthedeity.Asherepresentednopersonificationorpower
ofnature,hesays,butthegeneralprotectingspiritoftheland,the
king,thearmy,andthepeople,thecapitalofthecountrycouldbe
transferredfromAurtoCalah,fromtherebacktoAur,andfinally
toNineveh,withoutaffectingthepositionoftheprotectinggodof
thelandinanyway.Heneedednotemplethoughsuchthingswere
erectedtohimhehadnoneedtofearthatheshouldsufferinesteem
bythepreferenceforsomeothergod.Astheembodimentofthespirit
oftheAssyrianpeoplethepersonalsideofhisbeingremainedtoa
certainextentinthebackground.Ifhewasthe"hostofheaven,"all
thedeitiesmightberegardedashavingtheirbeinginhim.
SuchwasthechiefdeityoftheAssyriansanationalgod,graftedon
to,butalwaysdistinctfrom,therestofthepantheon,which,ashas
beenshown,wasofBabylonianorigin,andalwaysmaintainedthe
characteristicsandstampofitsorigin.
ThespouseofAurdoesnotappearinthehistoricaltexts,andher
mentionelsewhereunderthetitleofBltu,"thelady,"doesnotallow
ofanyidentificationbeingmade.Inoneinscription,however,
Aurituiscalledthegoddess,andAurthegod,ofthestarSibzi
anna,identifiedbyJensenwithRegulus,whichwasapparentlythestar
ofMerodachinBabylonia.This,however,bringsusnonearer,for
Aurituwouldsimplymean"theAssurite(goddess)."
Theminordivinities.
Amongthehundredsofnameswhichthelistsfurnish,afewareworthy
ofmention,eitherbecauseofmorethanordinaryinterest,orin
consequenceoftheirfurnishingthenameofsomedeity,chiefinits
locality,butidentifiedelsewherewithoneofthegreatergods.
Aa.Thismayberegardedeitherasthegoda(thoughthenameis
writtendifferently),orasthesungodassumingthenameofhis
consort;or(whatis,perhaps,moreprobable)asawayofwritingA'u
orYa'u(theHebrewJah),withouttheendingofthenominative.This
lastisalsofoundundertheform/Aa'u/,/ya'u/,/yau/,and/ya/.
Abiladdu.Thisdeityseemstohaveattainedacertainpopularityin
latertimes,especiallyamongimmigrantsfromtheWest.As"thesonof
Hadad,"hewastheequivalentoftheSyrianBenHadad.AtabletinNew
Yorkshowsthathisnamewasweakenedinformto/Ablada/.
Aku,themoongodamongtheheavenlybodies.Itisthisnamewhichis
regardedasoccurringinthenameoftheBabyloniankingEriAku,
"servantofthemoongod,"thebiblicalArioch(Gen.xiv.).
Ammaanki,aorAaaslordofheavenandearth.
Amna.Anameonlyfoundinasyllabary,andassignedtothesungod,
fromwhichitwouldseemthatitisaformoftheEgyptianAmmon.
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Anunitum,thegoddessofoneofthetwoSippars,calledSipparof
Anunitum,whowasworshippedinthetempleulmawithinthecityof
Agad(Akkad).Sayceidentifies,onthisaccount,thesetwoplacesas
beingthesame.Inalistofstars,Anunitumiscoupledwith
inunutum,whichareexplainedas(thestarsof)theTigrisand
Euphrates.ThesewereprobablynamesofVenusasthemorningand
evening(oreveningandmorning)star.
Apsu.ThedeepdissociatedfromtheevilconnectionwithTiawath,and
regardedas"thehouseofdeepwisdom,"i.e.thehomeofthegodaor
Aa.
Aruru.OneofthedeitiesofSipparandAruru(inthetimeofthe
dynastyofHammurabicalledYa'ruru),ofwhichshewasthechief
goddess.Aruruwasoneofthenamesofthe"ladyofthegods,"and
aidedMerodachtomaketheseedofmankind.
Bl.Asthisnamemeans"lord,"itcouldbeapplied,likethe
PhnicianBaal,tothechiefgodofanycity,asBlofNiffur,Blof
Hursagkalama,BlofAratta,BlofBabylon,etc.Thisoften
indicatesalsothestarwhichrepresentedthechiefgodofaplace.
Bltu.InthesamewayBltu,meaning"lady,"meantalsothechief
goddessofanyplace,as"Aruru,ladyofthegodsofSipparofAruru,"
"Ninmah,ladyofthegodsofmah,"acelebratedtemplewithin
Babylon,recentlyexcavatedbytheGermans,"Ninhursaga,ladyofthe
godsofK,"etc.
Bunene.AgodassociatedwithamaandItaratSipparand
elsewhere.He"gave"and"renewed"tohisworshippers.
Dagan.Thisdeity,whoseworshipextendsbacktoanexceedinglyearly
date,isgenerallyidentifiedwiththePhnicianDagon.Hammurabi
seemstospeakoftheEuphratesasbeing"theboundaryofDagan,"whom
hecallshiscreator.InlaterinscriptionstheformDaguna,which
approachesnearertotheWestSemiticform,isfoundinafewpersonal
names.ThePhnicianstatuesofthisdeityshowedhimwiththelower
partofhisbodyintheformofafish(see1Sam.v.4).Whetherthe
deitiesclothedinafish'sskinintheNimroudgallerybeDagonor
notisuncertaintheymaybeintendedforaorAa,theOannesof
Berosus,whowasrepresentedinthisway.Probablythetwodeities
wereregardedasidentical.
Damu.agoddessregardedasequivalenttoGulabytheBabyloniansand
Assyrians.Shewasgoddessofhealing,andmadeone'sdreamshappy.
Dumuziabzu,"TammuzoftheAbyss."Thiswasoneofthesixsonsof
aorAa,accordingtothelists.Hisworshipisexceedinglyancient,
andgoesbacktothetimeofEannatumofLaga(about4000B.C.).
Whatconnection,ifany,hemayhavewithTammuz,thespouseofItar,
isunknown.Jastrowapparentlyregardshimasadistinctdeity,and
translateshisname"thechildofthelifeofthewaterdeep."
