EPRI Substation Grounding Project

Summaries of Published Reports 19812011

1025440

EPRI Substation Grounding Project

Summaries of Published Reports 19812011
1025440
Technical Update, September 2012

EPRI Project Manager

G. Gela

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com

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Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

This is an EPRI Technical Update report. A Technical Update report is intended as an informal report of
continuing research, a meeting, or a topical study. It is not a final EPRI technical report.

NOTE
For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or
e-mail askepri@epri.com.
Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHERSHAPING THE FUTURE OF
ELECTRICITY are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright 2012 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following organization prepared this report:
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
115 East New Lenox Road
Lenox, MA 01240
Principal Investigator
G, Gela
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

This publication is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following
manner:
EPRI Substation Grounding Project: Summaries of Published Reports 19812011. EPRI, Palo
Alto, CA: 2012.1025440.
iii

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has been conducting research in the area of
substation grounding and fault current management for several decades. This research has
resulted in a large number of reports and other products. To help users locate the results of
EPRIs research in substation grounding and fault current management, an annual update is
prepared containing brief descriptions of the products.
Objective
The objective of this report is to provide summaries of the various research studies that have
been performed by the EPRI Substation Grounding and Fault Current Management Project
between the 1980s and the end of 2011.
Approach
The summaries of reports and products are based on Abstracts and/or Product Descriptions that
are available on the EPRI website (www.epri.com).
Results
This report contains summaries and descriptions of various research reports and product studies
developed by the EPRI Substation Grounding and Fault Current Management Project between
the 1980s and the end of 2011. It also includes brief descriptions of EPRI reports published by
other EPRI projects that might be of interest to the Substation Grounding and Fault Current
Management Project funders.
Applications, Value, and Use
In addition to providing some high-level findings from EPRI research, the summaries included in
this report should help the reader locate information on a particular topic or theme within the
body of EPRI products that has been generated.
Keywords
Fault current management
Grounding cables
Smart Ground Multimeter
Soil resistivity
Substation grounding

ABSTRACT
This report contains summaries and descriptions of various research reports and product studies
developed by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Substation Grounding and Fault
Current Management Project between the 1980s and the end of 2011. The summaries of reports
are based on the Abstracts and/or Product Descriptions available on the EPRI website
(www.epri.com). In addition to providing some high-level findings, the summaries should help
the reader locate information on a particular topic or theme within the body of EPRI products
that has been generated.
This report also includes brief descriptions of EPRI reports published by other EPRI projects that
might be of interest to the Substation Grounding and Fault Current Management Project funders.

