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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CAD/CAM/CAE
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Syllabus
Introduction to CAD, CAM, CIM and CAE,
Product cycle,
Mathematical model for product life cycle.
Introduction
In todays global competition, industries cannot survive unless they introduce
new products or existing ones with:
Better quality
Lower cost
Shorter lead time
Computer aided design (CAD) can be defined as the use of computer systems
to assist in creation, modification, analysis and optimization
Computer aided machining (CAM) can be defined as the use of computer
systems to plan, manage and control a manufacturing plant through either
direct or indirect computer interface with the plants production resources.
CAM
3D CAD data can be read by CAM software which takes 3D data & CNC
machine parameters as inputs and delivers a tool path that cuts metal as per the
part designs.
The tool path so generated can be simulated on the screen to evaluate tool
gauging so that the machining run is perfect.
Computer Integrated manufacturing
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is manufacturing supported by
computers. It is the total integration of Computer Aided Design /
Manufacturing and also other business operations and databases.
Definition: CIM is the integration of total manufacturing enterprise by using
integrated systems and data communication coupled with new managerial
philosophies that improve organizational and personnel efficiency.
The CIM concept is that all the operations related to the production function in
an integrated computer system to assist, enhance and /or automate the
operations.
The computer system is spread throughout the firm , touching all the activities
that support manufacturing.
In this integrated computer system, the output of one activity serves as the
input to the next activity, through the chain of events that starts with the sales
order and finishes with shipment of the product.
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Customer orders are initially entered by the companys sales force into a
computerized order-entry system. The orders contain the specifications
describing the product.
The specifications serves as input to the design
New products are designed on a CAD system. The components that comprise
product are designed, the BOM is complied, and assembly dwgs. are prepared.
The output of design serves as input to mfg. engg, where process planning,
tool design and similar activities are accomplished to prepare for production
The output of mfg. engg. Provides input to the PPC, where MRP and
scheduling is performed
Computer-Aided Engineering
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Computer-aided Engineering analysis (often referred to as CAE) is the
application of computer software in engineering to analyze the robustness and
performance of components and assemblies.
It encompasses simulation, validation and optimization of products and
manufacturing tools.
Parts and assemblies designed in CAD software can be analyzed for their
field performances right on the computer screen.
Most of the olden-day destructive testing methods have found mathematical
replacements in the modern-day CAE software.
CAE software delivers results that help analyzing designs.
Analysis tools are available for
static stress-strain,
deflection,
thermal,
flow,
motion,
vibration
This allows designers to design-right-the-first-time.
Use of computer systems to analyze CAD geometry
Allows designer to simulate and study how the product will behave, allowing
for optimization
Finite-element method (FEM)
Divides model into interconnected elements
Solves continuous field problems
Ranges of CAE
Kinematics Analysis: to determine motion paths and linkage velocities in
mechanism. Pro/E
Finite Element Analysis (FEA): Solid Mechanics analysis (stress/strain), Heat
Transfer, Flow, and other continuous fields.
Pro/Mechanica, ANSYS, CATIA, NASTRAN
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD): Fluid Simulation. Fluent, Phoenix,
CFX
Product Cycle (Design and Manufacturing )
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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T2 be time associated with planning and setting for each batch of production
This include the ordering of raw materials by purchasing department,
time required in production planning to schedule the batch, setup times
for each operation etc.
T3 be the time required for designing the product and for all other activities
that are accomplished once for each different product.
These include process planning, cost estimating and pricing, building
of special tools and fixtures.
B be the number of batches produced throughout the product life cycle.
Q be the number of units produced in each batch.
The aggregate time spent on the product throughout its life cycle can be
The average time spent on each unit of product during its life cycle.
In mass and batch production the T2 and T3 terms can be spread over a large
number of units.
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Recognition of need involves the realization by someone that a problem exists for
which some corrective action should be taken e.g. defect in current machine
design
Definition of problem involves a through specifications of the item to be designed.
This specifications includes physical and fundamental characteristics, cost, quality
and operating performance.
Synthesis and analysis are closely related and highly iterative in design process
This iterative process is repeated until the design has been optimized within the
constrained imposed on the designer
The philosophy, functionality and uniqueness are all determined during synthesis.
The major financial commitments to turn conceived product into reality are made
during synthesis.
Information generated during synthesis phase is qualitative and hard to capture by
computer system.
The end goal of synthesis is a conceptual design
Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications
established in problem definition phase.
This evaluation often requires fabrication and testing of a prototype model to
assess performance, quality, reliability and other criteria.
Presentation includes documentation of design by means of drawing , material
specifications, assembly list and so on.
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Geometric Modeling
It is concerned with the computer compatible mathematical description of the
geometry of the object.
To use geometric modeling, the designer constructs the graphical image of the
object on the CRT screen of the ICG system by inputting three types of
commands
1. The first type of command generates basic geometric elements such as points,
lines and circles.
2. The second command type is used to accomplish scaling, rotation and other
transformations of these elements.
3. The third type of demand causes the various elements to be joined into the
desired shape of the object being created on the ICG system.
During this process , the computer converts the commands into a mathematical
model, stores it in the computer data files, and displays it as an image on CRT
screen.
The model can be called from the data files for review, analysis, or alteration.
There are several different methods of representing the object in geometric
modeling.
The basic form uses wire frames to represent the object. In this form the object
is displayed by interconnecting lines. Wire frame modeling is classified into
three types
1. 2D. Two dimensional representation is used for a flat object
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2. 2 D. In this a three dimensional object to be represented as long as it has no
side wall details.
3. 3D. This allows for full three dimensional modeling of a more complex
geometry
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Engineering Analysis
The analysis may involve stress strain calculations, heat transfer computations,
or use of dynamic behaviour of the system being designed.
The computer can be used to aid in this analysis work.
Two important examples of this type are:
1. Analysis of mass properties
2. Finite element analysis
1. Analysis of mass properties:
For solid object: surface area , weight , volume, centre of gravity, and moment
of inertia.
For a plane surface (or c/s of solid object) the corresponding computations
may include the perimeter, area, and inertia properties.
2. Finite element analysis:
With this technique the object is divided into large number of finite elements
(usually triangular or rectangular in shapes) which form an interconnecting
network of concentrated nodes.
By using a computer with significant computer capabilities, the entire object
can be analyzed for stress-strain, heat transfer and other characteristics by
calculating the behaviour of each node.
By determining the interrelating behavior of all the nodes in the system, the
behavior of the entire object can be assessed
Design Review and Analysis
Semi automatic dimensioning and tolerancing routines which assign size
specifications to surfaces indicated by the user help to reduce the possibility of
the dimensioning errors.
The designer can zoom in on part design details and magnify the image on
graphics screen for close scrutiny
A procedure called layering is often helpful in design review. E.g. a good
application of layering involves overlaying the geometric image of the final
shape of the machined part on the top of the image if the rough casting.
This ensures that sufficient material is available on the casting to accomplish
the final machined dimensions.
Another related procedure for design review is interference checking. This
involves the analysis of an assembled structure in which there is a risk that the
components of the assembly may occupy the same space.
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The risk occurs in the design of large chemical plants, cold boxes, and other
complicated piping structures.
One of the feature of CAD systems is kinematics. The available kinematics
packages provide the capability to animate the motion of simple designed
mechanisms such as hinged components and linkages.
Automated Drafting
It involves the creation of hard copy engineering drawings directly from the
CAD database.
CAD systems includes features like automatic dimensioning, generation of
crosshatched areas, scaling of the drawing, and the capability to develop
sectional views and enlarged views of particular part details
Different views like oblique, isometric and perspective views can be of
significant assistance in drafting.
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It is goal of CAD/CAM not only to automate certain design phases of design
and certain phases of mfg., but also to automate the transition from design to
manufacturing.
Computer- based systems have been developed which create much of the data
and documentation required to plan and manage the mfg. operations for the
product.
The manufacturing data base is an integrated CAD/CAM data base.
It includes all the data on the product generated during design (geometry data,
BOM , material specifications) as well as additional data required for mfg.,
much of which based on the product design
Benefits of CAD
Productivity improvement in Design
Shorter lead times
Reduced engineering personnel requirement
Customer modifications are easier to make
Rapid response of the design analysis
Improved accuracy of design
Avoidance of subcontracting to meet schedules
Provide better functional analysis to reduce prototype testing
Avoidance of subcontracting to meet schedules
Assistance in preparation of documentation
Minimized transcription errors
Designs have more standardization
Fewer errors in NC part programming
Better communication interfaces and greater understanding among engineers,
designers, drafters, management and different project groups.
Principles of Concurrent Engineering
Definition
It is a methodology of restructuring the product development activity in an
organization using a cross functional team and is a technique adopted to
improve efficiency of the product design and reduce product cycle time.
Concurrent engineering brings together a wide spectrum of people from
several functional areas in the design and mfr. of a product.
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Representatives
from
R&D,
engineering,
manufacturing,
materials
management, quality assurance marketing etc develop the product as a team.
Traditional Process of Serial Engineering
Functions Separated
Functions Serially Executed
No Interaction
Maintenance Usually an Afterthought
Time Consuming
Costly
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Raster scan
In this viewing screen is divided into a large number of discrete phosphor
picture elements, called pixels.