Elali.AdeityidentifiedwiththeHebrewHelal,thenewmoon.Only
foundinnamesofthetimeoftheHammurabidynasty,inoneofwhich
heappearsas"acreator."
Ennugiisdescribedas"lordofstreamsandcanals,"and"lordofthe
earth,lordofnoreturn."Thislastdescription,whichgivesthe
meaningofhisname,suggeststhathewasoneofthegodsoftherealm
ofErekigal,thoughhemayhavebornethatnamesimplyasgodof
streams,whichalwaysflowdown,neverthereverse.
Gibil.Oneofthenamesofthegodoffire,sometimestranscribed
GirrubyAssyriologists,themeaningapparentlybeing"thefire
bearer"or"lightbearer."Girruisanothernameofthisdeity,and
translatesanideographicgroup,renderedbyDelitzsch"great"or
"highestdecider,"suggestingthecustomoftrialbyordeal.Hewas
identifiedwithNirig,inSemiticnurtu.
GuqibandaorKuskibanda,oneofthenamesofa,probablyasgodof
goldworkers.
Ium,"theglorioussacrificer,"seeminglyanameofthefiregodasa
meanswherebyburntofferingsweremade.NrIum,"lightofIum,"is
foundasaman'sname.
Kawanu,theplanetSaturn.
Lagamal.AgodidentifiedwiththeElamiteLagamar,whosenameis
regardedasexistinginChedorlaomer(cf.Gen.xiv.2).Hewasthe
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chiefgodofMair,"theshipcity."
LugalAmaradaorLugalMarad.Thisnamemeans"kingofMarad,"acity
asyetunidentified.Thekingofthisplaceseemstohavebeen
Nerigal,ofwhom,therefore,LugalMaradisanothername.
Lugalbanda.Thisnamemeans"thepowerfulking,"orsomething
similar,andthegodbearingitissupposedtobethesameasNerigal.
Hisconsort,however,wasnamedNinsun(orNingul).
LugalDuazaga,"thekingofthegloriousseat."Thefounderof
ridu,"thegoodcitywithintheAbyss,"probablytheparadise(ora
paradise)oftheworldtocome.Asitwastheaimofeverygood
Babyloniantodwellhereafterwiththegodwhomhehadworshippedupon
earth,itmaybeconjecturedthatthiswastheparadiseinthedomain
ofaorAa.
Mama,Mami.Namesof"theladyofthegods,"andcreatressofthe
seedofmankind,Aruru.Probablysocalledasthe"mother"ofall
things.AnothernameofthisgoddessisAma,"mother."
Mammitum,Mamitum,goddessoffate.
Mur,oneofthenamesofAdduorRammanu(HadadorRimmon).
NanorNanaawastheconsortofNeboatBorsippa,butappearsasa
formofItar,worshipped,withAnuherfather,atErech.
Ninahakuku,anameofaorAaandofhisdaughterasdeityofthe
rivers,andthereforeofgardensandplantations,whichwerewatered
bymeansofthesmallcanalsleadingtherefrom.Asdaughterofa,
thisdeitywasalso"ladyoftheincantation."
Ninazu,theconsortofErekigal,probablyas"lordphysician."He
isprobablytobeidentifiedwithNerigal.
Niniginagarsi,anamesomewhatmoredoubtfulastoitsreadingthan
theothers,designatesaorAaas"thegodofthecarpenter."He
seemstohavebornethisas"thegreatconstructorofheaven"or"of
Anu."
Ninmah,chiefgoddessofthetemplemahinBabylon.Probablytobe
identifiedwithAruru,andthereforewithZerpantum.
Ninah,adeitywhosenameisconjecturedtomean"lordofthewild
boar."Heseemstohavebeenagodofwar,andwasidentifiedwith
NirigornurtuandPapsukal.
Ninsirsir,aasthegodofsailors.
Ninsun,aspointedoutbyJastrow,wasprobablythesameasItaror
NanofErech,whereshehadashrine,withthem,inanna,"the
houseofAnu."Herendershername"theannihilatinglady,"[*]
"appropriatefortheconsortofasungod,"forsuchheregardsLugal
bandaherspouse.KingSingasidofErech(about3000B.C.)refersto
herashismother.
[*]Thisisduetothesecondelementofthenamehaving,withanother
pronunciation,themeaningof"todestroy."
Nunurra.a,asthegodofpotters.
Papsukal.AnameofNinahasthe"divinemessenger,"whoisalso
describedasgod"ofdecisions."Ninahwouldseemtohavebeenone
ofthenamesofPapsukalratherthanthereverse.
Qarradu,"strong,""mighty,""brave."Thisword,whichwasformerly
translated"warrior,"isappliedtoseveraldeities,amongthembeing
Bl,Nergal,Nirig(nurtu),andama,thesungod.
RagimuandRamimu,namesofRimmonorHadadas"thethunderer."The
secondcomesfromthesamerootasRammanu(Rimmon).
uqamunu.Adeityregardedas"lordofwatercourses,"probablythe
artificialchannelsdugfortheirrigationoffields.
Uragala,anameofNerigal.
Ura,anameofNirig,underwhichhewasworshippedatDailem,near
Babylon.
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Zagaga,dialecticZamama.Thisdeity,whowasagodofwar,was
identifiedwithNirig.Oneofthistitleswas/blparakki/,"lordof
theroyalchamber,"or"throneroom."
ZaraquorZariqu.Astherootofthisnamemeans"tosprinkle,"he
wasprobablyalsoagodofirrigation,andmayhavepresidedover
ceremonialpurification.Heismentionedinnamesasthe"giverof
seed"and"giverofaname"(i.e.offspring).
Theseareonlyasmallproportionofthenamesfoundinthe
inscriptions,butshortasthelistnecessarilyis,thenature,ifnot
thefullcomposition,oftheBabylonianpantheonwilleasilybe
estimatedtherefrom.
Itwillbeseenthatbesidestheidentificationsofthedeitiesofall
thelocalpantheonswitheachother,eachdivinityhadalmostasmany
namesasattributesandtitles,hencetheirexceedingmultiplicity.In
suchanextensivepantheon,manyofthegodscomposingitnecessarily
overlap,andidentificationofeachother,towhichthefaith,inits
primitiveform,wasastranger,wereinevitable.Thetendencyto
monotheismwhichthiscausedwillbereferredtolateron.
