FLO-2D LEVEE/WALL FAILURE GUIDELINES

This document is organized into the following sections:

Contents
FLO-2D LEVEE/WALL FAILURE GUIDELINES ........................................................................................................... 1
Levee Overview ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Levee and Dam Breach Failure ..................................................................................................................... 2
General ................................................................................................................................................ 2
Prescribed Levee and Dam Failure........................................................................................................ 4
Levee and Dam Predicted Breach Erosion .................................................................................................... 5
General ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Pipe Breach .......................................................................................................................................... 6
Overtopping and Channel Breach ......................................................................................................... 7
Dam Collapse ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Levee Overtopping without Failure .............................................................................................................. 9
Prescribed Levee Breach Input Data ....................................................................................................10
Predicted Breach Erosion Input Data ...........................................................................................................14
General ...............................................................................................................................................14
Breach Erosion Parameter Sensitivity ..................................................................................................15
Levee Breach Numerical Instability .............................................................................................................18

Levee Overview
The FLO-2D levee component confines flow on the floodplain surface by blocking one or more of the eight
flow directions. The FLO-2D model conserves volume and this includes volume stored by the levee
component and water routed through a levee breach. The terms dam and levee are earthen embankments
that are used interchangeably in this document when discussing breach failure. Levees may represent river
levees, highway or railroad embankments, berms, drainage canal spoil piles, urban floodwalls, highway
sound walls, neighborhood or lot privacy walls, or any horizontal feature that will obstruct the flood flow.
In FLO-2D levees are designated as blockage of one of more of the grid element boundaries (Figure 1).
Levees connect the sides of contiguous floodplain elements. If a levee runs through the center of a grid
element, the GDS positions the levee to one or more of the eight grid element boundaries. A levee crest
elevation is assigned for each of the grid element flow directions. The crest elevations are used by the
model to predict levee overtopping. Levee overtopping will not cause levee failure unless the failure or
breach option is invoked. When the predicted water surface exceeds the assigned levee crest elevation
plus a 0.1 ft tolerance value, the discharge over the levee is computed using the broad-crested weir flow
equation.
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Levees are treated by the model as infinitely thin walls. For those extremely wide levees that can
potentially affect the floodplain storage volume, grid element area reduction factors (ARF-values) can be
assigned to simulate the reduction on cell storage area. ARF-values should be assigned to the storage side
of the levee. Generally ARF assignments for levee width this is not necessary as the storage volume
associated with the levee is negligible compared to the flood volume. At runtime the FLO-2D model checks
to ensure that the levee crest elevations are higher than the corresponding floodplain grid element
elevations. If the levee crest elevations DTM points effect the grid element interpolation, the floodplain
elevations may need to review and adjusted with respect to floodplain elevations in the vicinity.
Hydraulic structures may be used to allow flow to pass through a levee (see the companion Hydraulic
Structure Guidelines). Examples are a drainage hole in a block wall or a culvert through a highway
embankment. The use of a hydraulic structure in contiguous grid elements separated by a levee requires
that the levee overtopping discharge is represented by the hydraulic structure rating table for that flow
direction. The other levee side assignments in the grid element with the hydraulic structure can be
overtopped as in the case of a long railroad embankment. When the levee or wall fails using the prescribed
rate of failure controls, the hydraulic structure flow is terminated and the flow between the contiguous grid
elements is based on the levee breach hydraulic calculations. If the levee failure is instantaneous, the
hydraulic structure flow is also terminated and the model reverts to overland flow calculations.

Figure 1. Levees are Displayed in Red and the River in Blue in the GDS Program

Levee and Dam Breach Failure

General
FLO-2D can simulate levee and dam breach failures. This may encompass the gradual erosion of a dam or
levee or the instantaneous collapse of a flood wall. Dam and levee breaches are time dependent and
nonlinear phenomena that vary with the non-homogenous embankment materials. The breach process is a
complex interaction of hydrodynamics, geotechnical slope stability failure and sediment transport
(hyperconcentrated sediment flow). Ultimately, the discharge volume through a breach is primarily a
function of the rate of breach expansion and initial breach mechanism is not as important to the
downstream area of flood inundation.
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There are two failure modes: 1) Prescribed failure using vertical and horizontal rates of breach expansion;
2) Predicted breach erosion of earthen embankments using sediment transport capacity equations.
Prescribed failure is defined a levee or dam breach that is computed using uniform expansion rate in
vertical and horizontal from a one foot wide breach to a full breach opening. If the rates of failure are set
to zero, the levee or wall can failure instantaneously.
The FLO-2D model can automatically access the location of the initial levee breach based on computed
flood routing hydraulics. The breach computational timestep is controlled by the flood routing routine in
the model. FLO-2D computes the breach widening, the discharge through the breach, the change in
upstream storage, the tailwater and backwater effects, and the downstream flood inundation. The model
generates output data for analyzing the dam or levee failure in time or space that includes the time of
breach or overtopping, the breach hydrograph, peak discharge through the breach, sediment erosion
volume and extent, and breach parameters as a function of time. Additional output files that define the
breach hazard include the time-to-peak, the time-to-one foot flow depth and time-to-two foot flow depth.
These results can be mapped to aid in determining evacuation or emergency access routes. Examples of
area of inundation mapping from a levee and dam breach are shown in Figures 2 and 3.