The number of pixels in the raster display might be range from 256 X 256 (a
total of 65,000 points) to 1024 X 1024 (a total of 10,00,000 points)
Each pixel on the screen can be made to glow with a different brightness.
Color screens provide for the pixels to have different colors as well as
brightness
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This memory is called as frame buffer or refresh buffer
Picture quality can be improved in two ways: by increasing the pixel intensity
and or adding a grey scale (or color).
Increasing picture intensity means adding more lines of resolution and more
addressable points par line.
A 1024 X 1024 raster screen would require more than 1 million bits of storage
in the frame buffer.
A grey scale is accomplished by expanding the number of intensity levels
which can be displayed on each pixel.
This requires additional bits for each pixel to store the intensity level.
Two bits are required for four levels, three bits required for eight levels, and so
forth.
Five or six bits required to achieve approximation for continuous achieve an
approximation of continuous grey scale
For color display , three times as many bits require to get various intensity
levels for each of the three primary colors: red, blue and green.
A raster scan graphics terminal with high resolution and grey scale can require
very large capacity refresh buffer.
Colour CRT Monitors
Two basic techniques used for producing colour display with a CRT are the
1. Beam penetration method
2. Shadow mask method
Beam Penetration Method
It is used with random scan monitors.
Two layers of phosphor, usually red and green, are coated onto the inside of
the CRT screen, and the displayed colour depends upon how far the electron
beam penetrates into the phosphor layer
A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer red layer.
A beam of fast electrons penetrates through the red layer and excites the inner
green layer.
At intermediate speed, combination of red and green light are emitted to show
two additional colours, orange and yellow
The speed of electrons, hence the screen colour at any point is controlled by
the beam acceleration voltage
Delta Delta Shadow Mask Method
These are most widely used because they produce wide variety of range.
A shadow mask CRT has three phosphor dots at each pixel position
One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a green and the third emits a
blue light.
This type of CRT has three electron guns one for each colour dot, and shadow
mask grid just behind the phosphor coated screen
The electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow
mask, which has series of holes aligned with phosphor dot patterns.
When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a
dot triangle, which appears as a small colour spot on the screen.
The phosphor dots are arranged so that each electron beam can activate only
its corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.
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Raster scan
Image Generation
Direct Beam
storage
Stroke writing
Stroke writing
Raster scan
Picture quality
Data content
Selective erase
Grey scale
Excellent
Limited
Yes
Yes
Excellent
High
No
No
Moderate to good
Color capability
Moderate
No
Yes
Animation capability
Yes
No
Moderate
Yes
Yes
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Picture definition is stored into a refresh buffer, and the firing voltage is
applied to refresh the pixel positions (at the intersection of the conductors) 60
times per second.
Alternating current method are used to provide faster application of the firing
voltages, and thus brighter images.
The disadvantage is that they are strictly monochromatic devices.
Basic design of plasma panel display device
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These devices are called as active matrix displays.
CAD/CAM/CAE
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Continuous tone photographs are reproduced for publications in newspaper,
magazines, and books with a printing process called halftoning, and the
reproduced pictures are called halftones.
For a black and white photograph, each intensity area is reproduced as a series
of black circles on a white background.
The diameter is propositional to the darkness required for that intensity level.
Darker regions are printed with large circles and lighter regions are printed
with small circles.
Book and magazine halftones are printed on high quality paper using
approximately 60 to 80 circles of varying diameter per centimeter.
Newspaper use lower quality papers and lower resolution (about 20 to 30 dots
per centimeter.)
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Application Program
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It controls the storage of data into and retrieves data out of application
database
The application program is driven by the user through the graphics package
The application program is implemented by the user to construct the model of
a physical entity whose image to be viewed on the graphics screen.
Application programs are written for particular problem areas.
Problem areas in engineering design would include arch, construction, mech.
Components, ext, chem, aerospace.
Problem areas other than deign include flight simulators, graphical display of
data, mathematical analysis, and even artwork
Graphics Package
The graphics package is the software support between the user and the
graphics terminal.
It manages the graphical interaction between the user and the system
It also serves as a s/w support between the user and the application software
The graphics package consist of input subroutines and output subroutines
The input subroutine accepts the input commands and data from the user and
forward them to the application program
The output subroutines control the display terminal (or other output device)
and converts the application models into 2D or 3D graphics pictures.
Application data base
The database contains mathematical, numerical and logical definitions of the
application models, such as electronic ckts, mechanical components,
automobile bodies, and so forth.
It also contains alphanumeric information associated with the models, such as
BOM, mass properties and other data.
The contents of the data base can be readily displayed on the CRT or plotted
out in hard copy form.
Functions of a Graphics package
Generation of graphics elements
Transformations
Display control and windowing function
Segmenting functions
User input functions
Generation of graphics elements
A graphic element in computer graphics is a basic image entity such as a dot
(or point), line segment, circle, and so forth
The collection of elements in the system could also include alphanumeric
characters and special symbols
There is often a special hardware component in the graphics system associated
with the display of many of the elements.
This speeds up the process of generating the element
The user can construct the application model out of collection of elements
The term primitive is used in reference to the graphics element
E.g. sphere, cube, or cylinder
In 3D wire frame models and solid modelling, primitives are used as building
blocks.
Transformations
Transformations are used to change the image on the display screen
Transformations are applied to graphics elements in order to aid the user in
constructing an application model
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It includes enlargement and reduction of the image by a process called scaling,
repositioning the image or translation, and rotation.
Display control and windowing
This provides the user with the ability to view the image from the desired
angle and at the desired magnification
Another aspect of display control is hidden line removal.
Segmenting function
Segmenting provides user with the capability to selectively replace, delete or
otherwise modify portions of the image.
The term segment refers to a particular portion of the image which has been
identified for the purpose of modifying it.
Storage type CRT is unsuited to segmenting function.
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E.g. point can be defined simply by x, y and z coordinates. A polygon would
be defined as an ordered set of points representing the corners of the polygon
Editing the geometry
A CAD provides system provides editing capabilities to make corrections and
adjustments in the geometric model
When developing the model, the user must be able to delete, move, copy and
rotate the components of the model.
The editing involves selecting the particular portion of the model, and
executing the appropriate command
Editing features in CAD
1. Move an item. This involves the translation of item from one place to
another
2. Duplication an item at another location. The copy function is similar to
move function except it preserves a copy of an item at its original location
3. Rotate an object. This is the rotation transformation, in which the item is
rotated through specified angle from its original orientation
4. Mirror an item. This crates a mirror image of an item about a specified
plane.
5. Delete an item. This causes selected segment of the model to be removed
from the screen and from the database.
6. Trim an line or other component
7. Scale an item
The method of selecting the segment of the model varies from system to system
1. With cursor control common method is for a rectangle to be formed on the CRT
screen around the model segment. The rectangle is defines by entering the upper
left and lower right corners of the rectangle
2. It involves light pen to be placed over the component t be selected
The computer must some how show indicate to the user which portion of the
model has been selected
This includes placing mark on the segment, making segment brighter than the rest
of the image, and making the segment blink
Transformations
2-D Transformations
3-D Transformations
Two-dimensional Transformations
To locate a point in a two-axis Cartesian system, the x and y coordinates are
specified.
These coordinate can be treated together as a 1 x 2 matrix : (x, y), e.g. the
matrix (1,4) would be interpreted to be point which is 1 unit from the origin in
the x-direction and 4 units from the origin in the y-direction.
This method of representation can be
extended further to define a line as a
2 x 2 matrix by giving x and y coordinates of the two end points of the line.
The notation would be,
Translation
Translation involves moving the element from one location to another
x= x + m,
y = y + n
Where,
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x, y = coordinates of the translated point
x, y = coordinates of the original point
m, n= movements in the x and y direction
In the matrix notation this can be represented as,
(x, y) = (x, y) + T
Where,
T = (m, n), the transformation matrix
Scaling
Scaling of an element is used to enlarge it or reduce its size. The scaling need
not necessarily be done equally in x and y directions. e.g. a circle can be
transformed into ellipse by using unequal x and y scaling factors.
The points of an element can be scaled by scaling factor as follows:
(x, y) = (x, y )S
Where
This would produce an alternation in the size of the element by the factor m in
the x-direction and by the factor n in the y direction
It also repositions the element
If the scaling factor is <1 , it is moved closer to origin
If the scaling factor is >1 , it is moved farther from the origin
Rotation
In this transformation, the points of an object are rotated about the origin by an
angle
For a positive angle, this rotation is in the counter clockwise direction
This accomplishes rotation of the object by the same angle, but it also moves
the object. In matrix notation the procedure will be as follows:
(x, y) = (x, y) R
Where
Example : Translation
Consider the line defined by,
Suppose the line to be translate in space by 2 units in x direction and 3 units in the y
direction.
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Example : Scaling
Apply scaling factor of 2 to the line
Example : Rotation
Rotate the line about origin by 30
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3 Dimensional Transformation
Transformations by matrix methods can be extended to three dimensional
space.
Translation
The translation matrix for a point defined in three dimensional matrix would
be,
T = (m, n, p)
And would be applied by adding increments m, n and p to the respective
coordinates of each of the points defining the three-dimensional geometry
elements
Scaling
The scaling transformation is given by,
Concatenation
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Single transformations can be combined as a sequence of transformations.