vii

CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................1-1
Purpose and Scope of this Report ......................................................................................1-1
Organization of this Report .................................................................................................1-1
2 SUBSTATION GROUNDING REPORTS..............................................................................2-1
1024555 - Field Guide: Smart Ground Multimeter - 2011 ...................................................2-1
1021921 - Substation Grounding Grids: Corrosion of Connections - 2011..........................2-1
1020031 - Touch and Step Voltage Measurements on Field Installed Ground Grid
Overlaid with Gravel and Asphalt Beds - 2010 ...................................................................2-2
1018976 - Touch and Step Voltage Measurements on Field Installed Ground Grid and
Concrete Pads - 2009 ........................................................................................................2-2
1020400 - Field Guide: Smart Ground Meter - 2009 ...........................................................2-2
1015966 - Condition Assessment of Substation Ground Grids - 2008 ................................2-2
1013910 - Condition Assessment of Substation Ground Grids: Phase 1Proof of
Concept - 2008...................................................................................................................2-3
1013793 - Substation Ground Grid Impedance Measurement - 2007 .................................2-4
1013909 - Effects of Steel Reinforced Concrete on Grounding System
Performance - 2007............................................................................................................2-5
1012386 - Improved Smart Ground Multimeter - 2006........................................................2-5
1010611 - Smart Ground Multimeter-Implementation of Enhancements - 2005..................2-5
1008683 - Enhancements, Validation, Testing, and Training: Smart Ground Multimeter 2004 ...................................................................................................................................2-5
TR-109272 - Study of Ground Currents in Proximity of Substations - 1997 ........................2-6
EL-5258 - Fusing Research on Personnel Grounding Cables, 1997...................................2-6
TR-101792 - Scoping Study: Substation Design Workstation, 1993 ...................................2-6
TR-100863 - Seasonal Variations of Grounding Parameters by Field Tests, 1992 .............2-6
TR-100622 V1-V5 - Substation Grounding Programs: Volumes 1-5, 1992 .........................2-7
EL-3983 - Soil Resistivity Tests Using Modeling Techniques, 1985....................................2-7
EL-2682-CCMV2 - Analysis Techniques for Power Substation Grounding Systems
Volume 2: User's Manual, 1983..........................................................................................2-7
EL-2128 - Soil Thermal Resistivity and Thermal Stability Measuring Instrument,
Volumes 1-5, 1981 .............................................................................................................2-8
3 OTHER REPORTS OF INTEREST .......................................................................................3-1
1021856 - Environmental and Corrosion Effects on Reinforced Concrete Foundations ......3-1
1021954 - HVDC Reference Book: Interim Report .............................................................3-1
1023499 - Field Guide: Tier I, Above-and Below-Grade Corrosion Assessment of
Weathering Steel Transmission Structures.........................................................................3-2
1017705 - Alternate Ground Electrode Materials - 2009 .....................................................3-2
1018203 - EGGS 2.1 - EPRI Grounding Guide Software, Version 2.1 - 2008 .....................3-2
1018198 - Guide for Transmission Line Grounding: A Roadmap for Design Testing and
Remediation: Part II - Practical Guidelines - 2008 ..............................................................3-2

ix

1016933 - Grounding Electrode Corrosion: Overhead Transmission Line

Grounding 2008 ..............................................................................................................3-3
1013900 - Guide for Transmission Line Grounding - 2007 .................................................3-3
1001908 - Tower Grounding and Soil Ionization Report 2002 .........................................3-3
1006866 - High Current Impulse Testing of Full-Scale Ground Electrodes - 2002 ..............3-3

INTRODUCTION
This document is a compilation of summaries of EPRI reports in the area of substation
grounding, fault current management and ground grid evaluation, maintenance and
refurbishment. It contains the report title, its PID, its year of publication, and brief descriptions
of the contents.
Purpose and Scope of this Report
The purpose of this report is to provide summaries of the various research studies that have been
performed by the EPRI substation grounding project between 1980s and the end of 2011. The
summaries of reports are based on Abstracts and/or Product Descriptions available in the EPRI
page. In addition to providing some high-level findings and recommendations, the summaries
should help the reader locate information on a particular topic or theme within the body of EPRI
products that has been generated.
This report also includes brief descriptions of EPRI reports published by other EPRI projects that
may be of interest to the substation grounding project funders.
Organization of this Report
Section 2 provides a brief abstract or summary of each of the reports in reverse-chronological
sequence (from most recent back to early 1980s) in which they were completed.
Section 3 presents brief summaries of recent publications by other EPRI projects that may be of
interest to the Funders of the substation grounding project.

