Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
oaparams=2__bannerid=96__zoneid=13__cb=83ff3daaea__oadest=http%3A%2F%2Fstore.spe.org%2F)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_319_Image_0001.png)
Contents
1 Piping design
2 Bernoulli equation
3 Reynolds number and Moody friction factor
4 Pressure drop for liquid flow
4.1 General equation
4.2 Hazen Williams equation
5 Pressure drop for gas flow
5.1 General equation
5.2 Simplified equation
5.2.1 Weymouth equation
5.2.2 Panhandle equation
5.2.3 Spitzglass equation
5.3 Application of the formulas
5.3.1 Simplified gas formula
5.3.2 Weymouth equation
5.3.3 Panhandle equation
5.3.4 Spitzglass equation
6 Multiphase flow
6.1 Flow regimes
6.1.1 Bubble
6.1.2 Slug flow
6.1.3 Transition flow
6.1.4 Annular mist flow
6.2 Two phase pressure drop
6.3 Simplified friction pressure drop approximation for two phase flow
6.4 Pressure Drop Because of Changes in Elevation
7 Pressure drop caused by valves and fittings
7.1 Resistance coefficients
7.2 Flow coefficients
7.3 Equivalent lengths
8 Nomenclature
9 References
10 Noteworthy papers in OnePetro
11 External links
12 See also
Piping design
The minimum basic parameters that are required to design the piping system include, but are not limited to, the following.
The characteristics and physical properties of the fluid.
The desired mass-flow rate (or volume) of the fluid to be transported.
The pressure, temperature, and elevation at Point A.
Bernoulli equation
The basic equation developed to represent steady-state fluid flow is the Bernoulli equation which assumes that total mechanical energy is conserved for steady, incompressible, inviscid,
isothermal flow with no heat transfer or work done. These restrictive conditions can actually be representative of many physical systems.
The equation is stated as
(/File%3AVol3_page_319_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 1)
where
Z
= pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
= velocity, ft/sec,
and
HL = head loss, ft.
Fig. 2 presents a simplified graphic illustration of the Bernoulli equation.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_320_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 2Sketch four Bernoulli equation (courtesy
of AMEC Paragon).
= density, lbm/ft3,
and
d = pipe inside diameter, in.
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that is useful in characterizing the degree of turbulence in the flow regime and is needed to determine the Moody friction factor. It is
expressed as
(/File%3AVol3_page_320_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 4)
where
= density, lbm/ft3,
D = pipe internal diameter, ft,
V = flow velocity, ft/sec,
and
= viscosity, lbm/ft-sec.
= viscosity, cp,
= pipe inside diameter, in.,
= viscosity, cp,
(/File%3AVol3_Page_321_Image_0001.png)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_322_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 3Friction-factor chart (courtesy of AMEC
Paragon).
Table 1
If the viscosity of the liquid is unknown, Fig. 4 can be used for the viscosity of crude oil, Fig. 5 for effective viscosity of crude-oil/water mixtures, and Fig. 6 for the viscosity of natural gas. In
using some of these figures, the relationship between viscosity in centistokes and viscosity in centipoise must be used
(/File%3AVol3_page_321_eq_002.PNG) (Eq. 7)
where
= kinematic viscosity, centistokes,
= absolute viscosity, cp,
and
SG = specific gravity.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_327_Image_0001.png)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_324_Image_0001.png)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_325_Image_0001.png)
and
gpm = liquid flow rate, gal/min.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_327_Image_0001.png)
Table 2
where
w = rate of flow, lbm/sec,
g
and
P2 = downstream pressure, psia.
Assumptions: no work performed, steady-state flow, and f = constant as a function of the length.
Simplified equation
For practical pipeline purposes, Eq. 11 can be simplified to
(/File%3AVol3_page_327_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 12)
where
P1 = upstream pressure, psia,
P2 = downstream pressure, psia,
S = specific gravity of gas,
Qg = gas flow rate, MMscf/D,
Z = compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless,
T = flowing temperature, R,
f = Moody friction factor, dimensionless,
d = pipe ID, in.,
and
L = length, ft.
The compressibility factor, Z, for natural gas can be found in Fig. 7.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_328_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 7Compressibility of low-molecular-weight
natural gases (courtesy of Natl. Gas Processors
Suppliers Assn.).
Three simplified derivative equations can be used to calculate gas flow in pipelines:
Panhandle equation
This equation is used for moderate-Reynolds-number flows where the Moody friction factor is independent of relative roughness and is a function of Reynolds number to a negative power.
