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Powder Technology
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a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 14 June 2011
Received in revised form 30 August 2011
Accepted 8 September 2011
Available online 16 September 2011
Keywords:
Rotating drum
Liquid bridge force
Velocity
Granular temperature
Energy dissipation
a b s t r a c t
We performed experiments to measure the dynamic properties of wet granular matter in a rotating drum device. Four different amounts of liquid and rotation speeds were used in the experiments. The purpose was to
quantify the effect of the cohesive force in the granular system. The results show that when only very small
amounts of liquid were added, no liquid bridges formed. This is because the liquid was rst trapped on the
surface of the particles due to the particle roughness. When the volume fraction of the uid became larger,
liquid bridges formed on almost every particle. The results showed that the addition of liquid contents, and
changing the rotation speed, both had a signicant effect on the dynamic properties of granular matter.
This was due to the hysteretic formation and rupturing of liquid bridges and the introduction of inertial
force to the device. After the liquid bridges formed between all particles the average energy dissipation
due to the hysteretic formation and rupturing of the liquid bridges increased with an increase in the liquid
content.
2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The handling and processing of granular materials is important in
a variety of different industries, such as pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs,
ceramics, detergents, chemicals, plastics, etc. The ubiquity of granular
materials in the processes involved makes how to handle them efciently very important economically. Furthermore, their special properties (they can behave like solids, liquids or gasses without being any
of them) have attracted the attention of the scientic community
over the last two decades [1,2]. Granular solid material can be made
to ow like a uid, for example, in avalanches, hopper ows, and uidized beds [3,4]. In such ows, the, granular kinetic energy may be
transformed into thermal energy due to inelastic collisions between
particles. Actually, the particles will stop moving if no extra energy
is added to the system. The most common sources of input energy
are from gravity, rotating the system, producing shear force at the
boundary of the system, or vibrating the system. The rotating drum
has become a commonly used experimental device used to investigate the physics of granular ow, partly because of its simple closed
geometry. It is also in practical use in many industrial processes for
the drying, segregation and mixing of granular materials [57].
When a horizontal circular drum partially lled with granular material is rotated about its axis, the material rotates as a solid body until
it reaches its dynamic angle of repose. The angle of repose is an
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 886 3 426 7341; fax: + 886 3 425 4501.
E-mail address: sshsiau@cc.ncu.edu.tw (S.S. Hsiau).
0032-5910/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.powtec.2011.09.010
492
Flowing Layer
Operating parameters
Interface
Fixed Bed
L =0.015 m
Fig. 1. Diagram of the tank rotated by the rotating drum showing the ow inside the
drum which can be divided in two parts: a bulk solid-body rotation undergoing a
slow plastic deformation; and a thin owing layer.
granular system the number of liquid bridges inuences the ow behavior. Yang and Hsiau [21,22] found that the self-diffusion coefcients and the uctuation velocities were smaller in a wet sheared
granular ow than in a dry sheared granular ow. Chou et al. [23]
showed that the segregation condition could be predicted based on
the angle of repose of the granular materials, regardless of the liquid
content or viscosity, in the case of wet granular ows.
It is well known that the liquid bridge force has a signicant inuence on the static properties of wet granular matter. In this study, we
employed a particle tracking method to measure the dynamic properties of wet granular matter. We studied the effect of the liquid bridge
force on the dynamic properties of wet granular matter by adding silicone oils to obtain different liquid contents and utilizing different rotation speeds.
2. Experimental procedure
A schematic representation of the circular drum used in the quasitwo-dimensional experiments is shown in Fig. 1. The diameter of the
drum is 0.3 m and the axial length L is 0.015 m. The back surface of
the drum was constructed of a black anodized aluminum plate to
minimize electrostatic effects on the particles and optical noise effects
in the digital images. The front faceplate was made of clear acrylic to
permit optical access. Before each experimental test, the glass faceplates were cleaned and coated with an inorganic lm (water repellent silicone) to prevent the formation of liquid bridges between the
particles and the walls. Mellmann [24] indicated that the rolling regime exists when 10 4 b Fr b 10 2. In this study, we investigated the
dynamic properties of wet granular matter in the rolling regime. A
stepper motor and micro series driver combination were used to rotate the drum at speeds of 1 rpm, 2 rpm, 3 rpm, and 4 rpm, corresponding to the Froude number of Fr = R 2 / g of 1.67 10 4,
6.71 10 4, 1.51 10 3, and 2.68 10 3, where is the angular velocity of the drum (=2 / T, T = rotation period); R is the radius of the
drum; and g is the acceleration of gravity. The dimensionless axial
thickness of the drum, dened as the ratio between the drum's axial
length and the particle diameter, was set to 3.75 in this study.