1-1

SUBSTATION GROUNDING REPORTS

1024555 - Field Guide: Smart Ground Multimeter - 2011
December 2011, Final Report
This Smart Ground Multimeter (SGM) field guide is intended to serve as a handy reference for
technicians while they are in the field tasked with performing a ground grid audit. It is not meant
as a substitute for the SGM Operating Manual but rather as a supplement that includes the basic
how-to and practical considerations.
The SGM underwent three major redesigns since its original development in the early 1980s and
has evolved into a sophisticated and powerful testing device. The true value of the SGM is its
capability of performing a ground audit of an electric power installation while the installation
remains fully energized.
A ground audit can identify problems with the grounding system and yields a validated model of
an electrical installation. The validated model can then be utilized to determine whether the
grounding system meets safety standards, and if it does not to define and assess remedial
measures for bringing the design into compliance with standards.
In practical field measurements, however, many unexpected measurement problems can occur,
including errors introduced by unknown underground metallic objects, interference from other
energized installations, and unintentional connection errors. The objectives of this guide are to
help sensitize the user to a large range of practical problems, to provide guidance in identifying
them, and to discuss methods for correcting or working around unavoidable problematic
situations.
The methodologies described in this field guide should be considered by engineers engaged in
the design of substations and other electrical installations. The field guide also targets test
engineers who are involved in testing of electrical installations.
The SGM is already used by the electric power industry, the petroleum industry, the chemical
industry, and other industries that have electrical installations with grounding systems.
1021921 - Substation Grounding Grids: Corrosion of Connections - 2011
Dec. 2011, Technical Update
This report is an account of research performed by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
in 2011 on the subject of degradation of buried grounding grids in electric power substations.
Substation ground grids are usually made of copper conductors, which are placed below grade
and are joined together and to the above-grade structures with various types of connectors. While
above-grade connections are visible and may be inspected, below-grade connections are not
visible or readily accessible for inspection or testing. Several surveys, conducted by EPRI and
other organizations, show that some utilities experience degradation of the substation ground
grid and/or connections between grid elements and/or connections to substation structures. In
response to this recognized problem, EPRI launched a project to study corrosion of substation
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ground grids and connections. This report summarizes the results of utility surveys aimed at
assessing the extent of the grid/connector/connections degradation problem, and proposes a
multi-year research plan for a systematic study of corrosion mechanisms, conditions that induce
or facilitate corrosion, and corrosion rates.
The proposed research will include locating substations with potential or known maintenance
issues and quantifying the factors governing the kinetics of the corrosion severity. This will be
completed through a desk and paper study to identify any knowledge gaps. EPRI plans to follow
this phase of research with a series of field surveys and laboratory exposure tests to characterize
the corrosion morphology and initiation mechanisms. This will establish a roadmap for assessing
inspection technologies and providing guidance in the selection of mitigation techniques for
grounding system corrosion. The expected outcome of this research includes estimates of
corrosion likelihood and rates in various types of environments, and eventually,
recommendations for corrosion mitigation strategies that could be applied to substation ground
grids and connections.
1020031 - Touch and Step Voltage Measurements on Field Installed Ground Grid
Overlaid with Gravel and Asphalt Beds - 2010
Dec. 2010, Technical Update
Gravel and asphalt are commonly used as surfacing materials in and around substations. Both the
electrical characteristics of the surfacing material and its moisture condition substantially affect
the exposure (step, touch) voltage and the resulting current. This project evaluates the effects of
various types of surfacing materials (three gravel types and asphalt) and conditions (dry and wet)
on step and touch voltages in and around substations.
1018976 - Touch and Step Voltage Measurements on Field Installed Ground Grid
and Concrete Pads - 2009
Dec. 2009, Technical Update
Concrete is commonly used as building material in substations (within the substation fence) and
around substations (outside the fence) for driveways, foundations, walkways, oil containment,
sidewalks, walls, and other structures. This project evaluates the effects of various types
(reinforced, non-reinforced) and conditions (dry, wet) of concrete structures on step, touch, and
transfer touch voltages in and around substations.
1020400 - Field Guide: Smart Ground Meter - 2009
Nov. 2009, Technical Report
This Smart Ground Multimeter (SGM) field guide is intended to serve as a handy reference for
technicians while they are in the field tasked with performing a ground grid audit. It is not meant
as a substitute for the SGM Operating Manual but rather as a supplement that includes the basic
"how-to" and practical considerations.
1015966 - Condition Assessment of Substation Ground Grids - 2008
Dec. 2008, Technical Report