Thegodsandtheheavenlybodies.
Ithasalreadybeenpointedoutthat,fromtheevidenceofthe
Babyloniansyllabary,thedeitiesoftheBabylonianswerenotastral
intheirorigin,theonlygodscertainlyoriginatinginheavenly
bodiesbeingthesunandthemoon.Thisleadstothesuppositionthat
theBabylonians,bearingthesetwodeitiesinmind,mayhaveasked
themselveswhy,ifthesetwowererepresentedbyheavenlybodies,the
othersshouldnotbesorepresentedalso.Bethisasitmay,theother
deitiesofthepantheonweresorepresented,andthefullplanetary
scheme,asgivenbyabilinguallistintheBritishMuseum,wasas
follows:
AkuSinthemoonSin
Biebiamathesunama
DapinuUmunsigaJupiterMerodach
Zib[*]DelebatVenusItar
LulimLubatsaguSaturnNirig(acc.toJensen)
BibbuLubatgudMercuryNebo
SimutuMutabarruMarsNergal
mtanu
Alltheabovenamesofplanetshavetheprefixofdivinity,butin
otherinscriptionsthedeterminativeprefixisthatfor"star,"
/kakkabu/.
[*]ThisisapparentlyaSumeriandialecticform,theoriginalword
havingseeminglybeenZig.
MoonandSun.
Unfortunately,alltheaboveidentificationsoftheplanetswiththe
deitiesinthefourthcolumnarenotcertain,namely,those
correspondingwithSaturn,Mercury,andMars.Withregardtothe
others,however,thereisnodoubtwhatever.Thereasonwhythemoon
isplacedbeforethesunisthatthesun,asalreadyexplained,was
regardedashisson.Itwasnoteworthyalsothatthemoonwas
accreditedwithtwootheroffspring,namely,MuandMtusonand
daughterrespectively.As/mu/means"twin,"thesenamesmust
symbolisethetwohalves,or,aswesay,"quarters"ofthemoon,who
werethusregarded,inBabylonianmythology,ashis"twinchildren."
JupiterandSaturn.
ConcerningJupiter,whoisintheabovecalledDapinu(Semitic),and
Umunsiga(Sumerian),ithasalreadybeennotedthathewascalled
NibiruaccordingtoJensen,Merodachashewhowentaboutamongthe
stars"pasturing"themlikesheep,asstatedintheBabylonianstory
oftheCreation(orBelandtheDragon).Thisisexplainedbyhimas
beingduetothecomparativelyrapidandextensivepathofJupiteron
theecliptic,anditwouldseemprobablethatthenamesofSaturn,
/Kawanu/and/Sagu/(theformer,whichisSemiticBabylonian,
meaning"steadfast,"orsomethingsimilar,andthelatter,in
Sumerian,"headfirm"or"steadfast""phlegmatic"),toallappearance
indicateinlikemannerthedeliberationofhismovementscompared
withthoseoftheplanetdedicatedtothekingofthegods.
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Venusatsunriseandsunset.
Afragmentofatabletpublishedin1870givessomeinteresting
particularsconcerningtheplanetVenus,probablyexplainingsomeas
yetunknownmythologicalstoryconcerningher.Accordingtothis,she
wasafemaleatsunset,andamaleatsunrise;ItarofAgad(Akador
Akkad)atsunrise,andItarofErechatsunset:Itarofthestarsat
sunrise,andtheladyofthegodsatsunset.
Andinthevariousmonths.
ItarwasidentifiedwithNinsiannainthefirstmonthoftheyear
(Nisan=MarchApril),withthestarofthebowinAb(August
September),etc.InSebat(JanuaryFebruary)shewasthestarofthe
waterchannel,Ik,whichwasMerodach'sstarinSivan(MayJune),and
inMarcheswanherstarwasRabbu,whichalsobelongedtoMerodachin
thesamemonth.Itwillthusbeseen,thatBabylonianastronomyisfar
frombeingasclearaswouldbedesired,butdoubtlessmany
difficultieswilldisappearwhenfurtherinscriptionsareavailable.
StarsidentifiedwithMerodach.
ThesamefragmentgivesthecelestialnamesofMerodachforevery
monthoftheyear,fromwhichitwouldappear,thattheastrologers
calledhimUmunsigainNisan(MarchApril),DapinuinTammuz(June
July),NibiruinTisri(SeptemberOctober),arru(thestarRegulus),
inTebet(DecemberJanuary),etc.Thefirstthreearenamesbywhich
theplanetJupiterwasknown.
Asfortheplanetsandstars,soalsofortheconstellations,which
areidentifiedwithmanygodsanddivinebeings,andprobablycontain
references,intheirnamesanddescriptions,tomanylegends.Inthe
sixthtabletoftheCreationseries,itisrelatedofMerodachthat,
aftercreatingtheheavensandthestationsforAnu,Bl,andAe,
"Hebuiltfirmlythestationsofthegreatgods
Starstheirlikenesshesetupthe/Lumali/,
Hedesignatedtheyear,heoutlinedthe(heavenly)forms.
Hesetforthetwelvemonthsthreestarseach,
Fromthedaywhentheyearbegins,...forsigns."
AspointedoutbyMr.RobertBrown,jr.,whohasmadeastudyofthese
things,the"threestars"foreachmonthoccurononeoftheremains
ofplanispheresintheBritishMuseum,andarecompletedbyatablet
whichgivestheminlistform,inonecasewithexplanations.Until
theseareproperlyidentified,however,itwillbeimpossibleto
estimatetheirrealvalue.ThesignsoftheZodiac,whicharegivenby
anothertablet,areofgreaterinterest,astheyaretheoriginalsof
thosewhichareinuseatthepresenttime:
MonthSignEquivalent
Nisan(Mar.Apr.)TheLabourerTheRam
Iyyar(Apr.May)/Mulmula/andtheBullofheavenTheBull
Sivan(MayJune)/Sibzianna/andthegreatTwinsTheTwins
Tammuz(JuneJuly)/Allul/or/Nagar/TheCrab
Ab(July.Aug.)TheLion(ordog)TheLion
Elul(Aug.Sep.)TheEarofcorn(?)TheearofCorn(Virgo)
Tisri(Sep.Oct.)TheScalesTheScales
Marcheswan(Oct.Nov.)TheScorpionTheScorpion
Chisleu(Nov.Dec.)/Pabilsag/TheArcher
Tebet(Dec.Jan.)/Saharma/,theFishkidTheGoat
Sebat(Jan.Feb.)/Gula/TheWaterbearer
Adar(Feb.Mar.)TheWaterChannelandtheTailsTheFishes
ParallelsinBabylonianlegends.