This is called as concatenation, and the combined transformations are called
concatenated transformations.
During editing process when a graphics model is being developed , the use of
concatenated transformation is quite common
More than one transformations are usually requires to accomplish the desired
transformation
e.g.
1. Rotation of the element about an arbitrary point the element
2. Magnifying the element but maintaining the location of one of its points in the
same location
In the first case transformations would be: translation to the origin, then
rotation about the origin, then translation back to original location
In the second case , the element would be scaled (magnified) followed by a
translation to locate the desired point as needed
The objective of the concatenation is to accomplish a series of image
manipulations as a single transformation
The concatenation is the product of the two transformation matrix
It is important that order of matrix multiplication be the same as the order in
which the transformations are to be carried out.
Example : Concatenation
A point to be scaled by a factor of 2 and rotated by 45. Suppose point under
consideration was (3, 1) . This may be one of the several points defining a
geometric element
First accomplish the transformations sequentially,
First consider the scaling,
(x, y ) = (x, y)S
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Examples
A line is defined in 2 D space by its end points (1,2) and (6,4). Express this in
matrix notation and perform the following transformation in succession on this
line
1. Rotate the line by 90 about the origin
2. Scale the line by a factor of 0.5 (Dec/Jan 04/05, 8 Marks)
A square of side 30 units has its coordinates A(10,10), B(40,10), C(40,40) and
D(10,40),
Perform the following transformation in succession and show it on graph
paper
1. Rotate about origin 20 anticlockwise
2. Scale it by factor 1.5
3. Perform the above sequence of transformation by concatenation
(May/June 04, 18 Marks)
Homogeneous representation
In order to concatenate the transformations matrices, all transformation
matrices should be multiplicative type.
However, the translation matrix is vector additive while all other are matrix
multiplications.
It is desirable , to express all geometric transformations in form that ,they can
be concatenated by matrix multiplication only.
In homogeneous representation, an
n-dimensional space is
mapped into (n+1) dimensional space.
Thus a 2 dimensional point [x, y] is represented with the homogeneous
coordinate triple (xh,yh,h)
Where,
Thus , a general homogeneous coordinates can also be written as (h.x, h.y, h).
For two-dimensional geometric transformations, homogeneous parameter h to
be any nonzero value.
Thus , there is an infinite number of equivalent homogeneous representations
for each coordinate point (x, y)
A convenient choice is simply to set h=1.
Each two-dimensional position is then represented with coordinates (x, y, 1)
This facilitates the computer graphics operations where the concatenation of
multiple transformations can be easily carried out.
The translation matrix in multiplication form can be given as,
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Primitive Instancing
In primitive instancing modeling approach, primitives are simple 3D solid
shapes, which form the base for creating a solid model
These primitives are parameterized by geometric as well as physical
properties.
The solid model of any object can be created with different combinations of
these primitives.
e.g. one primitive object may be a regular pyramid with a user defined number
of faces meeting at the apex.
A parameterized primitive may be thought of as defining family of parts
whose members vary in few parameters, an important CAD concept known as
group technology.
Primitive instancing is often used for relatively complex objects, such as gears
, bolts, that are tedious to define in terms of Boolean combinations of simpler
objects.
e.g. A gear may be parameterized by its diameter or no. of teeths.
Primitive instancing is based on the concept of families of objects or parts
All parts having same topology but different dimensions are grouped into
family
Each individual part in the family is called a primitive instance.
e.g. a cylinder is represented by diameter(D) and height (h)
Each primitive instancing is defined by specific (D) and (H)
A number of such cylinder primitive instancing creates a family of cylinders
A group of such families can define a solid
Boundary representations (B-rep)
Boundary representations or b-reps describe the solid object in terms of its
boundaries, that is the vertices, edges and faces.
In this model, face is bounded by edges and each edge is bounded by vertices.
The entities which constitute a B-rep model are:
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Geometrical Entities
Topological entities
Point
Vertex
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Curve, line
Edge
Surface
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Face
B Rep Model
An Edge-Based Model
v4
e6
e4
e5
e3
v1
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e1
v3
e2
v2
Faces:
f1
f2
f3
f4
e1
e2
e3
e3
e4
e6
e5
e2
Edges:
e1
e2
e3
e4
e5
e6
v1
v2
v3
v2
v1
v3
v2
v3
v1
v4
v4
v4
Vertices:
v1
x1
v2
x2
v3
x3
v4
x4
v5
x5
v6
x6
y1
y2
y3
y4
y5
y6
e5
e4
e6
e1
z1
z2
z3
z4
z5
z6
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The building block approach is results in more compact file of the model in
the data base
Unusual shapes can not be formed easily with this representation
This model stores the model by combination of data and logical procedures
(the Boolean model)
This model requires less storage but more computation to reproduce the model
and its image
Because of relative advantages and disadvantages of the two approaches ,
hybrid systems have been developed which combine the CSG and B-rep
approaches.
Construction of a Wrench
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Wireframe ambiguity:
Is this object (a), (b) or (c) ?
(a)
(b)
(c)
Solid modeling
An improvement in the wire frame modeling, both in terms of realism to the
user and definition to the computer.
In this models are displayed with less risk of misinterpretation
When color are added the picture becomes realistic one.
The solid modeling has wide range of applications other than CAD and
manufacturing.
These includes color illustrations in magazines and technical publications,
animation in movies and training simulators
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Sweeps whose generating volume or area changes in shape, size or in
orientation as they swept, are known as generalized sweeps.
Sweep representation is useful in generating extruded solids and solids of
revolution.
The sweeping operation is based on sweeping a curve or surface.
Applications involves simulations of material removal due to machining
operations and interference detection of moving objects in space.
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Cell Decomposition
An object can be modelled by decomposing its volume into smaller volume of
cells which are mutually continuous and do not penetrate into each other.
The shape in this need not be a cube nor they should be identical.
It can be seen that some cells are partly outside the boundary, while some of them
are partly inside the boundary
This is approximate representation of an object.
In such a case , a smaller hole or cavity gets neglected if the size of cavity is
smaller of the cells or other than squares in this scheme.
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This difficulty can be overcome by permitting various shapes of cells other than
squares and rectangles, such as triangles.
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The need for portability of the geometric model among different hardware
platforms has led to the development of device independent graphics
Simultaneously standards for exchange of drawing data base among software
packages have been developed to facilitate integration of design and
manufacturing operations
The heart of any CAD model is the component database.
This includes the graphics entities like points, lines, arcs etc. and coordinate
points which define the location of these entities
This geometric data is used in all downstream applications of CAD, which
include finite element modeling and analysis, process planning, estimation,
CNC programming, Robot programming, programming of CMM, MRP
systems
To achieve high level of integration between CAD, analysis and
manufacturing operations, the database must contain:
Shapes of the components ( based on 3-D wire frame or solid model )
Bill of materials (BOM), of the assembly which the components are used.
Materials of the components
The manufacturing, test and assembly procedures to carried out to produce a
component so that it is capable of functioning as per requirements of design
In designing data structure for CAD database the following factors to be
considered:
The data must be neutral
The data structure must be user friendly
The data base must be portable
Features of GKS
The feature of Graphics Kernel system include
1. Device independent: The does not assume that any of the input or output
devices have particular features or restrictions
2. Text/ annotations : All text or clarification are in a neutral languages like
English
3. Display management: A complete set of display management functions, cursor
control and other features are provided.
4. Graphics Functions: Graphics functions are provided in 2D or 3D
GKS Implementation in a CAD W/S
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The drivers in GKS is also includes metafile drivers
Metafiles are devices with no graphics capability
GKS offers two routine to define user created pictures
1. Primitive functions
2. Attribute functions
1. Primitive functions
Examples
POLYLINE to draw set of connected straight lines
FILL AREA to draw a closed polygon with interior fill
TEXT to create characters
GDP (Generalized Drawing Primitive ) to specify the standard drawing
entities like circles, ellipse etc.
2. Attribute functions defines appearance of the image e.g. color, line type etc.
Exchange of data between CAD packages
E.g. to transfer CAD model created in Pro/E to I-DEAS or Unigraphics
To transfer geometric data from one software to another e.g. to carry out
modeling in PRO/E and analysis in ANSYS
One method to meet this need is to use translators. This means developer will
have to produce its own translators
DATA EXCHANGE
The need for exchanging modeling data is directly motivated by the need to
integrate and automate the design and mfg. processes to obtain max. benefits
from CAD/CAM.
The component database can be used in downstream applications like FEA,
Process planning, Robot programming, MRP, C. N. C. programming.
There should be tie between the two or more systems to form an application
that shares common data.
Data exchange files are neutral files. Following are two types of neutral files:
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1. DXF (Data Exchange File)
2. IGES file (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification )
DXF (Data Exchange File)
DXF files are std. ASCII text files, which can be easily translated to the
formats of other CAD systems
The DXF facility is available in several drafting packages.
In case of Auto CAD , the data regarding the created drawing may require to
view , modify or plotting.
Also data can be used for analysis purpose like FEA
In case of Auto CAD , a drawing interchange file (DXF) can be generated
from the existing drawing by means of DXFOUT command.
