IEEE Teansactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 Partial Discharges Their Mechanism, Detection and Measurement R. Bartnikas Inia Recher Qube Yeas, Qu Cara ABSTRACT Different paral discharge (PD) detection and measurement procedures suitable forse onc bles, capacitors, transformers and rotating machines are examined and compared. Both natow and wide bandwidth PD delectorsare considered particular attentions given in regard tothe itaility to different types of electrical apparatus and cable specimens under test 2s well as their applicability to discharge site location and ther capability to detect different forms of 0. ‘A ther substantial potion of the discussion i devoted to the use of intelligent machines 35 applied to PD pattern recognition in terms of either Po pulse-eightscharge epoch (phase) 763 1 INTRODUCTION He subject of YO oF corona discharges, which represents an an- fecdent term that has been commonly applied to them in the past, consuls feld of endeavor which an be traced back to the begin- ings of he tenth century (4. While the study of FO may hus be considered asa well developed fil its preeminent importance as ‘fol fr assessing the quality an perioemance characteristics of HY equipment has ben responsible for sustaining high lve of acivity in investigations related to it mechanisms, physical nd chemical cts, detection and measuemet techniques: [>-7], er the yes, the eve ofinwesigatv fot inthe feld has varie considerably bth a5 e- aes tothe ype of electrical apparatus ude consideration aswell as ‘he type of discharge behavioral aspect being examined, eg. nature and form of the discharge, detection sensi, depradation insulation exposed oF, discharge pls quantities ecorded suchas the apparent charge transfer pulse repetition ote, energy ls, distributions o pulse heights discharge epochs (phase) and pulse separation tne intervals, as wel as pale pater recognition in terms ofthe sources causing the discharge Pethaps nowhere are the diferent tendencies insta and test ing procedures easier fo follow and evaluate i ther chronological d- ‘lopment oerlatfve decades than those aplicabletosold exraed dlls insulated power distribution ables. Tiss aterbuable toa large extent othe relatively simple geometry of cables an tei tras- risson line behavior, which greatly foiitate the interpretation of he 10 measurements, While few inkrpettionl dificult arisen low capacitance humped Hv components such as bushings and capacitrs, the detection of rin capacitors of high capacitance poses substantial cles, Discharge detection and is acurte measurement in ans- forme specimens becomes appreciably more complicated a5 result of more complex transmission line behavir ofthe coil a5 well 8 cou- isrbutions or discharge pulse shape atbues, pling and resonance effects between the windings. Sis interpreta- tional and calibration difficulties are encountered also with otating na- ches, wherein addition othe difficulties inherent wit transformer specimens, the magnitudes ofthe detected pulses may vary appeecia: bly ranging frm low levels geerilly intrinsic to internal discharges within stator bar insulation to extremely hgh levels ordinary asoxi- tod with lt dscharges. Also the question of calibration hasnt been resolved and there is indeed considerable controversy as to whether oF not calibration shoud ba preroquisite for rotating machine specimens. ‘The intent of his paper isto exams the PD mechanism ands behav- ioral characteristics and ta delineate an compa the 0 detection and measurement procedures that have evelved aver he pas five decades, which are either currently or may be, ublized on diferent electrical apparatus and cables. 2_ PRELIMINARY ‘CONSIDERATIONS Osclogzaph methods have Been employe in the detection of > in electri apparatus and abe, following the work reported by Tykociner lin 15836, 9]. These techrigues respond principally to pulse type discharges while pulseless glow and pseudogiow dis charges can readily occu, her pearance is gee accompanied by the icurenc of pulsed type dichonges that canbe edly detected sothat inthe vast majnityof cases conventional 70 pulse dlc are effective indian of he presence of 0, However it shouldbe bome ‘nmin, that pulsed ro detectors may not aways indicat te ful x- tent of ines of the 0 preset. There are bridge type PD detectors, available that expo to both pulse and pulses discharges (5,10, but thermally lower sensitivity has ended to impede the ge sealeimplementtion in the Pz, Although the fastest ris ime init of pulse type discharges at the ‘70-8678 $3.00 © 202 IEEE764 site of origin may beestablishe theoretically historically te fastest resrable stim, claimed to be recorded experimentally tended tosuggst a monotonically decreasing relationship with te bandwidth capability of he osiloscopes utilized. ith the availabilty of Gz bandwidth oscilloscopes, itisnow generally apred hat P pulses may Inve sis times as short as Ito 2 ns, which should however not be taken tacitly to infer that mast discharges do exhibit hese rapid se es. Thus detection of PD pulses at requncies at bandwidths up io 1 GHz is suitable; but cognizance shoul be made of te fc that the energy content of 7D pulses iso decreasing funtion of frequency Commercially available conventional Po detectors fo routine use on «cables, capacitors and transformers areof the narrow band type and are designe to operate within th band of ~ 300400 ke they are charge inlegratng devices and may be calibrated telly to provide the charge ‘rasfersasociated with detec discharge pulse in accordance with ASTM method DIB68 [I], Higher bandwidths are ulilized in research related work, where faithful reproduction ofthe PD pulse shapes is of paramount importance. Aso for improved pulse resco, wider bandvvdths are employed on work involving discharge site location incables(~ 20 M2}, rotating machines (00 KH2 to 1 GH2) and bus ducts as well as compressed gas cables(~ 1 GHz) Tae erly FD detection systems employed analog instrumentation. ‘This instrumentation performed adequately wel for discharge incep- tion and extinction voltage measurements; with the PD pulse patterns Alsplayd ostilogaphiclly ona power requeny tne base and ca- brated ordinate scale, the charge transfers associated withthe dis- crete discharge pulses could be estimoted visually andthe approximate phase relationship between the pulses and the applied voltage noted by the observer performing the tests. The availability of crystal controlled pase counters the 1955 allowed the counting of 70 polss per unit time and thereby the determination ofthe pulse density of discharge pattems 121] and permitted aswell the development of diferent pulseheight analyzers [15] and single channel pulse height analyzers {H6), The availablity of low cast A/D converters le to the commer- cial intoducton of multi-channel analyzers inthe 1960s suitable for FD pubs height cstibation analysis [17], The area of ischarge pulse interval and discharge pulse epoch (phase) istribution measurements developed raid Dreafter in he 19705 [18 19]and was extended into the practical area with application to rotating machines (20), This was hotly followed bythe introduction of computerized techniques for the measuresient of PD pulse distbutions (21-23). ‘The advent of PC computers inthe 1980s anther extensive wse in the 1905 apidly altered the approach in the co pulse distribution ara- ysisarenin thatthe measurement systems shite aay from the hard- ware based instrumentation to software dominated tecriques [2428 This study area eventually le to investigations on discharge pater recogiton ad classification involving the use of earl network (NN) (29-32 and fuzzy logic [3] ary studies indicated that the magitude oa dicharge pulse and its epoch or phase of ocurrence is strongly influenced by the occurrence of receding pulse or pulses (34). This ‘non Markovian point process was rigorously analyzed wing a stchas- ticapproach by van Brunt [35] in order to elocidae the conditional sta tistical nature ofthe discharge mechs. The obtained results pose same serious questions concerning the effectiveness of P pattem dhs Bartnikas: Partial Discharges ‘ication and eecogrition aswell as any atending stttical treatment of such data to render it more amenable to interpretation. Yeti must be observed that he satis treatment of 70 patterns whether of the pulserheght/phase distribution [36 or pulse shape [3,37] type have Yield some intresting practical esl ‘The 195%s sav the introduction of rapid response digital circuits for 0 measurement applications [38,3]. While the wse of digital tech niques in YD pulse detection, measurement and acqustion hasbeen rowing markedly, commercially available PD detectors have retained their separate analog and digital measurement options. n this respect itshould be emphasize thatthe peak PD pulse magnitude determined by the digital system wil not generally be the same a the trve mag nitude determined in realtime by the analog circuit because fits de- pendence upon sampling rte bandwidth and storage capacity of the Aigital system I shouldbe also pointed out that normally the analog, circuitry precedes the digital anquistion system forthe purpose of PD signal amplification andshaping [40], Aso often the FD sensing ci cuit maybe of an analog gal hybrid configuration [4]. The variety ‘of digital ics, available and invuse for PD measurements over the last decade has evoked the publication ofa position paper by the EEE Comiitee on Digs! Measirement Techniques 2] and a subsequent paper with invited dscusions by experts in the field 3). We shall devote a considerable effort in the paper towards a critical examina tionof the various analog and digital teehriques ether curently in use cor with possible fature application to PD measurements cn HY power apparatus and cbles 3 PD MECHANISMS Proper design application and deployment of ro sensing and mea- surement ctcuis etal certain degre of cogrizance and understand- ing of he PO processes. Ie is important to vse proper and correct te rinology in reference to different forms of to maintain larity inthe subject, For example itis one mate to relr to some #0 as steamer Juke’ discharges and another matter to refer to the same form of dis- charge asa stcamer discharge’. The streamer discharge theory de- ‘eloped independent by both Rather 4] and Meek [5], considers large gaps, in which the eltively short times of gap Breakdown are accounted for by the ocurrence of steamer discharges, which propa ste rapidly acres long gaps due to onaing photon racition at the streamer tips or leads. Thus, the use ofthe frm steamer’ by isl, when applied tor in relatively short gaps or smal cavity diameters, introduces unnecessarily a misleading term inthe P lexicon , when occurring in short gaps, may assume diferent forms: sapid and slow rise time spark-type pulse, tne pulseless glows or pseudoglow discharges [46-52 All these forms of discharges are cath- ‘de emisson-sustained discharges ie. they are essentially Towser discharges in contradstnction fo steamer discharges whose distin- sguishing etures are thes independence on cathode emission ad their dependence upon photoionization in the gas volume. The classical “Townsend dischargesare charactorzed by weakly ionized plasma hav- ing a smal space charge producing id, whichis nepigibe compared to the exterlly applied fold. is electron temperature is apprxie rately 104K andthe dominant ionization process is by dre oniza- tionIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation 4000 @ “100 0 100 Time (4S) Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 765 Figure 1. low dichage in a 05 men gap in trogen at atmospheric pressure. 3) vllage ass gap photomuliplir cunt (>) meowvalache ischnge ste pattern on rou acto Mit [2 4000 ‘Applied voltage (V) e100 Time (HS) (pw) waLimsoI04g Figure 2. Spark (pls) discharge in 205 mm gap in ntogen with an oxygen admiture 2 stmespherc pres (0) vllage ars gp, phtomt Pl caret (charge te pater on ground electro (ter Mirliet [6 ‘The true glow or pulseless discharge consis of weakly ionizing lise pasa generally occupying alavalbleintersectode space. Appreciable space charge formation occu in both the proxnty of the anode and cathode athe dcharge proces ain the case ofthe classic Townsnd discharges maintained though eathod enision. A plo discharge is notin lea thermal equilibrium and the electron temperature ranges from 10 to 2c" K, Direct ionization plays a significant ole and stepwise ionization, while negligible at ow cut- ren, may become appreciable at cures in the range of 10 mA, The pseudogow discharge i siilarto the pulseless low in he degre of Tonization,eleezon temperature and parle densities, but exhibits at the ame ime the presence of minute discharge pulses having features, characterise of spark type discharges. The presence ofthe minute pes seal detected eletoniclly 46-8] o optically by means ‘ofa potomulpie 53, 54 The presence of oxygen wihina discharging cavity eds init the occurrence of pseudoow and pulseless glow discharges, because ofthe electronegativty ofthe oxygen gas, which reduces the availa ity of free eecttons necessary for discharge initiation and lints the expansion of discharge channel necesary for the formation of glow discharges. This is evident fom the very regular pulse-ype discharge behavior observed with oxygen [55 as compared to the predisposition of other gases to support aimespheric pressure glow discharges un- er certain conaitions [48 Ialso accounts fom the predominance of spark or pulse type discharges in air and the transition from a glow clischarge process to pulse discharge type behavior in other gases (He, At, Ny) upon the ation of small trace amounts of oxygen [5,57] Teis also observed that in cavities containing air-lke atmospheres, de- Pleton of oxygen fom the atmosphere and the surrounding surfaces ‘coupled with increases inthe conductivity ofthe walls due to depo- sition of acidic rection preducts created by the discharge, will aso cause transition fom spark (pulse) to pseucoglow and pulseless glow766 discharges to take place [53,54] A gap space undergoing psedoglow or pulseless glow discharge can spr ek lo low ove is sues, ik ‘ot be always uniform ina srt sense, but consis ofa muliplicty of Tight emitng dots that are caused by miceoaalanches [58,5]. The ar- rangement or aray of the microavalanche sts, consiuling he overall ot pattern, is a function oftheir density, which