VIJNAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (VISAT)

ELANJI

SECOND SERIES EXAM, OCTOBER 2016

BE101-02 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCES
ANSWER KEY

Part A
1. Aerodynamic is an important part of aeronautical engineering. Aerodynamics is the way air
moves around things. The rules of aerodynamics explain how an airplane is able to fly.
Anything that moves through air reacts to aerodynamics.
2. Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio: Specific humidity (SH) or humidity ratio is defined
as the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air in a given volume of the mixture.
It is denoted by the symbol . Unit of specific humidity is kg of water vapor per kg of dry
air.
=

( )
100
( )

3. The earliest recorded patent for a refrigeration machine was issued in Great Britain in 1790
to Thomas Harris and John Long.
In 1834 Jacob Perkins developed a hand operated refrigeration system using ether as the
working fluid.
Natural ice based domestic ice box is invented in 1803 and used for more than a century.
Americal engineer Alexander Twining receives a british patent in 1850 for a vapor
compression system that uses ether, ammonia and carbon di oxide.
General Electric introduces the first mechanical domestic refrigerator in 1911 in USA,
followed by Frigidaire in 1915 and Kelvinator in 1918.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were invented in 1920 and became one of the most widely
used refrigerant.
Because of the harmful effects of CFCs on the environment, they were banned in 1996.
4. A ton of refrigeration (TR), also called a refrigeration ton (RT), is a unit of power used in
some countries to describe the heat-extraction capacity of refrigeration and air conditioning
equipment. ... A refrigeration ton is approximately equivalent to 12,000 BTU/h or 3.5 kW.
Cooling: Cooling to lower temperatures (3C - 7C) preserves food by slowing down the
growth and reproduction of micro-organisms and the action of enzymes that cause food to rot.
Device used for this purpose is called refrigerator.

Freezing: Freezing is the process of cooling below sub-zero temperatures (temperatures below
0C). Freezing causes the water in the food to turn into ice. Freezing eliminates the free water
available for bacterial growth, chemical and biochemical reactions. Frozen foods can be stored
for longer periods (up to 6 months) compared to a maximum of 7 days by normal cooling.
Device used for this purpose is called freezer.
Deep Freezing: Deep-freezing involves cooling rapidly (a few minutes to an hour) by exposing
to very low temperatures from -30 C to -50 C. Thus the products retain their freshness,
textures, flavours, essential nutrients and vitamins. Device used for this purpose is called deep
freezer.
Cooling, Freezing and Deep Freezing are methods of preserving and storing foods by
refrigeration techniques. The devices used for this purpose are called refrigerated storages.
5. The frame provides a foundation for the engine and the body of the vehicle. The frame is
constructed from square or box-shaped steel members strong enough to support the weight of
the body and other components.
The automobile frame is usually made up of a number of members welded or riveted together
to give the final shape. The engine is mounted on the frame with rubber pads which absorb
vibrations and also provide damping of these vibrations. Absorption and damping of
vibrations protects passengers from discomfort caused by shocks.
The frame is supported on wheel axles by means of springs. This whole assembly is called
the chassis.
6. Drive of the Vehicles
Front wheel drive (Front wheels are driven by the engine)
Rear wheel drive (Rear wheels are driven by the engine)
All wheel drive (All wheels are driven by the engine)
7. What are the applications of aircraft engines?

Electrical power generation

For providing propulsion for ship and locomotives.
Missiles
Manned and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
Rocket Engines
Military Missiles, Tanks.
Space Flights
Aircrafts
Fighter planes
Submarines

Part B
8. Studies of the conditions that affect human comfort have led to the development of
recommended indoor air conditions for comfort. Some of the results of these studies are shown
in Figure.

The shaded regions in Figure are called the comfort zones. They show the regions of air
temperature and relative humidity where at least 80% of the occupants will find the
environment comfortable. Note that there are separate zones for winter and summer, with a
slight overlap. For human comfort, air should have the following properties.
Temperature - 22C to 27C
Humidity 55% to 65% Relative Humidity
Velocity 0.3 to 0.5 m/s.