(/File%3AVol3_page_330_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 14)
where
E = efficiency factor (new pipe: 1.0; good operating conditions: 0.95; average operating conditions: 0.85),
Qg = gas-flow rate, MMscf/D,
d = pipe ID, in.,
P1 = upstream pressure, psia,
P2 = downstream pressure, psia,
Lm = length, miles,
T1 = temperature of gas at inlet, R,
S = specific gravity of gas,
and
Z = compressibility factor for gas, dimensionless.
Spitzglass equation
Assumptions:
f = (1+ 3.6/ d + 0.03 d ) (1/100),
T = 520R,
P1 = 15 psia,
Z = 1.0,
and
P = < 10% of P 1 .
Multiphase flow
Flow regimes
Fluid from the wellbore to the first piece of production equipment (separator) is generally two-phase liquid/gas flow.
The characteristics of horizontal, multiphase flow regimes are shown in Fig. 8. They can be described as follows:
Bubble: Occurs at very low gas/liquid ratios where the gas forms bubbles that rise to the top of the pipe.
Plug: Occurs at higher gas/liquid ratios where the gas bubbles form moderate-sized plugs.
Stratified: As the gas/liquid ratios increase, plugs become longer until the gas and liquid flow in separate layers.
Wavy: As the gas/liquid ratios increase further, the energy of the flowing gas stream causes waves in the flowing liquid.
Slug: As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests contact the top of the pipe, creating liquid slugs.
Spray: At extremely high gas/liquid ratios, the liquid is dispersed into the flowing-gas stream.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_331_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 9[1] shows the various flow regimes that could be expected in horizontal flow as a function of the superficial velocities of gas and liquid flow. Superficial velocity is the velocity that would
exist if the other phase was not present.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_332_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 9Horizontal multiphase-flow map (after
Griffith).[1]
The multiphase flow in vertical and inclined pipe behaves somewhat differently from multiphase flow in horizontal pipe. The characteristics of the vertical flow regimes are shown in Fig. 10 and
are described next.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_333_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 10Two-phase-flow patterns in vertical flow
(courtesy of AMEC Paragon).
Bubble
Where the gas/liquid ratios are small, the gas is present in the liquid in small, variable-diameter, randomly distributed bubbles. The liquid moves at a fairly uniform velocity while the bubbles
move up through the liquid at differing velocities, which are dictated by the size of the bubbles. Except for the total composite-fluid density, the bubbles have little effect on the pressure gradient.
Slug flow
As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests contact the top of the pipe, creating liquid slugs.
Transition flow
The fluid changes from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase. The liquid slugs virtually disappear and are entrained in the gas phase. The effects of the liquid are still significant, but
the effects of the gas phase are predominant.
Annular mist flow
The gas phase is continuous, and the bulk of the liquid is entrained within the gas. The liquid wets the pipe wall, but the effects of the liquid are minimal as the gas phase becomes the controlling
factor. Fig. 11[2] shows the various flow regimes that could be expected in vertical flow as a function of the superficial velocities of gas and liquid flow.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_334_Image_0001.png)
Fig. 11Vertical-multiphase-flow map (after
Taitel et al.).[2]
(/File%3AVol3_Page_335_Image_0001.png)
Table 3
and
SG = specific gravity of liquid, relative to water, lbm/ft3.
= operating temperature, R,
and
Z = gas compressibility factor, dimensionless.
The total pressure drop can then be approximated by the sum of the pressure drops for each uphill segment.
Resistance coefficients
The head loss in valves and fittings can be calculated with resistance coefficients as
(/File%3AVol3_page_336_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 20)
where
HL = head loss, ft,
Kr = resistance coefficient, dimensionless,
D = pipe ID, ft,
and
V = velocity, ft/sec.
The total head loss is the sum of all Kr V2/2g.
The resistance coefficients Kr for individual valves and fittings are found in tabular form in a number of industry publications. Most manufacturers publish tabular data for all sizes and
configurations of their products. One of the best sources of data is the Crane Flow of Fluids, technical paper No. 410. [3] The Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn. (NGPSA)
Engineering Data Book [4] and Ingersoll-Rands Cameron Hydraulic Data Book [5] are also good sources of references for the information. Some examples of resistance coefficients are
listed in Tables 4 and 5.