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This report describes the second stage of a research project to develop a simple and inexpensive
method and device to assess the integrity of substation grounding grids. The problem has been
studied before but a reliable and inexpensive method or device to make a reliable diagnosis of
grid condition is still lacking. While the EPRI-developed Ground Grid Evaluator (commercially
known as the Smart Ground Multimeter) can be used to provide valuable information, the
equipment is expensive and requires extensive high-level training and experience to collect
reliable data and interpret the results. The first phase of this project (EPRI report 1013910)
determined that low frequency radiation could be used as a viable investigative technique for
evaluating the integrity of ground grid structures in substations. This method was further
developed and tested in this phase of the project.
1013910 - Condition Assessment of Substation Ground Grids: Phase 1Proof of
Concept - 2008
Mar. 2008, Technical Update
This report describes the first stage of research to develop a simple and inexpensive method and
device to assess the integrity of substation grounding grids. The problem has been studied before
but there is not, to our knowledge, a reliable and inexpensive method or device to make a reliable
diagnosis. While the EPRI-developed Ground Grid Evaluator (commercially knows as the Smart
Ground Multimeter or SGM) can be used to provide valuable information, the equipment is
considered to be expensive and requires extensive high-level training and experience to collect
reliable data and interpret the results. Hence, the objective of this research is not to develop a
device that reproduces all functions of the SGM, but to develop new reliable and inexpensive
method(s) and instrumentation that can be easily deployed in the field and operated by
technician-level personnel.
The report is divided into seven sections.
Section 1 briefly describes the technical problem and situations that are likely to be encountered
in substations.
Section 2 describes an initial literature search that will be completed in the near term. There has
been good work done on the subject, and we have found on the order of 100 relevant published
papers and reports.
Section 3 presents results of a brief survey of utilities to sample the industry's experience with
vintage ground grids and methods of detecting defects. The survey consisted of seven questions
with sub-questions and was sent to approximately 80 members of EPRI TF 37H "Fault Current
Management and Substation Grounding" who are funders of the EPRI Project Set 37H by the
same name. Seven responses received by the time of publication of this Technical Update report
are summarized in this section. All responses are treated in a confidential manner and are
"sanitized" to remove the identity of the responder and the responding utility. Some responders
answered all questions, some did not. One responder provided additional documents; these
documents are not included in this report.
Section 4 describes some potential approaches that appear to be promising in detecting and
locating defects in substation ground grids. A number of methods were considered, including
those used for underground (for example, water, oil, and sewer pipes) or inaccessible (nuclear

2-3

plants) pipe systems, and overhead transmission lines (for example, conductors, anchor rods, and
foundations). The methods considered include the following:
Current injection
Acoustic guided waves
Eddy current detection
Resistance analog method for detecting defects in substation grounding
Electro-mechanical acoustic transducer (EMAT)
Electromagnetic technique
Ground penetrating radar
Section 5 contains a number of examples of magnetic field profiles for grids with different
current injection/collection scenarios and different faults or breaks in the grid. The analysis was
done with a code developed at RPI specifically for this project, and with the commercial package
INCA from Magsoft Corporation. The "proof of principle" is conducted in three logical steps.
First, assuming an ideal square symmetric grid (all elements have the same
resistance/impedance), current distributions are calculated for a square grid without defects and
for a grid with selected defects. The dc current excitation is used, and grid inductance and
capacitance are neglected. Although dc excitation is not considered the preferred approach since
dc in a ground grid may cause problems with large substation equipment and with control
instrumentations, these calculations provide valuable guidance regarding the expected range of
changes to the current distribution and to the locations of greatest changes within the grid when
defects are introduced. In the second step, the same grid is used to calculate magnetic field
signatures at a height of 200 mm above the grid. This step in the process demonstrates magnetic
field signatures of grids containing defects. In the third step, a rectangular grid is considered, ac
current excitation is used, and grid impedance is included. This step provides guidance regarding
sensitivity of the magnetic field to grid defects.
Section 6 summarizes the findings of this research to date and outlines general plans for future
work.
Section 7 contains references cited in the report and additional relevant papers.
1013793 - Substation Ground Grid Impedance Measurement - 2007
Dec. 2007, Technical Report
Because safety impacts all segments of the electric power industry, the integrity and
conformance to standards of substation grounding systems is of paramount importance. This
report summarizes field demonstrations of commercially available meters for performance
evaluation of large grounding systems, including the EPRI Ground Grid Evaluator
(commercially known as the Smart Ground Multimeter or SGM).
This hands-on demonstration session provided an opportunity for participants to work with
several instruments for assessing the condition of substation grounding systems. While a
complete ground grid audit was not performed and only a limited number of measurements were
taken, the time was well spent on discussions among participants on various theoretical topics
and field-related issues while performing the measurements.
2-4