in tum isa function of ‘the applied voltage [55-62]. The micoavalanche dot pattems may be readily observed via aight transparent nium in oxide ground ele trove deposited upon gs surface, which act a5 dielectric bare © the discharge in metalie/ dielectric electrode gap. Anintensifst charge injection device (Co) camera is used to record the cchange site/dot ‘mages, employing 2 voltage-phase resolved synchronizing cru in conjunction with o pulse generator required to trigger the C1D camera shute (3. Figure 1a) depicts the voltage waveform across he gap and the recorded ight pulse produced by the glow over each half dle ofthe applied voltage wave and Figure 1) portrays the resulting smjcwevalanche site configuration pattern. ures 2a) and 2() illus trate the eet ofan oxygen admixture othe nitogen as the discharge patter reverts back from aglow discharge toa spark pulse type dis charge, with cumerous pulses in evidence inthe photocurrent trace the evidence of some minute pass in he traces indeative ofa pseu Aogls, which ocurs concurrently withthe large pulse (par) type discharges. Th auio frequency test voltage accentuates the phenom ena, which also occur over lower frequencies, The shor gap pulse or spark P is iia tothe pulseless glow and pseudoglve discharges in that itis also a Townsend type discharge, its underlying distinguishing attribute being that itis characterized by a higher degre of ionization and conductivity; but the discharge is sil far emoved from having achieved local thermodynamic eu libration. lt occurs within a brightly luminous narowly constricted channel as opposed to the relatively fant emited difused glow of pulseless or pscudoglow discharge; yet it also is sustained by cathode emission, lis electron density iss consderaly below 10° cat Sparktype PD are commonly dass as rapidly and showy develop- ing sparks or pulses, which are detected by the external PO sensing ci- ‘als ashighvamphtude fast rise time and low amplitude show rise ie pulses respectively [51,52], The former are also frequently refered to as ceamer or steamer-lke discharges’ andthe later as Townsend type discharges [64-68], The ter steamer-ike has been applied to pid riseime shortsluration pulses, because ofits similarity in form tothe rapid steamer pulses long gaps [6,65] However there isan important subi diference inthe mechanisms ofthese two forms of discharge. Since the mechanisms of development of streamer related pulses inlong gaps involves ionization wave propagation ina very high fed eon where theionization an ind of electrons at the discharge Ieadisprotced by a space charge field due to separation of positive ae negative charges, the use of the term ‘streamer to denote aapily developing discharge pulse ina shot gap is miseading. Both rapidly andslwy developing sparks or discharges pulses invalve the cathode feedback mechanism of the Townsend type, albeit that in the eapily Aeveloping pase discharge the classical fn induced cathode emission proces plays a vey minor role because ofthe predominance of the space change mechanism inthe vicinity ofthe cade which gives ise Bartnikas: Partial Discharges to very intense photoemission tthe cathode. Inthe ld of Po measurement, there as been relatively lil aten- tion pid to the deteton or measurement of pulseless gw and pseu- Aoglow discharges (5, 6,34 4,47, 52 5, 68,70. Tactonally since the «arly introduction of sillographic techniques oP studies, PDinclec- trical apparatus hae, inthe most part, been predominantly detected and measured on electrical apparatus and cables in terms of pulse-ype discharges. In retrospect much ofthis tendency must be attributed to the ease with which pulsetype measurement techniques may be deployed and utilize, particularly more recently with increased ws- age o signal processing procedures. This inordinate preocupie ten- dency with oni pulse discharges has resulted in relegating the x= Istnce of pulseless glow and pseudoglow discharges to convenient cblivion. Nevertheless, it must be also emphasized thatthe form of lscharge in physical cavities i arly, if ever, only of the pulseless or pseudogiow type; most fequenty, itis found that all these types of discharge, nanely pulseless glow, pseudoglow and pulse or spark type may oeur simultaneously over eech applied voltage cycle. This then isthe redeming feature of FD pulse detection methods: they ae sucent per ew indicate the presence of FD, the PD inception point and the? pulse intensity, eventhough they may not always indicate the fll extent ofthe overall discharge proces that may comprise the concurrent orcurrence of pulseles glow and pseudoglow discharges to which they fail to respond. casein pont isthe dissipation factor (tand) measurement, whichis nomally performed on stator bar inso- lation and oil pape insulated cables oases hc qulity using ether Schering o a ratioarm bridge. Frequently, it may be found thatthe increase in tip-up ofthe tan value with voltage may not be uly ac- countable by sum of hero pulse type losses andthe dle sts, conceivably indicating significant pulseless and pseudoglow discharge Js contrition to the overall an 6 value Attempts have been made to ascertain theoretically the conditions that favor discharge chanel expansion ie transition from a spark to a gow discharge. Numerical model ties have been cari cut on ‘the short ap breakdown to examine the theoretical aspect of discharge channel constriction and expansion in helium, hydrogen and aia t- smospheric pressure [49-5 71-75], Discharges were found toexhititan increased propensity towards discharge channel broadening when di- etic surfaces are involved as substantiated in Figure 3 [5]. While inital the electrons are confined toa relatively constricted channel of aradiusof~ I mmat discharge development time of2.10ns the radius Of the channel is seen to broaden to = 7 mm at atime of 447 ns. The postive ion density within the discharge channel i found to exhibit Similar tendencies, Further calulations made by Nikonoy et [76,77] show that te discharge channel expansion aes ls infiueced by the magnitude ofthe charge density and its distribution remaining fom previous discharges. Experimental data have also demonstrated that ccumlaton of surface discharge products andthe associated changes of surface conductivity (wich affect the surface charge ditribaion} favor the occurence of glow and psevdoglow discharges tn view of the current emphasis on PD pulse detection tecnigues as concerns electrical power apparatus and cables, we shall omit fur~ ther detailed discussion on pulseless and pseudoglow discharges and ' @ SF | Concent nuts soa osilscope © Figure 20. Dchane sitlocaton by nsf apastive odes ter Maint (07. (a Pesto pave pes wi spc. ojo. () Egil’ cet of apace pts and able pes then: hee rps he neem dred capacitance of he Ebel nC the apace ofthe pee red Been the cone neal andthe semicon she RT TS ESTO tne CT Figure 21. Response of two capacitive probes with pabe #2 oad ‘distance of (76m and probe 45 1.36 fom at of two SKY eg dstibution cables coming a dchargesoure als midi Neral sae, 10 mV, rzotal scale, Tas. fier Maint a. pam, ination procedure is available for the rejection of interference pulses that ae generated fom sting evens which beara definite phase telatonship tothe applied sinasoida voltage wave, such tha banking circuitry may be employed to eiinate all pulses within the applied ‘ollage segments over which the interference pulses appear. When di- rect operator intervention in the noise tring approach st fersibe, resot fo adoptive digital filtering techniques canbe mage [12,104 the pulse response of ul cable pesinen length as wel sits attensa- sion and phase constants 2r known, tho response duc toa discharge at any pointon the cable may be derived in terms ofits transfer function Bartnikas: Partial Discharges [102] Consequently the pulse respose assocised with a discharge at any point along the cable specimen may be corelatd with the mea sure noise ie, the loaton ofthe 20 sit corresponds to that vale, ‘which yi the maximum crsscorelton coffe As hasbeen mentioned already the alternative procedure forthe o- cation of 0 sites in soli polymeric and otimpregnated-paper cables involves the use of scanning probes, which may be of the capacitive {005 o inductive [106] type. For completly shielded cables only in- ductive probes are effective. Capacitive probes function wel only on _nshiciled or poorly shielded cable scons, where the shied may be interrupted or damaged or at cable ends and poory shielded co- be ints. Capacitive probes maybe aso installed permanently under shields in joins to monitor or detect newly initiated discharge activ ity shouldbe also pointed ut that acoustical probes whi function well with compressed gas cable or bus sections, do not perform well, ‘on polymeric or i impregnated-paper cables tat are characterized by high acoustical impedances ‘The usual apace probe nomally consists of dielectric fim c- pastor of marco width with cooper pate lecrodes suitably bent to fit the cynical contour ofthe able specimen. The capacitive probe may be mounted on aninsulated red to facilitate scanning along poorly shielded cable oils, In order to fate the PO sites, is always ne essary to work with two probes placed some distance apart hat may be varied to establish whether the faults between the probes oto either side ofthe probes. Though tedious, capacitive probes may be inglled on distribution eabls with concentric neusals with the two «capacitive probes being inserted between the concentric neutral and semiconducting shield of te able. For cable joins having concen neutral jumpers, the capacitive probes may be placed as indicated in Figure 20 107, the gischarge site in Figure 20s exactly in he mide of the cable joi, te ro pulse arial mesa the to probes wil be equal and the two respective tansmited pulses rom the 0 site willbe of equal mage nitude Had the two probes been inserted under the concentric neste at 076 and 1.4 m on the righthand side away from the cable oi, the situation would be quit diferent ais demonstrated in Fguze 21 forthe case where the separation distance betwen the two capacitive probes is 061 m. The pulse at probe No.2 which i 076 m fom the Joins seen to artive before tha ofthe more afendaed pulse at prabe No.1, which s placed 1.4m from the joint, As has been already dis cused the losses inte semiconducting shiek as wel as inthe sold dllectic of the polymeric distribution cables give ise to substantial attenuation ofthe megnitude ofthe transmitted PD pulses kewise, they ae found to reduce the velocity of propagation to ~ 58% ofthat of ree space Asingle capacitive pre san ofa cable surface is frequently use- falas an initial stp for detecting goss fols a porly concent neta shielded covered abl sections, joints and terminals. Fr this purpose rf ype 7D detection circuitry is employed, whose sensitivity 'scalbrted in pC but whose output consss of eth an indication in <8 units as well as an auible nse eel thats proportional othe PO intensity. Such a device i depicted in igure 2: utilizes two probes: contact capacitive probe and ungrounded rod pee, which acs 3¢.an antenna, The latter probe is employed for ascertaining the overall 2IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation _ aalaal ep De Lee Figure 22, Schematic diagram of apciive probe PO Icato de- signed for apbaton an plyerc power distribution cables er Morne 8). Insasing einer PN jacket —) fi xin Figure 23, ro souc lation on joins of 25 KY xi power tans nisin able (afer Kasuta ta [10). activity or ambient noise in given ara, ein the vcity of ables instal in subsatins oat oping of manholes. If such activity is observed th acessle potions of th cables ae scanned wih the contact capacve probe, which is generally found tobe efective in Jocting very ince discharge sours; weve it 0 it eating capability seriously compromise in ares exhibiting high ambien eels of interirence. The capaciv probe FD ste eating device as 2 caated output readable cir in dB unis, given bythe emi ica lation 105 A=KmAQSD ° where A and ace constant and he value of (inp refers toa train of cation excitation plas a a pied repeticn ae, the calibrated dB scales a farction of oth the magnitude ofthe PD pubes a5 wellas thee petition rte. Since the presence of Pin pulymeic type cables under operating conditions carmot be tolerated da othe high susceptibility othe py nerds torino degradation, discharge rst monitoring ofasevie HV power tarsmission ables sf paramount importance {10,10 Theappearance of 0 may necessitate immediate eal of the acess ofthe oles cable seen in which th PD Source i located inorder aver serie interruption du ta high peobbiity of inminnt alr at elevated voltages. Figure 3 portrays schematically 2.20 site locator rangement, which has ben succeslly deployed inservice applications on installed 275 KV XLPE power transmission cables Iu abulun cei, which provides an uralaced ouput [ND The vo capac probes are appli in he farm oa metalic foi overth cable jacket an insulating ng separates te metalic shield atthe mid-point of he joint. Essentially each capacitive probe views on half of tej and able length nits especie se A sesivity of 2pC is aime bythe authors. Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 Probe Probe n Chl 26m" Ch? 20mv Tons Ch Figure 28. Puseresyonse oma charges stunted equidist wen te indctive probes orizental sale 10 as/, vet scale: a di fer Morne a [07 Figure 25. Schematic ccuit diagram ofa commercial uranic Po ect (18. Although inductive probes have bee deployed for 2 it ation purposes for several devas 10, I] ther aplication to ables ap- posto be a eativel ent phenomena [7 112-15). In shielded ‘ables te signal ofthe discharges soup ectromagnetially to the cancers antral the induced crent pale propagates long, ‘the neual in beth drctions from the discharge site The induced volt age pulse magnitude developed across the inductive probe increases, with the mutual inductance between te inductive probe and he con centric neta. In general, Fert ore cols exhibit greater sestv- ity and have beter Hequeney response characters than mul-uen cols. Whe higher fequecy response inductive cols have beter sg- ‘al resolution characteris and provide greater accuracy inthe lo- ‘ation of YD ses, is advantageous with longer cable specimens to 1s inductive probes that espa principally to the fowerrequency component of the discharge pulse anc a, therefore ‘futher ino the cable specimen. Ahmed and Seisivas [15] have described fer «coe probe designs hat can sense charge sites ~ 600m way: How eet for pres discharge it lation, iedcive cl probes ofa ew tums [0 12,14] or even sage turn U5] are require, igure 2¢ sowsthe espns ofwo induct en probes of tums each, placed quis (45cm) froma 0 sour 15) Wii aoustal methods are relatively inte fr #D tes on polymeric and oi/pperimpregnated cables, they are ideally suited for ste ation on compress SF cables and bus ines. This can 1 rendilyaecomplished sing conventional commercial avalable l- tasoic detection cic dpi in Figure 25108 SF, us, which776 is normally under a pressure of 5 atmospheres transits ukrasonic signals much more ecient thn under atmosphere pressure 116, tough apprecabe attenuation ocurs at anges and spaces [117] cn- ‘sequently he ables shouldbe scanned steps between the individual anges The acoustical aenation arin dB/cm) between the spaces of «compressed SF ine may expressed bythe Kirchbof formula, which is valid fora tube geometry 16), 10-274 a= 7800 ® where F denotes the fequeny in HZ and ri the rai ofthe able tube in cm. Even though atemation is much lower ove the audio frequencies (20 Ka, acoustical ests on SF ines mus be cated at higher frequencies ofthe ulrasonic regime. 50 KH} inorder tocir- cawent the high ambient inference normally encountered ove the au frequency band. Acoustical methods may achieve sensi ler els of 10 25 pC [116 that are substantial les than those ofeletrial Po detectors, hich alin the range betwoan 01 to Lp should be also ade, that while acoustical methods can readily eet discharges ‘duet the moverent of partes ad those initted at aspeities on the surface ofthe cable conductors, they are quit ineffective in detecting {he low eel #0 pulses which occur within the occluded cavities of the spaces instr [16 Figure 26. rosie ation and 70 eel est wth an aos sersor ‘in cojanetion with anarow band ro detec 16,18. Sooner ST Coad a Figure 27. Types of coupes for high frequency PO measurements ‘Sf inespeciens [after Boggs a 120,12). ‘common procedure employed for PD detection and PO site loa tion nF, power transmission cables, based ona technique developed caer by Knig [1,18 involves the usage of a conventional narroe ‘band PD detector in conjunction with an ullrasonic probe a delineated in Figure 26. The P0 detector, whose sensitivity may be as high as Bartnikas: Partial Discharges (01 pC depending onthe extraneous noise rejection filter employed, de- termines at an elevated sensitivity whether discharges ar present and the probes then slid along the exterior ofthe metalic ube encosur of the cable to locate thé rb sources, Difculies are encountered with his procedure when the eletially detected discharge eels are low and fal beyod the sensitivity capabilites of the ultrasonie canning probe ‘Theoutpu across the detection impedance Za maybe used also 0 gene erat the usual PO pulse dsebuton functions when reasurements are phase synchronized withthe power frequency The neary dielectric loss character ofS nes renders them ideal suited for igh frequency PO detection techniques. Frequencies in the range from 0 lz to 1 GHz commonty ae ulized ina de- tection scheme whereby the detection impedance 2 andthe coupling capacitance Ci ofthe traditional 9 detection circuit become incorpo- rated as pars of high fequency tansmisson linet yield the desired frequency respons [119-23]. In straight portions ofS, bus ducts ox «ables, the detection of discharges and their sit loeation isachieved by measuring simultaneously the pulse artival times at two suitably dis placed covpling capacitors along the transmission line. Discharge sites have been shown tobe located to within 1 m over staight postions of a duct line at sensbity levels as high as 1 pC (12122, Figure 27 ‘epics a numberof typical rb coupling devices for use with wide band discharge detection systems, While the shown coaxial coupler exhibits «good frequency’ response, itis characterized by a high coupling los, which may, however, be eliminated by the use ofa slid-ielectre cow per. Ifa Faraday cage is avaiable to provide adequate shielding for the measuring capac, a sheath coupler is also stable for use with the proviso that an solted section ofthe cable sheaths disposable or this purpose It was demonstrated that high frequency #0 detection techniques may aso be employe for continuous PO monitoring on gasinsulated system (Gis) 120]. Since °0 measurement inthe ange fom 300 MHz 41 GHz are well beyond the upper limit ofthe frequeey spectrum ‘of surface corona discharges, interference from overhead transmis- sion lines is effectively eliminated, Fixed frequency interference fom portable telephone communications and television may be circum ‘ented by suitable tering techniques Should the ator approach have shortcomings then PD detection may card uta select hgh re quencies, which corespon tothe characters esonat frequencies ofthe S gas duct strcture under test as shown in the detailed aal- ysis by Kurrec etal [124] These group of resonant frequencies ae a ‘complex huneton ofthe geometrical configuration ofthe Gs bus, its ‘overall length, interconoection, T jpnts and ends of ducts (121-126) ‘When the PD pulse amplitudes become very lrg, the numberof res ‘onan peaks increases, leading to avery dense frequency spectum of the resonant peaks In losing the discussion on 29 measurements on cable specimens some remarks out tobe made in regard to PD site locaton tess at ‘able manufacturing facies. 0 site location tests were frequently and in some cass routinely caried out on polymeric cables ut the ‘early 1970s, As solid dielectric extrusion tecniques improved along ‘with the inrotction of extruded semiconducting shields that replaced the antecedent arbon-ape shields, the ocurrenceof FD nly man factured cables diminished markedly, The most elective tecnigueIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation for oat rb sites in polymeric extraed insulation and cavities a interfaces between the conductor semiconducting shield and the ex ‘rude insulation, involved the use ofthe socalled Gooding rain (127), ‘whereby a polymerccable witout house insttion senicondc ing shel was pase through a hallow cineca electrode st- ated atthe canter of along pipe contig high resistivity Dedenized water: The water column at teen ofthe type was rode vi two grounded tanks, thereby causing he cavity or eaves to undergo max: ‘am discharge intensity atthe cee of teu, Insets ‘ne Gooding tan eb caning procedure was carted out shot afer the enrsion hea as the cable was being extded. Since the Good- ing train echaigue could notbe applied rect finished cables with insulation semiconducting sheds in pace, Xray techniques were t= tae scan voltage energized cables (28,129. Xeayimadiaton of «cavities provided te fe eleczons to inte and maintain the PO in ‘he cavities, which normally coud not have undergone discharge. 5 CAPACITORS Capac specimens behave a lumped cc laments; thus 20 telson capacitors constitute a simple procedure withthe proviso hat ther apaitanceis otto large Uncrate this isnot the situation wih th vat majority af power and energy storage capaci, represents the mao portion of the capacitance ofthe capacitor, which shunt the series comin of te cpacitarce oa dchargingcvity insereswith an extremely smal port ofthe dick then in terms of the detected peak dicharge puke voltage signal V, the associated aggre charg tasters gen by AQ = AvaGy 6 790 smn 5 ‘Topemae Figure 28. roi. tempartre characteristic oa 46 pF dlcre liguid inpegote plate fl powe apace aie Hanouche and Feta (134 Evidently, the detected pulse voltage magitude dereassinversey with the specimen capacitance C7, eventually approaching a situa tion where PD detection with electrical rp detectors becomes inceas- ingly more ficult when the specimen capacitances begin to exceed mich beyond 5 iF Extraneous noise elimination and reduction in PD tests om high capatance specimens, using balanced measurement tech igus, represents one effective practical means for compensating in portion for this reduced measurement seiivity [5]. Early diletic ligui impregated-paper posse capacitors were designed for opera tional stresses ofthe order of 12 V/um and had to comply with 1 ‘Specification 70 [130 131). The replacement of pape by plastic itm Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 Pass depen) Figure 28. Et of taper upon er plsedisibution cha ters ofa 6 ite guid impregnated plastics power ‘pact: aa DW = Ls6xrated vlage and —25°C; a OW = 2x ated volage ara 1S (ter Hantouche and Fete (34. lectres permite fo increase the operational stresses to 60 V/me forthe power capacitors; however, his increase was accompanied by more stringent PD lve requiements, which stipulated a permissible level of oly 2 pC relative totat ool paper insulted capacitors of 200 pC [132-13 This partly rected the gener concer forthe use of pas ims, which tend to undergo more severe degradation in the presence of 2035 compared tothe wel proven high ebb il paper insulating sytoms. With capacitor tha are constructed of sev- traf uit capacitors placed in parle ti omamon practice to est the units forPD individually and thus gin sensitivity as opposed to having, the entre capacitor itself tested, which represents specimen of much Iigher capocitance. As an additional safety feature ert are made to design capacitors such tat he are eof scharges fo at east tice the rated vliage, whose associated charge transfers are = 20 pC. tis infrestng tal the later levels four time greater han te pC value utilized as a criterion forthe rection of polymeric power cables. Yet, while the electrical stresses inthe polymeric cables ae relatively high ‘hey are stil substally less han the stresses a he stress enhance= ment sites ofthe metalic fi edges of capacitors [8] In comparison 0 ‘cables, the PD charge transfer levels even on ow vollage capacitors te found to be relatively high ranging between 8 and 49 pC [135 A general characteristic of insulating systems hat with aging, the PD inception vltge (PY) frequently is observed to diminish very adually with time a a esl ofboth physical and chemical degro= dation which ake place within the insulating systems. With dielectric liquid impregnated systems the POW values significantly aected by temperature, usualy decreasing with ling temperature 3 he vsos- ityoftheimpregnat increases and cavities ae iter creted or minute avis coalesce to form larger macroscopic cavities that commence ionize and discharge. This fect is demonstrated in Figure 2%, which was oblained ona 46 power capacitor rated fr operation at 36KV.778 Figures 2) and 250) portray three dimensional pots ofthe num- ‘er of PD pulses and charge transfer asa funtion of discharge epoch (phase in relation to the applied sinusoidal voltage wave 1134) Itcan ‘bediscerned from the graphs tha the insulting system exhibits lower PIV value at ~25°C due tothe presence of more intense discharges centered around 180, Figure 240) oblained ata temperature of FC reveals 2 mare dense discharge pater, containing pulses ofan appre: ‘ably lower intensity. +0 pulse distribution pattems may also be used to detect construc tion faults in xpactrs. In tems ofa 7D pulse dstbution data bark compiled, Gulsi 27] was able to correlate PD pulse distribution pat- terms ona 220Y, 1 eapactr to establish the existence ofa 70 fault ata soldering joint between individual apa layer packages. How- ‘ve, for such correlations to be effective, previous PD pulse dstebu- tin data mast be available on specifi types of 0 faults on capacitors having identical construction designs. Acoustical measurements are particularly attractive for PD detection in capacitor specimens of high «capacitance. Tey are immune to extraneous electromagnetic interer ence and can achieve seri levels beter than 20 pC, which are ciffiul to atain with electrical PO sensoes when capacitances >1.0 uF ar involved (16,12. The elctromechanical transducets oF sensors tse fr detecting acoustic emissions may be constructed of rsa 0 ceramics, which poses the propery of pezeletricty i, the capa- bility of developing electricity upon the aplication of presure waves. Rochelle sl lithium sulfate and amsronium dihydrogen phosphate crystals barium stanate and lead zrcnat-ad tana ceramics are ‘atria that exhibit piezoelectric properties. The piezoelectric rvs tal and ceramic acoustical sensors may be used within the frequency regime extending am 0.1 Hz to 25 MH2 and may be either broad or narrow bandwidth devices [i]. The frequency range within which acoustical sensors ae used in the area PO detection is determined by ‘the acoustical transtision characterises ofthe power apparatus oF ‘able specimens undergoing test as well asthe ambient acoustical in- ‘erference spectrum at the est sit. In insulating ystems containing d- lect ligads, which ae characeried by low acoustical impedances, a sensivty level of 1 pC would appear tobe achievable under ideal test conditions {16} Teas buen dectnstrated that ultrasound methods are capable of detecting ischargesin capacitors having capacitances ahigh as 40 pF [i6h ‘the physical sie af ligule power capacitors atains su lett large dimensions to permit acoustical coupling ofthe ultrasonic transducers vi a fil of giceine to the ste casing ofthe capacitor Forsuchlagesized capacitors, acoustical sensors resonant inthe ee- «quency regime betwen 60 080 Kiiz appear tobe most efetve. Flow ‘vey, with expats of reduced physica ie casings, 2 requency of '~ 20 kz onds tbe most suitable. Small capacitors undergoing £0) tests ae frequently immersed ina mineral ol bat, thereby ensuring ‘god acoustical coupling between the ultrasonic transducers and the let specimen as wel as providing effective shielding to ambient ul- frasound, Ulasoic transducers ate commonly use for the detection and monitoring of 0 signals aswell a discharge site location. PD sites ae often located atthe edges ofthe capacitor metalized fis, where strong electrical stress enktancement takes plac; te charge transfers associated with these discharges fall normally between 10 and 20 pC. Figure 20. Stic circ rangement of an indus vllage ° test om power tasfomer specinen ning measurements tem for 2 puede distabation sali. Figure 3. Scheticcr gram fora dicharge ts ona small transformer using separate Ha HY dcharge-ee et source Wil additonal instrurentation for o pubedwight and discharge epoch station messorment 6 TRANSFORMERS