Figure 2. Example of Levee Breach Urban Flooding

Figure 3. Example of a Proposed Domestic Water Supply Reservoir Breach Failure

Prescribed Levee and Dam Failure

For the prescribed levee failure routine, the breach can enlarge vertically and horizontally or fail
instantaneously. The initial breach width is hardcoded in the model to 1 ft (0.3 m). This initial breach width
extends from the breach invert to the crest. Rates of breach expansion (ft/hr or m/hr) can be specified for
both the horizontal and vertical failure modes. Breach discharge is based on the breach width and the
difference in water surface elevations on each side of the levee. A final levee base elevation that is higher
than the floodplain elevation can also be specified. The levee failure can occur for the entire grid element
width for a given flow direction and then the breach can grow to contiguous levee elements. The
prescribed levee breach can be assigned to globally predict the location of the failure anywhere in the grid
system based on the computed water surface elevation. Additional breach failure variables such as initial
failure elevation if different from overtopping failure and duration of saturation before failure can be
assigned to add detail to multiple levee failure locations. The highlights of spatially variable levee failure
are:

Levee failure can occur anywhere on the grid system based on overtopping or the water surface
elevation reaching a specified distance below the crest elevation for an assigned duration.

Multiple levee breaches can occur and expand in various locations simultaneously.

Levee breach expansion with prescribed horizontal or vertical rates.

Failure can occur from either side of the levee (river side and land side).

Based on water surface elevation, flow through the levee breach can occur either directions. As
landside ponding equilibrates with the river water surface elevation, the flow through beach may
alternate. The flow may breath through the breach opening.

Levees may overtop or breach into detention basins or channel retention facilities. Basin pumps
then can be integrated with FLO-2D levee breach analyses.

By setting the prescribed breach failure rates equal to zero, an instantaneous collapse of the levee
or wall can be simulated for a specified maximum width or the side width of the grid element.

Unless the levee or wall failure is instantaneous, the failure mechanism, initial breach width and the first
thirty minutes or so of breach widening are generally inconsequential to the downstream flooding. The
failure mechanism (piping, slope stability failure, overtopping, rodent boroughs, etc.) is important to the
geotechnical engineer concerned with dam slope stability, but the flood volume associated with the first
moments of the breach are generally negligible compared to the eventual flood volume on the landside of
the levee. Until the breach discharge reaches some reasonable magnitude relative to the peak discharge,
the type of breach failure and the initial breach geometry and width can be ignored.
Once the levee breach is initiated, the breach widens vertically and horizontally based on prescribed
uniform rates of expansion. The range of typical levee breach growth rates might be 1 to 10 ft/hr in the
vertical and 10 to 50 ft/hr in the horizontal. These values can be higher for a large embankment dam. The
horizontal breach rate will automatically decrease. When the vertical breach reaches the levee base
elevation the maximum breach shear stress (max) is computed. Subsequently the horizontal breach rate
(HBR) for the time step is set equal to the originally assigned horizontal breach rate (HBRorig) times the ratio
of the computed shear stress for the time step to the maximum shear stress:
HBR = HBRorig * (calc/max)
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This will slow the rate of breach widening as the flow depth and velocity decrease or as the tailwater to
headwater equilibrates. A typical rate of breach width decrease is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Prescribed Breach Horizontal Rate Decrease with Decreasing Shear Stress

Levee and Dam Predicted Breach Erosion

General
The breach erosion component was added to the FLO-2D model to predict a realistic assessment of a levee
or dam failure in concert with the downstream flooding. The National Weather Service (NWS) BREACH
model by Fread (1988) served as the template for the FLO-2D breach erosion component. The BREACH
model source code was obtained from the NWS website and then extensively revised to expand and
enhance the breach model and correct some code errors in the original model. The primary hydraulic
mechanisms of dam or levee breach failure are overtopping, piping and slope stability failure by sliding,
slumping or collapse. These physical processes were simulated in the original NWS model and were
retained in the FLO-2D model. In FLO-2D a dam or levee breach can fail as follows:

Overtopping and development of a breach channel on the downstream face of the dam or levee;
Piping failure;
Piping failure and roof collapse and development into a breach channel;
Breach channel enlargement through side slope slumping;
Breach enlargement by wedge collapse.