(/File%3AVol3_Page_336_Image_0001.png)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_337_Image_0001.png)
Table 4
Table 5
(/File%3AVol3_Page_338_Image_0001.png)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_339_Image_0001.png)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_340_Image_0001.png)
Table 5 (Cont'd)
Flow coefficients
The flow coefficient for liquids, CV, is determined experimentally for each valve or fitting as the flow of water, in gal/min at 60F for a pressure drop of 1 psi through the fitting. The relationship
between flow and resistance coefficients can be expressed as
(/File%3AVol3_page_336_eq_002.PNG) (Eq. 21)
In any fitting or valve with a known CV, the pressure drop can be calculated for different conditions of flow and liquid properties with Eq. 22.
(/File%3AVol3_page_336_eq_003.PNG) (Eq. 22)
where
QL = liquid-flow rate, B/D,
and
SG = liquid specific gravity relative to water.
Again, the CV is published for most valves and fittings and can be found in Crane Flow of Fluids,[3] Engineering Data Book,[4] Cameron Hydraulic Data Book,[5] as well as the manufacturers
technical data.
Equivalent lengths
The head loss associated with valves and fittings can also be calculated by considering equivalent "lengths" of pipe segments for each valve and fitting. In other words, the calculated head loss
caused by fluid passing through a gate valve is expressed as an additional length of pipe that is added to the actual length of pipe in calculating pressure drop.
All of the equivalent lengths caused by the valves and fittings within a pipe segment would be added together to compute the pressure drop for the pipe segment. The equivalent length, Le, can
be determined from the resistance coefficient, Kr, and the flow coefficient, CV, using the formulas given next.
(/File%3AVol3_page_341_eq_001.PNG) (Eq. 23)
(/File%3AVol3_Page_342_Image_0001.png)
Table 6
Nomenclature
Z
P
= density, lbm/ft3,
= velocity, ft/sec,
L
D
Ql
= absolute viscosity, cp
= liquid flow rate, B/D,
T = operating temperature, R,
PZ = pressure drop because of elevation increase in the segment, psi,
Z = increase in elevation for segment, ft.
HL = head loss, ft,
Kr = resistance coefficient, dimensionless
CV = flow coefficient for liquids, dimensionless.
Kr = resistance coefficient, dimensionless,
References
1. 1.0 1.1 Griffith, P. 1984. Multiphase Flow in Pipes. J Pet Technol 36 (3): 361-367. SPE-12895-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/12895-PA (http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/12895-PA).
2. 2.0 2.1 Taitel, Y., Bornea, D., and Dukler, A.E. 1980. Modelling flow pattern transitions for steady upward gas-liquid flow in vertical tubes. AIChE J. 26 (3): 345-354.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aic.690260304 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aic.690260304).
3. 3.0 3.1 Crane Flow of Fluids, Technical Paper No. 410. 1976. New York City: Crane Manufacturing Co.
4. 4.0 4.1 Engineering Data Book, ninth edition. 1972. Tulsa, Oklahoma: Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn.
5. 5.0 5.1 Westway, C.R. and Loomis,A.W. ed. 1979. Cameron Hydraulic Data Book, sixteenth edition. Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey: Ingersoll-Rand.
Use this section to list papers in OnePetro that a reader who wants to learn more should definitely read
External links
Use this section to provide links to relevant material on websites other than PetroWiki and OnePetro
See also
Piping and pipeline systems (/Piping_and_pipeline_systems)
Pipelines (/Pipelines)
Pipeline pigging (/Pipeline_pigging)
Pipeline design consideration and standards (/Pipeline_design_consideration_and_standards)
PEH:Piping_and_Pipelines (/PEH%3APiping_and_Pipelines)
Categories (/Special%3ACategories): 5.3.2 Multiphase flow (/Category%3A5.3.2_Multiphase_flow)
4.2.1 Piping design and simulation (/Category%3A4.2.1_Piping_design_and_simulation) 4.2 Pipelines, flowlines, and risers (/Category%3A4.2_Pipelines,_flowlines,_and_risers)
(http://wiki.seg.org/index.php?
title=Special%3ASearch&redirs=1&fulltext=Search&ns0=1&ns4=1&ns500=1&redirs=1&title=Special%3ASearch&advanced=1&fulltext=Advanced+search&search=Pressure drop
evaluation along pipelines)
(http://wiki.aapg.org/index.php?
title=Special%3ASearch&profile=advanced&fulltext=Search&ns0=1&ns4=1&ns102=1&ns104=1&ns106=1&ns108=1&ns420=1&ns828=1&redirs=1&profile=advanced&search=Pressure
drop evaluation along pipelines)