AND. REACTORS Pp measurement anit interpretation on transfers ad restos represent afar mae complex ad intricate task than that on cables ot capacitors. A transformer is an inductive device; a the electecel #O measurements are cored outa the terminals of the transformer, any slischarge site within the windings ofthe transformers separate from tne terminals by a sizable inductance, which appears in parle with a distributed capacitance and iss well shunted to ground by another distrinuted capacitance. The Fo pulse emerging tthe discharge ste ‘must ave oer aeamplex LC network pros reaching the terminal of the transformer. As the FO pulse propagates ang the transformer ‘winding, it is both altenuated and distorted es increasingly is high frequency content is removed filtered oat, ination, the occurence of resonances, between windings and tums within the windings, can introduce errors into the measured rb quantities should these esonant frequencies fall within the bandwidth ofthe PO sensing sytem. tests onthe transformers may be performed using ether the o- called induced test or by means ofa separate independent power fe- quency vollage source fo produce the voltage stress in the insulating system [I 197 Inthe induced test the voltage is applied across the low potential winding whereby the vltagesressis impressed between the individual tums and sections ofthe windings asunder noemal op- crating conditions in service. When this tests employed with larger transformers its common practice to use the tied harmonic (180 Hz) of the power frequency soutce in order to permit an over voltage test con the transformer without saturating the magnetic cre and therebyIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation ‘ausng damage othe tansforme. Alternatively, a 00 Hz moto gene erator unit may sometimes be considered aceplabl, Since high power transformer are normaly equipped witha ishing tp [197-140] it isos convenieny with he eguicementofa discharge recouping, capaitor Figure 30 delineates schematically the connection diagram foc an induced voltage 20 test ona power transformers specie, Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 3p. Voituge Flgure 92, Schon cca dngram ora dichaerstenseoe cupped witha bashing tp, using a separ Ha HY dihage Inetaslomer Time Figure 34? puse fens oan wit 33mm gyp ina ans former mineral lt anasphck pre Subted o5 Hi of TRV mms. Upger ee itgated capt of 2300 He bandwith 7 detec (ordinate seal 20 mi Iower tre egative pes cto pale burst cut of 7 Me nde ovine nate sce 1 i) abscsa eal s/s for both opera Tower es ae emt 12). 87 ies 7 ‘Charge wane, AQ (7) igure 39, ro pus eight disrbution observed over 2 min nt von a8 NVA mac containing adage see tr Gull ania. With smaller transfor, the pone frequency volage i generally applied to thet winding by means ofa dischargers test transformer 28 porvayed schematically in Figure 31 The transformer insulation is thus voltage stressed between the high potential winding and the lo potential winding s well as ground. Note that with this arangement a dschargeree coupling capacitor Cz i required. When a Po testis performed ona ren, a separate ts transformer must also be employed, but no couping capacitor i ecessary because bushing taps provide. Since one endo the reactor cols grounded, the insulation i stressed between the tus as well a to ground (Figg ture 32) Figure 33 shows a Po pulse-eight ditiaton obtained ona resco sing a tlictannelpuse-eight analyze: the 70 dscharge pater was atbuted ta damaged screen (I, ile PD specications sate a permissible bandwidth < 300 kz inthe testing of transformers (137) a lower fat bandwidth extending from fo 200 kz has been found to provide improved sensi) a a yf Dischreepch ads) Figure 38, Dishing epoch or plas wih reps to the appli voltage wae ina Xntensore lo psp 2KV bore the diye tcption vole at stmgherc pee Tac ob Aicharge pecan asc charge wane vant over leten ‘waive cyl; uae): dcr pic dstbuen over 3s einer ate Por ta 153}, (142). Attenuation measurements carried out in the same sty ind cate thatthe spectral component inthe #D pulses closer to | MH ‘are much mor ahonuated than those below 200 He. Tuned PD mes- ‘sutements ae not performed on transformers and reactors because of ‘eros itraducd de to resonance phenomena arising betieen tus and windings, which are principally prevalent above 20 The iter connected across the detection impedance Zy must te- rove the power frequency component and is harmonics a8 well 35 factory and communication genetated interirence. The I Standard spies filler with signal atemaation of dB at 15 KH and 20 dB at 500 KHz [137]. Cansderng that 20 lve of 50 pC in oi filled transformer i deemed tobe permissible, anal ites ay adeguaely ‘meet the noise rections requirements in mest instances, However, ane der severe extraneous noise conditions, digital irs of the adaptive780 rejection type may utilized. Adaptive rejection fers are essentially smathematial filles: the detected pulses are transformed fram the ime domain tothe frequency domain by means of the fat Fourier tans form: inthe frequency domain the magnitude ofthe intense rise fe «quency components ae subtracted an then the noe fequeney ree signal spectrum is transformed back tothe time domain by taking its fast Fourier transform inverse Calibration of he #0 detection cits is caved ut asin the ease ‘of cableand capacitor specimens, sing sl eaibeation apa via wich a known charge is inetd, The value ofthis capacitor should be atleast 50 pF but should not exceed 150 pF The square pulse of the generator shuld be sufcienly wide to prevent oerapping ofthe simulated #0 calibration pulsesat the front and the tiling edges ofthe ‘square ection pulse. The recommended ie tne ofthe font and trlng edges ofthe square pulse shook be equalized to corespond | 100s as recommended in the Pts standards [1,157]. The response (of PD detectors iva function of the ise te of the FD pulses and con- sequently, flue to maintain the rise ad fll imes ofthe excitation ‘or calibrating square pulse constant and equal wil kad to calibration errorsboth with conventional ep detectors and Po puseheght dst bution analyzes 5,76, 83} Aso shown in Figures 30 and 3 ae BC computer base systems, which may be wed for PD pulseheight and pulse phase distribution analysis in lew of the sophisticated multichannel analyzer systems. ‘Wil present po measurement standards on transformer equireonly the determination of the FD inception and extinction voltages as well asthe maximum 2D charge tanser value and ils change with ime at sped voltage levels, the Fo pulse distribution measurement systems may be used to analyze certain PD behavioral features that may bear some relationship othe type of faltsaswellstheilocation. Inthe {nlerprctation of fo measurements on solid-iguid insulating ystems, i ‘swell toemphasze two distinc discharge mechanisms thal may occur indieletic liquid led power apparatus. PO within the physically stax ble macroscopic cavities oclude within the ciimpregnatecl lose paper ier interstices or synthetic paper insulation wll exhibit theclas: sic discharge behavior in that the positive discharges wil oceur along the descending portions are negative discharges along the ascending portions ofthe applied sinsoidal voltage wave, The discharges will thus tend to center on both sides ofthe weltge2eos or commence just before the voltage zeros ie, ~ DP and 18. In aio to the former lochavior, discharges can also occur within transient cavities that are ‘momentarily crested and disappear abruptly in the Ligud impregnant at eletricl stress enhancement points sich as metallic asprites and protrusions [4 ‘These cavities, initiated at the electri field enhancement sites within the dielectric liquid, have «propensity expand due to vapor pressure build-up rom within 145-17] As these cavities grow, the PD process iniiatd, resulting ina seis of 70 pulses of generally increasing magnitude which relects the inreosing sizeof the cavity ‘nil its abrupt collapse du to dynamic instability [147-151], While the series of rapid discrete ro pulses, now commonly refered to as pulse burst can be realy recorded using a wide bd osillscope (@50MH21 GH) with asamplin capability of east C samples per second, 2 conventional 300 MHz bandwidth PD detector simply will Bartnikas: Partial Discharges ‘econd each pulse burst aa sng integrated charge pulse [52 Thisis demonstrated in Figure 34, which shows the response of detecior to.a PO pulse burst in transformer oi; the charge transfer associated with the overall pulse bursts 13 pC, so hat the charge transfer assoc sted with each discrete pulse within he pulse bursts substantial less ‘and an be estimated in terms oF he relative amplitudes ofthe discret pulses The 20 pulse bursts in oil ae initiated ator in lose proximity the ac voltage peas, so tha the discharge epocks or phase postion of the pulse bursts will ten to center around te peaks (Figure 35), 1 9 and 270” in lew of those ofthe regular PD discharge patterns ‘at contor around the voltage 20s [53]. Since the pulse burssin iq- ‘id dielectrics ocur sporadically 2s opposed to the regularly recuering, slischargs in the dassicl cavities in nchsions within the ol popee systems, their deletion is more dificult. Ithasnot yt been established to what extent ther presence affect the lectrcal stability of nsulat- ing liquids. In Figure 36 is dfincated the experimental acangement for the simultaneous recording of the inteprated pulse burst pulse and the dscet rapid pals tran within the pulse burstin dlc iguid specimens. ‘3p iar at Figure 36. Schematic cat dlagram fre simultaneous messue- rent ofthe ro pulse burst and the discrete pubes within each pulse burst (ter Pomp fat [152,153 eo ja Ste Ea es aE Figure 37. Seheatic cuit Jagan for offline est wing cu ren transformer (CT sensor for PDsite ation in transformers (alter Fuhr etal (70), ‘The foregoing examples demonstrat that rb pulse distribution pat teens may be employed to ascertain the extent Se the nate of i= charge ait in inductive powee appaats; they may also be uti lize to dilleentiat betwen the discharges emanating fom within heIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation teansfrmers and reactors om ta of extaneous nose sources. The Inter may eosist of thyristor ules, modulated periodic signals, poor eleczal contacts oe crana discharges from 4 leads ad be charac tena by distin itfeent pulse distbuton pattems. The puse dlscharge pattems From these interences ae so dierent fom the oemal PD patton, oecuringia transformer or ecto hatthey may ‘be ospnized readily by experienced operators using conventional 0 per component io PD despite the high susepiilty ofthe solidifying, ‘epoxy imregnant to PO deterioration The result also accounts forthe reasonsas to why rating machines are frequently observed to operate for decades in the presence af Figure 42, ary Po detection syste froin tess on generar (ater Johnson and Wien [189 ‘There area numberof detection methods that an be wed on r- tating machines. A compendium of some ofthese method is given in [188 The ely pioneering work on PD detection in rotating machines was done by Johnson and Waren (189, who detected the PD pulses across the neutral resistor ofa generator while in operation as shown in Figure 42, For oftline measurements Johnson 190] employed the standard PD detection technique with a large dscharge‘ree coupling ‘capac connected sequentially on each phase and a separate power supply to energize the phases, He was also te ist to comment on the importance and practical significance of slo discharges 19] Later Emery et al [192,13] andl Timperly [194] used the same approach asIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Difterentat amplifier (9 PHA and computorized (ats acquistion system Figure 43. Balanced pemanent coupler connection fr 2 water wheel gener ater Bromley are McDeeni (28). 7 Figure 44. Directonally connected coupler snangement in 3 the ‘ral generac (fer Cmpbell tal [204 Jotnson and Waren [186], bat in eu of detection resistance, they em ployed ansfcucent transformer sensor between the neutral ofthe gen ‘ato ad the grounding transformer, and substituted the oscilloscope detector wit a radio noise meter The radio noise meter was tuned to frequencies between 20 and 50 MH to eliminate the interference ‘hom extraneous noise sources. Kurz 195] mite the on test procedure deserted by Johnsor (90 by replacing the large coupling Capacitance by an appreciably smaller oe of 80 pFand wing a eis tive detection impedance, which pemited ondlne PO measurements con each phase. However, in order o farther ameliorate he signabo- ‘noise ratiand obviate the detection problems withthe long oscilaory 1p ples, a series of changes, were itrduced ito the measurement circuitry ist by Kurtz etl [196,17] and subsequently by Stone a [198-202], who tized delay ines in conjunction with a balanced Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 785 seasurementscheme as portrayed in Figure 43 Here the 0p coupler, terminate in 00s installed iferentally with one coupor pr line ce of to pazalel circuits per phase. The coupler pais, Cy and Ci, with the respective busbar length ad coaxial ines ae matched in theit ‘given electrical lengths athe input ofa differential amplifier, such that the electrical length + (4/0165) = + 5/0465, where 065 refers othe educed velocity ofpropegatin inthe Pé coma cables as ~compare to that of fee space. The incident intererence pulse acv- ‘ing fom the machine with equal times af ave are thus canceled in the cliferential aplication mode. 4 20 pulseheight analyzer and computerized acquisition system in tandem with he diferent ampli fer provides PD pulseeightand discharge epoch (phase distbaton ‘plot, hich when compared with a P data bank, are used to assess the PD intensity level a well as predict possible causes forthe observed clischarges and movior their degradative effects, ®D pulse phase or discharge epoch analysis capability i of particular importance in to- tating machines as concems the interpretation of discharge pate Te permis to determine whether the recorded PD pulse activity is as- sociated with the pase under measurement ori its coupled fam te other two phases as for example wheter it originals from dis- charges between col of two diferent phases atthe coil ends. 1 the D measurement is caried tin phase A, then the charge patiers «emanating from phase A wl be characterized by pulses, which