The user has the option to specify the breach element and elevation or to assign global parameters and the
model will locate the initial levee breach failure element based on the water surface elevation and duration
of inundation. During a flood simulation, water can pond against the levee or dam until the water surface
elevation is higher than the structure, overtops it and develops a breach channel. The user can also assign
a prescribed breach elevation or a distance below the crest elevation as the breach elevation. When the
water surface elevation exceeds the breach elevation for a given duration, piping is initiated. If the pipe
roof collapses, then the discharge is computed through the resultant breach channel. A description of the
breach enlargement routine is presented in the following sections.
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Water routed through the breach is accounted by the volume conservation routines in the FLO-2D model
that tracks the storage volume along with the discharge in and out of every grid element according to the
FLO-2D timesteps. These timesteps are significantly smaller (5 to 10 times smaller) than the timesteps used
in the original NWS BREACH model. The breach component also assesses the sediment volume
conservation and the breach water discharge is bulked by the sediment eroded during the breach failure.
Routing water through the breach continues until the water surface elevation no longer exceeds the breach
bottom elevation or until all the ponded water is gone.
One of the reasons for selecting the NWS BREACH model for the FLO-2D model template is that the
program had sufficient geotechnical detail to mathematically represent the physical process of dam breach
failure. As a result, the FLO-2D breach model includes the following features:

The embankment can have an impervious core and a non-cohesive shell with different materials;

Embankment material properties include sediment size, specific weight, cohesive strength, internal
friction angle, porosity and Mannings n-value;

Breach channel initiation through piping failure;

Enlargement of the breach through sudden structural collapse or slope instability;

Riprap material or grass on the downstream face;

Sediment transport for different size sediment in the embankment core or shell.

There are several assumptions that have been hardcoded into the FLO-2D breach model. These are:

Initial breach width to depth ratio (BRATIO) if the assigned breach width to depth ratio is 0.0 (in
the BREACH.DAT file), then BRATIO = 2.

The initial piping width is assumed to be 1.0ft (0.30m).

The minimum and maximum Mannings n-values permitted for the breach flow resistance are 0.02
and 0.25, respectively.

The pipe outlet at the toe of the dam or levee is the downstream grid element floodplain elevation
plus 1 ft (0.3 m).

After the specified breach initiation condition is reached, the breach discharge is computed if the
upstream water surface elevation exceeds the upstream breach pipe or channel bottom elevation
plus a tolerance value of 0.1 ft or 0.3 m.

If the specified initial breach elevation in the BREACH.DAT file is less than 10.0 ft (3.0 m), then the
initial piping breach elevation is assumed to be the dam or levee crest elevation minus the assigned
breach elevation (Initial Breach Elevation = Levee Crest BRBOTTOMEL).

Pipe Breach
If the user specifies a breach elevation, pipe flow will be initiated when the upstream water surface
exceeds the specified pipe invert elevation. The pipe breach discharge is computed as weir flow with a user
specified weir coefficient. The discharge is then used to compute velocity and depth as Darch-Weisbach
flow in a rectangular pipe. Using the pipe hydraulics and the embankment material parameters, sediment
transport capacity is computed using a modified Meyer-Peter Muller (MPM-Smart) bedload equation
(Fread, 1988) or one of eight other sediment transport capacity equations available in the FLO-2D model.
See the FLO-2D Data Input Manual for the complete list of sediment transport equations. The sediment
discharge is assumed to erode uniformly from the walls, bed and the roof of the pipe (Figure 5). When the
pipe opening height is larger than the height of the material remaining in the embankment above the pipe,
the roof of the pipe collapses and channel flow ensues through the breach.
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Figure 5. Pipe Breach Failure

Overtopping and Channel Breach

Channel flow through the breach can occur if the pipe roof collapse or if the flow overtops the dam or
levee. The channel discharge is calculated by the broadcrested weir equation and similar to the pipe
failure, the eroded sediment volume is uniformly removed from the bed and sides of the rectangular
channel (Figure 6). As the channel breach width and height increases, the slope stability is checked. If the
stability criteria are exceeded, the sides of the channel slump into the flow and the rectangular breach
transitions to a trapezoidal channel. The breach continues to widen until the top width of the channel
equals the specified maximum width of failure, the dam crest length or the available connected levee grids.