On the other hand a drawing interchange file can be converted into Auto CAD
drawing by means of DXFIN command
The general structure of DXF file is as follows:
HEADER Section : general information of drawing
TABLE Section :
Linetype (LTYPE) table
Layer table
Text style (STYLE) table
User coordinate system (UCS) table
View port configuration file (VPORT) table
BLOCKS Section
ENTITIES Section
END OF FILE
IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification )
It is standard exchange format developed for communicating product data
among dissimilar CAD/CAM systems.
It has been used for two purposes:
Transfer of data within dissimilar systems
Digital communication between company and its suppliers, customers
i.e. IGES enable data transfer from one CAD system to another
The software which translates data from CAD system to IGES is known as
preprocessor
The software which translates data from IGES data to a CAD system is known
as postprocessor
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Geometric entities represent the definition of the product shape and include
curves and surfaces.
Non geometric entities provide views and drawings of the model to enrich its
representation and include annotation and structural entities.
Annotation entities include types of dimensions (linear, angular) symbols,
centerlines, cross hatching.
Structure entities include views, drawings, attributes (i.e. line and text fonts,
colors, layers etc.), properties (e.g. mass), symbol (e.g. mechanical and
electrical ) and macros (to define parametric parts)
Flag section
Start section
Global section
Directory entry section
Parameter data section
Terminate section
IGES
Start section contains comments that can be used to describe the drawing,
identify its source, comment on its format an so on.
Global section includes information that describes global characteristics of the
IGES file, such as name of the file, the system that created the file, units of
measures, and precision
Directory entry section describes the entities in the drawing. This section
contains attributes such as color, line style. Also provides an index to the
entities in the file
Parameter data section contains data to describe each entity, such as point
coordinates, coefficients of curve and surface equations, text characters and
other attributes.
Terminate section
Limitations
IGES is complex and wordy
These files are about five times larger than an equivalent product file
Several entities required for specialized CAD applications are not available in
IGES file
It does not convey the extensive product information needed in the design and
mfg. cycle.
STEP
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Standard for the Exchange of Product Model Data, officially the ISO standard
10303, Product Data Representation and Exchange, is a series of International
Standards with the goal of defining data across the full engineering and mfg.
life cycle.
The ability to share data across applications, across vendor platforms and
between contractors, suppliers and customers, is the main goal of this
standard.
Scope of STEP
The standard method of representing the information necessary for completely
defining a product throughout its entire life, i.e. from the product conception
to the end of useful life.
Standard method for exchanging the data electronically between two different
systems.
It provides worldwide standard for storing, sharing and exchanging product
information among different CAD systems.
It includes methods of representing all critical product specifications such as
shape information, materials, tolerances, finishes and product structure.
It is data exchange that would apply to a wide range of product areas,
including architectural, engineering and construction.
STEP Architecture
It has main four components
1. EXPRESS modelling language
2. Data schemes including attributes such as geometry, topology, features and
tolerances.
3. Application interface called Standard Data Access Interface (SDAI) to enable
applications to access and manipulate STEP data
4. STEP database
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CHAPTER 8. ROBOTICS
Definition
A robot is a programmable , multi function manipulator deigned to move
material, parts, tools or special devices through variable programmed motion
for the performance of a variety of tasks
An industrial robot is a general purpose , programmable machine processing
certain anthropomorphic characteristics
What are the parts of a robot?
Manipulator
Pedestal
Controller
End Effectors
Power Source
Manipulator (Mimics the human arm)
Base
Appendages
o Shoulder
o Arm
o Grippers
Pedestal (Human waist)
Supports the manipulator.
Acts as a counterbalance.
Controller (The brain)
Issues instructions to the robot.
Controls peripheral devices.
Interfaces with robot.
Interfaces with humans.
End Effectors (The hand)
Spray paint attachments
Welding attachments
Vacuum heads
Hands
Grippers
Power Source (The food)
Electric
Pneumatic
Hydraulic
ROBOT PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION
1. Cartesian configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Polar configuration
4. Joint-arm configuration
Cartesian Configuration
Robots with Cartesian configurations consist of links connected by linear
joints (L). Gantry robots are Cartesian robots (LLL).
Cartesian Robots
It consists of three orthogonal slides.
Three slides are parallel to x, y and z axes of the Cartesian coordinate system
Commonly used for:
pick and place work
assembly operations
handling machine tools
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arc welding
CAD/CAM/CAE
Advantages:
ability to do straight line insertions into furnaces.
easy computation and programming.
most rigid structure for given length.
Disadvantages:
requires large operating volume.
exposed guiding surfaces require covering in corrosive or dusty environments.
can only reach front of itself
Cylindrical Configuration
Robots with cylindrical configuration have one rotary ( R) joint at the base and
linear (L) joints succeeded to connect the links.
Cylindrical Robots
In this, the robot body is a vertical column that swivels about vertical axis
The arm consist of several orthogonal slides which allow the arm to be moved
up and down and in or out w.r.t. to body
Commonly used for:
handling at die-casting machines
assembly operations
handling machine tools
spot welding
Advantages:
can reach all around itself
rotational axis easy to seal
relatively easy programming
rigid enough to handle heavy loads through large working space
good access into cavities and machine openings
Disadvantages:
linear axes is hard to seal
wont reach around obstacles
exposed drives are difficult to cover from dust and liquids
Spherical/Polar Robots
A robot with 1 prismatic joint and 2 rotary joints the axes consistent with a polar
coordinate system.
Commonly used for:
handling at die casting or fettling
machines
handling machine tools
arc/spot welding
Advantages:
large working envelope.
two rotary drives are easily sealed against liquids/dust.
Disadvantages:
complex coordinates more difficult to visualize, control, and program.
exposed linear drive.
low accuracy
Joint-arm Configuration
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The jointed-arm is a combination of cylindrical and articulated configurations.
The arm of the robot is connected to the base with a twisting joint.
The links in the arm are connected by rotary joints. Many commercially
available robots have this configuration.
Advantages and Disadvantages of 4 Robot Types
Configuration Advantages
Cartesian
3 linear axes, easy to visualize,
coordinates
rigid structure, easy to program
Disadvantages
Can only reach front of itself,
requires large floor space, axes
hard to seal
Cylindrical
2 linear axes +1 rotating, can
Cant reach above itself, base
coordinates
reach all around itself, reach and rotation axis as less rigid, linear
height axes rigid, rotational axis axes is hard to seal, wont reach
easy to seal
around obstacles
Spherical
1 linear + 2 rotating axes, long
Cant reach around obstacles,
coordinates
horizontal reach
short vertical reach
Joined-arm
3 rotating axes can reach above or Difficult to program off-line, 2
Revolute
below obstacles, largest work area or 4 ways to reach a point, most
coordinates
for least floor space
complex manipulator
Basic Motion Systems
Six degrees of freedom
It provides the robot the capability to move and perform predetermined task
These six degrees of freedom are intended to follow the versatility of
movement possessed by the human arm
The six basic motions consists of three arm and body motions and three wrist
motions
Arm and body motions
1. Rotational transverse : Rotation about the vertical axis (right or left swivel of
the robot arm )
2. Vertical transverse : Up and down motions of the arm , caused by pivoting the
entire arm about a horizontal axis or moving the arm about vertical slide.
3. Radial transverse : extension and retraction of the arm (in and out movement)
Wrist motions
4. Wrist swivel : Rotation of the wrist
5. Wrist bent : Up and down movement of the wrist , which also involves a
rotational movement
6. Wrist yaw : swivel of the wrist
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Manual method
It is more like setting machine rather than programming
It involves setting mechanical stops, cams, switches, or relays in the robots
control unit
Used for short work cycles (e.g. pick-and-place operations )
Walkthrough Method
In this programmer manually moves robots arm and hand through the
sequence of the work cycles.
Each movement is recorded into memory for subsequent playback during the
production
Speed is controlled independently
Appropriate for spray painting, arc welding robots
Leadthrough Method
Uses teach pendent to power drive the robot through its motion sequence
Teach pendent is device, consists of switches and dials to control the robots
physical movements
Each motion is recorded into memory for future playback during the
workcycle
Popular because of its ease and convenience
Off-line Programming
It involves the preparation of robot program off-line , in a manner similar to
NC part programming
It is accomplished on computer terminal
After preparation it is entered into the memory of the computer for use during
the work cycle.
The advantage is that production time of robot is not lost to delays in teaching
the robot a new task
Robotic Sensors
Sensors provide feedback to the control systems and give the robots more
flexibility.
Sensors such as visual sensors are useful in the building of more accurate and
intelligent robots.
The sensors can be classified as follows:
Position sensors
Position sensors are used to monitor the position of joints.
Information about the position is fed back to the control systems that are used
to determine the accuracy of positioning
Range sensors
Range sensors measure distances from a reference point to other points of
importance.
Range sensing is accomplished by means of television cameras or sonar
transmitters and receivers.
Velocity Sensors
They are used to estimate the speed with which a manipulator is moved.
The velocity is an important part of the dynamic performance of the
manipulator.
The DC tachometer is one of the most commonly used devices for feedback of
velocity information.