1013909 - Effects of Steel Reinforced Concrete on Grounding System

Performance - 2007
Dec. 2007, Technical Update
The study showed that the presence of concrete blocks in the vicinity of a substation might
generate increased touch and step voltages, especially in cases where concrete blocks are outside
the substation fence but close to it and are not bonded to the substation grounding system.
However, in cases where the concrete blocks are bonded to the substation grounding system, the
effect was beneficial in most cases considered in this parametric study. In any case, only a small
amount of fault current usually goes through the steel rebar. The performed parametric study was
limited in scope and therefore does not capture all possibilities that may occur. For example, the
study has not addressed the issue of lightning currents and what percentage of lightning current
may flow in steel rebar bonded to the grounding system.
1012386 - Improved Smart Ground Multimeter - 2006
Dec. 2006, Technical Report
The SGM has evolved into a sophisticated and powerful testing device. The true value of the
SGM is its capability to perform a ground audit of electric power installations while the
installation remains fully energized. The ground audit can identify problems with the grounding
system and yields a validated model of an electrical installation. The validated model can be then
used to determine whether the grounding system meets safety standards, and if it does not to
define and assess remedial measures to bring the design into compliance with standards.
The test and analysis procedures can be applied to a new system during the commissioning
period or to an old system while the system is operating. The device has been tested successfully
on systems operating at 13 kV to 500 kV.
1010611 - Smart Ground Multimeter-Implementation of Enhancements - 2005
Sept. 2005, Technical Report
A design has been made for an enhanced SGM and details were presented in report 1008683.
This interim report describes the implementation of enhancements. All hardware enhancements
have been implemented except for communications hardware since there was immediate need to
alter the existing design. The software enhancements have been implemented partially. It is
expected that all remaining enhancements will be implemented fully in 2006.
This report records the second step towards successfully making the SMG more user-friendly
and accurate and useful under more field conditions. The final report will deal with full findings
that we expect will report an improved tool to help utilities assess their existing assets. The final
report will also include examples of results obtained with the enhanced tool and will illustrate the
benefits of the implemented enhancements.
1008683 - Enhancements, Validation, Testing, and Training: Smart Ground
Multimeter - 2004
Dec. 2004, Technical Update

2-5

A design has been made for an enhanced SGM and details are presented in this report. This is an
interim report so the several evaluation phases will be covered in the final report.
TR-109272 - Study of Ground Currents in Proximity of Substations - 1997
Dec. 1997, Technical Report
Using real utility systems, instrumentation was developed, and mapping techniques perfected
and tested. Instrument accuracy was verified on the Rochester Gas and Electric Company's
system using equipment left in place from the EPRI Power Quality Study completed several
years ago by the Customer Systems Group. Results show that net currents are significantly larger
in proximity to substations. Heavy flows of ground current were found in the vicinity of
distribution substations. The significance of this discovery has yet to be determined.
EL-5258 - Fusing Research on Personnel Grounding Cables, 1997
July 1997 Technical Report
In general, computer program predictions compared well with the shortcircuit test results.

Effects of conductor stranding and type of jacket proved negligible.

Cable current ratings are strongly dependent on actual cable cross-section area as specified
by ASTM standard B 263-58. Some of the commercial cables tested did not comply with
these cross-section area requirements, resulting in lower fusing currents.
Tests simulating breaker reclosure operations showed that no derating factor is necessary for
typical reclosure times of 7-10 s.
Especially for larger cable sizes, the rating of complete grounding assemblies is usually
significantly below the rating of the cable itself-probably because of mechanical forces
concentrated at the point the cable enters the terminating hardware.