Figure 6. Overtopping and Channel Breach Erosion

Dam Collapse
Breach enlargement is also possible through a sudden collapse of the upper portion of the dam.
The collapse would consist of a wedge shaped mass of embankment material. This collapse or blow-out is
caused by the water pressure on the upstream side of the wedge which eventually exceeds the shear forces
of friction and cohesion that resist sliding. When the dam collapse occurs, it is assumed that the breach
enlargement ceases until all the wedge material is transported downstream. A flow chart of the basic
computation scheme for the breach component is shown in Figure 7.
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FLO-2D Breach Erosion Component

The data files are prepared including the BREACH.DAT
file and the FLO-2D model is initiated.

FLO-2D completes a flood

routing timestep and stability
criteria have been examined.

Compute breach discharge

and sediment erosion.
Distribute sediment to breach
and continue simulation.

FLO-2D begins the updating

process for the flow depths
and volumes.
Has the pipe
expanded to a
breach channel?

If ILEVFAIL = 2 and global failure

parameters assigned in
BREACH.DAT, the BREACH
component is activated.

No

Yes

Is the grid element water

surface higher than the
breach elevation or levee?

Is the breach channel

enlargement complete?

No

Yes

No
Yes

Check for wedge

collapse?

Enter BREACH component

and populate breach element
flow variables data.

No

Yes

Check for piping

failure?

No

Continue with breach

enlargement until all collapsed
wedge material is eroded.

Yes
Continue flood routing and
breach routine until all stored
water is routed thru breach.

Figure 7. Breach Schematic Flow Chart

Levee Overtopping without Failure

Levee overtopping can occur without breach failure. Floodplain features such as roadway or railroad
embankments, concrete walls and levees with riprap can be overtopped without erosion or failing. The
discharge from levee overtopping is shared between two cells with the levee assignment on the border
between them. In the following figure, the levee crest width is Lr, the headwater depth is Hr, the tailwater
depth is ht, the ratio of tailwater to headwater is given by dt/dh based on the highest grid element
floodplain elevation.

Figure 8. Levee Overtopping Definition

The flow can occur in either direction and the discharge Q is computed using the conventional broadcrested weir equation:
Q = CLHd1.5
where: C is the broadcrested weir coefficient (3.09 in English units, average typical coefficient for the
broadcrested weir); L is the length of the levee crest and Hd is the headwater on the levee (Figure 9). The
headwater depth must exceed a tolerance value = 0.1 ft (0.3 m) for discharge to occur. This is to
accommodate non-uniform crest elevations and minute discharges that will not impact the flooding.
Typically if the flow is greater than about 0.1 ft, the discharge will be significant. The levee weir coefficient
is variable as a function of the headwater based on the U.S. Department of Transportation criteria
(Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts; Publication Number FHWA-NHI-01-0260 revised May, 2005) as
shown in Figure 8. If ratio of the tailwater to the headwater above the crest is greater than 0.8, the
discharge is reduced by a submergence factor (Figure 10). If the water surface elevation on both sides of
the levee is greater than 3 ft (1 m) above the crest, the discharge exchange is based on the overland flow
routing routine. These modifications to the broadcrested weir equation may the discharge transitions
more gradual and reduce the potential for numerical stability.

Figure 9. Schematic of the Levee Overtopping Flow

Figure 10. Levee Overtopping Tailwater Submergence

Prescribed Levee Breach Input Data

The prescribed breach failure is recommended over the breach erosion failure because the physical process
of sediment scour in hyperconcentrated sediment flows is poorly understood and simplistically
mathematically represented. The prescribed levee failure is shown schematically in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Prescribed Levee Failure Definition

The prescribed breach failure data can be entered in the GDS (select the grid cell and go to Grid|Assign
Parameters to selection|Levee) as shown in Figure 12. The required data includes:

Elevation of the prescribed failure if different from the levee crest

Duration of saturation prior to breach initiation
Breach base elevation if different from the floodplain elevation
Maximum breach width
Vertical and horizontal rates of breach expansion

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Maximum

Figure 12. GDS Prescribed Breach Dialog Box

Levee breaches can be located based on the water surface elevation. Multiple failure can occur
simultaneously in the levee system. The levee failure will initiate when the water surface exceeds an
assigned elevation for a given duration. The duration of inundation or saturation is based on the
cumulative time above the prescribed levee elevation (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Prescribed Levee Breach Initiates When the Assigned Duration is Exceeded

During a prescribed levee breach simulation, there are a number of data variables that may be assigned to
control the levee overtopping and breach discharges for a range of flows and failure conditions. The
following table outlines the potential controls.