ce ter around the volage zeros ie, at @ and 180° ofthe ascending and descending portions ofthe sinusoidal wave of tke applied voltage. In ‘ne thee phase conection, phase Band phase willbe 120 and 240° ‘out of phase especialy with phase A and, consequently the P puke pater in pares B nd C willbe placed bythe same aus with respect tothe 1 pulse ptr of phase A thereby permiting to ascer- tain whether or not discharges are taking pace between the phases at the cil ends ofthe machine. The 20 detection system of Stone eal [198-202] isa high frequency system which operates ata bandwidth of 400 150 Mz, so that itis ot pracally ail to calibrates output din terms ofp its readings are ths relative ad ae recorded in mV. However, her it should be cserved that relative PD eeadings in mV «canbe used to compare the PD intensities in rotting machines ofsii- lnrdesign, They canalsobe used efectivel to maitr the 7D intensty inthe same machine in ode to observe whether there are any sigaif- cant changes inthe PD activity du to insulation aging. However, there iso fundamental basis om the measurement pant of view to permit toasses the evel ofr activity in terms of relative units (In), when «a camparison i attempted betwen two machines of entirely diferent design ana consrction; foe hs purpose pC nis must be employed ‘The capacitive coupes also may be connected directionally with one coupes per phase atthe ne terminal and another at kast2m dis placed onthe slated phase bus in this arrangement, nse rection Js achieved in terms ofthe time of arrival of the pulse signals from the to couplers Figure 4 ihusrats the directional couple arange- ment which s used primarily on thermal generators and synevooous condensers [2]. With directionally connected coupes detection bandwidth of 40 to 350 Milzis employed, requiring microprocessor controlled pulse height aralyzer cicutry described elsewhere (18,2 having signal solution capability 0f3 ps. Inthe case of wide band detection systems, the lower frequency end786 Discharge rate pseu) ‘0 100 2007 M0400 500 Gl 700 59 90 PD pu mage nV) Figure 4s, robo» SSMVA pump rage grea 3 ant Sand approxima theme ole us a Seperate Ll 1D 10000 é Discharge pues) & (© $0 10001300 2000" 2500 scm 500 PD pulse mani) Figure 46. No oud hota fl oad tro pulse gh istbation horace for a MIVA pu stage erator Pst pus _reaive pubes © (ale og 2, ofthe bandwidth isin some tespcts more important than the upper ‘end, Not all pulses atthe eceiving end have rapid rise times since the Inter are degraded to varying degrees as they are transmitted along the ‘windings, which s cable specimens, due tothe use of semiconducting materials for conductor and ground shielding, bohave as lossy tans mission Hines. Alo even atthe discharge ste itself, the rise time ofthe pulses and their amplitude var with fhe overvltage appearing across the cavity whose magnitude is determined by the statistical time lag, ‘the time required fora free electron to appear and initiate the dis charge. Thsefets readily observed with PD pulse patterns of simple cavity cls: magnitudes ofthe individual pulses are een to very as pre- ‘cession of discharge epochs takes place i, individual discharge pulse postions do net remain fied with respect tothe sinusoidal applied volage Bartnikas: Partial Discharges loci area network (LAN) ether ofthe thereto token ngarchi- tecture, commonly sued in laboratories sa high cpacty dat tans- mission medium to permit the monitoring of automated experiments from ofce sites [95]. A WAN allows LAN intereonaection in ferent «iy loatons so that laboratory tests may be moniteed rom another «ity ation Loyd el [204] have tized the foregoing arangement cof anetheret LAN in conunction witha Wan to monitor the PD atin- ity in generators and machies in remote power station to determine how the rb behavior changes with temperature and oad current Fig- ‘ure shows tha a opi change in temperature at given oad exerts only small infuence onthe °D behavior oa pump storage generator while a pronounce load dependence i exhibited in Figure 44, which isobained on another storage generator. The temperature i hese tests ‘was approximately he same under fil ado lo conditions the lad {aperdence is believed to have arisen from bar looseness in the slots. ‘A slalorslotype coupler has been developed by Seddng ca (207 specifically for 70 measurements on turbine generators in mast cof which theres 0 ciruitrng bus foc half ofthe wining parallels to permit instalation of couplers fr effective elimination of mois, Nose generation in trbogenertors arses fom shaft grounding and siping brushes, changing and discharging of the isolated phase bus (connecting tho generator tothe step-up transformer), rb inerforence and exrane- cous nose rom the overall power stem an other related nose inthe power station (eg prcptatos, welders et) ll of which have signal intensities far in excess ofthe PD pulse level that originate fom the turbogeneratr ise. Te stator slot coupler behaves essentially as an antenna and is base onthe directional coupler design principles de- scribed by Olver [28] ts configuration is ater simple and consists of ground plane and sense line with 50 coaxial cables at each end that provide an output hich s proportional othe rb pulse excitation in the proximity ofthe sonse line. The direction ofthe PD source is determined by the duak-port ofthe coupler and the associated instru rmenaton. The couplers a high frequency device [>150 MH) so that the detected 7D pulses will be those having slfcient high frequency contac. inc the ise ime ofthese pulses deteriorates capil as they propagate ang the windings the coupler wll respond to pulses cig inating in its vicinity and wil thus be relatively immune to distant generated noise signals; the high intensity noise signals that succeed in reaching the coupler canbe realy discriminate in tems oftheir distorted pulse shape, Hence, the prefered instalation site forthe sta- tor slot couplers are bars, which ae subject fo high electrical stresses, namely those atte ine end ofeach parallel winding. Accordingly, the ative phase postions or discharge epochs (3), Thus changes in pulse shape are aecompanied by changes i he puls-height and pulse-phase distributions. However, the pulse shape contains an adtinal tem of information, which pertains ori lated tothe location of FD sites in the insulating system: as the pulse travels fom the 7 sitet the PD detector it form becomes increasingly more mutated or distorted (de- pending upon the transmission medium) duet the attenuation ofits higher roquency components The Nv offers many options that render ituseulin various tasks of 0 pattern recognition because of the unique Bartnikas: Partial Discharges structure [237], which consists essentially of an organized topology of inecoansted processing elements and is design for encoding and realing infomation. Among these options res theiinherent ability to distinguish distinctive features ofr pulse pater, as for example involving those of cscimination between efferent cavity ies. AR NW has a relatively shor learning time, and onc the learing petiod i completed, iis abe to apply the taught knowledge to make rex snably limited generalizations even on unknown input ° pate “Thus, they peeval over other ase in that they ace ele and can adap themselves to diferent slats dsributars. Further, thee respons is insnstve to minoe variations inthe input. they can render corcect decisions when the input deviates from that which they havebeen taught to recognize. sor instance stochastic variations inte dicharge process within the discrete cavities themselves. ‘Nw canbe divided int the generic categories, namely those with required supervised taining, unsupervised traning, an fed weight ing procedures [238], The later category's application paradigms pr marly intended for association and optimization wor, while the fist ‘vo categories are sited for dassification and are thus applicable di- recly to 90 related instigation. There ae threo NN within these frst two categories that at particularly suited for PD pattern reogni- tion. These NN employ espetvely the mul-player perception (), nearest neighbor classifier (XNC) ad linear vector quantization (LQ) paradigms [239]. Both the NNC and VO networks ae ofthe unsuper- ‘vised training type [240} while the ALP netrork requires supervised training (21) Al three networks were evaluated by Mazrous et [242 n ters oftheir #0 pulse form recognition capabilites, using artificial cavities of 10,18 and 20mm depths, and were found oper formacceptably wel in assigning the correct classification forthe thee cavities of itfeen sie, However, where discrimination was required betwen smllercaviy sizes, twas found hat the leaming veto quan- ‘ization paradigm was distinctly superior. in these coggtive tet, the features or atibutes ofthe P pulse shape or form used were those of area, decay time, rs time, width and magnitude ofthe pulse. Gul shi and Keivd [92,25] also appli NN for PO pattern classification, sing ro pulse-eight phase distribution data, but thei experimental results were statistically precoitioned. While the cognitive capabil- tes of the evaluated Nc, tyQ and MP paradigms are appeosimately «qual thete exists a certain predispesition to favor the use ofthe LP pacadigm in work related to cD. The MUP paradignn differs from that ofthe NNC and L¥0 techniques in thatthe structure of the NN canbe designed to suit the intricacies ofthe Pn pattern recogition tak to be performed eg. todffereniatebetween?0 phenomena ineletrical trees ‘rom that of cavities [244], The general? NN structure is depicted in Figure 4 and consists of an input layer ore or more hidden ayers and an output layer of neurons or procesing elements, Each neuron has ‘many input signals but only one output signal thats applied to every neuron inthe next layer. Each connered pir of neurons is ssxited With an adjustable value thats referred asthe weight. The number ‘oflayers and neurons therein i altered by trial and error to optimize the performance of the or NN ints recogrition task required forthe lasifaton of P pattems. The WLP networks rained uizing the back propagation technique [245] ie its provided with both the input patterns and the desired response. The NN proceds through asrisIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation of iterations in each tration a comparison is made ofits own output wit that of the desized sponse ands computation scared out to dlowrmine whaler thee i 3 match. Ifa match iniated then no changes are made in the NN structure; however. if there no match, then the weigh are mae by means ofthe sealed rade seach technigueto minimize the mean square ference betwee thedesied response and the ataloxput. The era funtion which muse min- niet during te learing step, exh series of eal minima in addition to global minimum. The global minimum is achieved by the gradient search technique, which estimates the weighs hat core spond to thse a which the eo surfaces lowest The leaning te, ‘which con the width of he tes onthe error src, mis not be too rapid in oder fo avert osclatins in the approach the ghbal este oe ome Figure 54, Arlette of ML? NN. Circe represent neues, 1 ad i are the input hidden and output layer weights espe tive, 016 os our ot 008 0.06 0.08 002 MSE. ° 020° 4060 80 100 120 140 160 180) Number of iterations Figure 85, Cavity vs electra te discrimination learing curve of anbbe Nv aerMazzoua al [24 Jnreferenceto Figure 5 the feature or attbut inp (io, and ve) the MLP NN, inthe case of P0 pulse shape related PD pattern recognition analysis, arethoseof apparent charge transfer, rise ime fll, cor decay ime, area ender the PD curent pulse (oa charge tans), the product ofthe pulsewidth and apparent charge and the energy ‘The function ofthe neurons sto receive al incoming attribute param ter, lily them bythe weighs of the conneetons over whigh they ‘ner and cd the intermediate answer, Multiply the resulby the Sige ‘moi thresh function , dined by the plot of eors. weight that contains the glbal minimum, yells an overall output z given by 2 {(Siui +--+ + Spicy — O) co) Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 793 where Sand S, dete the outputs fhe fst and ls hidden node cx neuron respeively, and are described in ters ofthe input pulse shapes and weights. Fachof these weighs associat wth an input threshold. The output >in Euation (1) must equal nity for one avy sie. 1.0 man zero foe the other eavty size eg 5m) The ez or the ith input pulse shape may be expressed 35 (ts — 2)? 