The"bullofheaven"probablyreferstosomelegendsuchasthatof
thestoryofGilgameinhisconflictwiththegoddessItarwhenthe
divinebullwaskilled;/Sibzianna/,"thefaithfulshepherdof
heaven,"suggeststhatthisconstellationmayrefertoTammuz,the
divineshepherd;whilst"thescorpion"remindsusofthescorpionmen
whoguardedthegateofthesun(ama),whenGilgamewasjourneying
togaininformationconcerninghisfriendEnkidu,whohaddepartedto
theplaceofthedead.SirHenryRawlinsonmanyyearsagopointedout
thatthestoryoftheFloodoccupiedtheeleventhtabletofthe
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Gilgameseries,correspondingwiththeeleventhsignoftheZodiac,
Aquarius,ortheWaterbearer.
Otherstarnames.
Othernamesofstarsorconstellationsinclude"theweaponof
Merodach'shand,"probablythatwithwhichheslewthedragonof
Chaos;"theHorse,"whichisdescribedas"thegodZ,"Rimmon's
stormbirdPegasus;"theSerpent,"explainedasErekigal,the
queenofHades,whowouldthereforeseemtohavebeenconceivedin
thatform;"theScorpion,"whichisgivenas/Iharatntim/,"Ihara
ofthesea,"adescriptiondifficulttoexplain,unlessitreferto
herasthegoddessofthePhniciancoast.Manyotheridentifications,
exceedinglyinteresting,awaitsolution.
Howthegodswererepresented.Oncylinderseals.
Manyrepresentationsofthegodsoccur,bothonbasreliefs,boundary
stones,andcylindricalandordinaryseals.Unfortunately,their
identificationgenerallypresentsmoreorlessdifficulty,onaccount
oftheabsenceofindicationsoftheiridentity.Onasmallcylinder
sealinthepossessionoftheRev.Dr.W.HayesWard,Merodachis
shownstridingalongtheserpentinebodyofTiawath,whoturnsher
headtoattackhim,whilstthegodthreatensherwithapointedweapon
whichhecarries.Another,publishedbythesamescholar,showsa
deity,whomheregardsasbeingMerodach,driveninachariotdrawnby
awingedlion,uponwhoseshouldersstandsanakedgoddess,holding
thunderboltsineachhand,whomhedescribesasZerpantum.Another
cylindersealshowsthecorndeity,probablyNisaba,seatedin
flouncedrobeandhornedhat,withcornstalksspringingoutfromhis
shoulders,andholdingatwofoldearofcorninhishand,whilstan
attendantintroduces,andanotherwithathreefoldearofcorn
follows,amancarryingaplough,apparentlyasanoffering.On
another,abeautifulspecimenfromAssyria,Itarisshownstandingon
anAssyrianlion,whichturnshisheadasiftocaressherfeet.As
goddessofwar,sheisarmedwithbowandarrows,andherstaris
representeduponthecrownofhertiara.
Onboundarystones,etc.
OntheboundarystonesofBabyloniaandtheroyalmonolithsofAssyria
theemblemsofthegodsarenearlyalwaysseen.Mostprominentare
threehornedtiaras,emblematic,probably,ofMerodach,Anu,andBl
(theolder).Acolumnendinginaram'sheadisusedforaorAe,a
crescentforSinorNannar,themoongod;adiscwithraysforama,
thesungod;athunderboltforRimmonorHadad,thegodofthunder,
lightning,wind,andstorms;alampforNusku,etc.Abird,perhapsa
hawk,stoodforUtugigallu,adeitywhosenamehasbeentranslated
"thesouthernsun,"andisexplainedinthebilingualinscriptionsas
ama,thesungod,andNirig,oneofthegodsofwar.Theemblemof
Galalim,whoisidentifiedwiththeolderBl,isasnarlingdragon's
headformingtheterminationofapole,andthatofDunaagaisa
bird'sheadsimilarlyposed.Onaboundarystoneofthetimeof
NebuchadnezzarI.,about1120B.C.,oneofthesignsofthegodsshows
ahorse'sheadinakindofshrine,probablytheemblemofRimmon's
stormbird,Z,theBabylonianPegasus.
Otherdivinefigures.
Oneofthefinestofalltherepresentationsofdivinitiesisthatof
the"Sungodstone,"foundbyMr.HormuzdRassamatAbuhabbah(the
ancientSippar),whichwasoneofthechiefseatsofhisworship.It
representshim,seatedinhisshrine,holdinginhishandastaffand
aring,hisusualemblems,typifyinghispositionasjudgeofthe
worldandhisendlesscourse.ThepositionofMerodachassungodis
confirmedbythesmalllapislazulirelieffoundbytheGerman
expeditionatthemoundknownasAmranibn'Ali,ashealsocarriesa
staffandaring,andhisrobeiscoveredwithornamentalcircles,
showing,inallprobability,hissolarnature.Inthesameplace
anothersmallreliefrepresentingRimmonorHadadwasfound.Hisrobe
hasdiscsemblematicalofthefiveplanets,andheholdsineachhand
athunderbolt,oneofwhichheisabouttolaunchforth.Merodachis
accompaniedbyalargetwohorneddragon,whilstHadadhasasmall
wingeddragon,typifyingtheswiftnessofhiscourse,andanother
animal,bothofwhichheholdswithcords.
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CHAPTERV
THEDEMONS:EXORCISMSANDCEREMONIES
Goodandevilspirits,godsanddemons,werefullybelievedinbythe
BabyloniansandAssyrians,andmanytextsreferringtothemexist.