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Prescribed Breach Failure Controls and Guidelines

Levee Data

Model Data or Flow Condition

Model checks to make sure the crest elevation is higher than the grid element elevation on both
sides of the levee.
Model checks if the levee is on the grid system domain boundary. In this case, there no grid element
on the other side of the levee. A error message is generated.
The levee must continuous without breaks. No flow leakage thru the levee system. Requires review
of output.

Levee Data

Model checks if the levee is assigned to outflow nodes. This will generate an error message.
The model generates a warning message for levees assigned to hydraulic structure inflow or outflow
nodes.

Levee is defined by grid element, flow

direction blocked by the levee and levee
crest elevation.

If 3-D polyline point data is used to assign the levee, WRF values are automatically assigned to levee
element sides to match the actual levee length.
User should check floodplain elevations on each side of the levee to represent ground elevations.
Interpolated ground elevations may be higher due to the DTM points on the levee crest.
Set ILEVFAIL = 0, no levee failure
Set ILEVFAIL = 1, prescribed levee failure,
Set ILEVFAIL = 2, for breach erosion failure.
If prescribed failure levee grid element is negative, the failure data for that element is assumed to be
global and applies to all the levee elements and blocked flow directions. In this case, the failure data
needs only to be assigned to one element.
Levee breach failure is defined by failure direction, elevation of water surface to initiate failure, the
duration that the failure elevation is exceeded before initiating failure, failure base elevation,
maximum breach width, and vertical and horizontal rates of breach widening.

Prescribed Levee Failure Data

Levee Overtopping Discharge

The initial breach width = 1.0 ft (0.3 m) is hardwired.

If failure elevation = 0., the levee breach failure begins immediately when overtopped. Otherwise,
the levee breach is initiated when the water surface exceeds the assigned failure elevation. If the
failure elevation is < 10 ft, the failure elevation is the distance below the crest elevation. In this
case, the failure elevation = crest elevation - failure elevation. If the failure data has been globally
assigned, the breach initiation can occur for all the grid element sides with levees when the water
surface exceeds the global failure elevation.
If the failure duration time = 0., breach failure initiates immediately.
If the levee is to fail at an appropriate distance below the crest after being inundated for a
reasonable duration, assign values to both the failure elevation and failure duration time.
If the failure base elevation = 0., the final levee breach elevation is equal to the floodplain grid
element elevation on the opposite side of the levee.
For a progressive levee failure, assign the vertical and horizontal breach rates.
If the vertical and horizontal rates of failure are zero, the levee (wall) fails instantaneously for the
entire grid element side width.
If the maximum failure width is longer than the grid element side, the breach will extend into
adjacent grid elements until the maximum failure width is equaled or the levee ends. For
instantaneous failure, the entire grid element side levee will collapse.
The flow depth on the levee crest must exceed a hardcoded tolerance value equal to 0.1 ft (0.3 m) to
enable the overtopping discharge to be computed.
Flow over the levee is computed using the conventional broadcrested weir equation with a variable
weir coefficient that depends on the headwater depth. The headwater depth depends on whether
one or both of the water surface elevations are greater than the crest. If the headwater depth > 3ft,
then the weir coefficient is 3.09. If the headwater depth < 3., the weir coefficient can range between
2.5 and 3.09.
If the ratio of the tailwater to the headwater is greater than 0.8, then the discharge is multiplied by a
submergence factor that is less than 1.0 based on the submergence curves (Figure 8).
The overtopping discharge in all possible directions including the peak discharge are reported in the
LEVOVERTOP.OUT file.
The flow depth on the levee breach must exceed a tolerance value of 0.1 ft (0.3 m) for the breach
discharge to be computed. The flow depth is based on the highest water surface and the levee
breach elevation.
Breach discharge is computed with a broadcrested weir equation with a variable coefficient that
depends on the headwater depth above the breach elevation. The headwater depth depends on