Proximity Sensors
They are used to sense and indicate the presence of an object within a
specified distance without any physical contact.
This helps prevent accidents and damage to the robot.
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infra red sensors
acoustic sensors
touch sensors
force sensors
tactile sensors for more accurate data on the position
The Hand of a Robot: End-Effectors
The end- effecter (commonly known as robot hand) mounted on the wrist
enables the robot to perform specified tasks.
Various types of end-effectors are designed for the same robot to make it more
flexible and versatile.
End-effectors are categorized into two major types: grippers and tools.
Grippers
Grippers are generally used to grasp and hold an object and place it at a
desired location.
mechanical grippers
vacuum or suction cups
magnetic grippers
adhesive grippers
hooks, scoops, and so forth
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Tools
At times, a robot is required to manipulate a tool to perform an operation on a
workpiece. In such applications the end- effecter is a tool itself
spot-welding tools
arc-welding tools
spray-painting nozzles
rotating spindles for drilling
rotating spindles for grinding
Technical features of Robot
1. Work volume
2. Precision of movement
3. Speed movement
4. Weight carrying capacity
5. Types of drive system
Work Volume
o It refers to the space within which the robot can operate
o It is the spatial region within which the end of the robots wrist can be
manipulated
o The work volume is determined by its physical configuration , size, and limits
of its arms and joint manipulations
o E.g. work volume of Cartesian coordinate robot is rectangular, for polar it is
partial sphere etc.
Precision of movements
1. Spatial resolution:
The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of movement into
which the robot can divide its work volume.
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It depends on the systems control resolution and the robot's mechanical
inaccuracies.
2. Accuracy :
Accuracy can be defined as the ability of a robot to position its wrist end at a
desired target point within its reach.
Accuracy is closely related to spatial resolution , since the robots ability to
reach a particular point in space depends on its ability to divide its joint
movements into small increments
In terms of control resolution, the accuracy can be defined as one-half of the
control resolution.
The accuracy of a robot is affected by many factors. For example, when the
arm is fully stretched out, the mechanical inaccuracies tend to be larger
because the loads tend to cause deflection.
3. Repeatability:
It is the ability of the robot to position the end effector to the previously
positioned location.
It depends on the stability of the control system and is affected by temperature,
load etc.
Speed of movement
The speed with which the robot can manipulate the end effector ranges up to a
maximum of about 1.5 m/s
The speed is determined depends of factors like weight of the object being
moved, the distance moved, and the precision required.
Heavy objects can not be moved as fast as light objects because of inertia
problem
Objects must be moved slowly when high positional accuracy is required
Weight carrying capacity
It covers wide range
At higher end, there are robots which can lift up to 500 kgs to 1000 kgs.
At lower end, there are robots which can be used for 0.75 to 1.5 kgs.
Types of drive system
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1. Hydraulic drive
Provide fast movements
Preferred for moving heavy parts
Preferred to be used in explosive environments
Occupy large space area
There is a danger of oil leak to the shop floor
2. Electric drive
Slower movement compare to the hydraulic robots
Good for small and medium size robots
Better positioning accuracy and repeatability
stepper motor drive: open loop control
DC motor drive: closed loop control
Cleaner environment
The most used type of drive in industry
3. Pneumatic drive
Preferred for smaller robots
Less expensive than electric or hydraulic robots
Suitable for relatively less degrees of freedom design
Suitable for simple pick and place application
Relatively cheaper
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Basic components of NC
1. Program of Instructions
The program of instructions is the detailed step by step commands that direct
the processing equipment
Commands refer to position of spindle w. r. t. worktable on which the part is
fixtured
More advanced instructions include selection of spindle speeds, cutting tools
etc.
The common medium used for coding of program is 1- in. wide punched tape.
Some recently used are punched cards, magnetic tape cassettes and floppy
diskettes
2. Machine Control Unit (MOU)
MCU consists of the electronics control and hardware that read and interpret
program of instruction and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine
tool or other processing equipment.
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The elements of machine tool are consists of a tape reader, data buffer, signal
input/output channels, feedback channels and sequence control,
The tape reader has an electromechanical device used to read and wind the
tape
The data buffer then interprets the program of instructions and also stores the
instructions in logical blocks of information
From here signals are sent to through the signal output channels which are
connected to the servomotor and other controls in the machine tools.
Feedback signals are provided for ensuring proper execution of the given
instructions
The sequence control coordinates the activities of the other elements of the
control unit
3. Processing Equipment
It is the component that performs useful work
The machine tool consists of worktable and spindle to hold tools, motors and
controls necessary to drive them.
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NC Procedure
1. Process planning
2. Part programming
3. Tape preparation
4. Tape verification
5. Production
Process Planning
The engineering drawing of the workpart must be interpreted in terms of the
manufacturing processes to be used
It consists of preparation of route sheet
Part Programming
A part programmer plans for the portions of the job to be accomplished by NC
The part programmers are responsible for planning the sequence of operations
to be performed by NC
There are two ways to program for NC
Manual part programming
Computer-assisted part programming
Manual part programming
In this, the machining instructions are prepared on a form called a part
program manuscript
The manuscript is a listing of the relative cutter/ work piece positions which
must be followed to machine the part.
Computer assisted part programming
In this , much of the tedious computational work required in manual part
programming is transferred to the computer.
This is particularly appropriate for complex work piece geometries and jobs
with many machining steps
It also saves part programming time
Tape Preparation
A punched tape is prepared from the part programmers NC process plan
In manual part programming, the punched tape is prepared from the part
program manuscript or a typewriter like device equipped with tape punching
capability
In Computer assisted part programming, the computer interprets the list of part
programming instructions, performs the necessary calculations to covert this
into detailed set of machine tool commands, and then controls a tape punched
device to prepare tape for specific NC machine
To check the accuracy of punched tape some methods are used
Sometimes the tape is checked by running it through a computer program
which plots the various tool movements (or table movements) on paper. In this
major errors can be discovered
The Acid Test of the tape involves trying it on the machine tool to make the
part.
A foam or plastic material is sometimes used for this purpose.
Production
This involves ordering the raw workparts, specifying and preparing the tooling
and any special fixturing that may be required.
The Operators function is to load the workpart in the machine and establish
the starting position of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece.
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The NC system then takes over and machines the part according to the
instructions on tape.
NC coordinate system
In order to plan positions and movement of cutting tool relative to the workpiece,
a standard system is developed to specify relative positions.
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2. Floating zero
Fixed zero
In this the origin is always located at the same position on the machine table.
Usually, that position is the southwest (lower left hand corner) of the table and
all tool locations will be defined by positive x and y coordinates.
Floating zero
In this machine operator can set zero point at any point on the machine table.
The part programmer decides the zero point.
The decision based on the part programming convenience
e.g. in case of symmetric part the zero point can be located at the centre of the
symmetry.
The position of the zero point is communicated to the machine operator.
At the start the operator moves the under manual control to some Target
point on the table.
When the tool has been positioned to the target point, the machine operator
pressed a zero button on the machine tool
Absolute and incremental positioning
Absolute positioning means that the tool locations are always defined in
relation to the zero point.
Incremental positioning means that the next tool location must be defined with
reference to the previous tool location.
Absolute and incremental positioning
NC Systems
There are three types of motion control used in Numerical control
1. Point to point
2. Straight cut
3. Contouring
Point to point NC
Point to point (PTP) is also called a positioning system.
In PTP, the objective of the machine control unit is to move the cutting tool to
a predefined location
The speed or path by which this movements is accomplished is not important
in point to point NC
Once the tool reaches the desired location , the machining operation is
performed at that position
Example of this system is NC drill press.
Positioning system are the simplest machine tool control systems.
This system is least expensive of the three types
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Straight-cut NC
Straight cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to
one of the major axis at a controlled rate suitable for machining
It is appropriate for performing milling operations on work pieces of
rectangular shape.
Angular cut would not be possible.
An NC tool capable of straight cur movements is also capable of point to point
movements
Contouring NC
(Continuous path NC )
Contouring is most complex, the most flexible and most expensive type of
machine tool control.
It is capable of performing both PTP and straight cut operations
In addition, it can control more than one axis movement of the machine tool.
The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate desired geometry
of the machine tool.
Turing and milling are common examples
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This is achieved by breaking the curved path into very short straight line
segments.
Applications
Milling
Drilling and related processes
Boring
Turning
Grinding
Sawing
Other applications
Press working machine tools
Welding machines
Inspection machines
Automatic drafting
Assembly machines
Tube bending
Flame cutting
Plasma arc cutting
Laser beam processes
Cloth cutting
Automatic riveting
NC machines are suitable for
1. Parts are processed frequently and in small lot sizes
2. The part geometry is complex
3. Many operations must be performed on the part in its processing
4. Much metal needs to be removed
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5. Engineering design changes are likely
6. Close tolerance must be held on the part
7. It is an expensive part where mistakes in processing would be costly
8. The parts require 100 % inspection.
Advantages of NC over conventional systems:
Flexibility with accuracy, repeatability, reduced scrap, high production rates,
good quality
Reduced tooling costs
Easy machine adjustments
More operations per setup, reduced leadtime, accommodate design change,
reduced inventory
Rapid programming and program recall, less paperwork
Faster prototype production
Less-skilled operator , multi-work possible
Reduced fixturing
Limitations of NC
Relatively high initial cost of equipment
Need for part programming
Special maintenance requirements
More costly breakdowns
Finding and/or training NC personnel
The Punched tape in NC
The part program is converted into a sequence of machine tool actions by
means of the input medium, which contains the program, the controller unit,
which interprets the input medium.