Mono-sized glass beads were used as the granular material in all experiments. These glass beads were 4 mm in diameter with a standard
deviation of 0.09 mm and their density was 2.476 g/cm 3. Details of
the experimental conditions are provided in Table 1.
In this study, the lling degree is dened as the ratio of volume occupied by the granular material to the total drum volume. The experiment is dened as a quasi-two-dimensional experiment. The lling
degree is dened as the ratio of the area occupied by the granular material to the total drum area, formulated as
Aparticles
sin
2
2
Adrum
i1 j1
where i and j indicate the pixel coordinates in the images; and P1 and
P2 are the pixel values in the two image windows. Natarajan et al.
[26] and Hsiau and Jamg [25] used shifts of si and sj when the maximum autocorrelation value c occurred for the movement of the
493
Fig. 2. Image manipulation process: (a) the raw grayscale image; (b) the image after Gaussian and Laplacian ltering; (c) the obtained sphere locators; (d) the velocity eld.
ui
buN
i1
and
vi
n1x n1y n
h
io
cy si ; sj P1 i 1; jP1 i; j P2 i si ; j 1 sj P2 i si ; j sj
:
bvN
i1
i1 j1
4
The total correlation value R(si, sj) is decided by multiplying the sum
of these three correlation values c(si, sj), cx(si, sj) and cy(si, sj) by the
corresponding weighting factors k, kx and ky
R si ; sj kc si ; sj kx cx si ; sj ky cy si ; sj
where i represents the ith tracer particle; N is the total number of velocities used for averaging the mean values; and ui and vi are the velocities of the ith tracer particle measured from the pair of
consecutive images containing the ith tracer particle. The uctuation
velocities in the two directions are calculated by
The tracer displacements in two consecutive images are then determined from si and sj given the maximum value of R.
2 1=2
bu N
v
uN
u
u ui b u N2
t
i1
;
N
494
y
j
n1x
n1y
n1 x
n1 y
i1
b u v N
:
2
10
3
h 2 1 dh
2
d 1
;
8
H b h dt
11
where b is the radius of the wetted area of the particle; d is the diameter
of a bead; h is the separation distance of the liquid bridge; is the liquid
dynamic viscosity; and dh/dt is the rate of approach of particles toward
each other. Note that in this study, the viscous forces in different wet systems are almost the same, because the viscosity of the uid remains constant. The capillary force Fc can be written as follows [30,32]:
4Vb 1=2
;
Fc d cos 1 1
2
dh
12
= 0.1047 rad/s
= 0.2093 rad/s
= 0.3140 rad/s
= 0.4187 rad/s
42
40
r (deg.)
2 1=2
bv N
v
uN
u
u vi b v N2
t
38
36
34
32
10
15
20
V*(10-3)
Fig. 4. Relationship between the dynamic repose angle and different liquid contents for
= 19 cP for both with mono-dispersed systems.
tx
"
ty
0:13=
#
2b2 dhs b
1 2b2 =hs d
ln
1 2b=d
2b2 hs d 2b2 bd
13
(a)
5 mm
495
(b)
-0.01
velocity scale
1 m/s
y-axis
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
5 mm
Fig. 5. Fluorescence images for different liquid contents, with 4 mm diameter glass
beads: (a) V = 1.996 10 3: no bridges have yet formed; (b) V = 9.9 10 3: liquid
bridges between the beads have formed.
-0.02
0.02
x-axis
Fig. 6. Typical ow eld obtained for a dry system in a region about 19 particles wide in
the streamwise x-direction and extending into the xed bed in the transverse y-direction
near the center of the rotating drum shown in Fig. 1.