9. Domestic Refrigeration. Domestic refrigeration is rather limited in scope, being concerned

primarily with household refrigerators and home freezers. Domestic units are usually small in
size and capacity. However, because the number of units in service is quite large, domestic
refrigeration represents a significant portion of the refrigeration industry.
Commercial Refrigeration. Commercial refrigeration is concerned with the designing,
installation, and maintenance of refrigerated fixtures of the type used by retail stores,
restaurants, hotels, and institutions for the storing, displaying, processing, and dispensing of
perishable commodities of all types.

Industrial Refrigeration. Industrial refrigeration is often confused with commercial refrigeration

because the division between these two areas is not clearly defined. As a general rule, industrial
applications are larger in size than commercial applications and have the distinguishing feature of
requiring an attendant on duty, usually a licensed operating engineer. Typical industrial applications
are ice plants, large food-packing plants (meat, fish, poultry, frozen foods, etc.), breweries, creameries,
and industrial plants, such as oil refineries, chemical plants, rubber plants, etc..
The main application of refrigeration in chemical and process industries involve the following
categories.
Separation of gases: Some gases condenses easily at lower temperatures from a mixture of
gases thus can be easily separated.
Condensation of gases: Some gases are condensed to liquid state by cooling for easy storing
and transportation.
Dehumidification of air: Air is cooled down to a lower temperature such that the water vapour
in it condenses and air get dehumidified.
Solidification of solute: For Separating solute from a solvent. At low temperature solute
solidifies and separates from the solvent.
Removal of heat of a reaction: For controlling and optimising a chemical reaction involving
heat.
Preservation of drugs, explosives, natural rubber etc.. for long periods.
Marine and Transportation Refrigeration. Applications falling into this category could be listed
partly under commercial refrigeration and partly under industrial refrigeration. However, both these
areas of specialization have grown to sufficient size to warrant special mention. Marine refrigeration,
of course, refers to refrigeration aboard marine vessels and includes, for example, refrigeration for
fishing boats and for vessels transporting perishable cargo as well as refrigeration for the ship's stores
on vessels of all kinds. Transportation refrigeration is concerned with refrigeration equipment as it is
applied to trucks, both long distance transports and local delivery, and to refrigerated railway cars.
Food Preservation. Food preservation involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi, or other
microorganism which causes the deterioration of food. Various food preservation techniques include,
Drying: Drying is one of the oldest techniques. Here vegetables and fruits are naturally dried by the
sun, wind and fire.
Cooling: Cooling to lower temperatures (3C - 7C) preserves food by slowing down the growth and
reproduction of micro-organisms and the action of enzymes that cause food to rot. Device used for
this purpose is called refrigerator.
Freezing: Freezing is the process of cooling below sub-zero temperatures (temperatures below 0C).
Freezing causes the water in the food to turn into ice. Freezing eliminates the free water available for
bacterial growth, chemical and biochemical reactions. Frozen foods can be stored for longer periods
(up to 6 months) compared to a maximum of 7 days by normal cooling. Device used for this purpose
is called freezer.

Deep Freezing: Deep-freezing involves cooling rapidly (a few minutes to an hour) by exposing to very
low temperatures from -30 C to -50 C. Thus the products retain their freshness, textures, flavours,
essential nutrients and vitamins. Device used for this purpose is called deep freezer.
Cooling, Freezing and Deep Freezing are methods of preserving and storing foods by refrigeration
techniques. The devices used for this purpose are called refrigerated storages.
Salting: Salting is the preservation of food with dry edible salt. Salting is used because most food
deteriorating bacterias, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a highly
salty environment.
Sugaring: Sugaring is the preservation of food with dry edible sugar. Sugaring is used because most
food deteriorating bacterias, fungi and other potentially pathogenic organisms cannot survive in a
highly sugary environment.
Smoking: Here food is preserved by exposing it to smoke from burning plant materials such as wood.
Canning: Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile cans or jars, and boiling the containers
to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria.
Fermentation: Fermentation utilises the help of microorganisms to prevent food spoilage. Some foods,
such as many cheeses, wines, and beers are made and preserved with the help of specific microorganisms (such as yeast) that prevents the growth of other microorganism their by preventing food
spoilage.
Air Conditioning. As the name implies, air conditioning is concerned with the condition of the air in
some designated area or space. This usually involves control not only of the space temperature but
also of space humidity and air motion, along with the filtering and cleaning of the air.
10. Heat always travels from a warmer to a cooler area. In summer, heat continually enters the
building from the outside. In order to maintain the room air at a comfortable temperature, this
excess heat must be continually removed from the room. The equipment that removes this heat
is called a cooling system. In winter, there is a continual heat loss from within a building to
the outdoors. If the air in the building is to be maintained at a comfortable temperature, heat
must be continually supplied to the air in the rooms. The equipment that furnishes the heat
required is called a heating system. An air conditioning system may provide heating, cooling,
or both.
Most heating and cooling systems have at a minimum the following basic components.
1. A heating source that adds heat to a fluid (air. water, or steam)
2. Cooling source that removes heat from a fluid (air or water)
3. A distribution system (a network of ducts or piping) to carry the fluid to the rooms to be heated
or cooled
4. Equipment (fans or pumps) for moving the air or water
5. Devices (e.g., radiation) for transferring heat between the fluid and the room