The controller unit and input medium which must be compatible.
Input medium uses symbols which represent part program and the controller
unit must be capable of reading it.
The most common input medium is Punched Tape
The punched tape used in NC is 1 inch wide.
The tape has eight tracks or coding channels and a column of smaller holes for
feeding the tape.
The coding of tape is provided by either the present or absence of a hole in
various positions
This system of coding is called as binary system
The NC tape coding system is used to code not only numbers, but also
alphabetical letters and other symbols
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That is, it reads in a complete instruction at a time
NC words
Following are the different types of words in formation of block. Not every NC
uses all the words
Sequence number (n-words): This is used to identify the block
Preparatory words (g-words): This word is used to prepare the controller for
instructions that are to follow e.g. g02 is used for circular interpolation along
an arc in the clockwise direction . The preparatory words are needed so that
the controller can correctly interpret that follow it in the block
Coordinates (x-, y-, and z-words): This give the coordinate positions of the
tool. In two axis system o9nly two of the words would be used. In four or five
axis, additional a-words and/or b-words would specify the angular positions
Feed rate (f-words) : this specifies the feed in the machining operation
Cutting speed (s-words) : This specifies the cutting speed of the process, the
rate at which the spindle rotates.
Tool selection (t-word) : This control would needed only for machines with a
tool turret or automatic tool changer. The t-word specifies which tool is to be
used in the operation.
Miscellaneous words (m-words): The m-word is used to specify certain
miscellaneous or auxiliary functions which may be available on machine tool
E.g. m03 used to start spindle rotation. This word is last in the block.
Programming Formats
Fixed block format
Fixed
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Program: Point to Point
CAD/CAM/CAE
1
2
3
4
X
On
drawing
5
5
55
100
Y
On tape
005
005
055
1
On
drawing
5
45
25
100
On tape
005
045
025
1
Program
MIT (T)
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2. The machine zero is to be selected at the center of the workpiece,
3. The groove is machined with a 10-mm end mill cutter
4. The machine tool has provision for suppressing trailing zeros,
5. During loading and unloading the spindle is stationed at point 5(X=65, Y=70).
6. For milling the groove, the cutter must start from point 3 and stop at point 4
Coordinates of programmed points
Point
X
Y
On
On
On tape
On tape
drawing
drawing
1
-25
-025
-20
-02
2
25
025
20
02
3
-42
-042
0
0
4
42
042
0
0
5
65
065
70
07
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G80 Cancel fixed cycle
G83 Milling cycle; the cycle performs rapid traverse to the programmed position in X
and Y coordinates, lowers the cutter to gauge height and stops the machine
G66 Instructs the machine to initiate milling operation to the end of the cut specified
by the programmed point.
Miscellaneous functions used for Programme
M06 Tool change
M13 Spindle start
M05 Spindle stop
M09 Coolant off
M17 No miscellaneous function required for this block
M02 End of program, machine stop, tape rewind
Program
Program
Word address Format
N001
G00 G71 G90 M06 EOB
N002
X50 Y12 EOB
N003
M00 EOB
N004
X30 Y35
EOB
N005
M00 EOB
N006
X12 Y55 EOB
N007
M00 EOB
N008
X120 Y120 EOB
N009
M30
M00 Program stop. Program may be initiated by the operator by pushing a
button
Program
Word address Format
MIT (T)
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CAD/CAM/CAE
Spindle speed and feed is to be given in the program . Speed is 1000 rpm, feed
rate is 200 mm/min
Program
N001 G71
G90 G94 EOB
Metric mode, Absolute system and feed in mm/rev
N002 M03 F200 S1000
EOB
Spindle start CW at 1000 rpm and feed rate 200 mm/rev
N003 G00
X10.00
Y10.00 EOB
Move in rapid to point P(10,10)
N004 G00 Z2.00 EOB
Move in rapid to a point to point 2 mm above w/p surface
N005 G01 Z-10.00 EOB
Drill hole
N006 G00 Z 2.00 EOB
Move in rapid to a point to point 2 mm above w/p surface
N007
G00 X50.00
EOB
Move in rapid to x=50
N008
G01 Z-10.00
EOB
Drill hole
N009
G00 Z2.00
EOB
Move in rapid to a point to point 2 mm above w/p surface
N010
G00 Y30.00
EOB
Move to point Y30
N011 G01 Z-10.00
EOB
Drill hole
N012 G00
Z20.00 EOB
Move in rapid to a point to point 20 mm above w/p surface
N013 G00 X00 Y00 EOB
Move in rapid to (X0,Y0)
N014 M02 EOB
Programmed end
Program
Machining at AB and BC
Feed 200 mm/rev and speed 2000 r.p.m.
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Spindle on clockwise, coolant on
N004 G00 Z2.00
EOB
Spindle moves Z=2 in rapid mode
N005 X100.0 Y0.00 EOB
Move to X=100, Y =0
N006 Z-55.00
EOB
Spindle down to required depth of cut
N007 G01 X200.00 EOB
Linear interpretation to X=200.00
N008 G01 Y150.0 EOB
Move to Y=150.00
N009 G00 Z10 M09 EOB
Rapid spindle retract to z=10 and coolant off
N010 G00 X250.00
Y250.00
EOB
Rapid to X=250 and Y=250
N011 M02
EOB
CAD/CAM/CAE
In the component , it is assumed that the pocket is through and hence only
outside is to be machined as a finish cut of the pocket
The tool to be used is a 20 mm diameter slot drill .
If an end mill is to be used the program should be modified with a hole to be
drilled at B first before the end mill is used
The setting is done with point A as reference (0,0,0)
N001 G92 X0 Y0 Z0 EOB
Absolute presetting at A
N002 G90 G94 EOB
Absolute programming
N003 G00 X25.00 Y25.00 Z2.00 EOB
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Tool brought rapidly at B, 2 mm above XY plane
N004 G01 Z-12.00 F120 S1000 M03 EOB
Tool goes down to full depth
N005 Y75.00 EOB
Proceeds to C
N006 X65.00 EOB
Proceeds towards right to D
N007 G02 Y25.00 I0 J-35.00 EOB
Cuts curved profile till E
N008 G01 X25.00 EOB
Proceeds to B
N009 Z2.00 EOB
Tool moves 2 mm above XY plane
N010 G00 Z50.00 M05 EOB
Spindle stops and rapidly moves up
N011 X0 Y0 EOB
Rapid move to start position 0,0
N012 M30 EOB
End of program and tape rewind
CAD/CAM/CAE
MIT (T)
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Part programming for the part shown in the figure using cutter radius
compensation is given below:
Programmed cutter diameter is 0 mm i.e. programming is done as per the part
drawing
Diameter of the cutter available = 28 mm
The difference in radius (0-28)/2 = -14 mm is stored in the memory for cutter
radius compensation under address D 01.
Program
Word address Format
N001 G71 G94 EOB
N002 G00 X-20.00 Y-20.00 Z20.00 EOB
N003 G01 Z-5.00 EOB
N004 G01 G41 D01 X20.00 Y85.00 F400 S1000 M03 EOB
N005 G01 X60.00 Y115.00 EOB
N006 G02 X75.00 Y100.00 I0.00 J-15.00 EOB
N007 G01 X105.00 EOB
N008 G02 X130.00 Y115.00 I15.00 J0.00 EOB
N009 G01 X120.00 Y85.00 EOB
N010 G01 X130.00 Y55.00 EOB
N011 G01 X110.00 EOB
N012 G01 X80.00 Y20.00 EOB
N013 G01 X35.00 Y55.00 EOB
N014 G01 X20.00 Y85.00 EOB
N015 G00 G40 X0.00 Y0.00 EOB
N016 M02 EOB
Program
Word address Format
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Program
N001 G71 G90 G94 EOB
N002 G00 X-20.00 EOB
N003 G00 Z-10.00 EOB
N004 G01 G42 D02 X0 Y0 F200 S1000 M03 EOB
N005 G01 X80.00 EOB
N006 G01 X95.00 Y15.00 I0 J15.00 EOB
N007 G01 Y50.00 EOB
N008 G01 X15.00 EOB
N009 G01 X0 Y35.00 EOB
N010 G01 X0 Y0 EOB
N011 G40 EOB
N012 G00 X-20.00 Z20.00 EOB
N013 M02 EOB
Lathe Operations
In case of CNC lathe operations , only two axes (X-axis and Z-axis ) are
involved
The Z-axis is the axis of the spindle and X-axis is the direction of transverse
motion of the tool post.
To develop CNC part programme for lathe operations the following procedure
is adopted.