05) “where isthe actual outpt aed represents the desired output sponse. Forall the FD pulse shapes, the mean squared ero (SE) is us p=) %4- ‘here i equal to the numberof rD pulse shape abuts. To ‘minimize the value of E, the back propagation algorithm is employed 1. to assign random values inthe range [+1 -1] tall the weights and thresholds and to provide the NW withthe input and de- sired output pairs; 2 to apply the Sigmoid threshold function and calculate the out- puts =; and to iit the leering process; 3. toadapt the weights by the usage of cecusive algorithm that stars from the output made back othe first recursive layer. “The backpropagation taining algorithm of an ML NN is a itera- tive rating technique that accomplishes the inp to output mapping, taskby minimizing the socaled cost function The late represents the NSE between the actual ouput ofthe ML andthe dese esponse Figure 55 portrays aS asa fantion of the numberof iterations that are necessary for distinguishing the PD pulse forms associated with electrical res from those of eavitos (244). The MLP network ublizad contained a single output, wit a cavity PD discharge being indicted by a unity ouput and zero output fora PO pulse asncated with tre. ‘The amber of neurons in te iden aye ofthis particular network was equal to 30. Figure 55 demonstrates the sucess rat ofthe NN in its ciscriminaton betwen the cavity and eecirial re PD soures a ter 140 iterations, the MSE betwen the desired and actual outputs is perceived lobe negligible smal. virtual clasiicaton of 107s ab tained fr both the traning and testing procedaes without any need for statistical prconitioning. In the design of MLP NN, the numberof inputs and the overall yof the network is determined by tal and error in terms of the sulting eo pattem dasifcation performance is equenty cb served that an increase inthe number of input atibutes) doesnot necessarily esl always in an improved cognitive ability ofthe NN. Recent) Salama and Bartrikas [246] develope a systematic NN design procedure for determining the appropriate number of inputs and se ‘ond orderneurons or nodes based onan autoregressive (AR) ime-seies concept Since the AR time-series more-fanctons in specific time-steps, it seas deemed io be particularly promising for usage on high time de- pendent PD patterns, for which synchconzation ofthe measurement data (es. ro pulse amplitude, rise time and other pale from atibutes) isessetial The AR time series concept necessitated deployment of par- ticular ¥D features tat exhibit a definite trend as 2 fection of a var able, such as apple voltage, which influences the oxeal Po proces. ye (16)794 ‘ypicaly, the hysteresis characteristic ofthe maximum apparent charge transfer AQ... the applied voltage can provide the reuiedexpei- mental dats for this purpose. From te practic! point view, ukzation ofthe Ayn 88. applied voltage curve has the decided advantage of relevance in that it canbe derived from measurements cried out by ‘means of conventional? detector in accordance with ASTM D1868 (ul or 12 60270228 procedures, Hcalbraton in terms of appsten charge isnot feasible, then peak 0 pols values in voltage units may ‘be used as long a comparative measurements are made onthe same specimen or specimes of identical design and construction. Figure 5, Cascade Le NN with double output te Salama and Barbukas 6), In mathematical terms, the AR time series model may be stated as ea Ye = a1 Yet eaYat + +hyKia1 thaYeat-+- +e: (17) where ¥ represents the input sgoal ata ine ¢, Yi i the input signal at the previous instant, and ex denotes the input noise a atime 4, 0 by and b ae parameter constans rated 19 AQy, Thus the vector fo Y, becomes ¥:= Wal” (On) +ee whee (0x) = [ars a2y---b1,b2,--] 8) and (a)? = Mey Ye ayy Vens May J ‘where represent the parameter and state vectors respectively, and the subscript defines the instant of the PD pulse event at which the data arebing processed, a apposed to subscript £ hat denotes the time at ‘which the Pp data ae being sampled. By definition the ero at instant 9 Here it must be emphasized that in the foregoing operation, the re- cursive east square identification procedure must be deployed to iden: ‘ity the A time-series model parameters, which in essence minimizes, ‘he sum ofthe square ofthe identification error Fo. The least square minimization step yields a model parameter update ofthe form 0, = Oat + Bab Be =Yi~ Une ey Bartnikas: Partial Discharges ‘where Lis expressed in terms ofthe covariance Ly = Pyiby [1+ Ve Path] cl hich isdn, Pe =| bed] Pa @ ‘Te order ofthe model is cbsine by eokeulting th ero variance of the estimated output signal ¥; for each model an the mode with the least minimum variances selected, The dala treatment procedure can be rev luted with reference a hypothetical hysteresis characteristic ofthe maximum apparent charge ranser AQ 98 V in which the parameters a and b cnote respectively the highest and the lowest recorded value of AQra; hence for n data points, te step magnitude onthe vertal sales aa Cc) for which the corresponding mean ales ofthe maximum charge trans fer AQin at each ofthese dsrte pins are given by the set AQ, Qn, «+ AQunn athe corresponding widths of the hysteresis curves AV;, AV.” AV onthe applied vlageaus eg atthehys- tecsis widths of AV, and AV,, the ales ate AQnie = AQani +h, and AQma = MQuaz + h, respectively. “The order or suber of inputs ofthe NN determined by the AR time series analysis was 3. The NN architecture was arranged in asada cortiguaton as delineated in Figure 5, wit the indexed output from the first stage /z provided as a weighted quantity. Since the NN was designed to dctimiate bebween 10 and 1.5 mum deph cavities, the indexed output 1g was actanged to indicate zero fora 1.0 mm cavity and unity fora 1.5 mum cavity, The number of neurons in the hidden layer of the fist stage was fied at 6 and at Sin the hidden layer of the send stage with 3 inputs. Note that in order to maintain claty inthe graphic representation of Figure 56, oly 7 ofthe 8 neurons in the hidden layer ofthe second stage are shawn. The sucess rate of the cascaded ootput NN in dstinguinhing between the Wo cavity sizes attained an exceptionally high level of 9%. ‘Nw topology designs Based onthe rial and error approach arc re quently eharaceied by tlatvly Tow ro pattem rengiton rats Cachin and Wiesmann [247] applied the ML? technique to PD pulse pat tems, arising from two or mare sources. Scale normalization Was ‘employed to separate diferent superimposed °0 patters along thet contours on charge taster vs. discharge each (phase) pais. Once the FD patterns wete separated, the NN clase Was used to exam ime the patterns individual. A combined PD pulse pater recognition rate of 7% was achieved, which was il sustanlly beter than the 50% rate reported by Hozumi eal. [248]. However, irrespective ofthe INN design approach utize, the ALP technique apple to pulse alter recognition has decided advantages. The sucess achieved in the aplicaton of te MLP NX fo £0 pulse pater recopition must batted othe abi to rate clustering shapes that are highly nonlinear An MLP NN wilh two hidden layers capable of forming abitay decision boundaries between cases of different cavity sizes, ‘which on be made as smooth as reuied by selecting an appropriate ruber of hidden neurons in each layer (239, 289-251], Furthermore, minimizing the mean square er by the back propagation algorithm resulls in an approximation of the das posterior probabilities, so that the MLP_NN estimates the optimal bays decision boundary [285,232]. tix PyIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation In contradstnction, the 1¥@ paradigm constitutes a piece-vise neat approach [238,253 since its based on the nearest neighbor rae 252, 254] and, consequnily ican ony achieve an approximation of the dee ‘sion boundary, Kranz and Hacker [3,25] made we of the WNC para- digm on ro pulse patter analysis. In ther work on SF, power appara- ‘us under high ambient noise conditions where they employed Fourier transform techniques for feature extraction fom ro puls-ight/phase Aistibutions, acceptably good reuls were oblained with the unsuper- vised NW, However in subsequent extension ofthe same work they conceded that supervised MLP NW have definite advantages 256) ‘The application of zz logic to the classifcation of rb pulse pat- terms has much to commend itselfbecsuseof he nature andthe intricate behavior of the rb process. ven under idealized pulse ype discharge conditions without any attending complicating elects of simultaneous ‘currence of true pulseless glow or pseuto glow discharges and even further assuming that only a small numberof cavities are involve, it is dificult to ascertain in terms ofthe Po pulse pattern whether sv ‘ex discreteeavites or ae elongated elipsoidal cavity with a umber of different discharge sitesi involved. The interpretation problems are further ecmpounced by vacations i the statistical time lg (time required fo a free electron to appear and inate the breakdown of ‘he cavity), Te larger the statistical time lag, the lege the vale of the avervahage at which a given cavity will Dreakdown, which will result in larger charge transfers (PD pulse magnitudes) as well as @ shorter rie imes ofthe discharge pulses [80]. Ths wil ead toa preces- sion of cichange epochs, effecting the entice pulse phase distribution characteristic [4]. An added complenty wil arise with power appata~ tus and cable specimens, in which pulses from various discharge sites wll undergo difleing amounts of distortion, attenuation and ese ine degradation. as they travel fom thir respective discharge ites to the 0 detector, Its palpably evident that even identical voids situated at diferent distances fromthe detector wll not have identical 70 patterns not only because ofthe unequat propagation distances and material ‘media in ther paths but also because the availabilty of re electons ‘wll not be identical at the vatous discharge ies. Mediu Large charge charge charge 7 Araeter ranger t g € z = é — 1 es er Appareat charge AQ (pC) Figure 57. A memdeship function for change taser asia eth Pb ples in a cavity ater Slama and Baris (3). Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 1 eI . ae Hy eave] | one ; = [ene dis Ea Figure 58, Schirano fra ogi pu pte cas ‘scat stem ater Sl a Beas [39 ‘The foregoing scenario creates rater furzy situation as oncems patter ecorition, an so one maybe the question as to why one should not fuzzy the approach othe problem, and apply fuzey logic for PO patem clasifcton,Itmay thus be more expedient tient ro patterns in move vague o les spec terms, as for instance P pt fers with large or mull pulses or in the as of evita very age, large, medium and small size avtes, assuming equal gas pressure within th compared evils. Asa consequence of the randomness of thet phenomens, ons compeles to consider the approxima range ‘of apprent charge transfer anit arelation othe cavity sizes od ameter. In such itcumstances, fuzzy logic procedures allow the usage of crisp number sets to fuzzy the measured real (nis valves. Ina fuzzy logic system, rsp inputs are mapped ino fuzzy sts by means af fuzzy [257-259], Am interence engine, which izes rile, hat have been devised to permit decsion making mops these fuzzy sets into oer fazy sets that comply withthe als. The output sets a tapped into crip sets or rel numbers by a defuziir. A fuzzy set is descrlbed by 8 membership function, which assumes values in the infervl [0,1 typical membership functc, for charge transfer ass0- ciated with ro pulses, is portrayed in igure $7 [3 schematic ow char of information na fuzzy logic based resan- ing process depicted in Figure 38 not thatthe membership funtion forms an integral part of stage 8. It an assume diferent configura tions, which may be determined by namericl organization techniques corsel-oraniaton [24 Fuzy rls, which play dominant rolesboth in stages 5 and 8 in Figure 58, are defined to represent certain axioms ‘of PO pulse behavior They ae thus based on expert knowledge of| the intticaces ofr pulse behavior an thee evaluation in the fazay reasoning pres consitues essentially 9 generalization of the mas pine and mds tls inference proces (tages 4 and 5, Figure 38) vide effective application of fizzy logic to PD pulse pater recog nition equites considerable knowledge of discharge behavior for the ‘purpose oformulation of the rues ad contruction ofthe membership functions For example, correct dasifcation of 3 cavity sizes (1.0, 15, _and2.0 mm depth) in terms of ther pulse shape attribute eguires 25796 rules; only forthe representation ofthe apparent charge tafe alone, membership futons far coverage of the low, medium high and imbetwoon charge transfer values are necessary [33]. Commrcialpro- grams in fuzzy logic are availble and may be applied to 70 related investigations [261 0.04 0.03 oor Lacunarity 001 ® 4388 25255 26 Fractal dimension Figure 59. Lacuna, facta dimension of 3D 70 ple height! ‘phase dstrboions of thee hgh fering ro defects (A, Band C) doi at 16 RV fer Canela ol [26 Some work has been reported by Satish and Zaenl [262] nthe ap- plication of fractal features to the classication of eavites undergoing, 7 in terms of their FD pulsehight/phase distribution pattems. In thei ractal analysis, they employe the geometrical parameters of fae tal dimension (a measure of surface roughness ofthe 3D pulse distibu tion pater) and lacunarty (the densness ofthe geometrcal/fractl surface Originally ractal geometry was developed for analysis oflandscape surfaces [23], bat ae it was extended fo ater mathematical mode! ing applications [264] Ina late study, Krivda et a. [25] were able to achieve some farther success in the use of fractal in distinguishing ‘tween nose and cocoa soures and actif cavities. More recently, Candela ta. [266] cared out experiments, using a pointo-plane 9p (A), a dieletric-metalic electrode gap (8) and an oechuded av ity within epoxy resin (C} as PO sources. The thee distinctly different Incunarty vs. fatal dimension plots, obtained fr the three forego ing 70 sources and depicted in Figure 58, demonstrat the recognition capability ofthe technique, However it should be observed thatthe recognition degree indicated by the separation benwen the thre areas im the graph is toa great extent a result ofthe pronounced differences in the nature ofthe three PO sources utilize. By applying the fractal data with ational statistical preconditioning data to an MLP NN, the authors [265] were abl o attain a recognition capability of 8% In investigations rated to recogiton of 7D pulse patter, iis common practice asin statstcal operators to facilitate analysis of the PD pulseheight/phase distributions. Inthe nomenclature of the 0 pulse pater recognition system developed by Gulsh [23] and em- ployed by Guski and Krivda [2], the trm skownes signifies aym- retry ofthe charge transfer and puise count distributions with respect to the normal distribution and kurtosis ree tothe sharpness of the same distributions with respect to the normal distribution. The so- called cross coreaton factor describes the asymmetry ofthe positive and negative polarity discharge pulsé pattern In addition to another Bartnikas: Partial Discharges 10000 1000 a 2 100 Fs 10 © 100 3007005 G0 700, a ‘Charge magnitude (pC) Of c0Ses tise a gia log {charge magnitude (pC)] ) Figure 60. Eft of simultaneously acuring PD mechani onthe \Wobull ditbution uncon. 