Naturallyitisnotinsomecaseseasytodistinguishwellbetweenthe
specialfunctionsofthesesupernaturalappearanceswhichthey
supposedtoexist,buttheirnatureis,inmostcases,easily
ascertainedfromtheinscriptions.
Toallappearance,theBabyloniansimaginedthatspiritsresided
everywhere,andlayinwaittoattackmankind,andtoeachclass,
apparently,aspecialprovinceinbringingmisfortune,ortormenting,
orcausingpainandsickness,wasassigned.Allthespirits,however,
werenotevil,eventhosewhosenameswouldsuggestthattheir
characterwassuchthereweregood"liersinwait,"forinstance,as
wellasevilones,whoseattitudetowardsmankindwasbeneficent.
The/utukku/.Thiswasaspiritwhichwassupposedtodothewillof
Anu,thegodoftheheavens.Therewasthe/utukku/oftheplain,the
mountains,thesea,andthegrave.
The/l/.Regardedasthedemonofthestorm,andpossibly,inits
origin,thesameasthedivinebullsentbyItartoattackGilgame,
andkilledbyEnkidu.Itspreaditselfoveraman,overpoweringhim
uponhisbed,andattackinghisbreast.
The/dimmu/.Thisisgenerally,butwrongly,read/kimmu/,and
translated"theseizer,"from/kemu/,"toseize."Inreality,
however,itwasanordinaryspirit,andthewordisusedforthe
wraithsofthedeparted.The"evil/dimmu/"wasapparentlyregarded
asattackingthemiddlepartofaman.
The/gallu/.AsthiswordisborrowedfromtheSumerian/galla/,which
hasadialecticform,/mulla/,itisnotimprobablethatitmaybe
connectedwiththeword/mula/,meaning"star,"andsuggesting
somethingwhichisvisiblebythelightitgivespossiblyawillo'
thewisp,thoughothersareinclinedtoregardthewordasbeing
connectedwith/gala/,"great."Inanycase,itsmeaningseemstohave
becomeverysimilarto"evilspirit"or"devil"ingeneral,andisan
epithetappliedbytheAssyriankingAurbaniplitoTeumman,the
Elamitekingagainstwhomhefought.
The/lulimnu/,"evilgod,"wasprobablyoriginallyoneofthe
deitiesofTiawath'sbrood,uponwhomMerodach'sredemptionhadhadno
effect.
The/rabisu/isregardedasaspiritwhichlayinwaittopounceupon
hisprey.
The/labartu/,inSumerian/dimme/,wasafemaledemon.Therewere
sevenevilspiritsofthiskind,whowereapparentlyregardedasbeing
daughtersofAnu,thegodoftheheavens.
The/labasu/,inSumerian/dimmea/,wasapparentlyaspiritwhich
overthrew,thatbeingthemeaningoftherootfromwhichtheword
comes.
The/hhazu/,inSumerian/dimmekur/,wasapparentlysocalledas
"theseizer,"thatbeingthemeaningindicatedbytheroot.
The/lilu/,inSumerian/lila/,isgenerallyregardedas"thenight
monster,"thewordbeingreferredtotheSemiticroot/ll/or/layl/,
whencetheHebrew/layil/,Arabic/layl/,"night."Itsorigin,
however,isSumerian,from/lila/,regardedasmeaning"mist."Tothe
word/lilu/theancientBabyloniansformedafeminine,/lilthu/,
whichenteredtheHebrewlanguageundertheformof/lilith/,which
was,accordingtotherabbins,abeautifulwoman,wholayinwaitfor
childrenbynight.The/lilu/hadacompanionwhoiscalledhis
handmaidorservant.
The/namtaru/wasapparentlythespiritoffate,andthereforeof
greaterimportancethanthosealreadymentioned.Thisbeingwas
regardedasthebelovedsonofBl,andoffspringof/Erekigal/or
Persephone,andhehadaspousenamed/Hubiaga/.Apparentlyhe
executedtheinstructionsgivenhimconcerningthefateofmen,and
couldalsohavepowerovercertainofthegods.
The/du/wereapparentlydeitiesintheformofbulls.Theywere
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destructive,ofenormouspower,andunsparing.Inagoodsensethe
/du/wasaprotectingdeity,guardingagainsthostileattacks.Erech
andthetemplekurawereprotectedbyspiritssuchasthese,andto
oneofthemIum,"theglorioussacrificer,"waslikened.
The/lamassu/,fromtheSumerian/lama/,wassimilarincharacterto
the/du/,butisthoughttohavebeenofthenatureofacolossusa
wingedmanheadedbullorlion.Itisthesecreatureswhichthekings
placedatthesidesofthedoorsoftheirpalaces,toprotectthe
king'sfootsteps.InearlyBabyloniantimesagodnamedLamawasone
ofthemostpopulardeitiesoftheBabylonianpantheon.
Aspecimenincantation.
Numerousinscriptions,whichmayberegardedasdating,intheir
origin,fromaboutthemiddleofthethirdmillenniumbeforeChrist,
speakofthesesupernaturalbeings,andalsoofotherssimilar.Oneof
themostperfectoftheseinscriptionsisalargebilingualtabletof
whichaduplicatewrittenduringtheperiodofthedynastyof
Hammurabi(before2000B.C.)exists,andwhichwasafterwardsprovided
withaSemiticBabyloniantranslation.Thisinscriptionreferstothe
evilgod,theevil/utukku/,the/utukku/oftheplain,ofthe
mountain,ofthesea,andofthegrave;theevil/du/,theglorious
/l/,ordivinebull,andtheevilunsparingwind.Therewasalso
thatwhichtakestheformofaman,theevilface,theevileye,the
evilmouth,theeviltongue,theevillip,theevilbreath;alsothe
afflicting/asakku/(regardedasthedemonoffever),the/asakku/
whichdoesnotleaveaman:theafflicting/namtaru/(fate),the
severe/namtaru/,the/namtaru/whichdoesnotquitaman.Afterthis
arementionedvariousdiseases,bodilypains,annoyances,suchas"the
oldshoe,thebrokenshoelace,thefoodwhichafflictsthebodyofa
man,thefoodwhichturnsineating,thewaterwhichchokesin
drinking,"etc.Otherthingstobeexorcisedincludedthespiritof
death,peoplewhohaddiedofhunger,thirst,orinotherways;the
handmaidofthe/lilu/whohadnohusband,theprinceofthe/lilu/
whohadnowife,whetherhisnamehadbeenrecordedorunrecorded.