1. Move the cutting tool to a point near the job in the rapid mode(G00)
2. Set linear interpolation(G01) and move to the required depth of cut in Xdirection
3. Move along Z-axis to the required length of the job as per drawing
4. Set rapid mode (G00) and retract the tool along X-axis.
5. Move to start point in G00 mode.
For the component shown below perform the following operations
Facing operation
To reduce the diameter from 30 mm to 26 mm
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
N009 G00 Z0 EOB
N010 G01 X26.00 EOB
N011 G01 Z-60.00 EOB
N012 G00 X32.00 EOB
N013 Z20.00 Z20.00
N014 M02 EOB
Taper Turning Programming
The raw material size is 20 mm dia bar, the operations involved
1. Facing
2. Turn upto 15 mm dia. over 15 mm length
3. Taper turning
CAD/CAM/CAE
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Finish cut : 0.75 to 1 mm
CAD/CAM/CAE
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2. The part programmes generated are accurate and efficient
3. All arithmetic operations are done by the computer , resulting in saving in time
and elimination of errors
4. Such system can deal with many axis for simultaneous movement
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The unit that performs this task is called as Postprocessor.
APT (Automatically programmed Tools)
This is most widely used and most comprehensive part programming language
available.
APT is a three- dimensional system which can be used to control upto five
axes.
In programming , it is assumed that the workpiece remains stationary and
cutting tool does all the movements.
APT consists of four types of statements
1. Geometry statements: These are also called definition statements and are
used to define geometric elements like point, circle. Arc, plane, etc.
2. Motion statements : The motion statements are used to define cutter path
3. Post processor statements : These statements are applicable to specific
machine tools and are used to define machining parameters like feed, speed,
coolant on/off, etc.
4. Auxiliary statements : These are miscellaneous statements used to identify
the part, tools, tolerances, etc.
1. GEOMETRY STATEMENTS : The geometry statements is defined with the
help of points, lines, circles, arcs and planes, etc. The general form of APT is :
Symbol = geometry type/descriptive data
Point
P1 = POINT/X, Y, Z
(Point with coordinates X, Y, Z)
P2 = POINT/ CENTER C1
(Point at center of circle 1 )
P3 = POINT/ INTOF,L1,L2
(Point at intersection of lines L1 and L2 )
P4 = POINT/XLARGE, INTOF, L1,C1
(Point at intersection of line L1 and circle C1, where x coordinates has higher
value)
P5 = POINT/YSMALL, INTOF,C1, C2
(Point at intersection of circle C1 and circle C2, where y coordinates has
smaller value)
Here it has been assumed that lines and circles have already been defined in
the geometry statements
LINE
In APT line can be defined in many ways, some of the definitions of a straight
line are:
L1 = LINE/P1,P2
(Line passing through points P1 and P2)
L2 = LINE/P2.PARLEL,L1
(Line passing through point P2 and parallel to line L1)
L3 = LINE/P1. ATANGL,60,L2
(Line passing through point P1 and at an angle 60 degrees to line L2)
L4 = LINE/ P1, ATANGL,-120,L2
(Line passing through point P1 and at angle -120 degree to line L2)
L5 = LINE/PARLEL,L31,YLARGE,10
(Line parallel to line L31 and offset by 10 mm towards Y large coordinates)
CIRCLE
C1 = CIRCLE/CENTER,P1,RADIUS, 10
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(Circle with center point P1 and radius 10 mm)
C2 = CIRCLE/CENTER, P1, TANTO, L1
(Circle with center at P1 and tangent to line L1)
C3 = CIRCLE/P1, P2, P3
(Circle passing through points P1, P2,P3)
C4 = CIRCLE/ XSMALL, L1, YSMALL, L2, RADIUS,5
(Circle passing through the intersection of lines L1 and L2 and radius 5 mm
(with X small on L1 and Y small on L2)
PLANE
PL1 = PLANE/P1,P2,P4
(Plane passing through three points )
2. MOTION STATEMENTS :
Motion statements are also called as machine control instructions
The motion statements define the tool pat as per the part geometry specified in
the program
The general format for APT motion statement is
Motion command/descriptive data
e.g. GOTO/P2 or FROM/P1
If the movement is in incremental mode, GODLTA command is used
e.g. GODLTA/5.0, 4.0, 0.0
Instructs the machine tool to move 5 mm in X direction ,
4 mm in Y direction and Z directions remains same
some of the motion statements are :
GO/PAST
GO LFT
GO FWD
GO BACK
GO UP
GO DOWN
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e.g. CYCLE/DRILL, RAPID, TO, -10, FEDTO, -15, MMPM, 150
(drilling cycle, direct the tool to move rapidly to the Z coordinates -10 mm, and then
move further at a feed rate of 150 mm/min to the z coordinate -15 )
END/
STOP/
FINI/
4. AUXILIARY STATEMENTS
Auxiliary statements are used for part identification, cutter size definition,
defining dimensional tolerances, and other functions required to prepare the
control system to accept and execute the part Programme.
Some of the auxiliary APT words are :
PART NO/ (part number for identification of the component)
CUTTER/ (cutter size specification)
INTOL (inside tolerances )
OUTTOL (outside tolerances)
CLPRINT (print cutter location data)
REMARK
APT Example
Write a Programme for drilling holes 1 to 5 in the flat plate shown in the
figure.
Feed = 5 mm/rev
Drill = 15 mm
Speed = 600 rpm
PARTNO FLAT PLATE NO 1
MACHIN/PD,11
SETPT = POINT/75,50,50
P1 = POINT/25,25,5
P2 = POINT/50,25,5
P3 = POINT/50,75,5
P4 = POINT/25,75,5
P5 = POINT/30,50,5
REMARK/ SET,FEDRAT,0.5 MMPR
REMARK/SET,SPINDL,600 RPM
REMARK/DRILL, 15 MM
SPINDL/ON
COOLNT/ON
FROM/SETPT
RAPID
GOTO/P1
CYCLE/DRILL,FEDTO,-15
GODLTA/0,0,20
GOTO/P2
CYCLE/DRILL,FEDTO,-15
GODLTA/0,0,20
GOTO/P3
CYCLE/DRILL,FEDTO,-15
GODLTA/0,0,20
GOTO/P4
CYCLE/DRILL,FEDTO,-15
GODLTA/0,0,20
GOTO/P5
MIT (T)
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CYCLE/DRILL,FEDTO,-15
GODLTA/0,0,20
COOLNT/OFF
SPINDL/OFF
RAPID
GOTO/SETPT
REWIND
FINI
APT MOTION STATEMENTS FOR CONTINUOUS PATH PROGRAMMING
In this the cutter is guided in its path by three planes:
1. Part surface (PS or PSURF): The plane which guides the bottom surface of the
tool is known as the part surface
2. Drive surface (DS or DSURF): The plane guiding the side of the cutting tool.
i.e. the plane along which tool side moves is known as drive surface
3. Check surface (CS or CSURF) :The plane used to stop the cutter or change its
direction is known as check surface.
APT Example
Write a Programme for the following component it is required to write the
Programme for finishing cut
Cutter geometry
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APT Example
PARTNO/SAMPLEJOB 1
MACHIN/MILLING 1
CLPRINT
P0 = POINT/0,-20, 0
P1 = POINT/0, 0, 0
P2= POINT/150.0, 0, 0
P3= POINT/150.0, 0, 0
P4 = POINT/ 100.0, 50.0, 0
P5 = POINT/ 100.0, 100.0, 0
P6 = POINT/50, 100.0, 0
P7 = POINT/50.0, 50.0, 0
P8 = POINT/0, 50.0, 0
L1 = LINE/ P1,P2
L2 = LINE/ P2,P3
L3 = LINE/ P3,P4
L4 = LINE/ P4,P5
L5 = LINE/ P5,P6
L6 = LINE/ P6,P7
L7 = LINE/ P7,P8
L8 = LINE/ P8,P1
PL1= PLANE/P1,P2,P8
CUTTER/10.0
SPINDL/500
FEDRAT/80
COOLNT/ON
FROM/P0
GO/TO, L1,TO, PL1, TO, L8
GORGT/L1,PAST,L2
GOUP/L2,PAST,L3
GOLFT/L3,TO,L4
GOUP/L4,PAST,L5
GOLFT/L5,PAST,L6
GODOWN/L6,TO,L7
GOLFT/L7,PAST,L8
GODWON/L8,PAST,L1
RAPID
GOTO/P0
COOLNT/OFF
FINI
APT Example
MIT (T)
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PARTNO
MACHIN/ABM,8
UNITS/MM
CLPRINT
SETPT =POINT/0,0,0
P1 = POINT/50,25,0
P2 = POINT/150,25,0
P3 = POINT/150, 40, 0
P4 = POINT/130,50,0
P5 = POINT/50,100,0
L1 = LINE/P1, P2
L2 = LINE/P2, P3
L3 = LINE/P3, P4
C1=CIRCLE/80,100,30
L5 = LINE/P1, LEFT, TANTO.C1
L4 = LINE/P4,RIGHT, TANTO, C1
PL1 = PLANE/P1,P2,P5
CUTTER/10
FEDRAT/0.1, MMPR
REMARK/SET, SPINDL,1000,RPM
INTOL/0.01
OUTTOL/0.01
FROM/SETPT
GO/TO, L1,PL1,TO,L5
SPINDL/ON
COOLNT/ON
GORGT/L1,PAST,L2
GOLFT/L2,PAST,L3
GOLFT/L3,TO,L4
GORGT/L4,TANTO,C1
GOFWD/C1, TANTO,L5
GOFWD/L5,PAST,L1
SPINDL/OFF
COOLNT/OFF
MIT (T)
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
RAPID
GOTO/SETPT
FINI
APT Example
Speed = 700 rpm
Feed = 80 mm/rev
Cutter = 10 mm dia Endmill
CAD/CAM/CAE
APT Example
Post processor ID=MACHIN/NC,1
Feed rate = 100mm/min
Cutter geometry
MIT (T)
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MIT (T)
CAD/CAM/CAE
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Function of CNC
1. Machine tool control
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The only hardwired elements are those required to interface the computer with
the machine tool and the operators console
Interpolation, tool position feedback, and all other functions are performed by
computer software.