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Levee Breach Discharge

whether one or both of the water surface elevations are greater than the breach elevation. If the
headwater depth > 3 ft, then the levee weir coefficient = 3.09. If the headwater depth < 3., the weir
coefficient can range between 2.5 and 3.09.
If the ratio of the tailwater to the headwater above the breach elevation is greater than 0.8, then the
discharge is multiplied by a submergence factor that is less than 1.0 based on the submergence
curves.
If the levee (wall) fails instantaneously to the levee base elevation, the flow is computed by the
overland flow routine using the side width of the grid system.
If the levee breach progressively widens and extends to other contiguous levee element sides, the
discharge is based on the computed breach width using the horizontal breach rate.
When the vertical breach has reached the levee base elevation, the maximum shear stress on the
breach is computed. Subsequently the original horizontal breach rate is reduced by the ratio of the
current shear stress to the maximum shear stress on the breach (Figure 12).
The breach discharge and breach geometry is reported in the LEVEE.OUT file.

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Predicted Breach Erosion Input Data

General
The dam breach erosion component provides an opportunity to simulate the physical processes of breach
widening through scour. Nine out of the eleven sediment transport equations in the FLO-2D can be used to
compute the breach erosion including:

Zeller-Fullerton
Yang
Engelund & Hansen
Ackers & White
Laursen
MPM-Smart
Karim-Kennedy
Parker, Klingeman & McLean
Van Rijn

See the FLO-2D Reference Manual for a description of each equation. The different sediment transport
capacity equations predict a range of erosion rates that effect the breach discharge hydrograph timing and
peak. The sediment transport equations available for the breach routine are generally based on steady
state, subcritical flow, and low sediment concentration and usually applicable for a specific range of
sediment size and flow properties. The conditions for which a given sediment transport equation was
derived will probably be violated at some point during the dam or levee breach. The selection of an
appropriate sediment equation is based on professional judgment and some model testing.
The default equation is the Meyer-Peter and Muller bedload equation as modified by Smart (1984) for
steep channels. This is the equation in the NWS Breach model. The sediment transport capacity Qs is a
function of sediment gradation, wetted perimeter, hydraulic radius, roughness, critical shear stress, and
slope. The equation in the NWS Breach model was corrected in the FLO-2D model. The most important
parameter in the equation is the slope term. The sediment transport is sensitive to the slope which is
raised to a power S1.1. The steep slope generates sediment concentration in the hyper-concentrated flow
range which results in a fast breach. To maximize the breach rate, assign the pipe inlet near the maximum
water surface (Figure 4). A brief description of the pipe breach erosion computational sequence follows:

If upstream water surface > pipe elevation piping failure initiates;

User specifies initial pipe elevation with outlet fixed 1 ft above downstream embankment toe. This
enables the steepest slope, which should approximate the most conservative case. The erosion
pivots around the embankment toe;

With pipe enlargement or collapse channel breach flow ensues;

For both pipe and channel breach flow, the discharge is controlled by weir or pipe flow, and the
hydraulics computed by open channel flow;

Tailwater submergence is evaluated as previously discussed;

Sediment scour volume is computed based on the selected equation;

The model removes the eroded sediment volume from the pipe geometry uniformly to widen the
breach;

14

Weir flow versus pipe flow is based on the head of the weir. If the head is greater than 1.5 times
the pipe diameter, then pipe flow is computed using the Darcy-Weisbach equation with a pipe
friction factor computed from the user selected n-value.

The pipe flow routine checks for laminar-turbulent flow using Reynolds number and uses the
appropriate flow regime equation to compute the velocity.

Channel flow will occur if the dam or levee is overtopped or if the pipe roof collapses (Figure 5). The
channel breach computational sequence is outlined as follows:

For the overtopped condition, breach discharge initiates as channel flow using the broadcrested
weir equation through a hardcoded width of 1.0 ft and the downstream face slope;

The overtopping channel breach flow combines with any overtopping discharge over the levee or
dam grid element side with the breach;

The channel breach discharge is predicted by weir flow and the channel hydraulics down the steep
slope are computed as open channel flow using Mannings equation;

The sediment scour volume is removed uniformly from the bottom and sides of the channel to
widen the breach;

The breach geometry transitions to a trapezoidal channel when the side slopes collapse;

The breach scour will eventually includes erosion of the upstream face;

The breach channel slope erodes parallel to the downstream face.