Themethodofexorcisingthedemonscausingallthesethingsis
curious.Whiteandblackyarnwasspun,andfastenedtothesideand
canopyoftheafflictedperson'sbedthewhitetothesideandthe
toporcanopy,theblacktothelefthandandthen,apparently,the
followingwordsweresaid:
"Evil/utukku/,evil/l/,evil/dimmu/,evil/gallu/,evilgod,
evil/rabisu/,/labartu/,/labasu/,/hhazu/,/lilu/,/lilithu/,
handmaidof/lilu/,sorcery,enchantment,magic,disaster,machination
whichisnotgoodmaytheynotsettheirheadtohishead,theirhand
tohishand,theirfoottohisfootmaytheynotdrawnear.Spiritof
heaven,mayestthouexorcise,spiritofearth,mayestthouexorcise."
Butthiswasonlythebeginningoftherealceremony.ThegodAsari
alimnunna(Merodach),"eldestsonofridu,"wasaskedtowashhimin
pureandbrightwatertwiceseventimes,andthenwouldtheevillier
inwaitdepart,andstandaside,andapropitious/du/anda
propitious/labartu/resideinhisbody.Thegatesrightandleft
havingbeenthus,sotosay,shutclose,theevilgods,demons,and
spiritswouldbeunabletoapproachhim,whereverhemightbe."Spirit
ofheaven,exorcise,spiritofearth,exorcise."Then,afteran
invocationofrkigalandIum,thefinalparagraphwas
pronounced:
"Theafflictedman,byanofferingofgrace
Inhealthlikeshiningbronzeshallbemadebright.
Asforthatman,
amashallgivehimlife.
Merodach,firstbornsonoftheAbyss,
Itisthinetopurifyandglorify.
Spiritofheaven,mayestthouexorcise,spiritof
earth,mayestthouexorcise."
Ritesandceremonies.
Asmaybeexpected,theBabyloniansandAssyrianshadnumerousrites
andceremonies,theduecarryingoutofwhichwasnecessaryforthe
attainmentofthegracedemanded,orfortheefficacyofthethanks
tenderedforfavoursreceived.
PerhapstheoldestceremonyrecordedisthatwhichUtnapitim,the
ChaldanNoah,madeonthe/zikkurat/orpeakofthemountainafter
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thecomingforthfromtheshipwhichhadsavedhimandhisfromthe
Flood.ThePatriarch'sdescriptionofthisceremonyisshort:
"Isentforthtothefourwinds,Ipouredoutalibation
Imadeanofferingonthepeakofthemountain:
SevenandsevenIsetincensevasesthere,
IntotheirdepthsIpouredcane,cedar,andscentedwood(?).
Thegodssmelledasavour,
Thegodssmelledasweetsavour,
Thegodsgatheredlikefliesoverthesacrificer."
Followinginthefootstepsoftheirgreatprogenitor,theBabylonians
andAssyriansbecameamostpiousrace,constantlyrenderingtotheir
godsthegloryforeverythingwhichtheysucceededinbringingtoa
successfulissue.Prayer,supplication,andselfabasementbefore
theirgodsseemtohavebeenwiththemadutyandapleasure:
"Thetimefortheworshipofthegodswasmyheart'sdelight,
ThetimeoftheofferingtoItarwasprofitandriches,"
singsLudlulthesage,andallthepeopleofhislandwereonewith
himinthatopinion.
ItisnoteworthythattheofferingoftheChaldanNoahconsistedof
vegetableproduceonly,andtherearemanyinscriptionsreferringto
similarbloodlesssacrifices,anddetailingtheritualusedin
connectiontherewith.Sacrificesofanimals,however,seemtohave
beenconstantlymadeinanycase,offeringsofcattleandfowl,in
listform,arefairlynumerous.Manyacylindersealhasa
representationoftheownerbringingayounganimalakidoralamb
asanofferingtothedeitywhomheworshipped,andinthe
inscriptionsthesacrificeofanimalsisfrequentlyreferredto.One
ofthebilingualtextsreferstotheofferingofakidorsomeother
younganimal,apparentlyonbehalfofasickman.Thetextofthis,
wherecomplete,runsasfollows:
"Thefatlingwhichisthe'headraiser'ofmankind
Hehasgiventhefatlingforhislife.
Hehasgiventheheadofthefatlingforhishead,
Hehasgiventheneckofthefatlingforhisneck,
Hehasgiventhebreastofthefatlingforhisbreast."
Whetherhumansacrificeswerecommonornotisadoubtfulpoint.Many
cylindersealsexistinwhichtheslayingofamanisdepicted,and
theFrenchAssyriologistMenantwasofopinionthattheyrepresenteda
humanofferingtothegods.HayesWard,however,isinclinedtodoubt
thisexplanation,andmoreevidencewouldseem,therefore,tobe
needed.Heisinclinedtothinkthat,inthemajorityofcases,the
designsreferredtoshowmerelythevictimsofdivineangeror
vengeance,punishedbythedeityforsomemisdeedorsin,either
knowinglyorunknowinglycommitted.
IntheAssyriangalleriesoftheBritishMuseum,Aurnasirpli,
kingofAssyria,isseveraltimesshownengagedinreligious
ceremonieseitherworshippingbeforethesacredtree,oraboutto
pourout,apparently,alibationtothegodsbeforedepartingupon
someexpedition,andpriestsbringingofferings,eitheranimalor
vegetable,arealsorepresented.Aurbanpli,whoisidentified
with"thegreatandnobleAsnapper,"isshown,inbasreliefsofthe
AssyrianSaloon,pouringoutathankofferingoverthelionswhichhe
haskilled,afterhisreturnfromthehunt.
CHAPTERVI
PROBLEMSWHICHTHESTUDYOFFERS
Monotheism.