496
(a)
0.01
Y (m)
0.02
<u>
air
<u> V* = 1.996 x 10 -3
*
<u> V =
9.9 x 10 -3
<u> V* = 14.778 x 10 -3
<u> V* =
19.6 x 10 -3
<v>
air
<v> V* = 1.996 x 10 -3
<v> V* =
9.9 x 10 -3
<v> V* = 14.778 x 10 -3
<v> V* =
19.6 x 10 -3
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Velocity (m/s)
(b)
0.01
Y (m)
0.02
0.03
<u' 2 >1/2
air
<u' 2 >1/2 V* = 1.996 x 10 -3
2 1/2
*
-3
<u' > V =
9.9 x 10
<u' 2 >1/2 V* = 14.778 x 10 -3
<u' 2 >1/2 V* =
19.6 x 10 -3
<v' 2 >1/2
air
<v' 2 >1/2 V* = 1.996 x 10 -3
<v' 2 >1/2 V* =
9.9 x 10 -3
<v' 2 >1/2 V* = 14.778 x 10 -3
<v' 2 >1/2 V* =
19.6 x 10 -3
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.1
0.2
0.3
(c)
0.01
Y (m)
0.02
0.03
0.04
air
V* = 1.996 x 10 -3
*
V =
9.9 x 10 -3
*
-3
V = 14.778 x 10
*
-3
V =
19.6 x 10
0.05
0.06
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
bed is the so-called plug-ow. No matter how large the amount of liquid, the transverse velocities are close to 0, because there is no ux in
the y-direction at the center of the owing layer (particles neither
enter nor leave the owing layer).
When there is no formation of liquid bridges at V = 1.996 10 3,
liquid is trapped on the surface due to the roughness of the bead,
which would cause the lower dynamic angle of repose. The overall
potential energy of the particles in the rotating drum would be
lower than that of dry granular matter. This is why the streamwise
velocity decreases rst in a wet granular system. In Fig. 4, it can also
be seen that the dynamic angle of repose increases with the increase
of liquid content. However, the streamwise velocity decreases continuously with the increase of liquid content as shown in Fig. 7(a). The
reason is that when the amount of liquid is large enough, bridges
will form between almost every particle pair. A higher liquid content
leads to the formation of greater liquid bridge forces, resulting in the
smaller streamwise velocity. As can be seen in Fig. 7(a), the velocity
gradient is the largest in the dry case, because no liquid bridges
have formed between particles. The shear rate in the granular ow
is weaker in wet granular matter due to the dynamic liquid bridge
force [40,41]. The addition of a higher liquid content leads to the formation of greater liquid bridge forces in the system. The rupturing energy also increases, resulting in the smaller velocity gradient.
The components of the uctuation velocities in the streamwise
and transverse directions for different liquid contents but at a xed
speed of rotation of 0.4187 rad/s are shown in Fig. 7(b). The uctuation velocities in the streamwise direction are greater than those in
the transverse direction. The uctuation component is not isotropic
as assumed in the dense-gas kinetic theory [28]. An explanation for
this anisotropic phenomenon can be found in Hsiau and Shieh's
study [42]. In Fig. 7(b), it can be seen that the uctuation velocities
decrease with the depth from the free surface due to the decrease
of the shear rate (dbuN/dy). The uctuation velocity is the greatest
in the dry system where no liquid bridges form and particle motions
and interactive collisions are stronger. An examination of Fig. 7(b)
also shows that the uctuation velocity decreases with the increase
of liquid content. Accordingly, the lower angle of repose (lower overall potential energy) of particles in a rotating drum means that particle motions become weaker when no liquid bridges form. As the
amount of liquid become larger, bridges form between particles that
come into contact. Particle motions and interactive collisions will be
mitigated due to the greater liquid bridge forces.