11. The year-round air conditioning system is a combination of both the summer and winter air

conditioning. The schematic arrangement of a modern summer year-round air conditioning

system is shown in Fig. The outside air flows through the damper and mixed up with the recirculated air (which is obtained from the conditioned space). The mixed air passes through a
filter to remove dirt, dust and other impurities. In summer air conditioning, the cooling coil
operates to cool the air to the desired value. The dehumidification is obtained by operating the
cooling coil at a temperature lower than the dew point temperature (apparatus dew point). In
winter, the cooling coil is made inoperative and the heating coil operates to heat the air. The
spray type humidifier is also made use of in the dry season to humidify the air.
12. Numerous types of automobiles are available in the world. Automobiles are classified in the

following ways based on their load capacity, fuel used, the suspension system used, the body
system, etc.
1. Purpose
Passenger vehicle

Car, Station wagon, Jeep, Bus

Goods vehicle

Truck, Pick-up

Special purpose

Ambulance, Fire engine, Army vehicles, Concrete mixer.

2. Load Capacity
Light duty vehicle

Car, Jeep, Scooter, Motor cycle, etc.

Heavy duty vehicle

Bus, Truck, Tractor, Coach

3. Number of Wheels and Axle

Two wheeler

Motor cycles, Scooters,

Three wheeler

Tempo, Auto-rickshaws

Four wheeler

Car, Jeep, Small Capacity Bus, Truck, etc.

Six wheeler

High Capacity Bus

Six axle wheeler

Heavy Duty Trucks, Military Vehicles etc

4. Fuel Used
Petrol vehicle

Car, Jeep, Motor-Cycle, Scooter

Diesel vehicle

Car, Truck, Tractor, Bus, Bulldozer.

Steam vehicle

Steam road roller

Electric vehicle

Fork Lift, Battery truck

5. Suspension System Used

Conventional

Leaf spring

Independent

oil spring, Torsion bar, Pneumatic

6. Type of Automobile Body System

Two door sedan
Hard top
Four door sedan
Station wagon
Convertible
Van
12. Explain the aerodynamic forces acting on a body in flight

The four forces of acting on a body in flight are lift, weight, thrust and drag. These forces make an
object move up and down, and faster or slower. How much of each force there is changes how the
object moves through the air. Figure shows the forces that act on an airplane in flight. Flight of an
aeroplane is made possible by a careful balance of four forces.
Weight is a force that is always directed toward the center of the earth. The magnitude of the
weight depends on the mass of all the airplane parts, plus the amount of fuel, plus any payload on
board (people, baggage, freight, etc.). The weight is distributed throughout the airplane. But we can
often think of it as collected and acting through a single point called the center of gravity.
Lift is the push that lets something move up. It is the force that is the opposite of weight.
Everything that flies must have lift. For an aircraft to move upward, it must have more lift than weight.
A hot air balloon has lift because the hot air inside is lighter than the air around it. Hot air rises and
carries the balloon with it. A helicopter's lift comes from the rotor blades at the top of the helicopter.
Their motion through the air moves the helicopter upward. Lift for an airplane comes from its wings.
The shape of an airplane's wings is what makes it able to fly. Airplanes' wings are curved on
top and flatter on the bottom. This particular shape of wing is called aerofoil. That shape makes air
flow over the top of the wings faster than under the bottom. So, less air pressure is on top of the wing.
This condition makes the wing, and the airplane it's attached to, move up. Using curves to change air

pressure is a trick used on many aircraft. Helicopter rotor blades use this trick. Lift for kites also comes
from a curved shape. Aircraft lift acts through a single point called the center of pressure.