TR-101792 - Scoping Study: Substation Design Workstation, 1993

April 1993, Technical Report
The capabilities recommended for inclusion in the version 1.0 release of the workstation
emphasize a database manager and graphical interface based on system one-line diagrams as
well as station plot plan formats. The study also proposes three categories of design functions:
initial planning activities (site evaluation, station reliability, and related areas); physical plant
design (grounding, bus design, lighting, and site preparation); and analytic functions (insulation
coordination, shunt/series compensation design, loss-of-life evaluation, and other advanced
concepts). Overall, it is important that this workstation correlate with related workstations
involving substations, particularly in areas of insulation coordination, substation grounding, and
magnetic fields.
TR-100863 - Seasonal Variations of Grounding Parameters by Field Tests, 1992
Aug. 1992, Technical Report
Although the overall ground impedance and resulting ground voltage rise did not change
significantly from one season to another, the resistance to the ground grid itself reduced
2-6

significantly during summer weather. This resulted in increased current through the ground grid
and lower fault current through transmission line shield wires. Large increases in body currents
for both step and touch were found during rainy weather. All types of gravel surfaces
significantly reduced body currents in any weather, but washed gravel was more effective than
crusher-run gravel (gravel with dust) in lowering accidental currents. An asphalt bed yielded
lower body currents than concrete.
TR-100622 V1-V5 - Substation Grounding Programs: Volumes 1-5, 1992
May 1992, Technical Report
Volume 1 of this report is a manual for SOMIP (soil measurement interpretation program), a
computer program that calculates the best estimate of the parameters of a two-layer soil model
from the usual soil resistivity measurements. Volume 2 is a manual for SMECC (substation
maximum earth current computation program), a computer program that determines the
maximum ground potential rise of a substation ground mat. Volume 3 is a manual for SGSYS
(substation grounding system analysis program), a computer program that determines maximum
touch and step voltages that can be compared with the maximums recommended by safety
standards. Volume 4 is a manual for TGRND (transient grounding system analysis program), a
computer program that supplements the others by computing transient ground voltage, an
important factor in high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) converter stations and in large
substations where ac impedance may be significant. Volume 5 is an application manual that uses
four example substation grounding systems to illustrate the applications of the SOMIP, SMECC,
and SGSYS programs for designing safe substation grounding systems. Results of the design
programs have been confirmed by measurements made in several substations.
EL-3983 - Soil Resistivity Tests Using Modeling Techniques, 1985
May 1985, Technical Report
Good agreement occurred between the calculated and measured values of soil resistivity. These
results show that either the Wenner method or the driven-rod method can provide the
information needed to develop an accurate two-layer soil model. The conductivity and depth of
the top layer are easiest to obtain by using the driven-rod method and plotting the apparent
conductivity. Both methods are valid for finding the conductivity of the bottom layer. To control
the step and touch potentials near the substation perimeter fence, ground rods driven at an angle
are effective and may reduce substation grounding costs.
EL-2682-CCMV2 - Analysis Techniques for Power Substation Grounding Systems
Volume 2: User's Manual, 1983
Aug. 1983, Technical Report
This user's manual presents new computer-based techniques for analyzing complex substation
grounding systems in nonuniform soil. The substation grounding analysis (SGA) program
comprises two subprograms: substation grounding systems (SGSYS) and substation maximum
earth current computation (SMECC). Subprogram SGSYS outputs computed grid resistances to
remote earth and step, touch, and transfer potentials at user-selected locations in and around the
substation. An optional procedure that is more approximate and less costly is included.