2) 20 pulse hight distribution, cor- espoing Wsbul plot ter Montana ea [278 stitial operator, which refers to the numberof peas inthe respec tive dstutions, there are 25 ater spect statistical operators. The deployment of statistical operators reduces very substantially the e- quired memory capacity ofthe system. Thus, a total of 29 tail operators comprises ther overall analytical procedure. The PD pulse Patter recognition task i carried out in terms ofthese statistical pa Tarte either by visual examination by an experienced operator or by exper systems speitaly devised by Gulsl eta. 28, 3,34 11 267,268), Is nt clear fom the tests carried out on electrical appa rat by these authors how their syste responds when a mulpiity| of cischarge faults are encountered, The foregoing statistical parame- ter analysis technique has also been applied by Bazo eal. [26,270] n their investigations on PD endurance of hin polymer fils. They ob- tained high classification success ats with NN, whose input data was statistically preconditioned Wall distrbution statistical procedures were applied by Contin aie Rabach on stator windings in anattempe to identify maliple PO soures [271], Subsequent work by Cacia al. [272] indicate, that vwhen single PD sources are involve, the FD pulse height distribution may be approximated by a wo parameter Webul distribution and that bby means ofa mined Weibull model coupled with a goodness fittest, itis possible to separate several simultaneously ecurring PD sources In adition, Contin el. [273,274 were able fo demonstate that theIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation ull shape parameter was an eigenvalue of the FD pulse source and was independent of its location in the eral nsulating system Mixed Webul distribution analysis hasalso been applied to monitor ?D induced aging in epoxy resin insulators by Contin ta. [275], Morere- ‘cent esl reported by Coninet (276,277 indicate that application ofa fiveparameter Webulfaeton lads to an effective recognition of 0 sources in ers oftheir respective shape factors, ever when they are ocuring simitanecusy. The shape factor appears to bea mare eflecve criterion for #0 pulse pattern recognition than te skewness and kurtosis parameters asd the statistical patie alysis proce- dure developed by Guisk [28] Figure (shows a pulse-height dis- tribution curve ofa tatr bar aftr {425 hf aging in ) is given is comesponding Weibull plot, whose curvature at the upper end of the charg transfer scale is atebuted to another 0 mechanism [278]. I is further demonstrated that the shape factor / ofthe same PD source is identical, respective of whether the Weibull probability analysis ROOR 2 ma 2 RR (23) wn a b oa = a € fe TACOMA 23 fo) Abe 000 3800 1800 1700 1600 1500 Wavenumbers (em!) Figure 62. su infrared spa of NLP spine exposed o FD at tie the PDI vain dey at for) Oy () 6 6) 2 4) 18 (eer Cameo Gari af (305-38) Reaction 27 represents a crosslinking reaction, assuming that it oc curs intermolecular, while the peroxide ROR in Reactions 25 and 2s stable, provided its not decomposed at high temperatures. The perory intermediates in Reactions 24 to 26also canbe involved in fanc- ‘ionaliztion reactions with oF withot cleavage ofthe polymer chainIEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation. ‘These can lead ta variety of oxidation products, notably C OH (leo- hol, C=O (arbon ketone o aldehyde}, C-O-C (eter), COOH (ar ‘boxslc aid), COOC (ester) an epoxide [305 igure 62 depicts maltipl infernal rfecton (ik) inlrared spc: tea ofa XL specimen, abtaied in ry ai with Po exposure time as a parameter [84-308 Readily discernible changes in the transmit tance level ocurat 3125 em (hydroxy, OH) and 1637 om" (ving, CC-C) while a very pronounced change in the at 1715 cm (carbon, C=O). Is found that in xLP, the adives tse ply avery significant oe he formation of surface degradation predicts when X17 is exposed tothe action of 7D. Creslnking of PE Is achieved through the use of diumyl peroxide [38] ad the ensuing crosslinking react is accompanied by the formation of decompo on products. The late which comprise acetophenone, cums! alcohol and methyl styrene and cumene dif eventually out ofthe polymer bulk onto its surface At the surface these by-product ect chemically inte presence of 0, resulting in surface depts whch ae differnt ffom those that would form with P surfaces ol: » Bes 8 8 Photocurent (nA) 20000 6 Exposure time (h) To00 Figure 63. Mean appornt charge taser above 20 pC associat with pale ype dschargpsocuring within a5 mom ir gap with an pon resin crc 8 anton of 0 expowue tie (ter Haden al Ba (Of particular practical interes are PO aging eects observed with epoxy surfaces exposed to discharges, because epoxy is extensively tse in conjunction with mia as an insult in stator bars, with silica fers in sltype transformers an in spaces in compressed ga ca- bles. Sir ba insulation is unique vis--vis insulation in sbd-ype transformers nd ables in tha, unlike in these where specications r- «quire complete or near absence of discharges i frequently operates in presence of discharges and at times unde tater intense discharge con- ltions Is redoing features that epon i wed in enjunetin with rma, which isa highly discharge resistant inorganic material, When ‘epoxy resin is exposed to 70, is surface, asin the cae of XLFE un- dergoes modification in several stages. Huon etl. [64,281] found thet ina non-vente cavity intially the discharge proces is character ing by large discharge pulses of the spark-type during which ime the is observed — Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 current ‘Time 100 nsidiv Figure 64, Typ ep caret pe form with on cure ai fan socted charge tarfer of 7 pC, characteristic of elscarges in 15 mm airgap with a epoxy resin lara undergoing discharge within atest period extending from 180 to 80 (ater Hudn ci degradation products onthe epoxy surface assume the frm of guid droplets. Ashe? pulse magnitudes diminish wth ime and transition coxcurs fom a pulse toa psesdoglow and tue glow puboless regime, the droplets are replaced by crystals. Te dimensions ofthese crystals «continue growing over the pseudoglow and pulseless discharge regime ‘ntl uitimate breakdown ensues. The discharge behavior is similar in bth air and nitrogen atmosphere, indicating thatthe oxygen re quired forthe cbserved chemical reactions is supplied rom the atos- here within the gap (when avaiable) and by oxygen fom within the molecular stroctre ofthe epony resin sll. Analysis ofthe droplets zeveas the presence ofa mixture of acids, consisting of formic, gy clic glyorali and nitric acs the crystals are identified by means of Debye Scherer Xray ditraton analysis as consisting of hydrated ox- alicacd. Voting of the gp oreavity doesnot appear to alter appreia- biy theamounts of degradation products formed. electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (6) indicates arise inthe eel of oxidation amount fall oxidzed groups comprising COOH, COOR, COH and (C=O are perceive to exhibit substantial increases with respect othe CC and CH peak at 250 eV. The elets of chemical degradation of the pny tein surface exert a very profound influence ofc the FO be- havior ise which isthe cause ofthe induced degradation, Figure 63 porteays the variation ofthe mean valu of the charge transfer equal or exeeng 20 pC (average of 100 measurements) as function ofthe exposure time. Beyond 20h the charge transfer fall below the 20 Cand a typical ro pulse form characterizing the PD regime of small ‘charg transfers down to 05 pC over the testing time scale from 18010 SUD is depicted in Figure 6. It can be recognized thatthe pulse form represents a clasical Townsend discharge in which secondary emission 's sustained by ion impact atthe cathode, the waveform evinces, the preci ion conduction current ail The magnitude of the reared ‘hage transfers associated with PD pals type discharges found to continve dimiishing beyond 800 huni no farther PD pulses can be detected Photomutiplier measurements demonsiate that discharges exit even after PD pulse type discharges caiot any longer be detected.Photocurrent (HA) Exposure time (b) Figure 65, Phoiocurest emission fom 2 discharge within 205 mm ‘ir gap withan poy exiled as afuncton Pb expe time (ater Haden eta, (81) Discharge eureent “Time 100 ns/div Figure 66. Intense spar-type P pulse with an associated charge trae of 50 pCina metalicepony resin electrode gap observed at *hebeginning of ng term aging et (ater Hudon 2 5) ‘Moreover even over the timescale over which sporadi 90 pulses of ‘very low charge transfer magnitude (~ 05 pC) may be sil intermit- tently detected, their number cr intensity not stfciently lage 0 account fr the overall recorded photomultiplier current. Feom this behavior one must deuce that low intensity PD pulses occur cones rently with peudoglow and true pulseless plow discharge even before all remnant small? pulses disappear eniely Figure 65 sh the photomaltipliee output asa function of testing time. Note that above 00h wo #0 pulses are detected and, consequently, in that region the photomuliplercurent results entirely from psewdoglow and pulse- Jess discharges. Here the photocurrent is ofthe order of 8 A, which ‘stil substantially above the dark noise curentof 1p ofthe photo- sliplier employed. Large intensity intermittent discharge pulses may be oxcasionlly observed in short air gaps atthe commencement of aging ests. These occu before the surface ofthe epoxy resin becomes increasingly more conductive due to the accumulation of acidic degradation products on its surface. Such a pulse is portrayed in Figure 6 and it represent «fore typical of spark type discharges. Te tem spatk discharge is Bartnikas: Partial Discharges applied bee, because a short gap is involved andthe term steamer ‘Would be misleading sine rapid rsetime large magnitude discharges, inshot gpsare also Townsend type discharge in tha the discharge is susiained by photoemission a he cathode due to intense space charge build-up Thus the feedback mechanism is again emission at the cath- ‘oe, But now itis defo photon impact in ew of ion impact as inthe classical Townsend discharge case Here it well o be again adamant in the usage of correct terminology and reiterate once more tat the erm streamer discharge refers oa rapid propagation of reakdown event ina lang gap asa steamer propagates by means of photoionization in the volume ofthe gap 4, 5) ‘Slt o behavior in stator bars, which employ mict-epoxy bonded insulating systems, ifr appreciably rom the behavior of non-xerted short gaps and intemal cavities within the insulation system ofthe bas. Slot discharges ivolve much larger charge transfers nd the dischorge products, which while they can accumulate on the wal of cavity it sions, eno bein part abraded by vibration of he bars that may become loosened should the wesges alto roan them igily within theslotsand dispelled tos limited extent by ford cooing gas currents. Hrovcever the exerior surfaces of P degraded bars within the sos is covered generally by a white powder, which may stl contain some of these conducive acid degradation procs. The lage pulse dis- 73,1868 1) Rar, Taleo ee msreen inal volisnd els To (1G, Rept 202 Pars, 158 [ty Basan Le “A sip pus ght anaes Po ate mas ‘tet, 142 Tao etumenaon a Manse 1p. 3-35, 196 [7] 8 Bray, “Ue of scare! aly fr cr plseteight tron ‘tessa inate oer lata apa, 8 Tne an sume (sn spd MesnenentWlZ2p AIA 173. [ns Cpt, ua and © Mayors, "Corns eee analysis in fl aie sepa) resi’, 1975 Anal Repo, Conon Betas and ieee ‘renames, NAS/NRC, asin DC. pp. 82-28 17%, [19 Copland ta, 1978 Speci erative estaigue dela fern Zach pp. 27628948 cee 1 [a A Keka, “The fiction sing of HY great str insu, Pre CIC, Piper 8, Pas, {2 Jotun nd Rams, “Ondine dig compute ses or measuamet of FO ‘onirson stu’ Ieks Hansen Ea lat, OL, pp. 1% ‘976 (22) RBs nd Mo, “Cora pu charge nae ete fquncis Tee Tas on Hes suntan WoL E18 pp. $584,198. Bartnikas: Partial Discharges 121 Tia i," sit sorte! meet Se awn cs bl. 09 [a Fs 1 mg Hg, band Tne, ee eebindanjened Manan prmeden dies ap [Sums Soyesun ot lagen 1 0075 0 es oe. 15) Mi, aos, Naka, TMi ADs Ml een of yep a trate be res ‘ne Si aon, (Kaa Kp, ies ing il pmo on cit Ee a Wp 08, (2) along kre “Cmpter a inl ge pte’ TEs tane 27, p92 (8 Gola Compt aed sno iAH Keim Tan Bal eaten Wh pp 9015, (3) 1 saan Enh, Patent fo tees ing at ‘eesti ean Wp 4 9 5 [BA Bm. A Se Bars PD pte pin ath timate mine persp Keats Ee Fain pO 1 9.6 Ke, "Dogo of sig wing rl esd ino ‘se EE Yas 1p. 287, i) cli Ro Ne evo etn of TEE Ts 862 pm, 83 (3) 44 Aton eis“ pte’ Me i nis cea oe, (4 nn “Dacre ae aden law inion gr’ ce tetas Wt 50 15] anfaotSectepeieof 9pe ETson t in 2 p05, (JP Zndarn E Gab Ser, lane ps pte li oer em taoenton te ae ce Ot ect tan, pp 270 [PN G.C Mera Conan Cala Radon sping an ts roo feet peo he sy EEE Eas DEEL 7 pp 29, [bs] [an Brit EW. Coma and vn Gah, “The ingore of useing, ‘mor posgeton ls in epi dats 0870 SS EE Tas 08 “lel Elton, Wo 28, pp 506-16, 1, [9 Bvan Glin and J van Bran “Contin ecb an sts aa HE Teo Dies an ler ton, 2 pS, 155. HO) Tk | Marg Pander, Mint and. ii, "Snpiied dtl acquis tif microg pln 15 Tans on Dis and Heer sa, WU Sep m2 2 (i) © Camu, A. Ganel nd. Lazare, Fast sysem fr I mens en IEE Ta, Op Deis and Eel lt V7, #0-85, 20. (2) BH ar, “Dig! cag fr Deas, EE Tans. on Power De ce WL yp HY, 1D (6) & Osh, “Conrad dass on digi procesng of pul’ EEE Than on Dekcresand Eel ivation (lag Deus. Zags Ban M, MA Salas Pon Gb Gale}. ain a | Stes, NaS pp. 8581985 |) HL Rat lesen Abe and Beatdown in Gass Batre & Co, Lan ho. 1S) J. Mesh nd. Cag etl Beak downof Gas, Onoda te Clade rs 5 He) Barts, “Nee co haps im nd a nitions Brith oo ‘Al Pye ye), Ye p65, 8. (Bua, “Note o dca betwen mate deodes inh Ta | App Phys, Vl pp 7175, 198 (6) Data “Se oben ce thecal fcr dagen ht (pe 88 Freon lei! tin, VL Ep. 6875, 97[i] LP Novak nd Suis, “sown med oftheshon pang gs) Ap Phy WL 2p. 5 85, 7 [8] J.B Nak rR unis, “Fry tage of coma oman sat gp Poe’ agp Phys, a 8 fp O75 18, [Es] RBs ea P Nora, “Om ech of ite ome fF ae elle! temic, Tar, Ut nla”, 38, pp. 566, os Pi Lila Peck ot epntir ad der since Scag eee eon cance 6 Ca tet enine Sebati Slit se ae be Ctnint tn tp na Siren es ear aeetet metlematnantenniie nace tiaras, Secs Tan 15 Rt Rd ty egy nn ge a as “Fectrical sulatice, Vol. E-3, pp. 91-35, 168, = fiuetene ‘ese cee ae ta es Toainthe tfeenanateeioeteaseenes? pemaie 1 hn an Coe nt: ee Deon Sate cecsetmate penteapa mae Sop pectaaeanesmaereeteines Opeieees eat caaiiene | Phe ee peer anes SO sea sc meroantnetetes air wee eg Sg npn ee eerie enema onan, ee er Peete oeemeatat ern eres ma ae Aon res Pian 1 er Recta Sears me 1S ati Carma nL tae aes mage setae rane aera seeks oa imacdarcnay irc ie ices cer eeetaey ane Sori ee Cte eet a femeancniete es nate ‘s.conerTepieaansondneeo” rte eee Lear erie (6 tutto top rete emda SRCtel ae taee gets seer eee eee SEIMEI Teas reecteesscesasies ee tia ere ee avmmne mast oe Poe mime 11 cll n tegatana esr oe (saat eee Sp reeecpter ier reg ets a IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 03 (7) J NovakendR Bras,“ ae experiment avestigatons ce he igh pee dcare deepen 18 Ta Psa Sa, ai pp 9910 1 [PY FR Norakand Raia “Coliscnl pheno a coe in hee Ieutdownet haope sins oe Mauna Sow WLI. 7375, 180 PH Xora] Nah “Ec sr al ite a hom on he le Tealdown care et Tamsin sna See, p92 182. DSL J Nera and Baas, Bet f kei urson thee of PO" se “ian aniston hte ie, VL, p46, 200. [fo veNsaro 8 Brae an Wier, “Sexe hang an pion tan les in shor ar aps nding ihges smear pes’, | sD App ys. An 6p 29-25, 20, [P| Neo armas 2 AR Werte "Tei fee sue tae db po he Po bebe in hor gaps TEE Tans. on Psa Seer a pp on, 2, [Ph Rr“ of palestine te spree forma deste Ta cn Ect lato, Yl, 9.38, [4 S Wtehn, Dien Beakdoe af Sis, One Unie Tes, Oo, 8 10) Rtas an]? Nora, “st fvarga ample YD pbs, UE Ta ce Diets and Bet holst, Wl. 2p. 3 Baim [8] FPNvak aR Bats “natn and eatin behav namo" "Ee Tos Ete etn WL 2 724726198. 