AsthematterofBabylonianmonotheismhasbeenpubliclytouchedupon
byFried.Delitzschinhis"BabelundBibel"lectures,afewwords
uponthatimportantpointwillberegardedinallprobabilityas
appropriate.Ithasalreadybeenindicatedthatthegivingofthe
namesof"thegodshisfathers"toMerodachpracticallyidentified
themwithhim,thusleadingtoatendencytomonotheism.Thattendency
is,perhaps,hintedatinaletterofAurbanplitothe
Babylonians,inwhichhefrequentlymentionstheDeity,butindoing
so,useseithertheword/lu/,"God,"Merodach,thegodofBabylon,
orBl,whichmayberegardedasoneofhisnames.Themostimportant
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documentforthismonotheistictendency,however(confirmingasit
doesthetabletofthefiftyonenames),isthatinwhichatleast
thirteenoftheBabyloniandeitiesareidentifiedwithMerodach,and
thatinsuchawayastomakethemmerelyformsinwhichhemanifested
himselftomen.Thetextofthisinscriptionisasfollows:
"...isMerodachofplanting.
Lugalaki...isMerodachofthewatercourse.
NirigisMerodachofstrength.
NergalisMerodachofwar.
ZagagaisMerodachofbattle.
BlisMerodachoflordshipanddomination.
NeboisMerodachoftrading(?).
SinisMerodachtheilluminatorofthenight.
amaisMerodachofrighteousthings.
AdduisMerodachofrain.
TipakisMerodachoffrost(?).
SigisMerodachofgreenthings(?).
uqamunuisMerodachoftheirrigationchannel."
Herethetextbreaksoff,butmusthavecontainedseveralmoresimilar
identifications,showinghowatleastthemorethoughtfulofthe
Babyloniansofoldlookeduponthehostofgodswhomtheyworshipped.
Whatmaybethedateofthisdocumentisuncertain,butasthe
colophonseemstodescribeitasacopyofanolderinscription,it
maygobackasfaras2000yearsB.C.Thisistheperiodatwhichthe
name/Yaumlu/"JahisGod,"isfound,togetherwithnumerous
referencesto/lu/asthenamefortheonegreatgod,andisalso,
roughly,thedateofAbraham,who,itmaybenoted,wasaBabylonian
ofUroftheChaldees.Itwillprobablynotbethoughttooventuresome
tosaythathismonotheismwaspossiblytheresultofthereligious
trendofthoughtinhistime.
Dualism.
Damascius,inhisvaluableaccountofthebeliefoftheBabylonians
concerningtheCreation,statesthat,liketheotherbarbarians,they
rejectthedoctrineoftheoneoriginoftheuniverse,andconstitute
two,Tauth(Tiawath)andApason(Apsu).Thistwofoldprinciple,
however,isonlyapplicabletothesysteminthatitmakesofthesea
andthedeep(forsucharethemeaningsofthetwowords)two
personagesthefemaleandthemalepersonificationsofprimval
matter,fromwhichallcreationsprang,andwhichgavebirthtothe
godsofheaventhemselves.Asfarasthephysicalconstituentsof
thesetwoprincipalsareconcerned,theirtenetsmightbedescribedas
having"materialisticmonism"astheirbasis,butinasmuchasthey
believedthateachofthesetwoprincipalshadamind,thedescription
"idealisticmonism"cannotbeappliedtoititisdistinctlya
dualism.
AndMonism.
Divestedofitsidealisticside,however,therewouldseemtobeno
escapefromregardingtheBabylonianideaoftheoriginofthingsas
monistic.[*]Thisideahasitsreflection,thoughnotits
reproduction,inthefirstchapterofGenesis,inwhich,verses2,6,
and7,waterisrepresentedasthefirstthingexisting,thoughnot
thefirstabodeoflife.ThisdivergencyfromtheBabylonianviewwas
inevitablewithamonotheisticnation,suchastheJewswere,
regardingastheydidtheDeityasthegreatsourceofeverything
existing.WhateffectthemovingoftheSpiritofGoduponthefaceof
thewaters(v.2)wassupposedbythemtohavehad,isuncertain,but
itistobenotedthatitwastheland(vv.11,12)whichfirst
broughtforth,atthecommandofGod.
[*]Monism.Thedoctrinewhichholdsthatintheuniversethereis
onlyasingleelementorprinciplefromwhicheverythingis
developed,thissingleprinciplebeingeithermind(/idealistic
monism/)ormatter(/materialisticmonism/).(Annandale.)
Thefuturelife.
Thebeliefinafuturelifeisthenaturaloutcomeofareligious
beliefsuchastheBabylonians,Assyrians,andmanyofthesurrounding
nationspossessed.Ashasbeenshown,aportionoftheircreed
consistedinheroworship,whichpresupposesthattheheroesin
questioncontinuedtoexist,inastateofstillgreaterpowerand
glory,aftertheconclusionoftheirlifehereuponearth.
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"ThegodBlhatesmeIcannotdwellinthisland,andinthe
territoryofBlIcannotsetmyface.Ishalldescendthentothe
Abyss;withAamylordshallIconstantlydwell."Itiswiththese
wordsthat,bythecounselofthegodAa,Utnapitimexplainedto
thosewhoquestionedhimthereasonwhyhewasbuildingtheshipor
arkwhichwastosavehimandhisfromtheFlood,andthereisbut
littledoubtthattheauthorofthestoryimpliedthatheannounced
therebyhisapproachingdeath,orhisdeparturetodwellwithhisgod
withoutpassingthedreadportalsofthegreatleveller.Thisbelief
inthelifebeyondthegraveseemstohavebeenthatwhichwascurrent
duringthefinalcenturiesofthethirdmillenniumbeforeChristwhen
amandied,itwassaidthathisgodtookhimtohimself,andwemay
thereforesuppose,thattherewereasmanyheavensplacesof
contentmentandblissasthereweregods,andthateverygoodmanwas
regardedasgoinganddwellingevermorewiththedeitywhichhehad
worshippedandservedfaithfullyduringhislifetime.