2-7

Subprogram SMECC determines the types and locations of faults that can result in maximum
earth current, the distribution of fault currents in the system, and grid-potential rise resulting
from the faults. The procedure is sufficiently general to accommodate most practical systems.
EL-2128 - Soil Thermal Resistivity and Thermal Stability Measuring Instrument,
Volumes 1-5, 1981
Dec. 1981, Technical Report
This report describes work to fully characterize soil thermal parameters and their effect on
underground cable design. This effort included the development of improved apparatus and
methods for measuring soil thermal properties and methods for incorporating historical weather
data into thermal design. Volume 1 discusses the determination of soil thermal stability and other
soil thermal properties. Volume 2 is a detailed operating manual for the hardware developed for
analyzing soils in situ, called the thermal property analyzer (TPA). Volume 3 contains additional
information describing the problems with soil measurements and possible solutions useful to
utilities. Volume 4 is a brief TPA operating manual designed to stand alone. Volume 5 is an
abridged Manual for Use of the Statistical Weather Analysis Program.

2-8

OTHER REPORTS OF INTEREST

1021856 - Environmental and Corrosion Effects on Reinforced Concrete
Foundations
December 2011, Technical Update
The large number of transmission structures with concrete foundations that the electric industry
maintains makes it important to develop efficient ways to monitor their condition and remediate
damage, especially since the largest population of concrete foundations is 20-40 years old; and
almost 40% of foundations are more than 40 years old. This report discusses the environmental
and corrosion effects that affect steel-reinforced concrete foundations, including problems
caused by poor construction, freezing and thawing, erosion, chemical attack, and oxide formation
on the metal-concrete interface. The report describes field and laboratory inspection technologies
available to evaluate the condition of existing structures and presents a four tiered inspection
process that utilities can use to organize and implement their monitoring activities. Methods for
remediating or preventing damage are described, including coating systems, electrochemical
methods, and the use of various additives. The report lists areas where further research into
concrete inspection, assessment, and remediation are needed.
1021954 - HVDC Reference Book: Interim Report
December 2011, Technical Update
The EPRI High-Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Transmission Reference Book is a state-of-theart guidebook that provides transmission companies with a comprehensive, single source of
technical information and guidance for designing, building, operating, and extending the life of
HVDC transmission systems. The book joins the landmark series of EPRI power delivery
reference books. These comprehensive guidebookseach printed with a distinctive colored
coverdocument and distill the knowledge and experience of the world's leading power delivery
experts. In this tradition, the EPRI HVDC Transmission Reference Book will be printed with a
dark green cover and be referred to as the "Olive Book."
The Olive Book will have 24 chapters, covering all aspects of the theory and practice of HVDC
transmission, including planning, system studies, AC-DC interactions, design of converter
equipment, overhead lines and cables, project implementation and operation and maintenance.
This edition of the Olive Book compiles 20 chapters, based on EPRI technical updates published
during the last five years. Subjects covered include: an analysis of HVDC transmission, analysis
of converter operation, configurations of HVDC transmission systems, converter station
equipment, DC transmission with voltage source converters, DC transmission with series
capacitors compensated converters, overhead lines with HVDC transmission, HVDC cables,
simulation of HVDC systems, commissioning of HVDC systems, HVDC project
implementation, and operation and maintenance of HVDC systems.

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1023499 - Field Guide: Tier I, Above-and Below-Grade Corrosion Assessment of