The FLO-2D breach erosion component integrates breach discharge with two-dimensional downstream
flooding. The erosion is based on the breach flow hydraulics, the reservoir water surface and tailwater
elevations. The breach erosion computations use the FLO-2D timestep and the model conserves water and
sediment volumes. Sediment conservation was implemented for both pipe and channel scour
computations. If the volume of eroded sediment does not match the breach hole volume, the breach pipe
or channel geometry is adjusted to account for the difference. The downstream breach flood hydrograph is
automatically bulked (BF) for the levee or dam sediment concentration by volume Cv:
BF = 1./(1. Cv)
Breach Erosion Parameter Sensitivity
The primary breach erosion parameters are:

Embankment geometry side slopes, crest width and length

Pipe breach elevation and width/depth ratio

Embankment sediment size: core, shell and riprap material

Embankment sediment parameters unit weight, porosity, cohesive strength

Roughness n-values for shell and core

Grass on downstream face

15

The data can be entered in the GDS as shown in Figure 14. The breach erosion parameter data can be
entered for either a global levee failure or for specific levee grid element(s) representing.

Figure 14. GDS Dialog Box for Entering the Breach Erosion Data

The objective of the levee or dam breach erosion component is to create a fast expanding breach resulting
in a high peak discharge and a rapid reservoir evacuation. The worst case scenario is to have a wide breach
with a high head on the weir that will result in a front loaded, steep rising breach hydrograph. The
selection of the sediment transport equation is a key to the rate of breach growth. Those equations that
are a function of slope, velocity or shear stress will generate the highest sediment scour. The maximum
sediment concentration Cvmax predicted by the equation will directly impact the development of the breach
frontal wave. The breach velocity down the pipe or channel is a function of the assigned roughness n-value
and slope and this affects the sediment discharge. Other parameters that can affect the breach erosion
include:

Critical shear stress (Cv) which is a function of cohesive strength and the plasticity index of the
embankment materials. The critical shear stress varies with clay content.

Embankment cohesive strength is used in the computation of channel side slope slump and dam
wedge collapse and blow out. This parameter is an important variable for the rate of increase in
breach width.

Sediment gradient D90/D30:Qs ~ (D90/D30)0.2

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The breach parameter sensitivity is outlined in the following table:

A typical approach to modeling breach erosion failures with the FLO-2D model is:
1. Build the model to perform both the breach analysis and the downstream flood hazard
simulation.
2. Limit the breach model to only the vicinity of the breach area by assigning a row of outflow
nodes just downstream of the dam to capturing all the outflow from the breach.
3. Perform a sensitivity analysis on breach parameters to optimize (high frontal wave peak
discharge) the breach hydrograph and eliminate any numerical stability (Figure 13).
4. Use the final breach hydrograph as inflow to the downstream model and then add floodplain
details. It is also possible to simulate the breach and downstream flooding analysis in the
same model.
The corresponding output data from the BREACH.OUT file for the dam breach hydrograph shown in Figure
15 is presented in the following table with the maximum sediment concentration by volume outlined in
red.

Figure 15. Example of the Large Dam Breach Hydrograph

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Levee Breach Numerical Instability

Levee and dam breaches often result in a very high discharge, velocity and flow depth. It is important when
the focus of the project is the levee or dam breach inundation to select an appropriate grid size. The key is
balance computer runtimes with adequate hazard mapping resolution. Since the breach discharge is typical
large, it is not necessary to have small grid elements for accurate mapping. To select an appropriate grid
element size, the estimated peak discharge Qpeak divided by the surface area of one grid element Asurf
should be less than 10 cfs/ft2 (Qpeak/Asurf< 10.0). Most numerical instability issues can be eliminate with an
appropriate selection of the grid element size compared to the computation timestep.
The levee breach routine can cause numerical instability if the discharge through the breach exceeds the
upstream flow to the breach. This occurs because the breach discharge is based on a broadcrested weir
equation and this may not match the normal depth flow arriving to the breach. Inappropriate assignment
of floodplain elevations or n-values on each side of the levee can also contribute to potential surging.
Combined levee breach with hydraulic structures or other features can also cause numerical surging by
evacuating too volume from the upstream grid element. Evidence of numerical surging in breach discharge
includes:

High maximum velocities (VELTIMEFP.OUT);

Rapidly varying discharges (BREACH.OUT, LEVEE.OUT, or in the floodplain cross section
hydrographs);
High or variable maximum water surface elevations.