As the airplane moves through the air, there is another aerodynamic force present. The air
resists the motion of the aircraft and the resistance force is called drag. Drag acts opposite to the flight
direction or simply drag opposes thrust. Like lift, there are many factors that affect the magnitude of
the drag force including the shape of the aircraft, the "stickiness" of the air, and the velocity of the
aircraft. And like lift, drag acts through the aircraft center of pressure.
Thrust is the push that moves something forward. For an aircraft to keep moving forward, it
must have more thrust than drag. A small airplane might get its thrust from a propeller. A larger
airplane might get its thrust from jet engines.
For jet engines, it is often confusing to remember that aircraft thrust is a reaction to the hot gas
rushing out of the nozzle. The hot gas goes out the back, but the thrust pushes towards the front. Action
and reaction is explained by Newton's Third Law of Motion.
a) TURBOJET ENGINES

In turbojet engines, air is drawn in by a compressor which raises internal pressures many times
over atmospheric pressure. The compresed air then passes into a combustion chamber where it is
mixed with fuel to be ignited and burned. Burning the fuel-air mixture expands the gas, which is
accelerated out the rear as a high velocity jet-stream. In the turbine section of the engine, the hot
expanded gas rotates a turbine wheel which provides power to run the compressor. The gas turbine
engine operates on the principle of intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Unlike the reciprocating
engine, these events are continuous. Approximately two thirds of the total energy developed within
the combustion chamber is absorbed by the turbine wheel to sustain operation of the compressor. The
remaining energy is discharged from the rear end (nozzle) of the engine as a high velocity jet, the
reaction to which is to provide thrust or propulsion power .
Applications

Military Aircrafts, Guided missiles, Piloted aircrafts etc

Advantages

Used for long distance flights at higher speeds and higher altitudes
Lower frontal area hence less drag.

Disadvantages

Low thrust at low speeds, Hence a longer runway is needed.

b) TURBOPROP ENGINE

Turboprop engines have a propeller at the front and are popular in smaller, more economical
aircraft and helicopters. There are two main parts to a turboprop propulsion system, the core engine
and the propeller. The core is very similar to a basic turbojet except that instead of expanding all the
hot exhaust through the nozzle to produce thrust, most of the energy of the exhaust is used to turn the
turbine. There are many additional turbine stage present, which is connected to a drive shaft. The drive
shaft is connected to a gear box. The gear box is then connected to a propeller that produces most of
the thrust. The exhaust velocity of a turboprop is low and contributes little thrust because most of the
energy of the core exhaust has gone into turning the drive shaft. Because propellar become less
efficient as the speed of the aircraft increases, turboprops are used only for low speed aircraft like
cargo planes.
Applications

Used in smaller aircrafts at comparatively lower speeds ( less than 800kmph)

Used in small capacity aicrafts

Advantages

High thrust at low speeds, Hence only a shorter runway is needed.

Disadvantages

Cannot be used at high speeds and altitudes

Large frontal area hence drag is more

13. What are the major components of an automobile? Give special emphasis to their function.
Engine
The engine is a power generator/power plant or a motor, which provides power to drive the automobile.

In most automobile engines, the explosive power of the mixture of air and gasoline drives the pistons.