Granular temperature is dened as the mean square of the uctuation velocity. This physically denotes the specic kinetic energy of a
granular system and plays a similar role as temperature in general
gasses. The change in granular temperature with the depth from the
free surface for the ve cases (different liquid contents but a xed rotation speed of 0.4187 rad/s) is shown in Fig. 7(c). It can be seen that
the granular temperature is the highest near the free surface, and it
gradually decreases along the y direction. The above discussion
makes it clear that the uctuation velocities of particles and interactive collisions are stronger in the owing layer and weaker in the
xed bed. This means that the granular temperature is higher in the
owing layer but lower in the xed bed. We also nd that the granular temperature decreases as the amount of the liquid added increases. Accordingly, when there is no formation of liquid bridges,
the lower overall potential energy of particles in a rotating drum
would be conducive to the weakening of particle motions, in turn
causing a decrease in the number of collisions. The addition of higher
liquid contents to granular materials leads to the formation of stronger liquid bridge forces, and decreases the number of interactive collisions. As a consequence, the granular temperature is the highest in
the dry system where no liquid bridge force exists. The potential energy is higher than V = 1.996 10 3, and is smallest for the wet system with the addition of V = 19.6 10 3 of silicone oil. This is the
liquid content that would lead to the largest liquid bridge force and
(a)
0.01
Y (m)
0.02
0.03
<u>
<u>
<u>
<u>
<v>
<v>
<v>
<v>
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.1
0.2
= 0.1047 rad/s
= 0.2093 rad/s
= 0.3410 rad/s
= 0.4187 rad/s
= 0.1047 rad/s
= 0.2093 rad/s
= 0.3410 rad/s
= 0.4187 rad/s
0.3
0.4
Velocity (m/s)
(b)
0.01
Y (m)
0.02
0.03
<u' >
2 1/2
<u' >
<u' 2 >1/2
<u' 2 >1/2
2 1/2
<v' >
2 1/2
<v' >
<v' 2 >1/2
<v' 2 >1/2
2
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.05
1/2
= 0.1047 rad/s
= 0.2093 rad/s
= 0.3410 rad/s
= 0.4187 rad/s
= 0.1047 rad/s
= 0.2093 rad/s
= 0.3410 rad/s
= 0.4187 rad/s
0.1
0.15
FluctuationVelocity(m/s)
(c)
0.01
0.02
Y (m)
the weakest particle motions. From Fig. 7(a)(c) it can be seen that
the liquid content has a signicant impact and an important inuence
on the dynamic properties of the granular ow system.
The introduction of greater external force to a granular matter system causes stronger particle motion, but the cohesive force between
the particles may result in additional energy dissipation. Therefore, we
discuss the effect of the liquid bridge force on the dynamic properties
of wet granular matter at four different rotation speeds. Fig. 8(a)
shows the granular velocities in the streamwise and transverse directions, with four different rotation speeds, but using the same addition
of silicone oil (V = 9.9 10 3). As expected, in each case, the streamwise velocity gradually decreases with the depth from the free surface;
the transverse velocity is close to 0. The trend is similar to that mentioned above for Fig. 8(a). It is also demonstrated that the velocity gradient increases in the streamwise direction as the rotation speed
increases. A higher rotation speed introduces more energy into the
granular system and generates stronger interactions between particles,
resulting in a higher velocity gradient. This leads to an increase in the
thickness of the owing layer, as observed in Fig. 8(a).
The components of the uctuation velocities in both directions are
shown in Fig. 8(b). The shear rate is higher in the owing layer, due to
the stronger interactive collisions and uctuations. Thus we found
that the uctuation velocity is greater in the owing layer. It is also
shown that the uctuation velocity increases with the increase of rotation speed which in turn is conducive to the particle motions becoming more random and stronger in the high shear region where
the velocity uctuations are also greater.
As can be seen in Fig. 8(c) the granular temperature decreases
with the depth from the free surface. The particle motions and uctuation velocities become weaker with the depth from the free surface
due to smaller shear rate, which in turn generates a smaller granular
temperature. However, we found that the granular temperature increases as the rotation speed increases. This is because more energy
is introduced into the granular system, generating a higher shear
rate. The increased rotation speed causes stronger particle motion
and more interactive collisions due to the higher shear rate, which
leads to the higher granular temperature, as shown in Fig. 8(c).
The physical mechanisms occur mostly in the owing layer in the
rotating drum. Understanding the effect of adding a small amount of liquid to the granular materials in the granular owing layer is important.