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Numerical Surging Troubleshooting

Condition

Levee Breach High Velocities

Combined Hydraulic Structure

and Levee Breach

Resolution
Review the floodplain elevations and n-values on each side of the levee. The elevations need to
represent the floodplain elevation and not depressions associated with channels or elevated
topography as a result of levee crest elevations. Increase the n-values to reduce unreasonable
velocities.
Revise the breach parameters. Reduce the vertical and horizontal breach rates or modify the breach
erosion variables.
Tailwater may the cause of numerical surging. Most tailwater conditions are accounted for in the
FLO-2D model. Review the potential tailwater conditions to determine if breach submergence is
appropriate. Increase the n-values associated with the downstream elements to reduce high
velocities near the breach.
Downstream water surface controls may artificially lower the water surface elevation near the
breach. This may include outflow node time-stage relationships, flow constrictions, hydraulic
structure rating tables, tidal affects or main channel flow. Variable downstream controls require
specific needs.
Numerical surging or high maximum velocities may be the result of limited storage area. Reduce or
eliminate surface area reduction (ARF-values) in the levee elements which may leave very little
surface area for storage.
Hydraulic structures may be used to allow flow to go through a levee connecting contiguous grid
elements. This might simulate a drainage hole in a block wall or a culvert through a highway
embankment. While the levee or wall is intact the flow based on the hydraulic structure rating table
or curve must include the flow over the embankment. If the rating table is poorly matched with the
upstream inflow conditions, surging may ensue. The rating table or curve must be modified. Refer
to the companion Hydraulic Structure Guidelines document for more details.
If the levee or wall containing the hydraulic structure is breached (not an instantaneous failure), the
hydraulic structure flow is terminated and breach flow is computed. Numerical surging should be
addressed by increasing n-values or adjusting the topography. See the above section.
If the levee or wall fails instantaneously (collapses or topples), the hydraulic structure flow is
terminated and the flow is computed as overland flow, not breach flow. If numerical surging is
observed increase the n-values or review the topography.
If the combined hydraulic structure and levee (or levee breaching) routine is causing either volume
conservation error or numerical instability, follow this protocol:
1.
2.

Turn off the hydraulic structures in CONT.DAT and run the model until the problem occurs.
Turn off the levees in CONT.DAT and run the model only until the time that the problem
occurs.
3.
If the problem is in the hydraulic structures, isolate the structures that appear to be the
problem.
To isolate a hydraulic structure with numerical instability, put a simple inflow hydrograph (for steady
flow) several grid elements upstream of the structure. Put a line of outflow elements downstream
of the structure and turn off all the other inflow hydrographs and rainfall. Make sure that the steady
flow discharge through the structure matches the assigned stage or depth.
If the instability issue cannot be resolved, it may be possible to move the hydraulic structure to the
next grid element without a loss of accuracy or mapping resolution for the maximum water surface
elevation. It might also be possible to eliminate the levee and replace it with WRF value.
The model automatically adjusts the hydraulic structure rating table and writes the revised table
pairs to an output file. If instability persists, review the revised rating table and make further
adjustments. Typically the instability is related to the lower flows and there are insufficient rating
table pairs to define the rating table for the lower discharges. Review the HYDROSTRUCT.OUT file to
determine if there is numerical instability in the rating table or curve.
Downstream ponding or time-stage water surface controls may result in upstream flow through
structure. Set the INOUTCONT = 1 in the HYSTRUC.DAT file to allow upstream flow.
Revision to the model that have been incorporated to reduce or eliminate surging associated with
overtopping discharges include:
Adding tailwater submergence criteria;
Reverting to overland flow when the water surfaces are much higher than the crest;
Assigning the appropriate reference elevation to establish headwater and tailwater depths.

Levee Overtopping Discharge

If surging as observed by high velocities, rapidly varying depths or large variation in water surface
elevation in ponded conditions, check the floodplain elevations for accuracy on each side of the
levee, and increase the n-values in both cells. If there are shallow depths on one side of the levee
and deep depths on the other with flow over the crest, equilibrating the grid element elevations
should eliminate surging.
Some numerical surging can be eliminated by forcing smaller timesteps. Reduce the floodplain
Courant number. If ponding is associated with surging flow, and reducing the Courant number and
increasing n-values doesnt alleviate the problem, use a DEPTOL = 0.05 or 0.10 in TOLER.DAT to force
smaller timesteps.

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Time Stage Levee Breaches

Time-stage elements that control the water surface elevation near a levee system are generally not
a problem. Numerical instability are usually associated with the time-stage elements by have the
water surface stage be less than ground elevation or having contiguous time-stage elements with
non-uniform ground elevations.
If the ponded water contained by the levee has a highly variable water surface elevation (in a
reservoir scenario or from the time-stage ocean simulation), slow down the timesteps (use a smaller
Courant number), varying the n-values or adjust the topography to make it more uniform.
Review the LEVEE.OUT file for surging. High velocities can be eliminated with increasing n-values.
Some high velocities may be associated with the initial levee or dam failure.

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