Weathering Steel Transmission Structures
December 2011, Technical Update
Although weathering steel forms a protective oxide layer on its surface after atmospheric
exposure and generally does not require the coatings that protect standard carbon steels, it is
vulnerable to above and below grade corrosion in some circumstances. This inspection guide is
designed to help field crews quickly screen circuits for corrosion issues that present potential
risks. Weathering steel structures may be flagged for additional work by understanding oxide
types, potential damage locations, and conditions that promote corrosion. The guide concisely
presents a four-step inspection process comprising right-of-way and general site surveying,
atmospheric structural inspection, characterization of weathering steel coatings, and inspection of
below grade structures. Once problems are identified, corrective actions can be undertaken
including coating repairs, structural modifications, member replacement, or the application of
cathodic protection.
1017705 - Alternate Ground Electrode Materials - 2009
December 2009, Technical Update
Theft, material cost, and structural corrosion caused by a galvanic couple are concerns for
utilities maintaining a grounding system within their service area.
1018203 - EGGS 2.1 - EPRI Grounding Guide Software, Version 2.1 - 2008
December 2008, Assembled Package
The EPRI Grounding Guide Software (EGGS), Version 2.1, is calculation/modeling software for
transmission line grounding.
EGGS Version 2.1, is a set of applets to assist technical staff in the design and implementation of
effective grounding of transmission lines and is intended for users who need simple methods to
evaluate new or existing transmission line grounding electrode designs. When ordering EGGS
2.1, included will be product 1018973, EPRI's Overhead Transmission Line Lightning and
Grounding Reference Book 2009. This guide may also be downloaded separately.
1018198 - Guide for Transmission Line Grounding: A Roadmap for Design Testing
and Remediation: Part II - Practical Guidelines - 2008
December 2008, Technical Report
Electric utilities have a duty to provide reliable and safe transmission line facilities. An important
part of this is the provision of adequate grounding. For transmission lines, this imperative is
usually met with an investment in overhead ground wires and grounding electrodes. The
overhead ground wires intercept lightning strokes, thereby shielding the transmission line, and
provide additional ground paths for ac fault current to other transmission line structures. Ground
electrodes at each structure improve reliability by providing a low-impedance path to discharge
lightning strokes into the earth, thereby avoiding insulator flashovers and subsequent line
outages. When necessary, grounding designs can be made to improve safety at transmission
structures by controlling step and touch potentials resulting from steady-state induction or fault
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currents. However, the adequacy of the grounding can vary significantly because of climate and
location (that is, soil conditions). Consequently, grounding electrode designs may require
structure-by-structure testing and validation.
1016933 - Grounding Electrode Corrosion: Overhead Transmission Line
Grounding 2008
August 2008, Technical Update
Many utilities generally specify maximum grounding system resistance thresholds for system
reliability and power quality reasons. At some point in time, grounding electrodes become
ineffective because corrosion reduces the surface area or completely eliminates the connection to
the structure. This corrosion can appear to be a random event and is often diagnosed only after a
circuit experiences a ground fault or a lightning strike.
1013900 - Guide for Transmission Line Grounding - 2007
Dec. 2007, Technical Report
Electrical utilities have a duty to provide effective grounding for managing steady-state and fault
currents, whether near a large generating station or at a remote distribution pole ground. For
transmission lines, this imperative is usually met with investment in overhead ground wires and
grounding electrodes. Effective grounding at each tower improves reliabilityby providing low
path impedance to lightning strokesand contributes to safety. However, the fundamental
physical parameters in ground electrode engineering vary with climate and location, so tower-bytower testing and validation are needed. Existing standards for successful testing are better suited
to substations or concentrated electrodes than to transmission towers, which can have several
large, effective foundation grounding electrodes in parallel. This leads to a wide discrepancy in
treatment and testing options from one utility to another.
1001908 - Tower Grounding and Soil Ionization Report 2002
February 2002, Technical Report
Deregulation of the power industry has increased the need for greater reliability of the
transmission system. Unplanned outages can have significant financial implications, and
lightning activity is often cited as one of the main reasons. To address this issue, EPRI is
conducting research to increase understanding of the lightning performance of transmission lines.
This report details the results of one such study.
1006866 - High Current Impulse Testing of Full-Scale Ground Electrodes - 2002
April 2002, Technical Update
The historical challenge of providing reliable electrical service is growing in importance. With
electronic equipment in almost all facets of life, even momentary outages and power quality
problems can adversely affect customers at home and work. Lightning causes many such
momentary customer outages, and EPRI's TFlash program can help utility engineers evaluate the
lightning performance of power systems.

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The Electric Power Research Institute Inc.,

(EPRI, www.epri.com) conducts research and
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and use of electricity for the benefit of the public.
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are located in Palo Alto, Calif.; Charlotte, N.C.;
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