Gilgame,thehalfdivinekingofErech,whoreignedduringthehalf
mythicalperiod,onlosinghisfriendandcounsellor,Enkidu,setout
tofindhim,andtobringhimback,ifpossible,fromtheunderworld
wherehewassupposedtodwell.Hisdeath,however,hadnotbeenlike
thatofanordinaryman;itwasnotNamtaru,thespiritoffate,who
hadtakenhim,noramisfortunesuchasbefallsordinarymen,but
Nerigal'sunsparinglierinwaityetthoughNerigalwasthegodof
war,Enkiduhadnotfallenonthebattlefieldofmen,buthadbeen
seizedbytheearth(apparentlytheunderworldwherethewickedareis
meant)inconsequence,seemingly,ofsometrickortrapwhichhadbeen
laidforhim.
Thegodswerethereforeprayed,inturn,tobringhimback,butnone
ofthemlistenedexcepta,whobeggedhimofNerigal,whereuponthe
latteropenedtheentrancetotheplacewherehewastheholeofthe
earthandbroughtforth"thespirit(/utukku/)ofEnkidulikemist."
Immediatelyafterthiscomethewords,"Tell,myfriend,tell,my
friendthelawofthelandwhichthousawest,tell,"andtheanswer,
"Iwillnottellthee,friend,IwillnottelltheeifItellthee
thelawofthelandwhichIsaw,...sitdown,weep."Ultimately,
however,thepersonappealedtoapparentlythedisembodiedEnkidu
revealssomethingconcerningtheconditionofthesoulsintheplace
ofhissojournafterdeath,asfollows:
"Whomthousawest[die]thedeath(?)[of][*]...[Isee]
Intherestingplaceof...reposing,purewatershedrinketh.
Whominthebattlethousawestkilled,Isee
Hisfatherandhismotherraisehishead,
Andhiswifeupon[himleaneth?].
Whosecorpsethouhastseenthrowndownintheplain,Isee
His/edimmu/intheearthreposethnot.
Whose/edimmu/thousawestwithoutacaretaker,Isee
Theleavingsofthedish,theremainsofthefood,
Whichinthestreetisthrown,heeateth."
[*](?)"Thedeathoftherighteous,"orsomethingsimilar?
Itisnaturallydifficulttodecideinapassagelikethis,the
differenceexistingbetweenaman's/utukku/andhis/edimmu/,butthe
probabilityis,thattheformermeanshisspiritualessence,whilst
thelatterstandsfortheghostlyshadowofhisbody,resemblingin
meaningthe/ka/oftheEgyptians.Toallappearancetheabode
describedaboveisnottheplaceofthepunishmentofthewicked,but
thedwellingofthoseaccountedgood,who,ifluckyinthemannerof
theirdeath,andthedisposaloftheirbodies,enjoyedthehighest
happinessinthehabitationoftheblest.Theotherplace,however,is
otherwisedescribed(itoccursintheaccountofItar'sdescentinto
Hades,andintheseventhtabletoftheGilgameseriesthelatter
differingsomewhat):
"UponthelandofNoreturn,theregionof...,
[Set]Istar,daughterofSin,herear.
ThedaughterofSinsetthenherear...
Uponthehouseofgloom,theseatofIrkalla[*]
Uponthehousewhoseentrancehathnoexit,[]
Uponthepathwhosewayhathnoreturn,
Uponthehousewhoseenterersaredeprivedoflight,
Wheredustistheirnourishment,theirfoodmud,
Lighttheyseenot,indarknesstheydwell,
Clothedalso,likeabird,inadressoffeathers.
Uponthedoorandboltthedusthathblown."
[*]OneofthenamesofNergal.
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[]Or"whoseenterergoethnotforth."
Sevengatesgaveaccesstothisplaceofgloom,andtheporter,ashe
letthevisitorin,tookfromher(thegoddessItarinthenarrative)
ateachanarticleofclothing,until,atthelast,sheenteredquite
naked,apparentlytypifyingthefactthatamancantakenothingwith
himwhenhedieth,andalso,inthiscase,thathehasnotevenhis
gooddeedswherewithtoclothehimself,forhadtheyoutweighedhis
evilones,hewouldnothavefoundhimselfinthatdreadabode.
OnthearrivalofItarinHades,ErkigalcommandedNamtaru,the
godoffate,tosmiteItarwithdiseaseinallhermemberseyes,
sides,feet,heart,andhead.Asthingswentwrongontheearthin
consequenceoftheabsenceofthegoddessoflove,thegodssenta
messengertoeffectherrelease.WhenhereachedthelandofNo
return,thequeenoftheregionthreatenedhimwithallkindsof
tormentsthefoodoftheguttersofthecityweretobehisfood,the
oiljarsofthecity(naptha?)hisdrink,thegloomofthecastlehis
restingplace,astoneslabhisseat,andhungerandthirstwereto
shatterhisstrength.Thesewereevidentlythepunishmentsinflicted
there,butasthemessengerthreatenedwasadivineone,theywere
probablynotputintoexecution,andheobtainedhisdemand,forItar
wassetfree,receivingbackateachgate,inreverseorder,the
clothingandornamentswhichhadbeentakenfromherwhenshehad
descendedthither.ItisuncertainwhetherTammuz,forwhomshehad
gonedown,wassetfreealso,butasheisreferredto,itisnot
improbablethatthiswasthecase.
WORKSBEARINGUPONTHERELIGIONOFTHEBABYLONIANSANDASSYRIANS
HibbertLectures,1887.TheReligionoftheAncientBabylonians,by
ProfessorA.H.Sayce.
TheReligiousIdeasoftheBabylonians,bytheAuthor,1895(Journal
oftheVictoriaInstitute,alsoseparately).
TheReligionofBabyloniaandAssyria,byMorrisJastrow,jun.,1898.
(Germanedition,vol.i.1905,vol.ii.inprogress.)
BabylonianReligionandMythology,byL.W.King,M.A.,1899.
GiffordLectures,1902.ReligionsofEgyptandBabylonia,byProfessor
A.H.Sayce.
TheO.T.intheLightoftheRecordsofAssyriaandBabylonia,bythe
Author,1903.(TheportionsreferringtoBabylonianMythology.)
TheHymnstoTammuzintheManchesterMuseum,OwensCollege,bythe
Author,1904.
ARTICLESUPONTHEASSYRIANANDBABYLONIANDEITIES,
ANDTHERELIGIONOFTHREENATIONS,IN
DictionaryoftheBible,editedbyDr.JamesHastings,and
EncyclopdiaBiblica,editedbyProfessorCheyne.
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