Therefore, the owing layer was subdivided into 10 bins to determine
the owing thickness. At the interface between the owing layer and
the xed bed, the streamwise velocity had a zero or slightly negative
value, while the values were positive for all other bins. The thickness
was measured based on when the value of the streamwise velocity becomes zero or has a negative value [43]. Fig. 9(a) shows the owing
layer thickness plotted against the liquid content V. It can be seen
that the thickness of the owing layer in wet granular matter increases
with increased liquid content. The particles start to roll downward
along the owing layer when they obtain enough potential energy. Liquid bridge forces exist between wet particles. When the liquid bridge
force is large enough, the rolling particles may bring other particles,
which would not otherwise have enough potential energy to roll,
downward. We also found that the thickness of the owing layer rst
decreases when the dry granular matter becomes wet. According to
the above, no liquid bridges form at V = 1.996 10 3. Although at
V = 1.996 10 3, the force of lubrication is produced, the potential energy introduced into the wet granular system would also be reduced, so
they there is not enough gliding force to balance the drag force between
the particles. The relationship between the owing layer thickness and
rotation speed is shown in Fig. 9(b). It can be seen that the owing layer
thickness increases with increasing rotation speed. The reason is that
the potential energy of the particles increases when the rotation
speed increases, strengthening the gliding force resulting from gravity
which is conducive to more uidized particle motion. This result has
been observed in several studies [44,45].
497
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.005
= 0.1047
= 0.2093
= 0.3410
= 0.4187
0.01
rad/s
rad/s
rad/s
rad/s
0.015
498
(a)
0.016
0.04
a ir
*
V =
*
V =
*
V =
*
V =
0.014
0.035
0.03
0.025
= 0.1047
= 0.2093
= 0.3140
= 0.4187
rad/s
rad/s
rad/s
rad/s
0.012
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.1
0.02
10
15
0.035
0.03
air
V* = 1.996 x 10 -3
V* =
9.9 x 10 -3
*
-3
V = 14.778 x 10
*
-3
V =
19.6 x 10
0.025
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Fig. 10. Relationship between the average granular temperature and rotation speed.
(b)0.04
0.02
0.2
20
V*(10-3)
-3
1 .9 9 6 x 1 0
-3
9 .9 x 1 0
-3
1 4 .7 7 8 x 1 0
-3
1 9 .6 x 1 0
0.3
0.4
became weaker due to the lower angle of repose (lower potential energy) of particles in the rotating drum. The particle motions and interactive collisions were mitigated due to the greater liquid bridge force
resulting from the addition of more liquid [21,48]. The granular temperature is indicative of the energy of the kinetic uctuation of the particles
due to the interactive collisions between them. More energy is introduced into the granular system with the higher rotation speed, resulting
in the stronger particle motions and interactive collisions. Therefore,
the average granular temperature increases with the increase of the rotation speed, as shown in Fig. 10. It can also be seen from this gure that
the average granular temperature increases linearly with increased rotation speed but the same liquid content. The slopes are 3.73 10 3 for
a dry system, 1.36 10 3 for V = 1.996 10 3, 1.19 10 3 for
V = 9.9 10 3, 7.88 10 4 for V = 14.778 10 3 and 7.70 10 4
for V = 19.6 10 3, respectively. This could be explained as follows:
liquid bridges form when two particles come into contact, while rupturing of these bridges occurs when two particles separate after exceeding
a critical distance. At larger rotation speeds, the owing layer is thicker,
so that the frequency and number of interactive collisions between particles becomes greater. Therefore the frequency of hysteretic formation
and rupturing of liquid bridges is also higher, resulting in more energy
being dissipated into the surroundings.
5. Conclusions
In this study we performed experiments to examine the effect of
the liquid content on the dynamic properties of wet granular materials in a quasi two-dimensional rotating drum. Using image processing technology and the particle tracking method, we measured the
dynamic angle of repose, average velocities, uctuation velocities,
granular temperature and owing layer thickness. We demonstrated
that the liquid content has a signicant inuence on the dynamic
properties of wet granular matter.
The dynamic angle of repose is the angle between the horizontal and
the free surface of a granular pile, after a land-slide has restored the pile
to metastable equilibrium. The results show that when the amount of
liquid added to the particles is not enough to allow the formation of liquid bridges and the liquid is trapped by the rough surface, the force of
friction between the particles is smaller than the gliding force resulting
from gravity. This causes a decrease in the angle of repose. When the
amount of liquid added becomes large enough, liquid bridges form at almost every particle contact, increasing the liquid bridge force between
the particles. The angle of repose increases continuously.
499
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