The pistons turn a crankshaft to which they are attached. The rotating force of the crankshaft makes
the automobile's wheels turn.
A number of systems are necessary to make an engine work. A lubrication system is needed to reduce
friction and prevent engine wear. A cooling system is required to keep the engine's temperature within
certain limits. The engine must be provided with the correct amount of air and fuel by a fuel system.
The mixture of air and fuel must be ignited inside the cylinder at just the right time by an ignition
system. Finally, an electrical system is required to operate the cranking motor that starts the engine
and to provide electrical energy to power engine accessories.
2. Lubrication System
An engine has many moving parts which eventually develop wear, as they move against each other.
The engine circulates oil between these moving parts to prevent the metal-to-metal contact that results
in wear. Parts that are oiled can move more easily with less friction and hence power loss due to
friction is minimized. The secondary function of a lubricai1t is to act as a coolant and also as a sealing
medium to prevent leakages. Finally, a film of lubricant on the cylinder walls helps the rings in sealing
and thus improves the engine's compressions.
3. Cooling System
Due to the combustion of fuel with air inside the cylinder, the temperature of the engine parts
increases. This increase of temperature directly affects the engine performance and the life of the
engine parts. The cooling system keeps the engine operating at an efficient temperature.
4. Fuel System
The main function of the fuel supply system is to provide fuel to the carburettor or injection system
at a rate and pressure sufficient to meet engine demands under any conditions of load, speed and
gradients encountered by the vehicle. The fuel system must also have enough reserve fuel for several
miles of vehicle operation.
5. lgnition System
The purpose of the ignition system is to provide assistance for the combustion of fuel either by a
high voltage spark or self-ignition in each of the engine's cylinders at the right time so that the airfuel mixture can burn completely.
The fuel supplied to the combustion chamber must be ignited to deliver power. In a spark-ignition
engine an electric spark is used for this purpose. The compression-ignition engine does not require a
separate ignition system because the ignition is affected by compression of the mixture to a high
pressure.

6. Electrical System
The engine's electrical system provides energy to operate a starting motor and to power all the
accessories. The main components of the electrical system are a battery, an alternator, a starting
motor, ignition coil and heater.
7. Frame/Chasis
The frame provides a foundation for the engine and the body of the vehicle. The frame is constructed
from square or box-shaped steel members strong enough to support the weight of the body and other
components.
The automobile frame is usually made up of a number of members welded or riveted together to give
the final shape. The engine is mounted on the frame with rubber pads which absorb vibrations and
also provide damping of these vibrations. Absorption and damping of vibrations protects passengers
from discomfort caused by shocks.
The frame is supported on wheel axles by means of springs. This whole assembly is called the
chassis.
8. Suspension System
The function of the suspension system is to absorb vibrations due to the up and down motion of
wheels, caused by the irregularities in the road surface. The springs, connecting linkages, and shock
absorber comprise the suspension system of a vehicle. The suspension system is of two types:
(i) Rigid system
(ii) Independent system
In the rigid system, the road springs are attached to a rigid beam axle. It is mostly used in the front
axle of commercial vehicles and in the rear axle of all types of vehicles.
The independent system does not have a rigid axle. Each wheel is free to move vertically without
any reaction on its mating wheel. The independent system is mostly used in small cars.
9. Power Train
The power train carries the power that the engine produces to the car wheels. It consists of the clutch
(on cars with a manual transmission), transmission (a system of gears that increases the turning
effort of the engine to move the automobile), drive shaft, differential and rear axle.

10. Clutch
A clutch is required with the manual transmission system to temporarily disconnect the engine from
wheels. Such disengagement of the power train from the engine is essential while changing the gear
ratio or while stopping the vehicle.
11 . Transmission
The main function of the trans1russ10n is to provide the necessary vanatJon to the torque applied by
the engine to the wheels. This is achieved by changing the gearing ratio between the engine output
shaft and the drive shaft.

12. Drive Shaft

The drive shaft or propeUer shaft connects the gearbox and the differential unit. The drive shaft has
universal joints at its ends.
13. Differential
The function of the differential is to split the power received from the propeller shaft to the rear axle
shaft. It allows the rear wheels to be d1iven at different speeds when the vehicle takes a bend or
falls into a ditch.
14. Axles
Axles are the shafts on which road wheels are mounted. The road wheels are provided with the
required drive through these axles.
15. Wheels
The automobile wheels take the load of the vehicle and also produce tractive force to move the
vehicle. The wheels are also used for retardation and for stopping the vehicle.
16. Steering System

The steering system is used for changing the direction of the vehicle. The major requirements in any
steering mechanism are that it should be precise and easy to handle, and that the front wheels should
have a tendency to return to the straight-ahead position after a turn. A gear mechanism, which is
known as steering gear, is used in this system to increase the steering effort provided by the driver.
This system makes the vehicle steering very easy as the driver does not have to put in much effort.
Vehicle steering is not only required on a curved road but also while manoeuvring on the busy traffic
roads. The steering system allows the vehicle to be guided, i.e. to be turned left or right. Figure
shows a simplified diagram of the steering system.
14.