The advantage of this configuration is the additional flexibility.
It is possible to make alternations in the interpolation program whereas the
logic contained in the hard-wired circuits of hybrid CNC cannot be altered.
2. In-Process Compensation
a. This involves dynamic correction of the tool motions for change s
or errors which occur during processing. E.g.
b. Adjustments for errors sensed by in-process inspection probes and
gauges.
c. Recomputation of axis positions when the inspection probe is used to
locate the datum reference on a work part.
d. Offset adjustments for tool radius and length
e. Computations of predicted tool life and selection of alternative tooling
when indicated.
4. Diagnostics
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When one of these component fails, the diagnosis subsystem would
automatically disconnect the faulty component and activate the redundant
component
Advantages of CNC
The part program tape and tape reader are used only once to enter program
into computer memory.
Tape editing at the machine site
Metric conversion
Greater flexibility
User written programs
Total manufacturing system
Components of DNC
1. Central computer
2. Bulk memory
3. Telecommunication lines
4. Machine Tools
The computer calls the part program instructions from bulk storage and
sends them to the individual machines as the need arises.
It also receives data back from the machines
This two way information flow occurs in real time, which means that
each machines request for instructions must satisfied instantaneously.
Depending upon no. of machines and computational requirements that
are imposed on the computer, it is sometimes necessary to use of
satellites computers.
Each satellite computer controls several machines
Groups of part program instructions are received from the central
computer and stored in buffers.
Feedback data from the machines are also stored in the satellites
buffer before being collected at the central computer
Two types of DNC
1. Behind The Tape Reader (BTR) System
In this the computer is directly linked to the regular NC controller unit.
In this arrangement the tape reader is replaced by telecommunication lines to
the DNC Computer.
Except for the source of command instructions , the operation of the system is
similar to conventional NC.
The controller unit uses two temporary storage buffers to receive blocks of
instructions from the DNC computer and convert them into machine actions
While one buffer is receiving a block of a data , the other is providing control
instructions to the machine tool.
2. Special Machine Control Unit
In this NC controller is replaced by a special MCU and forms a link between
computer and machine tool.
The special MCU achieves a superior balance between accuracy of machining
and faster material removal rate.
This unit is soft wired so more flexibility can be achieved and alterations can
be made easily.
It is much difficult to make changes in the regular NC controller because
rewiring is required.
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Functions of DNC
1. NC without punched tape
One of the original objectives in DNC was to eliminate the use of punched
tape.
Relatively unreliable tape reader
The fragile nature of paper tape
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The difficulties in making corrections
Changes in the program contained on punched tape, etc.
2. NC part program storage
The second important function of DNC is concerned with storing the part
programs.
The program storage subsystem must be structured to satisfy several purpose.
First the must be made available for downloading to NC m/c tool.
Second subsystem must allow for new program to be entered, old program to
be deleted & existing program to be edited as the need arises.
Third the DNC software must accomplish the post processing function. The
part program in DNC is stored in CLFILE. The CLFILE must be converted
into instructions for a particular m/c tool.
Fourth the storage subsystem must be structured to perform certain data
processing & management functions such as file security, display of program,
manipulation of data& so on.
The DNC program storage subsystem usually consists of an active storage &
secondary storage.
3. Data collection, processing and reporting
DNC involves a two way data transfer,
The basic purpose behind the data collection, processing reporting function of
DNC is to monitor production in the factory.
Data are collected on production pieces are counts, tool usage, m/c utilization
& other factors that measure performance in the shop.
This data must be processed by the DNC computer, & reports are prepared to
provide management with information necessary for running the plant.
4. Communications
A communication network is required to accomplish the previous three
functions of DNC.
Communication among the various subsystems is a function that is central to
the operation of any DNC system.
The essential communication link DNC are between the following
components ,
Central computer & M/c tool
Central computer & NC part programmer terminal
Central computer & bulk memory, which stores NC program.
ADVANTAGES OF DNC
Elimination of punched tape & tape reader.
Convenient storage of NC part program in computer file.
Program stored as CLFILE (Cutter path data).
Reporting of shop performance.
Establishes a frame work for the evaluation of future computer automated
factory.
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L
L
L
L
Lath
e
L
L
Receiving and
Shipping
Millin
g
M
M
M
Drillin
g
D
D
Grindin
G
G g
Assembl
y
A
A
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Advantage get in the form of reduced workpiece handling, lower setup times,
less in-process inventory, less floor space, and shorter lead times.
Figure 2 GT LAYOUT
Grouping part into part families
Visual inspection
Production flow analysis
Parts classification and coding system.
Visual inspection
It is simplest and cheapest method
It involves classification of parts into families by looking at either the physical
parts or photographs and arranging them into similar grouping.
This method is considered to be least accurate of three.
Production flow analysis
It is a method of identifying part families and associated machine tool
grouping by analyzing the route sheets for parts produced in a given shop.
It groups together the parts that have similar operation sequences and machine
routings.
The major drawback of this system is that it does not consider the actual flow
of material
Parts classification and coding
It involves an examination of the individual design and/or mfg attributes of
actual part.
The attributes of the part are uniquely identified by means of a code no.
This classification and coding may be carried out on the entire list of active
parts in the firm or a sampling process may be used to establish the part
families.
Parts classification and coding system divide themselves into one of three
categories
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1. System based on part design attributes
2. System based on part manufacturing attributes
3. System based on both design and manufacturing attributes.
Design and manufacturing attributes
Part design attributes
Basic external shape
Basic internal shape
Length/diameter ratio
Material type
Part function
Manufacturing attributes
Major process
Major operations
Major dimensions
Length/ diameter ratio
Surface finish
Machine tool
CAD/CAM/CAE
Major dimensions
Minor dimensions
Tolerances
Surface finish
Operation sequence
Production time
Batch size
Annual production
Fixtures needed
Cutting fluids
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OPTIZ SYSTEM
MICLASS System
(Metal Institute Classification System)
The MICLASS system was developed to help automate and standardize a
number of design, production and management functions. These includes :
Standardization of engineering drawings
Retrieval of drawing according to classification number.
Standardization of process routings
Automated process planning
Selection of parts for processing on particular groups of machine tools.
Machine tool investment analysis.
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The MICLASS classification no. can range from 12 to 30 digits.
The first 12 are universal codes that can be applied to any part.
Upto 18 additional digits can be used to code data that are specific to the
particular company or industry. e.g. lot size, cost data and operation sequence
might be included in the 18 supplementary digits
The workpart coded in the first 12 digits of the MICLASS no. are as follows:
1st digit
main shape
2nd and 3rd digit
shape elements
4th digit
position of shape elements
5th and 6th digit
main dimensions
7th digit
dimension ratio
8th digit
auxiliary dimension
9th and 10th digits
Tolerance codes
11th and 12th digits
material codes
In this parts can be coded using computer interactively.
The number of questions depends upon complexity of the part.
The question may vary from 7 to 20.
Based on the response to these questions computer assigns a code number to
the part.
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Benefits
Product design benefits: 10 % reduction in no. of drawings can be expected
through standardization with GT
Tooling and setup: GT tends to promote standardization of several areas of
mfg.
Material handling: GT machine layout lend themselves to efficient flow of
materials through shop.
Production and inventory control
Employee satisfaction
Process planning procedures.
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A variant process planning system uses similarity amongst component to
retrieve the existing process plan.
The process plan that can be used by family of components is called as
standard plans.
Following are the sequences in the design of variant process planning system
1. Family formation
2. Database structure design.
3. Search algorithm development & implementation.
4. Plan editing.
5. Updating.
1. Family formation
Components requiring similar processes are grouped into same family.
Then a standard process plan can be shared by entire family. Minimum modification
is required on standard plan for such family members.
2. Database Structure Design
Database structure contains all the necessary information to apply and can be accessed
by several program for specific application.
3. Search Procedure
The search for a process plan is based on search of a part family to which component
belongs when the part family is found the associated standard plan can be retrieved.
4. Plan Editing
Before plan is issued some modification is required & some parameters are to be
added. There are two types of plan editing
1. Editing the standard plan.
2. Editing the plan for component itself.
5. Updating
Data in the process parameter file are link so that we can go through the tree to
find the speed & feed for an operation. The file can be integrated to select the
parameters automatically
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
CAD/CAM/CAE
Benefits of CAPP
Process rationalization
Increased productivity of process planners.
Reduced turnaround time.
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MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Improved legibility.
Incorporation of other application programs.
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CAD/CAM/CAE
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