12} AC Eskom in ning Dios, YLT, Papers of Slug seas Mele State pa Fel Ble Bt al MF on Eis STP 75, ASTM, Pade 1. [0] Ry Des Busan an Bemsen"Malipleesaping aso ec ‘sede insatn sss power ani aS, A Ta, tn Per Deve Wl 8p 59-7, 8k (1 LA Hehe rs an MY 185 pS (9) BAC Fld and 1 akin Eton pst hear, Mea, Me, 1. [662 Site “haan agg an rete let into in hn Bl tl EE Tne en Fit en, Val 5 p79 1955 (71 ® Ronnie, L Puen al Sve “Argh yl pre lw eee then mpc once hye ses) Fys Che. Yl 05,7. E> ‘a, |} AEC CSE Spens fr Csi PE uted Fowe Cae Rad 5 ough 610 ABI Nea [9 ABIC C35 pecans oe Elen Raber Power Cables ae Shih AEC Now Yr, (0) AIC 6-95 Speciation for Cnn 5 se Powe Cables Bt Sigh SRV AIG New Yi 18 [st CE, Pb TSH, Cue or 2 Test Ped, New Yk 180. [0]. Baga G Baber and DA Sie, “Caan desta experience: poutine als theta’ 8 Ta Power ‘Appts a ten VL PASS, pH 198, (1 Sgr and Baie “Dare dt in xed ua power ‘ab rane on ower Apparat, PASS, pp 8 19, [3] DA Case an Baik, "70 i peanty dtu cal Under (pound Dati Cofoece, et Cal Raa 69 CNPE, Ata, pp. 1 135 Moy 161 85 [5] Tunas n Poe and Common Cabs, Barisan KD. Sas 1a Eto Mio Hl HEE Pres New ok, 198 (96 Baas, Coos pulse pty desl anton meses pinny Sstrtn ale rs. on Power Apparat ar) YOU PASS p>. is 195. (97) W.L Wes and |? See, “borane ote deletion apd aon of ‘cp sn pen ebin 1 Tans on Poe Appts nd yt Vl PASO pp 208205, 12 (681 1 Gat “Loclason des d cg pares danse Bs ar une hoe Fane sta" Ree gare atc, 8 pp 3-H TL [Mee Kamion. ese A et ed fer etn ee on set 0b tsi ce unde nea ere” EE Ten on Powe opts Stes, Wp -3S 1D804 a fesse eeeae cones, Ses siecwees ee te net ee ee os eerie ee owl itieeetsetnaast tse pal Gia p sat Cohen see oer ethers at eae see seat Sn erenrne me ereren eee erie 005] WT Stare, “Insulation fault detector”, US Patent No, 2 750,582 June 12th, 1956 tl wb oases ace ee ares te ae eli stetyvanselsan’Gi ah bree eaten eee gem ie oars el eerie aes ceactee matismrsoe! th rp Rate no sete eee cee ee Sioeelen at eenesa rae Pe cunceeettee teenie Peer ere Seat hector teen Tceeep nearer ee ate tee corinne opiate ee pe ate ae acre ta tt inulin n gett naa eaters eesueee eee Scien ep es piece eee separa es poccane eee MRC eta ern ti ores fat emutehnaeee Saipaace sana i arate ae a wu tag eee WL eam ne ae a a e ee ee i eetoer ean au at eees $a Sly ton Sng eg Pd Mo 0, 8 noe ee tea EB ncn De yp. a pon fish Coty press Heorncateeh ie assists tare onto ere emisoris dis Releases oh (ri meget ba errata pec eee eee re te tiara avn ma Ergetent a atee ease eae Bartnikas: Partial Discharges (135) 8.& Hanpto |S Raser-C] os Trin LMU and 8 LF “Ee fence and proges with UE dpestic sis OCR arr ese, Paper T5/2hth Par, 2 [gL Hes, "PD weaseret in cls thot and exert cama fen elec meas cg, CRS psa, Pape (Bein, 0. [nt FH Gooting a 3, Sate, “Corona el ag fH li AUE Ts co Poe Appr sd res, W 6p 910, 1957 [9D Big,“ cing tnd fa he Be gy orteating i ‘in USP 46, 87 166 (us) AH phase “A new etal enn of pride ses mc lsd ay 1985 Anal Report Ce! en teal nsdn at De Pheoro, Cok ed 8 CHEE, pA, 0% 3-2 185 Bais, 0) Speen 7, Power Casa, Gene 17 (031) ELE Chucho panini poe cpa”, Et, 2, p54, wn {12} 1EPuiton 7, Sha pts ot ACF Stes ving at estore, Pats] an Gre, 187, 1133} C Hast, 70 n power pci, 8a Sap o ‘ec nae pO Jae 7-0 19 [HC Haro dD Fata, "Dig ease of Pin lsd power acy EE Taso least, Vol 2 p05 1032 188 138) Husa, Th Fe Wy Nol a, Mane “Compuadd tesng fell aus and agus ro eee el Conk, Cont Re 8 CHS, p67 Sept L185, gage [se RT Ham, TW, Dakin and G Mei, “Uta eg ofr within ‘mcf ala sgt Ts On Power Apts Syst, ASI p ths, 9% [07] or. 350 Fe Guise for PD Measure Lge Fld Powe Taso sara Sha Recs New, 252 [18] Neat, “noe crs mat wing cess bashing ip a seo messes IE Tans on Paes Appts ayn a ASSL, p27, 18, (181 RD. Brow, “Coen mesaerues on IY apa sig the rng eps et HE am ofl At Se AS (00. asks “Power norma rca ein EET ower Aas i Sse Wl ASSL pp PTI, [bt}E Gali H.P Burger G. .Yllaour and R Books, “FD pte says gd of lege poeta” EE Tas Dl od cal isn’ YO p98 10), 0, [2] 6.16. Mtns, R Males and Daa, “Campane echniges ‘oases in power tacos, it Tana Pome Apparat Syms Vl PASO pp 50-9 1 [8] Bomias “Noe a lca ena ube ight FE Tan on ‘Bea ston, We Fp, 173 [st EO. Fuser in Engng Dili, YM Bec! stig igus, ‘ita, Ei, Manogaph 2, ASTM Pade, SE 0. Fees, Tropes is understanding a ect rao in cnet rater PD, WZ, p14 198, 114] Lesatand Tekan “Se eet nd nso ‘unr ac erg dato, Fanon eri iio, 26, sp 095419 TH] Maton LL Qari and G Cand, “The owt abs owe avis noe fis nthe Foy fe acai dichre pues THEE Torsone an il von, Wl 5 pp CS (0) Kelly Mohamad RE Hees MO Pope, AL Weber, CV Balok ‘an | Fos "Messresens of #9 heave de: olag, Ee Ta. ca ton a 34, p88 106} .0.Toste: “and seme nig etic: esgic ol heey son vlog ee Tans on Fc ulson ep S86, 158.IEEE Transactions on Dielectries and Electrical Insulation [sc Mazzt Mess, 0. Fase “Atay of PO mesure e oc igh’ EEE Tra nec sin, a2, pp 450 192 [st] M. Pop C. Mazactand Baas, “Ey ap of 79 develope llc bg, 15 Ts Dieter al se, V2 pp eth 98, (2) Pop. Manet and R.Br, “Simulnsbs sie and ma and dato 0 uss ined EEE Fare oe Dats ed Ste iat, 5 p. 7,188 153) Pomp, Maze an Bus, Phase lap of psi d+ lectus der acon" IEEE Tare Dict nd Et sie ln. (4 Gab “Digs cf compre by dpa amas, ee Taso ‘eta Heal suse VL yp 808 19, (05) Na 17-1957) Meta fesse fc Radian: age apt, [se R603. 2187, Amescn atonal Sandan Specs of etme Non Fe Strength Met 10 OCH THT ANS! Ci. 34357 Amen Noon Sod Recomended Pace Sr he Decne Measure of (radar Det est 1159) RBar an WD, “The wlan te te eri and soil fer ro ase oH. tornes a ae ppt TREE Hanson Pome Appa ase, We PASI pp, [9 Ee Standard 3,219, Ragman Pract th Det of 9 and "he Mesurenet of Apart Chain Dy Tpe Tastes [a H. ors and Cices, 70bear of py en npg rome ‘oa EET en bal sao WL 27 pp B35 982 [t} Host Te lion been rma eles a hb of pony ih kaaerme EE Ten Heal alo, YL 2, pp. ahs [ea CER, king Gey, er, No 8p. 1-65 Pr, IL [i] Gates HK. Oaenon, W Rebus ad Weim, Meas ds hrs pls dine nonsense nerds p> erie aN 137% Rope 20, Pa (U6 RT. Harel nd AML Sten, *Coona ation in rasta by ra fe ey pect at Pat ery EL Tru Tower Ags nk Sts Vl PASS, pp 1815, 17. [3] T Hora “Caan nso yell ie peta i, at: apa a gad ss osu EE Tas Poe pps anasto, he PAS Bp 1195810. (0). Ganger one | Yr lrzatin measurements a arfome Brown ‘ot eve, No.7 pp. 35-8717 U6] RT Hal, “age eta sh for ea lat puns “ras font Appa an Stns, PASM, pp 109-298, 17 16}. Teg “Ein ree Mth 2 Beste es agen echsumangeretormatoe, ETEA NL 7p. 7275, U6] AT Drone. Sonepat tf ting, rinse Pi CUR: Papr 24 Pars, 8 [1S Hate nd rer Lavette nen atin mts on ver tanta’ Pe CAR, ape 0, Pan 63. TTI] RE Jes, RE Fo. 8 Phin and PW, “erp of 0 ge ear esd he ema HY Eames, Eas oH eto Val Fp. 08 (07) RE James, BT Pug ad, “Appian of ig ng eins Ihe detain neon meaner, eH ns on sa 0 28, pp 4685 18, (07 Fo Haws? Boss D. alan A. King, “Dee ad ction a nel define meio of power ane” 88 Tne on Ess rtm 25 pp T0719. [aT atwande, MH Der Houses, Zang Ba ain A ‘Shenk? ices A Pts and] Dutt “Deep a pet conan assent eso oer astra, Pe CCR Paper 1-2, Pai Vol. 9 No. 5, October 2002 805 (179) M Hoes Remi Farad Ashwani, “Asset ofinsinon ‘onitn of lg power tlre by on eet dag th Tete inka Symposia Ba eatin Aram pel 2 [i rath nd} Fb,“ pte region ol or cages and mong lagi’ PCT, aps 19/31 1. [7B Boos aed. Moin, Cae pcier ghetto he espe of ‘en pul tec Tne Sees on Hct li, (Ge Hoe 78CHLO8-E, pp. 27a 1,575, Manta. [ni HB “A rousing an etn jst aon gl ga pes ing FEE Tae on DisarsndEestalnsinin, W 7pp. 202,200. [U8]. Andee, Utsnic detection at enton of elec dich inn long stutan” AEE Tas on ove: Appts and Stes Yl. 1S ise 988 DA, Fores EL Hot and A.B Pehl Phi and sess ‘alla fer nt sEE Canto Dg etn ot wer Appa in Sv, Pb No 9 Pat p+ Marh 8 HP. Lis) A Teg “Decadent of oi over ante’ IEE Cok on Dagnabe ls Power ApprtsinSve Co Pa Na Pt Na 8 3 Lenn {03} § ons, "Te detection a7 npr trsoomes ing compat ide ‘scott esc 8 neat! Spano tee! Ean, {oe Tras, 5. (05) T Bongson, H. Kol ad BJ sn, “ansfomer F dgross wing acute es teh” Cont Rt fh 1 ne Spm on Ener. NOL 8 Mow [is] D-Tain a Mec aD. Thee, “Dettori pte anorme’, "ee as on Paver Aras and tens WL PAS, pp. 915,176 (05) EHowelsand ET Noto, “Det of intarsfore using aoe ‘on equ’ En Tan Paver Apa a Syst A397 pp. wo 0 (0%) Pie ol nd Gosh, -Dgosng te etn ction of dy lype efor ing slip ye PD ezatn eg’, 22 IE aetna Spain on kia! tin Con Resor 2 CDG Tet, api 0.20, os, 10 orn seis nd Man “Ate pie ats etd ing est ity for ster han", anv Ere Cones Va 15, pp i520. [08] 17S 43-200, Tl Ue Gai tthe Meso Din ot ing Mace Aug 1621200, New 19) fon and None, Betti shia st windings dag opr, ATE Tas on Power Apart nd Syste, lp 188-00, A [st 5. Jonson “A marae pein progam fr aye ring machines”, [ATE Faso over Apts on 8} 0 7 pp. 21-5, 8. [st 5 Joes, “Se serge dete heen cl suas de aH sae Weng AIEE Tas on ower Apacs ad Stes, 11, p. SSI, BB [s2) FT. ney a Hao “On ine int ar test tie ener tor winkings TE Tan Power Appasats ard Syston WL PAS. Sapp 20-20, [i9) FT ery BN. Ledeking a RD. Coch, “bine enn ce ding esis ug AF monn EE as 09 Power Apps and tens, Ve PAS) pp BTS 8 [is 1 Teper “pe fl ein ugh eel RE ator of lage tag rans 0 Tse Power Apa and Sy, a PA 1 pp. 5,8 (5) Kas, “Artest eer nner, Cras Hyco Resi Que WL pp (096M Kaan. .Stn, 70 ting of get iuton, 17 Ee ‘tral Symp en tile, Cnt er TH CHTB 2 pp. 57 e973 Peep [97 MK ads, “Gener nto dng ting, 8 Tar 00 Poe Apart an ten, Vl Sp. 159616598.806 [18] ML Hewson GC, Slane and M. Kur “Prpestin of PD and ise pss in bie prea, EE Tes onEsargy Cnr, WX Epp. T-16, Spite: 1198) FL, G C. Soe aM. Kits, “peice wi DA aprotic estng ce hyde geet es Tn on Energy Conversa, 3 7p S20, 1965. [am] ¢, Sone, HG Sing Fein a] Mu, “rac let to fener 7 ac, EE Tow Bia sti, V2, e072, (at) B.A Eye SR Campbell and lene, “Catan nine ro moni, fet se wings et sng Came pp se 198, / [am] 6. Soe, “pac of bandh n 7D seu n opening mts ‘sd gore EE Tro ile ard ltl asso Vl 7, p., 0 [Rb JC. Bee an W.MeDee, “Appiation of he CEA PO are, Dele Contec, Api 2th 12 Beso. {oo 8.8 Canpbel GC Sag H.C Sebdig. 5 Kempe 5) MeDesnl and RG. Busey “Tsien 0 et fo ine geeao and ne EEE Tas an Energy Cones, el pp. 28287, 198 [an HA ol “A iter puke ge dscmat, Nuclear Instumetaton ‘ed Metts 51, Nove 176 [pw Hc. Seding 5. Campbell C.C Saneand Klemp “A sec fo desing FO operating bie gacrao" HETane en Energy Convers, Wi gp 70-7619 [s) 8.8 te "Deel tromagnetic carpe, PRE sito of Rao plas) Vel MIT gp. 686-19, 954 [oe] 8 rata. Gras, “0 ting oft dhe isl Callo gin, November (2-14 197, Cane [0] B.A Frat ant Fb 79 pater contin --a el for goss and me ‘og ang Pra CCR, ager 1/52, Pas, 198 [Bu] Brathan Niemeyer, "Te ingore esi aratestsol da", THEE Tem on ltl suo, Vl Zp. sh, 182. [pz] 8 Frat andD.Gros, "2D genet, tans and acute, Pre. EE Si Meu Tell, WL, pp. 225,158, [2] B.A. Fruhand W.Gre,"Combinatn oguene pcan alan ro pater cry 54H Ienatoal Synprom en Eta eatin Bie je th 84, Phares, (21) B Fata D Ges, “hase saving 0 pte aq spect yatta Contec lhe operies ad Agpiais Dike eter Cont Read CHESS, pp. 75, ly [25] DW. Gs, "Po measurement andro eating shin” 20 Inkmatonal Syposium on Eel sation, Cot Hed (2 H226, pp S037, Ape 1,202, Bsa [ee B.A Fthand DW ros, “Po ong cigs fio eae jon snd upon ofcalratien’ [95 FEE interatos Sppsam ot Ee Inst, Co Rsnd 96 CHIS2-2, p37 $05, Jue, Mente [RT Sn score dmg insole str windings, PTE 1884, pp. S18 1, [eg A. Wika, Prine al Wein “aly fal det in ete crs by of mira RSs O37, Pope 2D, Vi, 7, 29) P Gee and J Wd, “uss are epee with fi ie lags of bine genera alr winding ie", Pr, CAR, Pope 20 Pr, 18 (0) 1 Biase Galo, A. Galabr ad C. Kane, ld enpceces wt ‘meserenerf 7a ee 4 Tas en Eng Coes el Topp 90855188, (22) Bina, "ery ow funy ting, ABE Tans on ower Appa ‘snd ystems ol pp. 18 56, (22) ile an...“ mene nerthe oueey age a 0 ‘sae Ee Manson Fetes lon, Yl EET, yp. 7185, 0. 229 IE Spent 027, Maser Genes, 8b Bartnikas: Partial Discharges (2) A edo LL Dom “Ansl or unseen nd get obo et, Tec erat Cn on Popes wd Aas ‘fake tra To. 1m Anan | Dra “Gnetr a be ee ming ted uot sem es ema ops ce Eke rat Cont R92 CHS po 38-2 Bt, (es Al sb Marg, “sco ec ty a an oy ee ign 1901 ratia Sppox on Ee het, Co es s0 CHa py 398, am ae 8 (a) TW Dai CN esa Sb, “Ax atu be fr de ekg ning tags eating ans’ kt Ten oF Appts and Sate Wp. 2157.08 (2) LE Sah “A peakpeak rab cro) mene ‘eatin elec ep” Me 17s Aol inert Coa Dobe Chet, Sen a 9. {0 inp “imprecise yo Uc ger Ee ts Pon Oe Ca ed Gah pp 4 [em Hae Tes M Baan Cates, "Conpaen ce ne se sei’ on br an stent "Po eri rutin Cnt Rod. RTI pp 58-3 0 5 2 Gat (2 MEK, CS, Drama VR Ml nd? Lot, “Digits eg go ss wit rap, OG, ape 1, as, at (22) TW akin and Maia “Act big etd meting te toa] aera ower spe ATE ove yun ed Spo 9p. oe (29) faa RM, Male ing tk hs with tcl he til antec es saan season ct pe es ted pbean) [bo zeSic, 9 Ream Pack NeumenoPowaFat “ip pot esgic Sr Col tion (5 Ae “Tel apse te optns plitea, odo dand ew pers et Tar baer nd ate si V2. Sa 8s (Kk and G Daas Eee and psugtin a es tt “ns onDit ar Eker lie WL 2p. 735, ta91 Pk Sinn "Anil Nal Spenser, Pais Apc od pet” cB, Now Yah, 150. {2 Rang“ New ern PT rence al Een hi 155. [2] RE Lpeann “Anion comping with anu EASE Mop sa pp 2.1 (2) Tom The ris pr 18, YT pp HSE, [ot] DE Rat, G.E Hae and | Was, Leing inten epee ery rer bck propeptide! Dele Pig Ex 9 elizont Cops pp. 58-8, WL Canby MA MT Pes Pee (RO) Ansa Mazo, Bang MCAS, “Dssnate bee 7D shape cing ier tetra a Tas oD {Edel rote Wl Lp. 10931, 19 (26) kod “Anneli 0 EETan on Diecrian cal than a2 pp. eA (Ain & Mas Baas MM A,r, Newtons eng te nye pepe ar ano 0 ub ops tn coi ere 54 Ka Per De, YL 1p. Sess [25 Gah “A pbs spac te wert and ig fe ston ee’ Enel Con eat pet on Sl P- esi pT, 9 [et aA Stina. Roa “tert rel etek py or 1alepatemscoin” 8 Tas ca NealNenors 1 HS, in [20 C. Cain ard HL Wissen, PD reopiton wth Knows pepo wings ear tetas Tre, Ds an carton, Wo. 2 pp. HH 1,